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Birthing Kit Workshop
On Saturday, March 27, 100 students from the University of Sydney’s Medical Programme participated in a Birthing Kit Workshop. This event was organized by globalHOME, Sydney University’s Global Health Group, with the aim to raise awareness of Maternal and Child Health in developing countries.
Professor Heather Jeffrey, an expert in maternal and child health, lectured on the epidemiology of birth in the third world, and the barriers to safe labour which results in almost half a million women dying in childbirth each year. Maternal Health has been a Millennium Development Goal since 2000, but unlike the success seen in many of the other Development Goals, maternal mortality rates have not improved. In Papua New Guinea, almost 9 women die per 1000 live births, catastrophic when compared to Australia, with 2-3 women dying per 100,000 live births.
Following the lecture, a SCORPIO session was conducted by Royal Hospital for Women obstetrician, Dr Lisa Hui, with a focus on assessing and preventing post-partum haemorrhage.
The day concluded with the students packing 1000 birthing kits, designed to facilitate a clean birth. These kits consist of soap, latex gloves, a scalpel blade, three cords to tie the umbilical cord, gauze, and a plastic sheet for the mother to lie on. These kits were sent, in conjunction with Zonta International, to Tu Du Ob-Gyn Hospital in Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam.
This event would not have been possible without the help of MDA National’s financial support, the Northern Clinical School’s supply of gloves and handwash, and the hard work of those students coordinating the project – Georgia Ritchie, Amanda Beech, and Vikie Leon.
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The wind blows almost everywhere, but its power to turn turbines may have been overestimated, according to US scientists.
Amanda Adams from the University of North Carolina and David Keith of Harvard suggest that large-scale wind farms may create conditions that would ultimately limit their capacity to fulfil demand.
The problem, they warn in Environmental Research Letters, is not one of economics, or engineering: it is one of atmospheric physics. When a steady wind slams into a blade and keeps it turning, it transfers energy to the blade, and thence to the turbine. That slows down the wind.
Because each turbine carries a “wind shadow” beyond it, wind farm entrepreneurs have to compromise: they need to space their turbines as far apart as possible, given that it makes sense to erect as many turbines as possible on the limited land available.
That is, output is going to depend on calculations involving both capacity and density. The usual rule of thumb is that a wind farm could sustain production rates of 2 to 4 watts per square metre. Over a square kilometre, that is 2-4 megawatts.
Adams and Keith calculate that, in wind farms bigger than 100 square kilometres, generating capacity is more likely to be limited to one watt per square metre, because of the local drag on winds. In effect, harvesting the resource also reduces the resource.
There are other problems. Wind farms change the natural wind shear and produce turbulence; they also – consistent with the logic of thermodynamics – affect local temperatures.
She and Keith based their findings on a series of simulations involving modest, medium-sized and very large notional wind farms studded with hypothetical turbines at varying intervals, in various regions of the US, and using global forecasting system final analysis data over specific 10-day periods in winter and summer to provide the wind levels.
The results showed that, for large wind farms, it would be difficult to sustain wind power production with a power density of much more than 1.2 watts per square metre.
“It is easy to mistake the term renewable with the term unlimited when discussing energy,” said Adams. “Just because you can keep generating new energy from a source does not mean you can generate energy in an unlimited amount.”
These cautious conclusions run counter to a much more hopeful scenario reported by Climate News Network in January – that, in theory at least, renewable sources could provide more than 99% of American needs.
They are also countered by some positive findings from Germany in the last few days. And the Earth Policy Institute recently reported that Iowa and South Dakota in 2012 got almost 25% of their electricity needs from wind power. Wind provided at least 10% of electricity generation in seven other states.
The US, says the institute, now has 60,000 megawatts online, enough to meet the needs of 14 million homes, and developers scrambled to complete wind farm construction before the end of 2012, to qualify for federal wind production tax credits that were scheduled to expire in December.
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A Justice Site
California State University, Dominguez Hills
University of Wisconsin, Parkside
Created: April 3, 2001
Latest update: April 3, 2001
In Which We Can All Focusby Jeanne Curran and Susan R. Takata
Copyright: Jeanne Curran and Susan R. Takata. April 2001.
"Fair Use" encouraged.
Disrespect produces an affective response. We are angy when we feel that we have been discrespected. William Oliver, in the Violent Social World of Black Men, gives disrespect as one of the triggers in violence in the local bar scene. Oliver looks for the causes of anger at this level, but makes the unstated assumption that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the act of disrespect and the violence. Someone made a play for his girlfriend, therefore he responds by fighting. In a bar scene this may be realistic. But in everyday interpersonal relationships, in the "real world," the anger builds. Hal Pepinsky. Read30.htm.
On Monday, April 2, 2001, Keyana Woolen wrote:Hello, jeanne! Keyana Woolen here!
I JUST WANTED TO VOICE MY CONCERNS ABOUT OUR DISCUSSION IN CLASS ON THURSDAY; ON THE STUDENTS IN YOUR CRIMINOLOGY CLASS AND THE TYPE OF BEHAVIOR THAT THEY WERE ENGAGING IN. I REALLY WAS ALARMED TO HEAR THAT A GROUP OF COLLEGE STUDENTS WOULD BEHAVE IN SUCH A JUVENILE MANNER. I MEAN, COME ON GUYS, THIS IS COLLEGE NOT HIGH SCHOOL AND I WOULD LIKE TO THINK THAT BY NOW YOU WOULD HAVE LEARNED THE PROPER ETIQUETTE THAT IS EXPECTED OF YOU AT THIS LEVEL. YOU ARE CONSIDERED ADULTS, THEREFORE YOU SHOULD ACT LIKE ADULTS AND PRACTICE THE RESPECT FOR OTHERS THAT I KNOW WAS TAUGHT TO YOU EARLY ON IN LIFE. YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO COME TO SCHOOL AND KNOW WHAT IS EXPECTED OF YOU. IF YOU FEEL LIKE YOU CAN'T HANDLE BEING IN AN ADULT SETTING THEN MAYBE YOU SHOULD RE-THINK WHY YOU'RE HERE AND POSSIBLY THINK ABOUT MAKING SOME ALTERATIONS UNTIL YOU ARE READY FOR THE ADULT WORLD. I MEAN AFTER ALL, COLLEGE IS A PRIVILEGE NOT A RIGHT, AND NOT EVERYONE IS PRIVILEGED TO BE HERE. ! SO GROW UP!!!!!!!!!!!! NO ONE HAS TIME TO MONITOR YOU OR BABYSIT YOU FOR THAT MATTER. SOME OF US HAVE PAID OUR MONEY TO BE HERE AND LEARN, SO IF THE INSTRUCTOR HAS TO UTILIZE OUR CLASS TIME REPRIMANDING YOU, THEN IT TAKES AWAY FROM OUR LEARNING. SO MY ADVICE TO YOU IS: IF YOU CAN'T FUNCTION IN AN ENVIRONMENT WHERE THERE AREN'T RULES OF CONDUCT AND BEHAVIOR PRINTED ON THE WALL IN THE CLASSROOMS AND THERE AREN'T INSTRUCTORS MONITORING YOUR ATTENDANCE AND SO FORTH, THEN YOU MIGHT NEED TO RETURN TO GRAMMAR SCHOOL WHERE SUCH STRUCTURE IS ADMINISTERED AND IMPLEMENTED!!!!!!!!!!!
On Tuesday, April 3, 2001, jeanne responded:Keyana, I left this in all caps until you let me know whether you intended that heavy emphasis, or the keyboard just happened to be set on caps. Now there's an example of recognizing that what it reads like may not be what was actually meant. In e-mail the all caps is considered equivalent to shouting. So when you guys use caps, be sure to let me know what you intend.
I read and reread this message, looking for the various types of attitude persuasion. These were what I saw, and I didn't intersperse my comments, because I wanted to let you scan the message the same way I did, free of comments.
- Recognizing the validity of classroom management needs.
You indicated that you were writing to support my position of insisting that the classroom remain quiet and undisturbed, that we may concentrate on fairly complex issues. That is good technique. Beginning by finding a point of agreement. I actually began my diatribe by insisting that since the material we were discussing was difficult both you and I need to concentrate effectively. And my concentration was broken at least four times in one class by the same group. Both you and I, Keyana, are making the unstated assumption, that intense concentration is appropriate to an upper division college class, and is consonant with our goals there.
- Cumulative anger expressed
At the same time that you are offering support, I sense a "between the lines" connotation that there is some suppressed anger over many past interruptions in many classes.
Just look at the paragraph overall. It comes tumbling out, in one fell swoop, no breaks, and all in capitals! Now you can see why I asked about the caps. The visual presentation of even words on paper acts interdependently with the message of those very words. . .
- School's complicity in disturbing classes. The trucks and their noises. The halls which encourage disturbances. The inconvenience of nowhere to sit, so students gather outside the classroom, chattering. Even UCLAW has trouble with this. Quiet should be posted at all times, not just exam times! Librairies do it. So should our classrooms. Quiet is respect for the learning of others.
I have to break off now to get to class. But we'll continue this discussion. . . jeanne
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A r c h i v e d I n f o r m a t i o n Teachers Leading the Way: Voices from the National Teacher Forum - April 1998
Forms of Teacher Leadership
Forum participants identified many ways in which teachers can lead.
- Participating in professional teacher organizations. Traditionally, being a teacher leader meant holding a position of influence in an organization or a union. For many teachers, these roles continue to be important. Many positions in these organizations have broadened in scope to provide opportunities for teachers to influence a wide range of policies.
- While president of Wisconsin's science teachers' association, Sharon Nelson led efforts to develop and implement science education standards. She worked with the National Science Teachers Association, Goals 2000, and local teachers to bring copies of the national science education standards to her state. She also worked with Wisconsin's Department of Public Instruction to establish state science standards and have them implemented in Wisconsin's science classrooms.
- Taking part in school decisions. Some teachers are working on teams with administrators to plan improvements within their schools.
- They go by many names--site-based management teams, school improvement teams... But their goal is the same--to expand the decision-making opportunities from the administrative team to the classroom teacher," Renee Higdon Coward from North Carolina explained. "What a valuable resource!! As a fledging teacher I saw the principal come to the veteran teachers on an informal basis to get their opinions on administrative and curricular decisions. The principal knew that the best way to determine how policy affects students was to ask the person who was most directly involved with students--the classroom teacher. I was very fortunate to have a forward-thinking principal who embraced the concept of site-based decision making... Unfortunately, many school systems do not encourage this practice."
- Defining what students need to know and be able to do. In many states and schools, teachers have developed academic standards and rewritten the curriculum and assessments to reflect the new standards.
- Teachers took leadership roles on Delaware commissions established to make education improvements and write standards for a range of subjects, including math, science, social studies, and language arts. In each district, teachers were later involved in rewriting the curriculum to be consistent with the new standards. Teachers also wrote and piloted new statewide assessments that were in line with the standards. Delaware teacher Jan Parsons reported, "This truly was a reform movement that began and continued with teachers."
- Sharing ideas with colleagues. Some experienced teachers have developed and led professional development programs for their colleagues, aimed at helping them improve skills needed to help students reach high standards. Some successful professional development programs enable teachers to share ideas with one another.
- Tom Howe's school in Wisconsin has a "Share Net Program" which allows teachers to share their best education practices. "We do this informally, all of us, as good teachers," Mr. Howe observed. "But we rarely sit down and take time to do it formally." Share Net participants write out their successes and make formal presentations. Within a week of Mr. Howe's Share Net presentation, a dozen or more teachers in his high school had begun using his ideas in their classrooms.
- Being a mentor to new teachers. Veteran teachers provide critically needed support and advice to colleagues who are either new altogether to teaching or new to their area of teaching. For some inexperienced teachers, support from mentors has been key to their decision to remain teachers and to their professional competence.
- "In 1973, when I first started teaching, a science teacher named Dick Reagan changed my life through mentorship," said Fie Budzinsky of Connecticut. "That was long before the word was popular. He spent every afternoon of every day, two to three hours, teaching me how to teach science. His support was invaluable. Today, 20 years later, I'm a mentor for the State of Connecticut."
- Helping to make personnel decisions. In some districts, teachers are consulted in hiring new teachers and administrators.
- Mary Ostwalt from Blowing Rock, North Carolina, served on a selection committee formed to replace a teacher who resigned. "The hiring of new faculty members is a tremendous responsibility, and the makeup of a faculty certainly affects school climate, " she says. "The administrators send a strong message when giving teachers this responsibility... Teachers are also on the selection committee for the hiring of principals in our system."
- Improving facilities and technology. Teachers have played important roles in improving education facilities.
- In Redmond, Oregon, teachers were the driving force behind a new $3.5 million technology facility. "We had a great team in Redmond," teacher Ray Hasart explained. "It took us five years to get it done. We had to sell it to the community and sell it to educators. We went and did all the Chamber meetings, all the Kiwanis meetings. . . The dog and pony show, our team called it. We used students to help us show off the curriculum. Right now we have one of the finest technology facilities in a comprehensive high school in the West, and we've had people from all over the West Coast come and visit."
- Working with parents. Teachers encourage mothers, fathers, and other adults to be involved in schools as well as give ideas to better link schools and home.
- Martina Marquez has formed a team with fellow teachers in New Mexico to go into Indian villages and surrounding communities to speak with parents. "Many of our children are from (English) language-deficient homes, so we need to reach the parents," she explained. "We go out and do math and reading activities with the parents and say, 'Why don't you do this with your child at home?' There are kits we give out in the hospitals, which include a book and a little bib that says 'Read to Me' and a little brochure with activities that they can do with their children. If we don't start early, by the time they reach school it's already too late."
- Linda Gojak from Ohio works with parents to help them understand the school's math program and trains parents so that they can help their children learn math. She has also provided elementary school teachers who lack a strong math background with guidance on how to use the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Curriculum Standards to reexamine and improve their teaching of math.
- Creating partnerships with the community. Some teachers have worked with their communities to improve the schools.
- Scott Griffin from North Carolina spurred the overhaul of his community's fire safety program and volunteer fire department. "The volunteer fire department...was pretty much the joke of the community," he said. "They weren't very good at putting out fires, and teachers began to complain and whine when volunteers visited our kindergarten--all they did was have the kids squirt water. There really was no fire safety program." To remedy this situation, Mr. Griffin joined the volunteer fire department and worked his way up through the system. Eventually he won the firemen's trust and worked with them to structure a training program which included the establishment of physical fitness standards. The firemen then got interested in how they could share their new knowledge with children, which led to a restructuring of the district's fire safety curriculum. Mr. Griffin's efforts had an unanticipated additional benefit--a partnership between the school district and volunteer firemen that stretched beyond fire safety. "When there was a project within the school that we needed help on, I didn't have to ask very much," Griffin noted. "I had a whole group of men and their wives who would come in and work with our school. . . I've found that by getting involved in my community, it's much easier to get my community involved back into my school."
- Creating partnerships with business and organizations. Teachers take the lead in forming partnerships with businesses and other organizations. As outgrowths of these partnerships, schools and teachers gain everything from financial resources to business and other specialized expertise, and the businesses and organizations gain high school graduates who are better prepared for the workplace.
- Stephanie Blakney was concerned that low-income students in her school in Georgia had few opportunities to go on field trips. "I took the phone book and started calling several businesses to tell them about our needs," she reported. These ranged from needing money to send students on field trips to basic necessities like food and clothing for her students. Her efforts lead to establishing the school system's Partnership with Education. As a part of this partnership, the Atlanta Coca-Cola Bottling Company "adopted" her school. "We had several kids whose houses were burned, or who did not have food, so together we started a food bank," she said. "Now we have a place to send parents and families in need. I am very proud of what we have accomplished."
- Creating partnerships with colleges and universities to prepare future teachers. Experienced teachers help colleges and universities develop their teacher education curriculum and encourage teachers-in-training.
- Christy McNally wished to share some of her teaching experiences with college students preparing to become teachers. So the former Kansas Teacher of the Year, together with other award-winning teachers, organized a partnership with teacher education programs throughout Kansas. The partnership, now in its fourth year, has been a big hit. The present and future teachers have talked about the national education trends and issues and about teachers as leaders. They have talked about how much the profession expands beyond regular school hours and the schools and into the community. They have talked about the need to act professionally in order to gain community support and respect. "It's a kind of mini-teaching forum for future teachers in the college, and it's been wonderful," Ms. McNally said.
- Becoming leaders in the community. Teachers lead community groups and organizations. By doing so teachers and their schools gain support; as residents get to know teachers and schools better, their confidence in them improves. Teachers who become involved in the community also come to understand it better, which helps them address the needs of their students more effectively.
- "I'm fortunate to live in a very, very rural state," Jacqueline Omland from Aberdeen, South Dakota reported. "I teach in the third largest school district in the state, and there are only 25,000 people in the town. In fact, we got on David Letterman for having two students in the graduating class in the town that's 30 miles away from us. So we have very, very small schools. Part of our evaluation as a teacher is community service--what we do in the community. So we have to take leadership roles in the community. This year, I'm the president of the Legion auxiliary, and the guy I teach with is the chairman of the Legion."
- Chip Brown from South Carolina recognizes the importance of having more teachers assume leadership roles in their communities. "If one can serve on the local city council, one should," he advised. "If one can serve on the Salvation Army board, one should. If teachers use lack of time as an excuse--valid as it may be--they will never be able to demonstrate the strength of their leadership in settings other than the schools. . . Teachers will have to seek out these roles and work to get them, because teachers will not, as a rule, be sought out."
- Becoming politically involved. Teachers participate in the political process by running for and being elected to offices that range from state legislator to school board member. Other teachers have influenced education policy--for example, by testifying at their state legislatures, working on political campaigns, or serving on education advisory boards that report to their governor or their state department of education.
- Ivy Chan from Washington served one summer as treasurer in the campaign of a man running to become her state's Superintendent of Public Instruction. She was driven to do so because she objected vigorously to statements that her candidate's opponent made during the campaign. "I learned all kinds of things," Chan said. "This was a wealthy experience for me to take back to the classroom." The small downside to her foray into politics was that she committed so much time to it that her garden went neglected and, she chuckled, "My roses died."
- A South Carolina teacher, Kelly McCalla, described an important contribution that teachers can make to the political process. "Politicians want solutions. Teachers know how to state the problems. What teachers must do is learn how to state the problems in a language that politicians understand and that will lead to solutions. It is up to the teachers."
- Leading efforts to make teachers more visible and communicate positive information. Many teachers aren't by nature self-promoters, so other educators, parents, policy makers and members of the community often aren't aware of teachers' abilities and accomplishments. Visibility is critical if teachers want their work to be recognized and if they want to take on leadership responsibilities outside the classroom.
- "In order for us to be viewed as leaders, we must be visible," said Annette Anderson from Washington, D.C. "We need to make use of the media. "I know as a teacher that there are great things happening in the District of Columbia Public Schools, but we never hear about these things. We need to focus on the positive, write articles to the newspaper, get involved with various public awareness programs to discuss what is happening in our particular area."
- Larry Torres started a weekly news column in his New Mexico community that reports all the good things that happen in education. His initial focus was on high school events and activities, but a wealth of contributions from elementary schools has enabled him to broaden the grade span of his reporting. His column evolved into a full page of information which runs each week. "One full page devoted to what is positive, what is right with the community--that is something that I'm very proud of," he said.
[Why Teacher Leadership Is Needed]
[Supporting Teacher Leadership]
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We now know that there are many toxic chemicals, like BPA and phthalates, all around us and in us. We also know just how harmful to our health they can be.
Research has already shown a direct link to (to name just a few):
- reproductive cancers (breast, endometrial, testicular, prostate, ovarian)
- abnormalities in male reproductive organs (cryptorchidism and hypospadias)
- early puberty
- sex ratios (the number of live male births divided by the total number of births for a given period of time)
- and most recently atypical childhood social behaviors and specifically autism.
It seems like there are new studies being published all the time proving this. It can be so easy to throw up our hands with this realization and believe there is nothing we can do to prevent exposure. So then why bother to learn more and keep trying?
I know that I have jokingly said more than once that I know that the damage was already done (for me). Yes, I did my best to read labels for myself too, but my main focus has been on preventing exposure for my children because that was where I could make a real difference.
I have been proven wrong.
photo credit: flickr
A new study released by The Breast Cancer Fund and Silent Spring Institute found that when families avoided using any BPA-containing food packaging – canned foods and polycarbonate plastic – they reduced the amount of BPA in their bodies by 60% in three days. Three days!
That is something we can all do and see real results, and quickly. This is huge.
A few quick tips to reduce exposure to BPA and phthalates in food packaging:
- Avoid canned foods whenever possible, unless you know it is made BPA-free. Check out this guide.
- Cook at home using fresh foods.
- Use stainless steel and glass food storage containers. Consider bringing your own when dining out.
- Replace plastic in the kitchen when you can.
- Until then avoid microwaving plastic.
- Take care when washing plastic – top rack of dishwasher.
- Know your plastics – #2, #4, #5 are considered safer than others.
- Avoid the PVC-based commercial plastic food wrap.
- When you are ready to do more, do more.
The study also looked at several phthalates, three of which are also found in the same food packaging as BPA. Study participants saw a reduction of 50% of those three phthalates in their bodies by avoiding the suspect canned foods and plastic. The other phthalates measured saw no real difference, but it gives me hope that if we read our ingredient lists faithfully and do our best to avoid these chemicals that we can see reductions in levels of these as well.
When I see the damage that BPA and phthalates, both endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), can do to our children, to ourselves, and I can see small steps that I can take to reduce the risk of these adverse health effects, I have to try my best to take them.
What about you?
Do you think manufacturers will begin to voluntarily reformulate packaging to eliminate BPA and phthalates? Will you trust a label, like the current BPA-free label, that has no regulations behind it? Or should there be action taken at the federal level to ensure chemical safety for all Americans?
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August 27, 2008
The second feature of scientific naturalism that is important for our purpose is its set of rules governing the criticism and replacement of a paradigm. A paradigm is a general theory, like the Darwinian theory of evolution, which has achieved general acceptance in the scientific community. The paradigm unifies the various specialties that make up the research community, and guides research in all of them. Thus, zoologists, botanists, geneticists, molecular biologists, and paleontologists all see their research as aimed at filling out the details of the Darwinian paradigm. If molecular biologists see a pattern of apparently neutral mutations, which have no apparent effect on an organism's fitness, they must find a way to reconcile their findings with the paradigm's requirement that natural selection guides evolution. This they can do by postulating a sufficient quantity of invisible adaptive mutations, which are deemed to be accumulated by natural selection. Similarly, if paleontologists see new fossil species appearing suddenly in the fossil record, and remaining basically unchanged thereafter, they must perform whatever contortions are necessary to force this recalcitrant evidence into a model of incremental change through the accumulation of micromutations.
Supporting the paradigm may even require what in other contexts would be called deception. As Niles Eldredge candidly admitted, "We paleontologists have said that the history of life supports [the story of gradual adaptive change], all the while knowing it does not." Eldredge explained that this pattern of misrepresentation occurred because of "the certainty so characteristic of evolutionary ranks since the late 1940s, the utter assurance not only that natural selection operates in nature, but that we know precisely how it works." This certainty produced a degree of dogmatism that Eldredge says resulted in the relegation to the "lunatic fringe" of paleontologists who reported that "they saw something out of kilter between contemporary evolutionary theory, on the one hand, and patterns of change in the fossil record on the other." Under the circumstances, prudent paleontologists understandably swallowed their doubts and supported the ruling ideology. To abandon the paradigm would be to abandon the scientific community; to ignore the paradigm and just gather the facts would be to earn the demeaning label of "stamp collector."
As many philosophers of science have observed, the research community does not abandon a paradigm in the absence of a suitable replacement. This means that negative criticism of Darwinism, however devastating it may appear to be, is essentially irrelevant to the professional researchers. The critic may point out, for example, that the evidence that natural selection has any creative power is somewhere between weak and non-existent. That is perfectly true, but to Darwinists the more important point is this: If natural selection did not do the creating, what did? "God" is obviously unacceptable, because such a being is unknown to science. "We don't know" is equally unacceptable, because to admit ignorance would be to leave science adrift without a guiding principle. To put the problem in the most practical terms: it is impossible to write or evaluate a grant proposal without a generally accepted theoretical framework.
The paradigm rule explains why Gould's acknowledgment that neo-Darwinism is "effectively dead" had no significant effect on the Darwinist faithful, or even on Gould himself. Gould made that statement in a paper predicting the emergence of a new general theory of evolution, one based on the macromutational speculations of the Berkeley geneticist Richard Goldschmidt. When the new theory did not arrive as anticipated, the alternatives were either to stick with Ernst Mayr's version of neo-Darwinism, or to concede that biologists do not after all know of a naturalistic mechanism that can produce biological complexity. That was no choice at all. Gould had to beat a hasty retreat back to classical Darwinism to avoid giving aid and comfort to the enemies of scientific naturalism, including those disgusting creationists.
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Famous People That Are Dead
The world had produced many talented people. Some become famous in the history because of their talent or their charismatic personality while others became famous for their outstanding work in their respective fields. Their names are inscribed in golden letters in world history.
Famous People That Are Dead:
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (better known as Mahatma Gandhi) was born on October 2, 1869 was a major political and spiritual leader of India and Indian independence movement. He was the pioneer of Satyagraha (a war without violence) which led India to independence. He laid the foundation of Ahimsa and non-violence. He is commonly known around the world as Mahatma Gandhi. He is officially honored in India as “The father of the nation.” In memory of his birthday is observed as International Day of Non-violence worldwide. On January 30, 1948, Gandhi was shot and killed while going for his nightly public walk on the grounds of Birla Bhavan (Birla House) in New Delhi.
Thomas Edison: Thomas Elva Edison best known as (The man who invented the electric light bulb) was born February 11, 1847 and died on October 18, 1931. Thomas Alva Edison was one of the world’s greatest inventors. Among Edison’s most famous inventions are phonographs and long lasting Electric bulbs. He also made significant innovations in communications technologies (telegraph, telephone, phonograph, and motion pictures) and in electric power system. He patented more than thousand devices, including the phonograph and the incandescent light bulb and made millions from his inventions. He was a close friend and associate of another inventor/businessman, Henry Ford.
Henry Ford: Henry Ford was born on July 30, 1863 and died on April 7, 1947. Henry ford was the founder of Ford Motor Company, and one of the first to apply assembly line manufacturing to the mass production of affordable automobiles. His invention revolutionized American transportation and industrial production. He also developed gasoline-powered automobile. As an owner of Ford Motor Company, he became one of the richest and best-known people in the world.
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Students in Arviat, Nunavut, Canada, interviewed local elders and studied traditional skills as part of the Arviat Iglu project. In the process, the kids used technology tools of the present to learn about the past and to preserve it for future students. Included: Student interviews with Arviat's elders.
Students from Arviat in Nunavut, Canada, recently became amateur historians and reporters as they interviewed local elders about the Inuit way of life. The interviews were part of a community-based effort to create a Web site preserving Arviat's heritage and the Inuktitut language.
"This idea was developed because the community identified training in the technology field as a priority," Shirley Tagalik told Education World. "Another community priority was to preserve traditional knowledge. The Web site allowed us to do both things in one project." As the manager of Education-Nunavut's Early Childhood & School Services Division, Tagalik coordinated the unique Arviat Iglu project.
The Arviat Iglu Web Site was the first of its kind. Designed to be a resource for students and teachers, the site contains information about the traditional way of life of the Inuit people, including their homes, heritage, and region.
One portion of the site highlights Levi Angmak Iliniarvialaaq Elementary School's "Classroom in the Iglu" project. In this annual activity, students learn to build an actual igloo. Once construction is complete, the students travel each day from their classroom to the igloo, using it as an authentic alternative classroom. The students study traditional skills and carry out activities typical in an Inuit winter camp.
Another section features interviews students conducted with Arviat elders. The firsthand accounts of the elders' life experiences were published along with digital pictures taken by the student interviewers. Together, the photos and interviews provide a glimpse into how the Inuit society has changed over time.
In keeping with the goal of preserving the Inuit language, the Arviat Iglu Web Site provides information in both English and Inuktitut. "Key to us was the need to get Inuktitut onto the Web, so students could see their own language on the Internet," Tagalik said. "We also sought to promote reading in Inuktitut. We made sure there was material in English, but the material in Inuktitut is not a translation. It is all original material."
Tagalik and her colleagues hoped that by creating their first Web site with Inuktitut, local students would discover that theirs is a living language that can be just as "cool" as English. Publishing the pages in Inuktitut also made the Internet accessible to community elders, encouraging all Inuit to read every page of the online material.
To achieve the project goals, students were assigned to work in various capacities. Their activities included Web page design, researching, interviewing elders, and other activities such as scanning, creating layouts, and storyboarding.
"The most rewarding part for me was interviewing the elders," says May T., a student who contributed to the Arviat Iglu Web site. "I learned a lot about the past and how different groups lived in different shelters. I learned so much from them and I enjoyed it a lot."
May wrote questions from a student's perspective and recorded the responses and personal stories of the elders. She did local research, typed the stories in Inuktitut and English, and took digital pictures of the elders.
"I'm hoping that visitors to the Web site will learn all about the different kinds of shelters that Inuit used throughout the year," May explained. "I also hope that the Inuit who visit this site read the Inuktitut pages, not just the English pages. That way they can improve their Inuktitut reading skills."
The creation of the Arviat Iglu Web site was truly a community effort. Several organizations contributed to its establishment. The Arviat Historical Society provided archival material and equipment and assisted with planning and identifying the elders to be interviewed. The Donald Suluk Community Library and other regional territorial organizations facilitated the completion of the project. The Community Access Program Web site was the host site for the project. The Arviat District Education Authority was the sponsoring agency for the site and handled payments and payroll for summer employment. Funding was provided by a number of partners and technology expertise was provided by the schools and adult educators.
The Arviat site was published as part of Canada's Digital Collections, a program that provides opportunities for Canadian young people to learn Web skills by producing sites about their country. It also affords cultural institutions and other organizations a chance to improve access to their offerings.
Eric Anoee, a media specialist who served with Tagalik as part of the Web team, recalled that at the start of the project the students were told that their Web site would be seen and noticed both by their own community and throughout the world. That prediction appears to be coming true!
"The community members have been impressed with the Web site," said Anoee. And, through their involvement with the Web site, elders and students of the community of Arviat in Nunavut, Canada, have been encouraged to pursue technology interests.
"We knew that the students and elders would really get a lot out of the project, even if we never got the Web site finished," Shirley Tagalik noted. "What we didn't expect was that the elders would become so interested in the technology they'd actually begin to take computer courses. That was a fantastic surprise!"
"People from around the world, in Iceland, Sweden, and other places, have also seen the Web site," Anoee added. "[They've] been impressed by what people from such a remote place can create!"
Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre
Here visitors can tour online exhibits designed to promote the Northwest Territories' cultural heritage.
Article by Cara Bafile
Copyright © 2001 Education World
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A Rational Designconcluded:
the biomechanical properties and the morphology of locust wings are functionally correlated in locusts, providing a mechanically ‘optimal’ solution with high toughness and low weight.
The research also found that distribution of the cell size across the wing followed the pattern of smaller cells tending to cluster along the wing edges where cracks might be more likely to begin. As one of the researchers concluded:
Thanks to this precise spacing of the cross veins, the cracks are always stopped before they can reach this critical length and start growing themselves. Nature has found a mechanically “optimal” solution for the locust wings, with a high toughness and a low weight.
It is another example that, as William Bialek has pointed out, biological designs are rational. That is, rather than explaining that the species are the way they are because that is the way they happened to evolve, the species have designs that can be understood according to the underlying engineering and physics principles.
And so using this rational, mathematical, approach to biology the researchers were able to do something that consistently eludes evolutionists—produce a successful prediction:
An optimal cell size of a grid-like structure such as the wing can be predicted using the “critical crack length” of the membrane, which is determined by the material’s fracture toughness and the stress applied. … An “optimal” wing cell should have a diameter of around 1132 µm. Is this the case in locust wings? Our results show that the distribution of the wing cell size in locust wings corresponds very well to this prediction, with the most common wing-cell “class” being between 1000 and 1100 µm.
These wing designs enable the desert locust to achieve tremendous feats of flying, and the designs are yet another example of evolution’s anti-realism. Biological structures certainly appear to be designed but, evolutionists insist, it is a case of false appearances. The designs are that way because that is how they happened to evolve. That, evolutionists say, is a scientific fact that we must not question.
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Babies of heavy mothers have more fat, less muscle
By Anne Harding
NEW YORK (Reuters Health) - Babies born to overweight or obese women have more fat and less muscle than infants born to normal-weight moms, according to one of the first studies to compare newborns' body composition to their mothers' pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI).
Obesity is on the rise among pregnant women, while more and more North American and European infants weigh 4,000 grams (8 pounds 13 ounces) or more at birth, Dr. David A. Fields of the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center in Oklahoma and colleagues Fields and his team note in their report in American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology. These unusually heavy infants are more likely to grow up to be obese.
Body weight alone, however, doesn't provide a clear picture of infant growth and health, the researchers add; both low and high birth weight have been tied to an increased risk of diabetes and other conditions in adulthood.
To better understand how prenatal growth might influence future health, Fields and his team used the PEA POD, a "body composition system" made by Concord, California-based Life Measurement Instruments, to measure the percentage of body fat, fat-free body mass, and total fat mass in 72 babies no older than 35 days.
There was no difference in average birthweight between babies born to women with normal BMIs and those whose mothers were overweight or obese.
However, infants of the 39 overweight or obese moms had significantly higher percentages of body fat (13.6 vs. 12.5 percent), higher fat mass (448.3 grams vs. 414.1 grams), and lower fat-free mass (3,162.2 grams vs. 3,310.5 grams) than the babies born to the 33 normal-weight women, Fields and his team found.
Babies born to heavy mothers may face a greater risk of diabetes because they have less muscle mass, Fields noted in an interview. "That could be reason why these kids, probably many of them, will get diabetes, because muscle is your largest consumer of sugar," he said.
"It's been very, very difficult to measure the body fat in the baby," Fields noted. Previously, doing so required using several different machines and took hours. The PEA POD can gauge body composition in five minutes, according to Life Measurement Instruments' Web site.
The machine is expensive, Fields noted, estimating that just 15 are in use worldwide. Nevertheless, he predicted that more and more hospitals will begin using them.
Gauging babies' body composition at birth could provide a clearer picture of their health than weight alone, Fields added, but then the question remains as to what should be done if babies are found to have a high percentage of body fat. One possibility, Fields said, would be to encourage their mothers to breastfeed. His own research has demonstrated that formula-fed babies tend to be fatter.
SOURCE: American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, April 2008.
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- freely available
Toxins 2013, 5(4), 743-775; doi:10.3390/toxins5040743
Abstract: There is a need to develop food-compatible conditions to alter the structures of fungal, bacterial, and plant toxins, thus transforming toxins to nontoxic molecules. The term ‘chemical genetics’ has been used to describe this approach. This overview attempts to survey and consolidate the widely scattered literature on the inhibition by natural compounds and plant extracts of the biological (toxicological) activity of the following food-related toxins: aflatoxin B1, fumonisins, and ochratoxin A produced by fungi; cholera toxin produced by Vibrio cholerae bacteria; Shiga toxins produced by E. coli bacteria; staphylococcal enterotoxins produced by Staphylococcus aureus bacteria; ricin produced by seeds of the castor plant Ricinus communis; and the glycoalkaloid α-chaconine synthesized in potato tubers and leaves. The reduction of biological activity has been achieved by one or more of the following approaches: inhibition of the release of the toxin into the environment, especially food; an alteration of the structural integrity of the toxin molecules; changes in the optimum microenvironment, especially pH, for toxin activity; and protection against adverse effects of the toxins in cells, animals, and humans (chemoprevention). The results show that food-compatible and safe compounds with anti-toxin properties can be used to reduce the toxic potential of these toxins. Practical applications and research needs are suggested that may further facilitate reducing the toxic burden of the diet. Researchers are challenged to (a) apply the available methods without adversely affecting the nutritional quality, safety, and sensory attributes of animal feed and human food and (b) educate food producers and processors and the public about available approaches to mitigating the undesirable effects of natural toxins that may present in the diet.
Numerous foodborne diseases result from ingesting foods that are contaminated with microbial and plant toxins. Naturally occurring food toxicants can adversely affect the nutritional quality and safety of foods. Because of a growing concern about relationships between diet and diseases and because of a growing need to improve the quality and safety of our food supply, research is needed to define conditions that minimize the levels of toxic compounds in foods. Thus, in order to improve food safety, there is a need for technologies to inactivate or inhibit toxins with food-compatible natural compounds and plant extracts.
Most natural food toxicants possess specific sites that are responsible for their adverse effects in animals and humans. Therefore, modifying such sites with site-specific reagents that will change the structural integrity and thus prevent the toxins from interacting with cell receptor sites in vivo may make it possible to decrease their toxic potential.
In this review, we will present a brief overview of published studies on some possible approaches to reducing deleterious effects of the following toxins produced by fungi (aflatoxin B1, fumonisins, and ochratoxin A), bacteria (cholera toxin, botulinum neurotoxin, Shiga toxins, and Staphylococcus enterotoxin), and plants (ricin and α-chaconine).
2. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)
2.1. Thiol Adducts
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a pre-carcinogen that is transformed in vivo to an active epoxide . Prior treatment with site-specific reagents should modify the molecule in a manner that will prevent formation of the epoxide and inhibit its mutagenic and carcinogenic activity. Because thiols are potent nucleophiles , they may competitively inhibit the interaction of the epoxide with DNA.
Our HPLC studies showed that exposure of AFB1 to N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) resulted in the disappearance of the AFB1 peak and the appearance of a new peak, presumably the thiol adduct (Figure 1) [3,4]. The integrated absorbance of this peak indicated that AFB1 was converted nearly quantitatively to this single derivative. In additional experiments we found SH-containing compounds, including NAC, reduced glutathione (GSH), and N-2-mercaptopropionylglycine inactivated the mutagenic activity of AFB1 in the Ames Salmonella Typhimurium test. Surprisingly, l-cysteine was less effective. Figure 2 shows three postulated pathways for possible aflatoxin–thiol interactions. Pathway A shows the nucleophilic addition of a thiol to the 2,3-double bond of AFB1 to form an inactive thiol adduct. Pathway B depicts the interaction of a thiol with the 2,3-epoxide, which may prevent the epoxide from interacting with DNA. Pathway C shows the displacement of the AFB1–DNA (guanine) adduct, which thus prevents tumorigenesis.
Related in vitro and in vivo studies with sulfur amino acids are described by De Flora et al. [5,6], Shetty et al. , Guengerich et al. and reviewed by Madrigal-Santillán et al. and Valencia-Quintana et al. . Cavalcante et al. found that apple juice and cashews also exhibited anti-mutagenicity in the Ames test.
These observations suggest that thiols may be useful for inactivating AFB1 in contaminated foods, as an antidote to treat AFB1 toxicity and for prophylaxis to prevent AFB1 poisoning.
Thiol–adduct formation also reduced the very high mutagenicity of the tetrachloroimide mutagen formed in poultry chiller water and inhibited the heat-induced formation in plant foods of the presumptive carcinogen and teratogen acrylamide [13,14] as well as the antinutritional compound lysinoalanine in food exposed to heat and high pH .
2.2. Lysine Adducts
Several studies have reported on the formation of adducts between hydrolysis and oxidation products of AFB1 and free and protein-bound lysine residues. These include: (a) the observation that a dialdehyde derived from the exo-8,9-epoxide part of AFB1 reacted with both lysine and albumin to form lysine adducts ; (b) the finding that human AFB1 albumin adducts determined by three independent methods can be used to assess human exposure to this carcinogen ; and (c) a detailed description of the toxicokinetics of the serum AFB1–lysine adduct in rats . These authors suggest that this biomarker has the potential to be used to relate exposure to AFB1 to human health effects.
2.3. Chemoprevention of AFB1-Induced Carcinogenesis in Cells
Several studies reported on the inhibition of AFB1–induced apoptosis (cell death) of cancer cells. These include the following observations:
Rosmarinic acid, a phenolic antioxidant contained in basil, mint, and sage, prevented AFB1-induced carcinogenesis of human hepatoma HepG2 cells .
Cynidin-3-O-β-glucopyranoside, an anthocyanin contained in blackberries, cranberries, oranges, and strawberries inhibited AFB1- and ochratoxin A-induced toxicity in HepG2 and colonic adenocarcinoma (CaCo-2) cells .
Carnosic acid, a phenolic antioxidant present in the rosemary plant, exhibited a dose-dependent protective effect against apoptosis of HepG2 cells .
Leontopodic acid, isolated from the aerial parts of the Leontopodium alpinum plant, showed chemopreventive effects against AFB1- and deoxynivalenol-induced cell damage .
The cited beneficial effects seem to be associated with antioxidative and/or free radical scavenging properties of the evaluated compounds.
2.4. Inhibition of Aflatoxicosis
Several studies describe the inhibition of aflatoxin toxicity by food compounds in different animal species. These include the following observations:
Grapefruit juice protected against AFB1–induced liver DNA damage .
Garlic powder protected against AFB1–induced DNA damage in rat liver and colon .
The polysaccharide mannan and yeast reduced AFB1– and ochratoxin–induced DNA damage in rats .
High doses of combinations of indole-3-carbinol and crambene, compounds from cruciferous vegetables, protected against adverse effect of AFB1 .
2.5. Reduction of AFB1 in Food
A detailed discussion of the chemical inactivation of AFB1 in different foods is beyond the scope of this review. Reported studies include the following observations:
Treatment with aqueous citric acid degraded 96.7% of AFB1 in maize (corn) with an initial concentration of 93 ng/g .
Citric acid was more effective than lactic acid in reducing AFB1 in extrusion cooked sorghum .
Extrusion cooking of contaminated peanut meal in the presence of calcium chloride, lysine, and methylamine reduced AFB1 from an initial value of 417.7 µg/kg to 66.9 µg/kg .
Intermittent pumping of the volatile soybean aldehyde trans-2-exanal protected stored corn from Aspergillus flavus growth and aflatoxin contamination .
The highest aflatoxin reduction (24.8%) was observed after cooking contaminated rice samples in a rice cooker, but the difference with other home-cooking methods was not statistically significant .
2.6. Practical Applications
The need to reduce the aflatoxin content of the diet is strikingly demonstrated by the observed significant reduction in the incidence of human liver cancer, especially in age groups >25 years, associated with reduced content of dietary aflatoxin . The authors ascribe this beneficial effect to a shift of food consumption from moldy corn to fresh rice and improved economic status. To control fungal growth and aflatoxin and fumonisin production, drying of corn should take place soon after harvest . Treatment with citric acid seems to be an effective and inexpensive method to reduce the aflatoxin content by 97%. It is not known whether the dietary ingredients mentioned above would protect humans against aflatoxicosis and liver cancer. In view, however, of the observed protection against aflatoxin-induced liver damage in albino male mice by co-administration with a black tea extract (2% infusion in water) , black tea may also protect humans.
These observations merit additional comment. Based on the recent in vitro observations by Rasooly et al. that low levels of AFB1 stimulate growth of Vero kidney cells and high levels kill the cells, it is likely that the low residual AFB1 levels in food mentioned above would exert different and unknown biological effects in vivo. Further study is needed to investigate these effects in more detail.
Carcinogenic [40,41] and neurotoxic fumonisins, another class of fungal mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species and other fungal species that contaminate food, mainly grain, represent a significant hazard to the food chain . For example, the consumption of fumonisin-containing maize retarded the growth of Tanzanian infants and adult celiac patients consumed higher levels of fumonisin (0.395 μg/kg) than non-celiacs (0.029 μg) [44,45].
Here, we present several reported studies designed to overcome fumonisin production and toxicity.
Plant essential oils (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Coriandrum sativum, Melissa officinalis, Mentha piperita, Salvia officinalis, and Thymus vulgaris) inhibited Fusarium mycotoxin production as well as fungal contamination of wheat seeds . Inhibitory effects correlated with antioxidative properties of the oils. The highest inhibition of fungal growth was after 5 days of treatment and inhibition decreased after 22 days. The authors recommend the use of essential oils as natural preservatives for stored cereals.
Fumigation of corn flour and corn kernels with allyl-, benzyl-, and phenyl isothiocyanates found in garlic resulted in a significant reduction of fumonisin content .
Adsorption of the mycotoxin to a clay-based sorbent resulted in decreased bioavailability .
A mycotoxin binder prevented adverse effects of fumonisin B1 in rats .
An ethanol extract of the plant Aquilegia vulgaris counteracted the oxidative stress and toxicity of fumonisins in rats .
A red ginseng extract also protected rats against AFB1– and fumonisin–induced pre-cancerous lesions .
Several herbal teas and extracts protected against fumonisin B1-induced cancer promotion in rat liver .
The cited results indicate that approaches are available to reduce the production and toxic potential of fumonisin in contaminated grain. Because, as mentioned above, plant essential oils seem to inhibit the contamination of grain by fumonisin-producing fungi and the production of fumonisins, and because a large number of essential oils and their bioactive constituents have been shown to inactivate foodborne microorganisms in laboratory media and in food [55,56,57], there is a need to optimize the anti-fumonisin potential of many of these generally-recognized-as-safe (GRAS)-listed natural compounds.
4. Ochratoxin A
Another fungal toxin called ochratoxin A produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium species is reported to contaminate food [61,62,63,64,65], to induce cytotoxicity in mammalian cells [66,67,68], and toxicity and carcinogenicity and nephrotoxicity in animals and humans [69,70]. The following reported observations are relevant to the theme of the present paper:
Barberis et al. found that food grade antioxidants and antimicrobials controlled the growth of the fungi and ochratoxin A production on peanut kernels.
Petchkongkaew et al. demonstrated that Bacillus spp. from fermented soybeans can detoxify AFB1 and ochratoxin A.
Virgili et al. found that native yeast controls the production of ochratoxin production in dry cured ham.
Kapetanokou et al. observed similar results in beverages.
The suggested approaches to reduce the toxic potential of aflatoxin and fumonisin are also expected to be effective against ochratoxin.
5. Botulinum Neurotoxins
Bacteria of the genus Clostridium produce one tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) and seven different botulinum neurotoxins (BoNT/A,_/B,_/C,_/D,_/E,_/F, and /G) that cause the flaccid paralysis of botulism . These neurotoxins have a similar four-domain structure but differ in both antigenic properties and interactions with intracellular targets. Only the L chain, the N-terminal domain of 50 kDa, enters the cytosol, where it cleaves the synaptosomal (SNAP-25) protein and blocks neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) release, causing peripheral neuromuscular blockade and flaccid paralysis in humans. Botulinum neurotoxin is highly toxic to humans. Serotype A (BoNT/A) is the most potent of several serotypes with an LD50 of 0.8 µg for a human weighing 70 kg . Medical treatment for botulism is a major challenge [77,78].
Although rare, outbreaks of foodborne botulism are reported to occur worldwide. In the United States, Juliao et al. reported that a commercially produced hot dog chili sauce seems responsible for four cases of type A botulism and Date et al. reported on three outbreaks of foodborne botulism caused by unsafe canning of vegetables. These outbreaks may be the result of survival of Clostridium botulinum spores during preparation of these foods.
Different food categories are reported to be susceptible to contamination by Clostridium botulinum pathogens. These include baked products [81,82,83], dairy products , fresh mussels and especially canned fruits and vegetables . The following observations are relevant to the theme of the present review:
Studies by Daifas et al. revealed that a commercial mastic resin and its essential oil in ethanol solution inhibited the growth of proteolytic strains of Clostridium botulinum in media. The anti-botulinal activity was greater when the test substances were applied in the vapor state than in solution. The test substances did not, however, inhibit neurotoxin production in challenge studies with the bacteria in English-style crumpets but the authors suggest that these natural products have the potential to inhibit pathogenic bacteria in bakery products.
A reduced level of nitrite (75 mg/kg) inhibited the toxigenesis of Clostridium botulinum type B in meat products .
The combined treatment with chlorine and lactic acid inhibited both E. coli O157:H7 and Clostridium sporogenes in spinach packaged in modified atmospheres .
Kaempfenol, kaempferol, and quercetin glycosides isolated from black tea inhibited the neuromuscular inhibitory effects of botulinum neurotoxin A in mouse phrenic nerve–diaphragm preparations .
Ethyl acetate extracts of several teas mixed with botulinum neurotoxin type A also prevented neuromuscular blockade of a mouse phrenic nerve–diaphragm preparation with an order of potency of the extracts of black tea > oolong tea > roasted tea > green tea (no effect).
Water-soluble fractions of the stinging nettle leaf extract inhibited the protease activity of botulinum neurotoxin type A but not type B .
Chicoric acid isolated from the herbal plant Echinacea is a potent exosite inhibitor of BoNT/A with a synergistic effect when combined with an active site inhibitor .
The natural compound lomofungin inhibited the BoNT serotype A light chain metalloproteinase (LC) by nonclassical inhibition kinetics .
Šilhár et al. state that the ability to inhibit an exosite by a small molecule requires disruption of protein–protein interactions and that natural products have the potential to act as new drugs in the treatment of botulinum neurotoxicity. The anti-toxin effect of black tea theaflavins and thearubigins and other polyphenolic compounds may result from covalent binding of the botulinum neurotoxin, possibly as illustrated in Figure 3, which depicts sites on the toxin molecule susceptible to inactivation .
The cited studies suggest that natural pure compounds and plant extracts added to food have the potential to help prevent botulism. Because commercial teas vary widely in their content of catechins and theaflavins [98,99], consumers have a choice of selecting teas with a high content of these anti-toxin compounds. Based on the above mentioned mechanism of inhibition of the botulinum toxin by natural polyphenolic compounds, it is likely that consumption of phenolic-rich fruits and vegetables may help protect against botulism. In addition, because there seems to be no available drug therapy, polyphenolic-rich whole foods and their bioactive compounds should also be evaluated for their medicinal properties.
Finally, Juneja and colleagues [100,101] previously found that carvacrol (the main ingredient of oregano essential oil), oregano oil, cinnamaldehyde (the main ingredient of cinnamon oil), thymol (the main ingredient of thyme oil) and a green tea leaf extract inhibited the germination and outgrowth of the related spore-forming Clostridium perfringens pathogens in meat. It is not known whether these natural products would also inhibit Clostridium botulinum and/or the release of the neurotoxin from the pathogens in food so this aspect merits study.
6. Cholera Toxin (CT)
Ingestion of drinking water or cooked shellfish contaminated by the Gram-negative bacterium Vibrio cholerae serotypes O1 and O139 causes the potentially fatal disease cholera, characterized by profuse diarrhea . Diarrhea results from the interaction of the cholera enterotoxin secreted by the bacteria with adenylate cyclase of the mucosa of the digestive tract, causing water flow from the open ion channels through osmosis. A major challenge is to overcome emerging antibiotic-resistant strains and inhibit the biological effects of the toxin. Here, we will briefly review reported studies on the inhibition of the toxin by components of the diet.
Toda et al. [104,105] found that tea catechins protected against experimental infection by Vibrio cholerae O1 bacteria and it has been shown that other polyphenolic compounds also inhibited the virulence of cholera toxin . Indeed, a catechin from green tea bound to and interfered with the cell binding and internalization of cholera toxin . Shimamura found that SH-containing compounds such as cysteine and reduced glutathione inhibited the production of cholera toxin by Vibrio cholerae and that added vitamin B12 reversed the inhibition. These observations suggest that inhibition may result from the formation of an -S–S- bond between added thiols and toxin SH groups via sulfhydryl–disulfide interchange by mechanisms described in detail elsewhere for the inactivation of soybean inhibitors of digestive enzymes and other disulfide-containing protein toxins [2,109,110].
The B pentamer of the AB5 composition of CT binds to cell membranes and the A subunit acts as an enzyme after cleavage . Becker et al. examined the inhibition of galactose-rich natural substances of two AB5 enterotoxins, the heat-labile LT-1 toxin produced by E. coli and CT produced by V. cholerae, to bind to sites of ganglioside receptor GM1 using a specially adapted GM-1 coated microtiter-well ELISA. Compared to pure milk saccharides, skim milk powder interfered with both LT-I and CT inhibition. Fenugreek seeds were also highly active. The high inhibitory activity of binding of the toxin to the cell receptor sites by components of skim milk powder compared to numerous other galactose-containing substances evaluated may be due to the presence in skim milk of not only galactose-containing compounds but also glycopeptides and glycolipids, which may act synergistically. Related studies by Sinclair et al. showed that sialyloligosaccharides derived from egg yolk inhibited binding of CT to GM1-OS immobilized to artificial planar lipid membranes. The authors suggest that these food-grade molecules could be used as health-promoting food additives.
Rasmussen et al. used a high-throughput screening assay of an ~8,000 compound structurally diverse chemical library for inhibitors of V. cholerae motility, an activity required by the pathogens to colonize the small intestine. They discovered a group of quinazoline-2,4-diamino analogs that completely suppressed motility. The assay merits use to screen for the inhibition of motility by natural compounds. These authors use the term ‘chemical genetics’ to describe how small molecules can change the way protein toxins behave in real time directly rather indirectly by manipulating their genes.
Chaterjee et al. examined whether red chili (Capsicum annuum), which contains capsaicin and other bioactive compounds, can suppress CT production in V. cholerae. They found that a methanol extract of the peppers and capsaicin strongly inhibited the CT production of various serogroups. The authors describe repression of transcription of virulence genes associated with the inhibition. As is the case with teas mentioned earlier, consumers have a choice of selecting peppers with a high content of capsaicin and other pungent pepper compounds [114,115].
Yamasaki et al. note that although extracts from plants such as ‘apple’, ‘daio’, ‘elephant garlic, ‘green tea’, ‘guazuma’, and ‘hop’ have been shown to inhibit bacterial growth of V. cholerae, inhibiting bacterial growth may impose selective pressure facilitating development of resistant strains. They suggest that based on the above-mentioned results, a regular intake of chili peppers or other spices could prophylactically and/or therapeutically protect against cholera.
Velázquez et al. tested in a rat model for anti-secretory activity of (-)-epicatechin, isolated from the Chianthodendron pentadactylon plant used in Mexican traditional medicine. The inhibitory effect of the catechin on CT was higher (56.9% inhibition) than on the E. coli toxin (24.1% inhibition). Computational molecular docking showed that the epicatechin interacted with four amino acid residues (Asn 103, Phe 31, Phe 223, and The 78) of the catalytic site of the toxin. The authors concluded that these studies support the use of the plant to treat diarrhea.
Pigmented rice bran inactivated multiple pathogens including Vibrio cholerae isolated from patients suffering from diarrhea [118,119]. It is not known whether bioactive rice brans can also inactivate cholera and other toxins.
The cited evidence suggests that natural substances are potential prophylactic and/or therapeutic agents that can be used to protect animals and humans against water and foodborne CT-mediated disease. Specifically, galactose-rich natural compounds, skim milk, fenugreek seeds, chili capsaicins, and (-)-epicatechin from a Mexican medicinal plant seem to be promising candidates to inhibit the toxicity of CT. It is not known whether any of these compounds will be effective against cholera in humans. In addition, preclinical and safety evaluation of a multivalent oral vaccine shows promise for further testing in humans .
7. Shiga/Shiga-like Toxins
Shiga toxin is produced by Shigella, and the structurally similar Shiga-like toxins are produced by enterohemorrhagic strains of E. coli (EHEC), such as O157:H7. EHEC are pathogens of major importance for food safety, causing foodborne illnesses, ranging from mild diarrhea to a life-threatening complication known as hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS). The bacteria produce a family of related toxins that comprise two major groups, verocytotoxin 1 (Stx1) and verocytotoxin 2 (Stx2). Stx2 is reportedly several orders of magnitude more toxic than Stx1. Stx2 is relatively heat stable and is not inactivated by pasteurization . In an important in vivo study, Rasooly et al. found for the first time that orally ingested Stx2, previously thought to be only dangerous when administered enterically, caused histopathological changes in kidney, spleen, and thymus, and mortality in mice. The question arises as to whether adverse effects associated with exposure to Shiga toxin-producing E. coli strains are caused just by the bacteria or by ingested preformed toxin as well. The following observations are relevant to the theme of this review:
Intraperitoneal administration of 1 mg of the green tea catechin epigallocatechin gallate (ECGC) to BALB/c mice completely inhibited the lethal effect of 2 ng of Stx2 .
EGCG and gallocatechin gallate (GCG) also markedly inhibited the extracellular release of Stx2 toxin from E. coli O157:H7 . The mechanism of inhibition seems to involve interference by the catechins of the transfer of periplasmic proteins through the outer membrane of the bacterial cell. The cited findings indicate that tea compounds are potent inhibitors of Stx2. An unanswered question is whether tea compounds and teas can inactivate bacterial toxins present in drinking water and in liquid and solid foods.
The compound eugenol, which is present in many spices, inhibited verotoxin production in a concentration-dependent manner by E. coli O157:H7 .
The food preservatives potassium sorbate, sodium benzoate, and sodium propionate reduced Shiga toxin activity in E. coli O157:H7 bacteria .
Glycan-encapsulated gold nanoparticles inhibited Stx1 and Stx2 . The authors suggest that tailored glyconanoparticles that mimic the natural display of glycans in lipid rafts could serve as potential therapeutics for the toxins. They also note that a few amino acid changes in emerging Stx2 variants can change receptor specificity.
In an elegant review, Branson and Turnbull describe mechanistic aspects of the inhibition by multivalent synthetic scaffolds, which include glycopolymers, glycodendrimers, and tailored glycoclusters, that can inhibit the binding of bacterial toxins to specific glycolipids in the cell membrane. The authors conclude that weak interactions of inhibitors can be greatly enhanced through multivalency. The safety and food-compatibility of the synthetic inhibitors need to be established before the inhibitors can be added to food.
Quiñones et al. describe the development and application of an improved Vero-d2EGFP cell-based fluorescence assay for the detection of Stx2 and inhibitors of toxin activity. Grape seed and grape pomace extracts both provided strong cellular protection against Stx2 inhibition of protein synthesis (Figure 4). The identified anti-toxin compounds can be used to develop food-compatible conditions for toxin inactivation that will benefit microbial food safety, security, and human health.Figure 4. Effect of plant compounds on protein synthesis levels in Stx-treated Vero-d2EGFP cells. Protein synthesis was measured in Vero-d2EGFP cells after a 2-hour co-incubation with plant polyphenolic compounds and Stx2. Cells were co-incubated with no plant compound, 1 mg caffeic acid/mL, 1 mg red wine concentrate/mL, 0.5 mg grape pomace extract/mL, or 0.1 mg grape seed extract/mL. Adapted from .
Rasooly et al. discovered that freshly prepared juice from locally purchased Red Delicious apples, but not fresh juice from Golden Delicious apples, inactivated the biological activity of Stx2. However, both Golden Delicious juice and water with added 0.3% polyphenol-rich grape pomace, a byproduct of wine production, also inactivated the Shiga toxin. Additional studies with immunomagnetic beads with specific antibodies against the toxin revealed that only part of the added Stx2 in apple juice appears to be irreversibly bound to apple juice and grape pomace constituents. The authors suggest that food-compatible and safe anti-toxin compounds can be used to inactivate Shiga toxins in apple juice and possibly also in other liquid and solid foods. It would also be of interest to find out whether apple skin, olive, and oregano leaf bactericidal powders would also inhibit Stx2.
Different grain fractions from pea (Pisum sativum) and faba bean (Vincia faba) inhibited adhesion of enterotoxigenic E. coli cells (ETEC) expressing adhesion and heat-labile LT toxins . Because adhesion is involved in colonization of the host by the pathogens, the authors suggest that some of the fractions have the potential to protect pigs against pathogen-induced diarrhea.
The probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus plantarum isolated from a fermented milk beverage called Kefir protected Vero cells against the cytotoxicity of Stx2 present in supernatants of E. coli O157:H7 bacteria .
A variety of probiotic bacteria, especially Lactobacilli, inhibited the growth E. coli strains. Whether these in vitro results can be confirmed in vivo merits study .
The identified anti-toxin compounds can be used to develop food-compatible conditions for the inactivation of Shiga toxins in food, animals, and humans that will benefit microbial food safety, security, and human health. In addition, other natural products and plant extracts have been shown to inactivate Shiga toxin-producing bacteria [135,136]. There is a need to determine whether these and related natural products inhibit the release of Shiga toxins and whether any released toxin is susceptible to concurrent inactivation in food, in the digestive tract, and after absorption into the circulation.
8. Staphylococcus Enterotoxins
Staphylococcus aureus is a major bacterial pathogen that causes clinical infection and foodborne illness, as reviewed in Rasooly and Friedman . This bacterium produces a group of 21 known enterotoxins (SEs) that have two separate biological activities: they cause gastroenteritis in the gastrointestinal tract and act as a superantigen on the immune system. Functional enterotoxins bind to the alpha-helical regions of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules outside the peptide-binding groove of the antigen presenting cells (APCs), and also to the variable region (Vß) on T-cell receptors. The toxin then forms a bridge between T cells and APC. This event then initiates the proliferation of a large number (~20%) of T cells that induce the release of cytokines. At high concentrations, cytokines are involved in the causes of certain human and animal diseases such as atopic dermatitis and rheumatoid arthritis in humans and mastitis in dairy cows . We will now briefly mentioned reported studies designed to overcome the toxicity of the SEs, especially the virulent staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA), a single-chain protein that consists of 233 amino acid residues and has a molecular weight of 27,078 Da.
Intraperitoneal administration of a green tea extract and of the tea catechin ECGC to BALB/c mice bound to and inhibited the staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) . The inhibition of the heat-resistant enterotoxin was both dose and time dependent. ECGC also inhibited Staphylococcal superantigens-induced activation of T cells both in vitro and in vivo. Because these antigens aggravate atopic dermatitis, the authors suggest that catechins may be useful in the treatment of this human disease.
Ether extracts of the herb Helichrysum italicum inhibited the production of enterotoxins (A–D) by S. aureus strains in culture media, suggesting that the extract interfered with the production of the enterotoxins .
Lactobacillus starter cultures inhibited both growth of S. aureus and enterotoxin production in sausages during fermentation . The authors suggest that intestinal Lactobacillus strains could be used as a starter culture to produced microbiologically safe meat products.
Microbial growth and SEA production rates of S. aureus in the presence of undissociated lactic acid can be used as indicators of bacterial growth and SEA formation during initial stages of cheese production .
The sour-milk beverage Kefir with added alimentary fiber inhibited pathogenic properties of S. aureus in humans . The growth inhibition of S. aureus by lactic acid produced from starter culture may be the cause of growth inhibition of the pathogen in pasteurized milk and cheese .
An ethanol extract from the bulb of the Eleutherine americana plant inhibited both S. aureus strains and enterotoxin A–D production in broth and cooked pork . The extract at 2 mg/mL delayed production of toxins A and C for 8 and 4 h, respectively, whereas toxin B was not detected in the pork after 48 h. The authors suggest that the ability of the extract to inhibit lipase and protease enzymes and to delay enterotoxin production in food indicates that it could be a novel additive against S. aureus in food.
The 12-carbon fatty acid monoether dodecylglycerol (DDG) was more effective than glycerol monolaurate (GML) in inhibiting S. aureus growth in vitro . By contrast, GML was more effective than DDG in reducing mortality, suppressing TNF-α, S. aureus growth and exotoxin production, and mortality in a rabbit model. The authors suggest that GML has the potential to be an effective anti-staphylococcal topical anti-infective candidate.
Dilutions of freshly prepared apple juices and a commercial apple polyphenol preparation (Apple Poly®) inhibited the biological activity of SEA in a spleen cell assay (Figure 5) . Studies with antibody-coated immunomagnetic beads bearing specific antibodies against the toxin showed that SEA added to apple juice seems to be largely bound to the juice constituents. Figure 6 depicts a possible mechanistic scheme for the inhibition.Figure 5. Comparison of inhibition of SEA by Red Delicious apple juice and apple polyphenols (Apple Poly). Splenocytes and SEA (1 ng/mL) were incubated for 48 h with Red Delicious juice or decreasing concentrations (0.3%, 0.06% and 0.012% w/v in PBS) of Apple Poly. The level of newly synthesized DNA was then determined, by measuring optical density at 450 nm. Adapted from .Figure 6. Schematic representation of cellular events that lead to the inhibition of SEA induced cell proliferation by apple juice. The individual steps in this scheme involve (A) the formation of a bridge between antigen presenting cells (APC) and T cells that results in the induction of T-cell proliferation; and (B) the inhibition of T-cell proliferation by added pure apple juice that disrupt the connection between APC and T cells. The net beneficial result of these events is the prevention of release and the consequent adverse effects induced by cytokines. Abbreviations: MHC, major histocompatibility complex; TCR, T-cell receptor. Adapted from .
A dilution series of the olive compound 4-hydroxytyrosol and a commercial olive powder containing approximately 6% 4-hydroxytyrosol and 6% of other phenolic compounds inactivated the pathogen . Two independent assays, (5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation into newly synthesized DNA, and glycyl-phenylalanyl-aminofluorocoumarin proteolysis) showed that the olive compound also inactivated the biological activity of SEA at concentrations that were not toxic to spleen cells used in the assay. Efforts to determine the inhibition of the toxin by the olive powder were not successful because the powder was cytotoxic to the spleen cells at concentrations that are effective against the bacteria. The results (Figure 7) show that the olive compound can be used to inactivate both the bacteria and the toxin produced by the bacteria and that the use of cell assays to determine inhibition can only be done with concentrations of the inhibitor that are not toxic to cells.Figure 7. Effect of 4-hydroxytyrosol on splenocyte proliferation determined by two independent methods. Different concentrations of the toxin (0, 5, and 200 ng/mL) were exposed to 4-hydroxytyrosol or the control (media) and were then incubated for 48 h with splenocyte cells followed by determining (A) GF-AFC cleavage by live cell protease (a measure of cellular activity) or (B) BrdU incorporation into newly synthesized DNA (a measure of cellular proliferation). Conditions: (A) GF-AFC substrate in intact cells is cleaved by live cell protease releasing the fluorescent AFC, which is quantified at an excitation wavelength of 355 nm and an emission wavelength of 523 nm. (B) BrdU-labeled DNA was determined spectrophotometrically at absorbances of 620 nm and 450 nm. Both assays show that 4-hydroxytyrosol inhibited the biological activity of SEA. Adapted from .
The Chinese herbal extract anisodamine inhibited the S. aureus toxin in human blood mononuclear cells .
Hemoglobin inhibits the production of S. aureus exotoxins in a cell assay .
Several phenolic antioxidants showed antimicrobial activity against several S. aureus strains .
Human monoclonal antibodies against SEB possess high affinity and toxin neutralization qualities essential for any therapeutic agent .
Several synthetic peptides inhibited the emetic and superantigenic activities of SEA in house musk shrews .
Apple and olive powders and oregano leaves exhibited exceptionally high activity at nanogram levels against S. aureus .
The experimental findings suggest that apple, olive, and tea antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds and lactic acid can neutralize the biological activity of SEA. Formulations containing these food ingredients merit further study to define chemopreventive effects against SEA-induced mastitis in dairy cows and atopic dermatitis and rheumatoid arthritis in humans.
Ricin is a heterodimeric highly toxic protein produced by the seeds of the castor plant Ricinus communis. In the plant, ricin is translated as a single 66-kDa polypeptide chain protein that is activated intracellularly by proteolytic cleavage to form the active 32-kDa A chain containing enzymatic activity [153,154]. The B chain is essential for the toxin’s entry into the cell . The A chain is linked by a disulfide bond to the 34-kDa B chain lectin, which has an affinity to bind to cell surface carbohydrates such as galactose, galactosamine, or N-acetylgalactosamine present in glycoproteins and glycolipids. The toxin enters the cell by endocytosis in membrane vesicles and is transported to endosomes, and then into the cytosol. After the disulfide bond is reduced, the ricin A chain inactivates ribosomes by removing the 28S ribosomal RNA in the 60S ribosomal subunit at the adenine nucleotide (A4324) near the 3’ end of the polynucleotide chain . This deletion results in the failure of elongation factor-2 to bind to the ribosome and thus inhibits protein synthesis, resulting in cell death. The low lysine content of the A chain reduces its susceptibility to proteolytic degradation in the cytosol . Ricin is a highly toxic protein. A single molecule of ricin reaching the cytosol can kill that cell as a result of inhibition of protein synthesis .
A search of the literature failed to reveal any reports of natural compounds that can inhibit the biological activity of ricin, except for the recent report by Rasooly et al. who showed by three independent assays that components of reconstituted powdered milk have a high binding affinity to ricin. Milk can competitively bind to and reduce the amount of toxin available to asialofetuin type II, which is used as a model to study the binding of ricin to galactose cell-surface receptors. An activity assay by immuno-PCR showed that milk can competitively bind to 1 ng/mL of ricin, reducing the amount of toxin uptake by the cells and thus inhibit ricin’s biological activity (Figure 8). The inhibitory effect of milk on ricin activity in Vero cells was at the same level as by anti-ricin antibodies. By contrast, milk did not inhibit the activity at higher ricin concentrations or that of another ribosome-inactivating protein, Stx2 produced by pathogenic E. coli O157:H7 (see above). Unlike ricin, which is internalized into the cells via a galactose-binding site, Stx2 is internalized through the cell-surface receptor glycolipid globotriaosylceramides Gb3 and Gb4. It seems that ricin toxicity may possibly be reduced by a widely consumed natural liquid food and/or by some of its components.
Related studies showed that (a) a sensitive in vitro assay can be used to detect levels as low as 200 pg/mL of biologically active ricin in food ; (b) a virtual screening program of 50,000 compounds enabled the discovery of new classes of ricin toxin inhibitors ; and (c) intra-tumoral injection of a ricin-loaded hydrogel may be useful for interstitial chemotherapy in pancreatic cancer .
The oil extracted from castor beans has been used as a lubricant, as a component of plastics, as a fungicide, and in the synthesis of biodiesel fuels. By contrast, the protein-rich byproduct, called castor bean cake or castor bean mash, that remains after cold-press extraction of castor oil cannot be used as an animal feed because it contains ricin and allergenic (2S albumin) proteins [162,163,164]. Fernandes et al. found that solid-state fermentation of the cake with Aspergillus niger eliminated all ricin after 24 h. In addition, treatment of the cake with calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide completely eliminated both the ricin toxicity and albumin allergenicity. Animal feeding studies of the treated castor cake are needed to confirm the safety of the detoxified product.
In view of the high affinity of milk compounds for ricin mentioned earlier, it would also be of interest to determine whether individual milk compounds, skim milk, or fermented milk products (e.g., Kefir or yogurt) can neutralize ricin in castor bean cake.
The potato glycoalkaloids α-chaconine and α-solanine act as natural defenses against insects and other pests, reviewed in . In some potato varieties, the concentrations of these compounds can be high. High levels may be toxic to humans as well as insects. As part of a program of improvement in the safety of potatoes using molecular plant genetics and parallel food safety evaluation, we evaluated the effect of several potato glycoalkaloids and aglycones in the frog embryo teratogenesis assay–Xenopus (FETAX) . α-Chaconine was found to be teratogenic and more embryotoxic than α-solanine, in terms of the median lethal concentration (LC50) after 96 hr of exposure, the concentration inducing gross terata in 50% of the surviving frog embryos (96-hr EC50, malformation), and the minimum concentration needed to inhibit the growth of the embryos. Since these two compounds differ only in the nature of the carbohydrate side chain attached to the 3-OH group of solanidine, the side chain appears to be an important factor in governing teratogenicity. We also found that mixtures of α-chaconine and α-solanine caused synergistic malformations and mortality and that the aglycones demissidine, solanidine, and solasodine without a carbohydrate side chain were less toxic than the glycosides. The FETAX can be used for: (a) predicting the teratogenic potential of Solanaceae alkaloids, glycoalkaloids and related natural products; and (b) facilitating experimental approaches to suppress plant genes and enzymes that control the biosynthesis of the most toxic compounds.
In related studies, we discovered that folic acid, the folic acid analog methotrexate, glucose-6-phosphate, and oxidized nicotine adenine dinucleotide (NADP) protected the frog embryos against chaconine-induced malformations (severe anencephaly in the brains and less severe malformations in the other organs [167,168,169].
The mentioned compounds have the potential to protect against neural tube defects and other malformations in humans. This suggestion is reinforced by the reported observations that folic acid consumption during pregnancy seems to help placental development in pregnant women and protect against neural tube defects in newborns . We do not know whether glucose-6-phosphate will exhibit similar beneficial effects. Table 1 lists all the inhibitors mentioned in the text.
|Aflatoxin B1||mutagen; carcinogen||apple juice, caffeic, carnosic, cinnamic, citric, ferulic, lactic, leontopodic, rosmarinic, and vanillic acids, crambene, cysteine, cyanidinglucopyranoside, extrusion cooking, fisetin, garlic powder, glutathione, grapefruit juice, lactic acid, leontopodic acid, N-acetylcysteine, rosmarinic acid, yeast|
|Fumonisins||carcinogen, neurotoxin||clay-based sorbent, essential oils, ginseng, herbal teas, isothiocyanates, Aquilegia extract|
|Ochratoxin A||cytotoxin, nephrotoxin||antioxidants, Bacilli, yeast|
|Botulinum neurotoxin||neurotoxin, flaccid paralysis, botulism||chicoric acid, lactic acid, lomofungin, mastic essential oil, mastic resin, theaflavin, thearubigin, kaempferol, quercetin, teas, stinging nettle leaf extract|
|Cholera toxin||cholera disease, diarrhea||capsaicin, catechins, cysteine, epicatechin, glutathione, fenugreek seeds, galactose, quinazolines, rice bran, sialyloligosaccharides, skim milk, chilli pepper extract|
|Shiga toxins||diarrhea, hemolytic uremic syndrome, kidney, spleen, and thymus necrosis||bean fractions, apple juice, epigallocatechin, eugenol, fermented milk, glycan, glycodendrides, glycopolymers, grape seed extract, grape pomace extract, Lactobacillus, pea fractions, probiotic bacteria, yeast|
|Staphylococcus enterotoxin||atopic dermatitis, gastritis, mastitis, superantigen||anisodamine, apple juice, apple extract, dodecylglycerol, Eleutherine extract, glycerol monolaurate, green tea, Helichrysum extract, hemoglobin, hydroxytyrosol, kefir, olive powder, oregano leaves, sour milk|
|Ricin||cytotoxin||anti-ricin antibodies, reconstituted milk, ricin hydrogel|
|α-Chaconine||teratogen||folic acid, glucose-6-posphate, methotrexate, NADP|
In summary, the exploration of the concept of inhibiting the toxicological potential of natural toxins produced by fungi, bacteria, and plants by multiple approaches designed to prevent them from interacting with living cells has the potential of benefitting food safety and human health. It also contributes to our understanding of basic mechanisms of toxicity at the molecular level and should lead to the discovery of new ways to treat contaminated foods and people and to the development of new prophylactic and therapeutic compounds.
To facilitate further progress, future studies need to address one or more of the following aspects of toxin inhibition:
Determine whether natural compounds can concurrently reduce both pathogens and toxins produced by the pathogens.
Define additive and/or synergistic effects of mixtures of natural toxin inhibitors.
Compare efficacy of natural inhibitors against toxins in different foods, including fruit and vegetable juices, milk and cheeses, cereal grains, and meat and poultry products.
Develop anti-toxin films and coatings to protect foods against contamination by toxins .
Determine whether anti-toxin effects of natural compounds and extracts in vitro can be duplicated in vivo, especially in humans.
Determine the biological significance of low levels of residual AFB1 and ricin, which seem to stimulate cell growth.
Explore the use of molecular biology anti-sense RNA methods to suppress genes that govern the biosynthesis of plant and microbial toxins.
We are most grateful to Carol E. Levin for her help with the preparation of the manuscript.
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© 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
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Japanese Spacecraft Set to Return After Seven-Year Mission to Asteroid
A Japanese spacecraft, which may be the first to gather samples from an asteroid, is scheduled to return to earth this weekend after a seven-year journey.
Hayabusa, Japanese for “falcon,” is set to land at 11:30 p.m. Tokyo time on June 13 in the Woomera area of Australia, said Tamihiro Yagioka, a Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency spokesman.
The craft landed on the potato-shaped asteroid Itokawa in November 2005. It’s not clear whether the spacecraft, which had mechanical problems including fuel leaks and engine failures, succeeded in its mission to collect samples.
Analyzing dust from the 540-meter long asteroid may help scientists learn more about the origin and development of the solar system, Yagioka said. The spacecraft has covered more than 6 billion kilometers (3.7 billion miles) since its launch in May 2003 under the 21 billion yen ($229 million) program.
The Japanese space agency is considering launching Hayabusa II in 2014. Japan should aim to double the size of its space industry to 15 trillion yen by 2020, a government agency said in a report released on May 25.
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Published June 2000,February 2011.
In Roasting Old Chestnuts 3 ,I promised a final look back on school days and some of the mathematics attempted by many school children in preparation for their 'O' level (GCSE).
If Durell was not the arithmetic book that regularly journeyed between home and school then Hall and Stevens could well have been the book you used for this aspect of your mathematical development. Five hundred and odd pages of close type with very few diagrams, the assumption about your level of comprehension and general knowledge was high.
Profit and loss was a rich source of questioning:
[In those days there were 12 pennies(d) to a shilling(s) and 20 shillings to the pound!]
[It is not 12 1 / 2 !]
Perhaps more in keeping with present times the questions concerned with simple or compound interest and discount would still have some relevance?
Perhaps knowing that:
present value + interest on the present value = sum due
interest on the present value = discount on sum due
will help you with:
Finally while in this fiscal vein:
The previous articles in the series were Roasting Old Chestnuts , More Old Chestnuts and Roasting Old Chesnuts III .
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South Atlantic Water Science Center - Georgia
USGS IN YOUR STATE
USGS Water Science Centers are located in each state.
The Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint (ACF) River National Water Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program study
Basin Description: Flint Basin Surface-Water Hydrology
The Flint River is about 350 miles long and drains an area of 8,460 sq. mi. Most of the larger tributaries in the ACF River basin are located in the Coastal Plain Province part of the Flint River basin. These tributaries-with their Creek Indian meaning in parentheses-include Ichawaynochaway Creek (buck sleeping place), Chickasawhatchee Creek (council house creek), Kinchafoonee Creek (mortar bone or pounding block creek), and Muckalee Creek (pour-upon-me creek) (Utley and Hemperley, 1975).
Spring Creek, formerly a Flint River tributary that now discharges directly into Lake Seminole, drains 585 sq mi in a region of karst topography. As implied by its name, flow in Spring Creek is dominated by ground-water discharge directly into its limestone bed.
From 1977-92, the discharge of the Flint River based on mean daily flows at Newton, Ga., was 4,030 cfs. Mean daily discharge ranged from 922 cfs in 1991 to 47,000 cfs in 1990. Two hydropower dams located on the Flint River impound run-of-the-river reservoirs and do not appreciably influence the flow of the Flint River. The Flint River has one of only 42 free-flowing river reaches longer than 125 mi remaining in the contiguous 48 states (Benke, 1990).
Higher flows during winter months are evident in the annual hydrographs of the Flint River, Ichawaynochaway Creek, and Spring Creek. During winter months, Coastal Plain streams, such as Ichawaynochaway and Spring Creeks, flow for sustained periods through their floodplains.
Text extracted from Couch and others 1995.
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Cross-Site Scripting Attack through SQL injection
Now-a-days, application developers have become smart enough to take care of the different vulnerabilities which may affect their application. But sometimes, due to time constraints or maybe plain laziness, they fix issues only for the instances reported in an audit and do not fix them throughout the application. This would allow an attacker to craft an exploit for vulnerable instance which may cause severe damage and can also blemish the brand.
In a recent Black Box Application Security Assessment, we came across an interesting exploit which was an outcome of multiple vulnerabilities. The scenario was as follows:
The application had a ‘Forgot Password’ page which asked the user his/her username and upon submission of a valid username, it served the next page asking for the answer to a security question. After submitting the correct answer, an e-mail containing a link to reset the password is sent to the user.
The application was safe against SQL injection except for one instance; this was the ‘Forgot Password’ page. We could reach the page asking the security question for the first user entry present in the database after carrying out an SQL Injection attack on the username input field present on the ‘Forgot Password’ page. Breaking the security question was not an easy job and even if we could break it, the link to reset the password would be sent to the valid user’s e-mail id. So, the vulnerability here was SQL Injection and though potentially lethal, it was difficult to exploit.
While testing, we found that the application was secured against Cross Site Scripting (XSS) attacks. But, after performing SQL Injection, we found that the application serves the page containing the security question with text in the format of “Dear <username>”, where <username> was the value entered in the username field on the previous page. That meant the application could be vulnerable to the XSS as well. So now, SQL Injection, which seemed relatively less harmful because of the difficulty of exploit, could result in another possibly high-risk vulnerability.
When the query fragment used for SQL Injection is followed by a script, say, “<script>alert(“XSS”);</script>” in the username input field, an alert window pops up with the text “XSS”. Thus, the application turned out to be vulnerable to XSS as well.
Now, we started thinking on how this SQL+XSS vulnerability can be scaled up further. For this, we thought of inserting an HTML code in the username input field which would get reflected on the next page and this would result in a page which would ask the victim to enter the credit card details like credit card number, CVV, Expiry date. To take advantage of the user’s fear, we put the message “We have observed some suspicious activity in your account. Please provide us the necessary information to verify the same:”
But, still there is one hurdle. The application welcomes the user saying “Dear <username>’” and the <username> will also contain the SQL query fragment. A vigilant user may find this kind of message suspicious.
The challenge was to hide the SQL query from the user. Here, the HTML comment tag (<!— comment —>) came in handy. We crafted a SQL query such that only a “Dear User” message would be displayed to the victim and the SQL query fragment would be commented out.
This means now, we are ready to steal sensitive data, in a manner similar to a ‘phishing’ attack, but by using the valid site.
The website, with the crafted page, is shown in the following screenshot:
There is a PHP code used at the back-end for capturing the values of the parameters sent by the victim. The attacker’s e-mail ID is mentioned in the code. Hence, on clicking SUBMIT the credit card details will be sent to the attacker’s e-mail ID.
This attack can have variations and the data to be stolen is up to the attacker’s creativity and ingenuity.
Require Security?...Then Think Security
So much has been written and documented about securing web applications that it should be a simple process by now. However, as it still stands, it is an overload to development teams across the globe. I doubt whether “security” falls within the "requirement specifications" of any application. Not everyone treats security as a requirement. It is usually an "add-on" or “patch-up”, which is injected later on into the application; hence, the overload in terms of development effort and time. In such a process, even if a single security patch is missed, the overall security of the application can go for a toss - paving a way for the "Hackers"!
Treat security as a "requirement"… and I am sure it will make a big difference…
It is necessary to think about security at each and every stage of the application development process. It is just like cooking food while at the same time keeping health concerns in mind.
Developers often complain, "I don’t know anything about application security".
I agree, not all of us are security experts but we all can, of course, think about "security". One can certainly consult security experts and involve them during the development process.
For instance, if you were to buy a new car and suddenly thought "security" should be one of the key aspects to look for, I am sure that you would probably check the number of features related to security e.g. locking or any tracking feature available. You would try and evaluate all its features with respect to security. You would even call up your friend to verify whether you are choosing right or whether you should be looking for some other safety feature. You would also take an opinion about all the existing features it offered.
It is the same in the case of web applications. Think about security for each and every feature that you develop. You can document whatever is not feasible to be remediated (or developed) immediately. Call your friends - i.e. security experts like “Plynt” to analyze these areas and features. It is very important that you involve security experts either during the development process (on an ongoing basis) or at the end of it. You must discuss all the application features thoroughly with them, in the same way that you would explain everything about your car to your friend; because the more you talk about the application and its controls, the more you will hear about security from the experts.
Familiarizing the security experts with all the features, entry points, integrations, add-ons, etc. is crucial. You may also discuss the security controls that you have already implemented in the application. I am sure if you are conscious about security, you would be proactive toward security controls right from scratch. The security experts will verify them and test their effectiveness against the latest attack vectors.
The security experts will carry out a complete security test based on the information in hand and make you understand what kind of security controls must be implemented in which area in the application. Such a comprehensive security test will also ensure that nothing is missed and your security requirement will also be met.
You can then have a safe drive…for a long long time :)
Ten Questions to Ask Before You Jump into Code Reviews
Someone once said to me, ‘We need to ask a million questions to understand the application!’, and that had me come up with a short list of ten questions (yeah, you heard it right!) that a code reviewer can ask to get a hang of the application’s context.
Do I hear you ask, ‘what is a context’? Context, in this sense, is the functionality of the application being reviewed. Suggesting military standard security mechanisms for an e-book application would be useless. Understanding the context of an application gives an overall idea of the impact to the company if its data is compromised. This is what defines security.
As the OWASP Code Review guide rightly says, ‘Context is the “Holy Grail” of secure code inspection and risk assessment’. Code review is not just about reviewing code. It’s also about ensuring that the code protects the assets and confidential data that the application is entrusted with. If one understands the business correctly, then creating a threat profile and other things that follow is merely child’s play!
You may have your own set of questions, but listed below are the ten questions that should find a place in your ‘Ask the developer’ checklist.
- What is the purpose of the application? From what the application does to how the business benefits from it as well as the nature of the application (small business marketing software or enterprise-level applications), examining every aspect provides a new perspective. All these perspectives go a long way in defining security for a particular application.
- Who are its real users? Are they internal or external users? If both, are they authenticated differently? This question refers to the intended users of the application. Also, it should address the kind of users they are i.e. if they are human & technically efficient as well (the more crazy it gets, the merrier it is for us).
Also, one often sees that if an application is meant for internal users, security is often not considered very critical. Paradoxically, most hacking attempts occur from within an organization. The idea behind such questions is to figure out the differences between these users from a security standpoint and how they are authenticated in the application. Do they use AD or LDAP to authenticate internal and external users? Does the application distinguish between internal and external users?
- What should be considered ‘CONFIDENTIAL’ data/assets in the application? This is most critical to security and therefore knowing the answer to this would help assess the right risk to the application. What is the impact if the information is compromised in any way?
- What are the different environments in which the application is deployed? Is the code given for review in the same manner as the one deployed in production? Usually, an application is deployed in the test environment along with the production environment. It is always good to know how it is deployed and if there is any difference between the various environments. The difference might be with regard to integration with other applications, presence of a web application firewall, etc. Another critical thing to be confirmed is the authenticity of the code shared for review. Is the code base complete and same as that deployed in production? One often comes across developers who don’t share configuration files, property files and the like, thinking that these might not be required to assess the security of the application.
- How important is this application to the enterprise? This question may seem irrelevant but it is not so. Given this perspective, the reviewer will be in a better place to suggest mitigation techniques and counter measures to the vulnerabilities identified during code review. The cost of preparation if any and the business impact derived by the exploitation of the vulnerability are two key factors that should be kept in mind before suggesting solutions. Now, you do want them to implement your suggestions and fix their application, don’t you?
- Is the application integrated with other applications in the company? Is the data coming from somewhere and/or going somewhere? It is critical to understand how the application interacts with external entities. Another critical understanding would be to identify trust levels that represent access rights granted by the application to external entities like web services. A trust boundary exists when a user accesses or enters data into the application, and also when an application interacts with the database.
- What are the entry points and exit points in this application? Entry and exit points define a trust boundary. This knowledge allows the reviewer to assess attack surfaces & come with possible threats to the application. Entry points, for example, can be:
- Browser input
- Property files
- External processes
- Data feeds
- Service responses
- Flat files
- Command line parameters
- Environment variables
- The Search page that writes the client’s search string and its corresponding results.
- Error Page
- Information Page
- Are audit trails and logs pertaining to the application maintained somewhere? Audit trails and logs are a form of documentation, which help in reviewing various activities undertaken by various users. These can provide a means to accomplish several security-related objectives, including individual accountability, reconstruction of events (actions that occur on the computer system), intrusion detection, and problem analysis as well as evidence of the correct processing regimes within a system.
- Are there any security measures in place? ‘Is there something that really needs to be secured apart from ensuring that the right users access the right data?’, ‘Does the application prevent external attacks like the submission of special characters to the application’, ‘Is the application protecting the right kind of data in the right manner?’, ‘Are there roles and privileges, which define what portion of data is accessible to which user?’, ‘What operations should an authorized user be able to perform on the data?’ and ‘Is the application defensive against attacks?’ are some of the questions that are answered here!
- What is the architecture of the application? This should leave the reviewer with a good knowledge of the key technologies used, application frameworks, servers (database server, web server, etc.), application tiers, software used (along with the version number), and type of application (data-intensive application, service-oriented application, etc.). Gathering maximum information about the operational environment of the applications helps in assessing the right security risks. Developers should share DFDs, Use Case diagrams, Process View diagrams and others of the same kind to enable better testing.
Last but not the least, make sure that some developers are always available in case you get lost in the maze!
Forgot Password Best Practices
The Standard Best Practice followed by Gmail and other public websites are as below:
- Ask the username and/or a Custom Security question
- Display a Captcha, after successful verification of username and/or Security Question
- Send a link to the user’s registered email address. The link should have random token associated with it
- The link should be short-lived, one time use only, and SSL enabled.
- Once the user’s resets the password, the link should no longer be usable.
For most applications the above solution should work fine. What the SSL enabled link does is that it never exposes the user’s password to an external entity like Yahoo, Gmail or hotmail, and it never resets the password automatically.
We were brainstorming over this solution, and one of the concerns was that we are putting our trust on an external entity (like a yahoo, gmail or hotmail) to hold the key to reset our account passwords, albeit for a short period of time. For applications that hold critical or sensitive data and that still need to implement a web based forgot password solution, this may not be an acceptable solution.
We came up with a few enhancements to the above standard solution, here is how it goes.
The Plynt Secure Forgot Password Solution
- Provide a publicly available Password Reset page over SSL, which asks for the user ID and 3 non guessable hint questions along with a CAPTCHA.
- After a successful verification, allow the user to choose/enter a 6-character Temporary Authorization Pin/Token
- Email another short lived SSL enabled tokenized URL to the user’s email address.
- On Clicking this tokenized URL, the user should be asked to enter the 6-character Authorization Pin/Token and the new password.
- Expire the tokenized URL and Temporary Authorization Pin/Token
- Notify the user that the password has been changed.
- Force the user to change new password on the first login after resetting the password.
The above solution has all the benefits of the standard solution, in addition to that, we are protecting against a scenario where external entities like gmail, yahoo or hotmail accounts are compromised or data within them are sniffed over the network (traffic over HTTP). We protect this by adding a 6-character Temporary Authorization Pin/Token that the user enters on the web application’s forgot password page, and hence is only known to the user. Without this token, the short lived SSL enabled tokenized URL will not be able to reset the password. Thus we have fulfilled both “What you know” and “What you have” principles of security.
- We are Back! | 26 Aug 2011
- Start Programming... And You Can Catch Up With Coding | 23 Feb 2011
- HITECH Act - Security Testing towards HITECH Compliance | 14 Jul 2010
- Penetration Testing versus Vulnerability Scanning | 18 Jun 2010
- Working at Paladion | 18 Jun 2010
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Western Greenland's Jakobshavn Glacier, dubbed the world's fastest-flowing glacier is featured in this video segment adapted from NOVA scienceNOW. Scientists attempt to explain why this glacier is moving at a rate that far exceeds the average speed of glaciers and is contributing to a rise in global sea level. Their explanation revolves around the recent discovery that increased meltwater caused by global warming flows down holes in the glacier. Once it reaches the underlying rock, the theory goes, this water actually lubricates and lifts the glacier, allowing it to glide downhill with decreased resistance.
Learn more here.
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Tea is a long and honored tradition in Chinese culture. It has a history over 2,000 years, and is a common thread running through Chinese culture. Tea drinking has become a form of artistic and intellectual expression. The significance of tea began to assert itself in the Tang and Song Dynasties. It was during this time that the art of tea was born. The Tea Classics, written by Lu Yu during the Tang Dynasty, helped to elevate tea drinking to a high status throughout China.
It was somewhere between the Tang Dynasty and the Song Dynasty that the custom of tea drinking was brought to Japan, which readily adopted the Chinese custom. But there were, and still are, differences between the Japanese and Chinese interpretations of the art of tea drinking.
Chinese people tend to view tea drinking as a natural form of enjoyment, unlike the Japanese, who approach the concept in a very strict and ritualistic fashion. In spite of its popularity throughout the ages, the Chinese have never elevated tea to the reverential level of repsect it enjoys in Japan. Rather, tea is something one drinks after a meal; it is merely a part of one's life. For a Chinese to say anything more of tea than this would be to misunderstand its purpose, which is anything but to be worshipped. The attitude Chinese take toward tea drinking is in many ways symbolic of their relatively balanced position towards different attitudes and behaviors.
But it wasn't until the Song Dynasty that tea drinking really became in vogue. Even the Emperor indulged in this custom, which subsequently drew tea-growers to the capital every spring to pay tribute to the Son of Heaven. The Emperor gave tea as a gift to those worthy of the honor, which not only helped increase the drink's popularity, but also helped spread elevate its value. Books, poems, and paintings about tea became increasingly popular. With the passing of the Yuan Dynasty, and the start of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the technology of tea production was constantly being improved. Not only to enhance its flavor, but also to further simplify its production. By this time, tea houses were popping up all over the country. Tea-drinking establishments could be found at any public gathering place; temples, palaces, even famous mountains had their respective tea vendors.
Types of Chinese Teas
Chinese tea is usually broken down into three basic types: black, green and oolong.
Black tea is also commonly known as red tea, after originating in China where this type of tea has been cultivated for many centuries. In more recent times, its popularity has grown and black teas are currently being produced in many other countries, such as India, Sri Lanka, Java, etc. This is the type of tea leaf with which British tea is made.
The world's finest green teas are produced from the small leaf Chinese tea plant Camellia sinensis. Young, tender, budding leaves are traditionally hand-plucked and quickly processed without fermentation to produce a fresh tasting tea. Dragon Well (long jing) tea is produced in the Hangzhou's West Lake area, Zhejiang province, China. Most fine green teas are usually best prepared in a gai wan (covered steeping cup) with lower water temperature (about 167F) and relatively short steeping times (about 1 minute or less). The wonderful flavors of quality green teas may be enjoyed through at least 3 or 4 separate infusions.
Oolong teas are the semi-fermented variety of tea. Although the word fermented is often used by the tea community, it refers to a process involving enzyme and oxidation action that occurs within the leaf. To stimulate this action, the leaves are bruised using various methods, the most common of which is rolling. Oolong leaves rolled by hand or in a rotating drum usually exhibit a distinctive red fermented edge, while the inner portion of the leaf remains green in color. Oolong teas offer the greatest range of flavor from a light floral green style to the richness of the dark styles.
The rare exotic taste of pu-erh tea has long been a favorite in China, and its widely acclaimed health benefits are currently gaining substantial Western interest. The rich mellow flavors of pu-erh tea are easy to prepare for enjoyment in either the gai wan or in a clay pot, gongfu style.
White teas are a unique departure from the three major commercial categories of tea. Although sometimes included with green teas, they have a slight degree of fermentation. However, the amount of fermentation is not sufficient to classify them as semi-fermented or oolong style tea. These smooth, flavorful teas, produced only in China, are given a unique modified-bruising leaf surface treatment, along with their light fermentation.
Premium quality scented and flavored teas have long enjoyed great popularity throughout the world. Among the most famous of the traditional products are the fragrant jasmine teas (mo li hua cha) from China.
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Scientific name: Chlorociboria aeruginascens (Nyl.)
Kanouse ex C. S. Ramamurthi, Korf & L. R. Batra
Derivation of name: Aerug- means "blue-green, green" and
ascens means "becoming" so that aeruginascens means
Synonyms: Chlorosplenium aeruginascens (Nyl.) P. Karst
Common name(s): Blue stain; green stain; Blue-green wood
Occurrence on wood substrate: Saprobic; hardwoods,
especially oak; summer through fall.
Dimensions: Cup-shaped to saucer-shaped; 3-8 mm wide;
stalk up to 6 mm long, central to eccentric.
Sterile outer surface: Blue-green
Fertile inner surface: Blue-green, sometimes tinted
Comments: Twigs, branches, and pieces of wood are
stained green by the mycelium of the fungus. The actual fruit
bodies are less common. Another species,
Chlorociboria aeruginosa, forms nearly identical fruit
bodies. The two species can only be reliably differentiated
by examining the ascospores.
More information at TomVolkFungi.net:
More information at MushroomExpert.com:
More information at RogersMushrooms.com:
Figure 1. Fruit bodies of green stain. Photo © Gary
Figure 2. The blue-green, eccentric stalk of Chlorociboria
aeruginascens is clearly seen on the detached specimen
on the left. Photo © Gary Emberger.
Figure 3. These fruit bodies have more of a greenish hue.
Photo © David Work.
Figure 4. These fruit bodies are more cup-shaped than
saucer-shaped. Photo © William Roody.
Figure 5. Note the greenish-colored wood at the broken
end of this branch.
Photo © Gary Emberger.
Figure 6. The three pieces of blue-green wood to the right
the small sycamore leaf were collected during a foray.
pieces of wood are the most commonly collected
form of this
fungus. Photo © Gary Emberger.
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By Roger Harrabin
Environment analyst, BBC News
Some will have deep reservations over how such a scheme would work
A new global deal to protect the world's rainforests has been proposed in a report drawn up for Gordon Brown.
The idea is part of a review into deforestation and green energy by Swedish businessman Johan Eliasch.
The ex-Tory donor says cash put aside for carbon saving in rich countries should be transferred to nations with rainforests in need of protection.
Rainforest destruction accounts for about a fifth of the carbon emissions blamed for fuelling climate change.
Details of Mr Eliasch's plan are due to be announced on Tuesday.
His report says an international deal to protect forests would reduce the cost of tackling climate change by up to 50% in 2030.
It would also allow much more ambitious CO2 cuts to be achieved globally without extra cost.
Forest destruction produces about a fifth of the world's extra C02, and any scheme to reduce forest felling will be broadly welcomed.
But the review will need to ensure it does not lead to indigenous people being dispossessed; or feed corruption; or create a moral hazard in which poor countries hold rich nations to ransom threatening to fell their trees; or flatten carbon markets supporting clean energy.
Carbon markets allow companies and rich countries to buy and sell carbon permits in order to minimise the cost of complying with CO2 targets.
The money raised underpins low-carbon technologies. Forestry was excluded from the original Kyoto deal in 1997 for fear that cheap forestry credits would swamp the carbon market and stifle investment in technology.
Mr Eliasch seeks to guard against this by insisting that any forest credits are over and above the funds currently flowing to clean technology. The report says modelling shows that allowing forest credits into the third phase of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) would have no impact on the carbon price.
Such a scheme could reduce deforestation rates by up to 75% in 2030, he says. Adding a programme of re-forestation would make the forestry sector carbon neutral.
The review will be met by goodwill peppered with scepticism. Some carbon traders are confident that forest credits can be prevented from swamping the market, but others do not believe the scheme will work.
A massive challenge will be avoiding "leakage" in which some countries take hand-outs for keeping forests they had no plans to fell in the first place, whilst illegal loggers run riot in countries that either stay outside the scheme or fail to enforce it.
A government source told BBC News that the Eliasch plan would require co-operation from all the major forest nations. This will be hard to achieve as Brazil has been highly sceptical about the use of carbon markets to support forestry.
Its forest supreme Jose Miguez said at the Bali climate meeting last year that the Amazon forest was so vast that it could generate enough carbon credits to swamp the entire global carbon trading system.
"This plan clearly faces challenges," said the UK government source. "But we have watched for 30 years as the rainforests have been destroyed. Doing something has to be better than doing nothing."
Some sceptics fear even that optimism may be misplaced if carbon trading merely creates the illusion of progress but in fact diverts funds to the many crooks now running forestry in some developing nations.
The difficulties of imposing law and good governance in countries such as Indonesia or Papua are formidable.
Some campaigners fear that channelling funds into forestry could spark a new "natural resources" curse in which corrupt and inefficient governments get money to protect their forests but can only waste it because it is not clear who owns the forests, who should be paid for protecting them, and how agreements should be policed.
The nightmare scenario, according to one analyst, is that we place undue confidence in protecting tropical rainforests in order to tackle climate change, lose sight of the imperative for a quick transition to a low-carbon economy in the rich world, trade off domestic emissions against putative "avoidance of deforestation", but then find that tropical country governments are unable to reduce deforestation.
An alternative proposal would be to establish a mechanism under the UN to consider costed proposals from tropical countries to halt deforestation over, say, 10-20 years. On the basis of expert assessment, the international community would then mobilise funds through aid budgets; or a levy on EU ETS auctions would disburse money to reward actual achievement.
The Eliasch Review does make good governance a pre-requisite of receiving carbon funds and his plan insists on protection for indigenous peoples.
The UK government hopes it will form the basis of an international forestry agreement in next year's deal to renew the Kyoto Protocol.
One carbon trader told me: "Look, there are going to be some people scamming money out of this deal – but at least it is a deal... and it has to do more good than harm."
Full details of the plan will be revealed on Tuesday. The government broadly supports the report, although it does not agree with all the details.
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| 0.950811 | 1,038 | 2.90625 | 3 |
This page is best viewed in a browser that better complies with international standards,
such as Firefox, Opera, Google Chrome, or Safari.
by Bhikkhu Nyanatusita
“Everything is burning,” said the Buddha in one of his first discourses. He continued by explaining that the world of the senses is burning with the fires of greed, hatred, and delusion. Now, when the effects of global warming are becoming apparent in many parts of the world, this statement of the Buddha may also be taken in a more literal and material sense: the world’s atmosphere is rapidly heating up due to greed-driven human activity. The internal and external reflect each other, so, in one sense, it is not surprising that modern people, burning with inner greed, hatred, and delusion, are heating up the external atmosphere through their actions.
Global warming is a concept that denotes the temperature increase in the earth’s atmosphere due to the huge emissions of carbon dioxide emitted by human activity, mostly through the inconsiderate combustion of fossil fuels, such as oil and coal. Although climate scientists have been warning against the potentially disastrous effects of global warming for decades, no large-scale counter-measures have been taken so far. Scientists say that global warming will cause increasingly extreme weather patterns: greater heat, greater cold, stronger wind, more or less rain. The increasing warmer temperatures are causing the ice caps in the North and South Poles to melt, which results in rising sea levels. A recent research project that analysed trapped air in the Antarctic ice core concluded that the present levels of carbon diode are the highest in 800, 000 years, that the fastest increase during that period was during the last seventeen years, and that a similar hike in carbon diode levels has never happened in less than a thousand year period up to now. One of the researchers involved said that there is nothing in the ice core that gives us any reason for comfort and that changes of carbon diode levels in the past have always been accompanied by climate change. Although sceptics, especially in the USA, doubt that human activity is responsible for global warming, suggesting that it could be a natural occurrence, leading climate scientists and politicians such as Al Gore and Tony Blair connect global warming to the ever increasing combustion of fossil fuels. The recent UN report on global warming also puts the blame on human activity with great certainty.
Global warming is a global problem in the sense that it is caused globally and has effects globally. The emission of carbon diode in one area of the world will have effects on the climate everywhere. Thus, even if the emission of carbon diode is reduced in Europe, the great increase of carbon diode emissions in rapidly developing countries such as India or China will cause this reduction to have no effect.
At the end October, the Prime Minister of Britain, Tony Blair, said that the world was facing “nothing more serious, more urgent, or more demanding of leadership” than climate change. Speaking at the launching of a major economic report commissioned by the British Treasury, Blair said there was “overwhelming scientific evidence” that climate change was taking place and that the consequences of failing to act would be “disastrous.” According to the report, “Our actions over the coming decades could create risks of major disruption to economic and social activity, later in this century and in the next, on a scale similar to those associated with the great wars and the economic depression of the first half of the 20th century.”
A recent UN report, the Global Biodiversity Outlook, states the need for unprecedented effort to slow down the decline in the richness of natural systems throughout the world. More species of animals and plants are becoming extinct now than at any time since the demise of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. And this is all due to human activity. The misuse of modern technology causes our natural environment to collapse in such a way that eventually it might not be able to support people anymore.
Last year, I had first hand experience of the effects of global warming when visiting Europe. When I grew up in the Netherlands, it was a cool and drizzly country even in summer. However, when I was there at the end of June, a tropical heat wave started to envelope the whole of Northern Europe, and in some areas temperatures soared above 35°c. These extreme heat waves were unknown in Northern Europe until a few years ago. When the heat wave was over, unprecedented tropical rainstorms inundated streets. In Autumn the trees carried their leaves for weeks longer than they normally would have, and the first frost, which would normally already come at night by mid-October, only came late January and then only for a few days. Daffodils and other flower that would normally flower in March, already started to flower in January.
As a consequence of the rising temperatures, plants, animals, fish, insects, and diseases, which would normally only be found in distant southern European areas with mild winters and warm summers, have started to appear in the Netherlands during the last few years. Due to the warmer weather, southern creatures find conditions suitable in the north and rapidly move up. Another consequence of the heat waves in Europe was that yields of crops were affected, and consequently the prices of certain foods such as milk and bread went up. With a large part of the Netherlands being land below sea level that is only protected by dykes from the sea, Dutch government organisations are naturally taking global warming seriously. Serious plans have been made on how to deal with drastically rising sea levels, and what to do when the large rivers that flow through the Netherlands overflow due to rapidly melting snow in the Alps in spring and heavy rains in summer. In Switzerland, where I also went, I was told that the glaciers on the mountains are disappearing, and, where there previously was ice and snow on the mountains during the summer, now there is none.
Recent plans for shifting over from fossil fuels to nuclear power would increase the risk of nuclear disasters, and, besides this, the building, maintaining, and especially the decommissioning of nuclear plants and the storage of nuclear waste uses tremendous amounts of energy obtained from fossil fuels. There is no guarantee that future societies, which might not have the same resources as we have now, will be able to handle nuclear waste left over from us. Moreover, uranium is an even more limited resource than oil, and economically viable extraction might finish within twenty years. Alternative energy sources, such as wind and solar power, are attractive alternatives, but, as these technologies don’t create large-scale industries and income for governments, their introduction has been slow.
There is no need to go into more detail as there are plenty of articles on the effects of global warming in newspapers and magazines. Therefore, the rest of this essay will concentrate on the attitudes of people that are underlying causes for the problem and how the Buddha’s teaching could help to resolve this dangerous situation.
Among the family and friends I talked to in the Netherlands there was a general acknowledgement that the climate is changing; however, when one touches upon the causes and results of it, then a visible uneasiness arises, and the topic is changed. For many, it is difficult to accept that human activity can change the climate. Weather has always been something that has been considered unpredictable and uncontrollable. In pre-modern times, and still, in traditional cultures, it was supposed that gods who controlled the weather, and the only thing that humans could do was to try to placate such gods by making offerings. With the rise of the scientific technological worldview, the consequent belief in an all-controlling god responsible for the weather vanished. Statistical research in the Netherlands has shown that when fertilisers and pesticides first started to be used on a large scale in the 1950s, church attendance in farming communities drastically dropped because farmers no longer needed to solicit the help of God for a successful harvest. Even then, although the weather could be predicted to a fairly accurate degree, it was not believed that humans could influence or control the weather. Now, however, it has become apparent that humans are responsible for the increasingly extreme weather patterns that are appearing in many parts of the world. A reasonable argument for this possibility is that, if people are responsible for such drastic changes in the natural world as the holes in the ozone layer in the stratosphere, the drying up of the Aral Sea in the former USSR, and the spread of deserts in various parts of the world, then why couldn’t people cause the atmosphere to heat up?
Even if it dawns on people that the climate is changing, they don’t see that it is caused by their lifestyles. Because they don’t seriously take into account the effects it could have on their own lives and on the lives of their children; they don’t see the need to change their habits. In Buddhism this would be an aspect of the mental fire of delusion or mental blindness. Most people don’t want to think about the prospect of having to live in a world with increasingly extreme weather conditions combined with increasingly limited natural resources to compensate for the calamities—such as floods, famines, mass refugee movements, and wars—caused by it. The Buddha, however, encouraged his followers to be realistic. He recommended reflecting on the five future dangers—old age, sickness, famine, war, and schism in the Sangha—as an impetus to put forth effort to attain Nibbāna. He warned that when there are famines and wars, there will be many refugees moving to places where there are no famine and war. These refuges will become crowded, making meditation practice hard. (AN 5:78)
The Buddha taught that all mental and physical actions are accompanied and conditioned by a certain view or attitude, what is called a diṭṭhi in Pali. People act in accordance with their views.. According to the Buddha, if one’s view is wrong, the consequent actions will be unwholesome; likewise, if one’s view is right, the consequent actions will be wholesome. Wholesome action leads to the well-being and happiness of oneself and others, and unwholesome action to the detriment and harm of oneself and others. It is to be noted that, according to the Buddha, right view needs to be based on a proper understanding of his teachings. The aspect of harmlessness is an important part of right view. Tyrants like Hitler, Mao, and Stalin, at least initially, may have sincerely believed that they were doing good, but their ideas of goodness were not founded on the qualities of harmlessness and virtue. Therefore, millions of innocent people, who were considered obstacles to the ‘utopian’ societies that they had in mind, were put in concentration camps and murdered. Likewise, the creators of the atomic bomb believed that they were doing a good thing.
Professor Peter Singer has pointed out in his book, How are we to Live? that beneath the limitless consumerist greed that has enveloped the world, especially in America, there is the view that “greed is good.” This view has its roots in the Protestant doctrine that work is a divine calling and that wealth is a sign of divine grace. This view lies behind the manic work ethic, and the extravagance and grandiosity that characterises American society. It also lies behind the theory of unlimited economic growth as the way to global prosperity and happiness. However, what lies at the end of this road of economic growth? The whole of humanity living in mansions and driving Rolls Royces? A study done some years ago suggested that there were enough resources on the earth to supply all its inhabitants a modest, but comfortable, life. However, due to an excessive and reckless consumption of these resources and their consequent exhaustion, such an ideal might never be realised.
The Calvinistic view got joined to the materialistic, scientific world-view, which, in the minds of many of its adherents, eventually promises a scientific, technological solution for any problem—a “scientific, technological salvation.” Technological science has made life much more comfortable for many. However, it has also produced disastrous inventions such as nuclear weapons. The inventors of technology often don’t think about how their inventions might be abused, when limited, short-term financial and economic benefits are put ahead of long-term negative effects. A good example of the abuse of an apparently beneficial technological invention is the combustion engine, which has led to great short-term benefits, but which is also responsible for great pollution and global warming, which might lead to even more disastrous consequences than nuclear weapons. So far, the use of nuclear weapons has been limited due to evidence of immediately visible horrendous results.
In the case of global warming, although the effects seem at first unclear and slow, scientists are warning us, there will be no way it can be stopped once it has started. The carbon dioxide and methane now put into the atmosphere will not leave it for decades. The comfortable view that technology is eventually going to solve all problems can be considered a wrong view. It is wrong in the sense that is the nature of the world to be uncontrollable. New problems will always crop up. Due to a wrong, unrestrained use of technology, modern humanity could end up off worse-off than its less technologically advanced, but perhaps more sensible and content ancestors. It is important to reflect on the ancient Jātaka story of the immature magician’s apprentice who brought a dead tiger to life with a spell he had mastered, at which point the tiger devoured his saviour. In a similar way, the abuse of technology, due to greed and deluded wrong views, could destroy humanity or a large part of it.
Psychological studies have pointed out that people who are living in countries at the bottom of the scale of economic prosperity, such as the Himalayan state of Bhutan and the Pacific island of Vanuatu, are often relatively much happier than those who live in countries that are at the top, such as the USA. Thus, ironically, it would seem that it is not the people in the richest societies who are happiest, but the ones in less affluent ones. The main reason for this difference is that most people living in such humble countries don’t have the view that happiness lies in the endless accumulation of more wealth, and that, in order to be happy, one needs to have the latest type of car, better than that of one’s neighbours. The perspective on life that causes such ‘poor’ peoples’ relative happiness has naturally evolved out of the need for contentment with the limited natural resources available to them. In any case, whether we want it or not, the impending oil shortages will eventually make us adapt to a simpler, more limited life-style.
The Buddha encouraged contentment and simplicity. His teaching goes against the worldly stream of craving. In contrast to the belief that happiness lies in getting more, the Buddha said, “contentment is the greatest wealth.” In Asia, where most Buddhists live, people are thoughtlessly embracing Western consumerist lifestyles. For example, the rich buy luxurious off-road vehicles. Just as in the West, these vehicles are rarely employed for their actual purpose, but rather for going shopping and taking children to school. A coalition of Christian and environmental groups in the USA recently launched a campaign to reduce fuel consumption with the motto “What would Jesus drive?” Buddhist leaders should also encourage their followers to live simple, less environmentally abusive life-styles. The threat of Christian missionaries is a popular topic among Buddhist leaders in Asia, however, global warming and the widespread destruction and pollution of the environment due to thoughtless consumerism, seems to be relatively much more of a threat to Buddhism, and should also become a major issue for Buddhist leaders. It is an irony that conversion to Christian doctrine is paid so much attention to, while the popular adaptation by Buddhists of the destructive, consumerist lifestyle that is a result of Christian doctrine is not criticised.
The Buddha encouraged a simple, frugal, and contented lifestyle as being conducive to happiness: “One should be … contented and easy to support, … having a frugal lifestyle …” (Sn 144) The wise King Asoka gave similar advice in his third Rock Edict: “… moderation in expenditure and moderation in possessions are good.” Qualities such as moderation and frugality do not entail the foregoing of all comfort and happiness, but entail the simplification of one’s lifestyle, the development of a sense of responsibility, and an awareness about the consequences of one’s lifestyle. Because Buddhist laypeople don’t identify themselves with the Buddha in the same way that Christians do with Jesus, it would be difficult to imagine a campaign with the motto, “What would the Buddha drive?” Nevertheless, the timeless teachings of the Buddha are all about the extinguishing of the fires of greed, hatred, and delusion. They are actual and modern in encouraging people to live in a frugal and contented manner.
If people can be convinced that their wrong views towards life are fundamentally destructive to themselves and others and that simplicity and contentment are the greatest wealth, they will accept more harmless and wholesome ways of life. Hopefully, this will help prevent the climate from changing for the worse.
Right! That’s it! I’m leaving!
Another of the consequences of anger that we should keep in mind is that it destroys our relationships and separates us from our friends. Why is it that having spent many happy years with a companion, when they make one mistake which hurts us badly, we get so angry that we end the relationship forever? All the wonderful moments we have shared together count as nothing. We only see that one dreadful mistake and destroy the whole thing. It doesn’t seem fair. If you want to be lonely, then cultivate anger.
A young Canadian married couple that I knew were finishing up a work contract in Perth. When planning their return to their hometown of Toronto, they had the ingenious idea of sailing to Canada. They planned to buy a small yacht and, with the help of another young married couple, sail it across the Pacific to Vancouver. There they would sell the yacht, recover their investment and have the deposit for their next home. Not only did it make sound financial sense, but it was also an adventure of a lifetime for the two young couples.
When they had arrived safely in Canada, they sent a letter to my monastery describing the wonderful journey. In particular, they related one incident that showed how stupid we can be when we are angry, and the reason anger must be resolved.
In the middle of their journey, somewhere in the Pacific, many, many kilometres from the nearest land, their yacht’s engine broke down. The two men changed into work gear, went down into the small engine compartment and tried to repair the engine. The two women were sitting on the deck, enjoying the warm sun and reading magazines.
The engine compartment was hot and very cramped. To the men, it seemed as if the engine was being willful and didn’t want to be fixed. Big steel nuts wouldn’t turn to the spanner, small but vital screws would slip and fall into the most inaccessible greasy recess, and leaks just wouldn’t stop leaking. Frustration bred irritation, first with the engine, then with each other. Irritation grew quickly into anger. Then anger exploded into the madness of rage. One of the men had had enough. He threw down his wrench and shouted, ‘Right! That’s it! I’m leaving.’
Such is the madness of anger that he went to his cabin, cleaned up, changed clothes and packed his bags. He then appeared on deck, still fuming, in his best jacket with his bags in either hand. The two women said they nearly fell off the boat, they were laughing so much. The poor man looked around to see ocean, everywhere, as far as the horizon in every direction. There was nowhere to go.
The man felt such a fool; he reddened with embarrassment. He turned and went back to his cabin. He then unpacked, got changed, and returned to the engine compartment to give a hand. He had to. There was nowhere else to go.
From Opening the Door of Your Heart by Ajahn Brahmavamso. This book is only for sale in Sri Lanka. Non-BPS-members and retailers cannot order this book outside of Sri Lanka. Foreign BPS members, however, can order it from the BPS.
The Highest Source of Happiness
The highest happiness is the bliss of attaining stages of enlightenment. With each stage, our load in life is lightened, and we feel greater happiness and freedom. The final stage of enlightenment, permanent freedom from all negative states of mind, brings uninterrupted, sublime happiness. The Buddha recommended that we learn to let go of our attachments to the lower forms of happiness and focus all of our efforts upon finding the very highest form of happiness, enlightenment.
But he also encouraged people to maximise their happiness at whatever level they can. For those of us who cannot see beyond the happiness based on sense pleasures, he offered sage advice for avoiding worldly troubles and for finding optimal worldly happiness, for example, by cultivating qualities leading to material success or a satisfying family life. For those with the higher ambition to be reborn in blissful realms, he explained just how to accomplish that goal. For those interested in reaching the highest goal of full enlightenment, he taught how to achieve it. But whichever kind of happiness we are seeking, we make use of the steps of the Eightfold Path.
From p. 8 of Eight Mindful Steps to Happiness—Walking the Buddha’s Path, by Bhante Henepola Gunaratana, published by Wisdom Publications, Boston, pp. 266. Available in Sri Lanka from the BPS bookshop for rs. 975, - Members can get a ten percent discount.
The BPS website www.bps.lk is gradually being expanded and improved upon by our website designer Asantha Sarath. All Wheel Publications and many other BPS publications will eventually be offered for free download from the BPS Online Library. At the moment about hundred “Wheels” are being digitalized and proofread. Several volunteers living in various places in the world, such as Thailand and the USA, are helping with proofreading, formatting, and offering help in other ways. The BPS is very grateful for their kind assistance in this massive project.
Soon, with the help of the Hong Kong Shanghai Bank, the BPS will set up an online ordering system so that customers can order BPS books online from our BPS website and pay online by credit card. It will also be possible to pay membership online.
Within Our Own Hearts by Ayya Khema; The Importance of Wise Reflection by Steve Weissman
Taste of Freedom by Ajahn Chah; Being Nobody, Going Nowhere by Ayyā Khemā; Practical Insight Meditation by Mahāsi Sayādaw; The Progress Of Insight by Mahāsi Sayādaw; Satipaṭṭhāna Vipassana by Mahāsi Sayādaw; The Life of the Buddha by Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu; The Root of Existence by Bhikkhu Bodhi.
Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma by Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi, Pali Glossary by Ñāṇamoli Thera, Modern Buddhist Masters (formerly called Living Buddhist Masters) by Jack Kornfield, In This Very Life by Sayādaw U Paṇḍita, The Jhānas in Theravada Buddhism by Ven. Henepola Gunaratana, All Embracing Net of Views by Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi, Udana & Itivuttaka by John Ireland.
Nyanatiloka Dhammadāna Fund
In 1911 the German monk Nyanatiloka set up a Buddhist education project to support the Rodiya people at Kaduganawa near Kandy because Christian missionaries were trying to convert them to Christianity. The Rodiyas are a deprived group of people who have been rejected from the Sinhalese caste system. The son of the Rodiya chieftain became a Buddhist monk under Nyanatiloka and eventually became the abbot of the Island Hermitage.
In commemoration of Nyanatiloka, the BPS plans to set up a fund to provide some Indian boys from deprived strata within Indian society with the opportunity to have a high standard monastic education in the Subodhārāma monastic school near Kandy. The curriculum encompasses Pali, Sanskrit, English, Buddhist Philosophy, meditation, etc. The teenage boys will become novices in India before they come to Sri Lanka. After the novices have had their education, which will last for several years, they will hopefully return to India and teach Buddhism to their countrymen. Although there are many Buddhists in India now, especially due to the efforts of the reformer Ambedkar, there is a great lack of competent teachers and monks. By sponsoring these boys, we can help with bringing back Buddhism to its place of origin.
The fund will soon be set up. More information will be put on our website. This project will be organised by Ken and Visakha Kawasaki, formerly of the Buddhist Relief Fund. For more information please email them at [email protected] or write to them at the BPS.
Visit of Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi
After an absence of four years, Ven. Bodhi, the President of the BPS, visited Sri Lanka for two weeks in April and gave a series of lectures on the Uraga Sutta from the Sutta Nipāta at the BPS. In Colombo he gave a lecture on the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta at the BMICH. The President of Sri Lanka, His Excellency Mahinda Rājapaksa, conferred the lengthy, honorary title of ‘Sāsana Sobhana Vishva Kīrthi Sri Pariyapti Vishārada,‘ which can be translated as ‘Universally Renown Adornment of the Dispensation and Preeminent in the Accomplishment of Study’ to him.
Theravāda Buddhism and the British Encounter—Religious, missionary and colonial experience in nineteenth-century Sri Lanka; by Elizabeth J. Harris. Published by Routledge, Oxon 2006. 274pp.
This latest work of the British scholar Elizabeth Harris is an in-depth study of the British Christian encounter with Sinhalese Theravada Buddhism in the nineteenth century. It gives an overview on how the British gradually came to understand Sinhalese Theravada Buddhism and clarifies the roots of certain modern perceptions and problems. For example, the nineteenth-century British, puritan preference for the rational, textual aspects in Buddhism, while dismissing the traditional ritual and cosmological aspects, would apply to most Westerners today, too. It also shows how the Sinhalese Buddhist suspicion regarding Christian proselytising has its roots in this period.
In the first three parts of the book, the author focuses on the perceptions of British writers—mostly Christian missionaries, but also colonial officials, travellers, scholars, Theosophists, and early British Buddhists—with regard to Sinhalese Buddhism. She does so through contrasting the writings of contemporary British writers in various epochs of the nineteenth century. What emerges is an accurate picture of how the perceptions of Sinhalese Buddhism by the British gradually changed. First the perceptions were hostile and distorted, based on the biassed Protestant perceptions of externals such as Buddha images and (non-Buddhist) ‘devil dances’, but then gradually changed to the sympathetic and romantic such as in the poem Light of Asia by Edwin Arnold, and finally to more accurate and sympathetic depictions based on in depth studies of the living tradition and textual studies with the help of local Buddhists such as the writings of Dickson and Rhys Davids.
In Part I, dealing with the period 1796–1830, the first British writers selected by Harris were still somewhat confused about the identity of the Buddha due to lack of accurate information. Some, seeing the worship of Buddha images and depictions of the twenty-eight Buddhas, were uncertain whether he was a miracle-working god or an historical figure. Others thought he was an atheist reformer and saviour who was deified by his followers. The same confusion applies to the Buddha’s teaching, which was seen by most as irrational, materialistic, and nihilistic. A few writers, however, were impressed by the Buddhist system of ethical wisdom and the reasoning ability of Buddhists.
In Part II, dealing with the period 1830–1870, attention is paid to the misperceptions and misguided conversion efforts of Protestant Christian missionaries. The British colonial system had fully established itself by this period, and the colonialists were self-confident and arrogant, seeing the British colonial effort as the bearer of enlightened civilization to the uncivilised. Along with this, even more arrogant British missionaries saw the British colonial success as an indication from God to spread Christianity. They started to make strong, but mostly unsuccessful, efforts to convert the Buddhist ‘heathen.’ The missionaries believed that Buddhism taught the ultimate annihilation of the soul and denied the all-creating Christian god and that this cold void led to the idolatry and demon worship they witnessed in Ceylon. Christian missionary scholars such as Spencer and Gogerly, although giving more accurate and detailed information about Buddhism due to their studies and translations of Buddhist texts in Pali and Sinhala, tried to ridicule Buddhism. Their textual studies were aimed at undermining Buddhism. Nevertheless, Spencer’s first works, although he himself did not appreciate this fact at all, ironically enough, sparked a positive interest in Buddhism from influential Europeans, such as Schopenhauer and Wagner.
By the middle of the 19th century, though, not all British scholars were negative to Buddhism. Two scholars, Forbes and Knighton, were sympathetic towards Buddhism and the Sinhalese people. In contrast to the missionaries, they praised the rationality of Buddhism. However, like Spencer and Gogerly, they took their stance on the ‘pure’ canonical texts, condemning the cosmological and commentarial texts, dismissing the ritualistic and superstitious practice of contemporary Buddhists, and glorifying the purity of the past.
Part III deals with the significant period 1870–1900. In the West, Christianity started to lose ground, and a generation of free thinkers appeared. Buddhism, along with other Oriental religions and cultures, was romanticised. The major spark leading to the popularisation of Buddhism in the West was the publication of the poem, The Light of Asia, by Sir Edwin Arnold in 1879, giving a positive, romantic portrait of the life of the Buddha, depicting him as a compassionate hero. After this, even some Christian missionaries appeared more tolerant and appreciative of Buddhism, although Christianity was now depicted as the fulfilment of Buddhism. Other missionaries, in response to the growing interest of Westerners who regarded Buddhism as pure, rational and scientific, became even more adamant in stressing the atheism, nihilism, idolatry, and other satanic aberrations coming out of Buddhism.
Another major development during this period was that Sinhalese Buddhist monks, trying to defend Buddhism against the Christian missionaries, successfully adopted Christian missionary tactics in defence of Buddhism. The Pānadura debates between the Christian missionaries and Ven. Guṇānanda were a turning point in the revival of Buddhism. The debates were publicised in the West, and aid for the Sinhalese Buddhist revival came from Western free-thinkers, theosophists, and converts to Buddhism. However, this aid was often fuelled more by anti-Christian sentiments than by a deep understanding of Buddhism and Sinhalese culture.
British scholars sympathetic to Buddhism, such as Childers and Dickson, were the first to interpret the texts and Buddhist practice with the aid of the living tradition. They refused to divorce the texts from the actual practice. Dickson focused on Buddhism as practised by the Sangha and laypeople, while the lexicographer Childers built up a friendly, humble, pupil-like relationship with the Sinhalese scholar-monk Vaskaduve Subhūti.
The British understanding of Buddhism was greatly facilitated by the textual studies of Rhys Davids, the founder of the Pali Text Society. Rhys Davids applying historical criticism, was convinced that the pure Buddhism could be found only in the Theravada textual tradition and was dismissive of the living traditions in Sri Lanka and, especially, of the Mahayana and Tantric Buddhism practised in other parts of Asia. He once proudly stated that Japanese students could improve their knowledge of Buddhism under the guidance of professors in the West.
Western Theosophists came to Sri Lanka in the 1880s, most notably Madame Blavatsky, C.W. Leadbeater, and Colonel Olcott. They were received warmly and were probably the first Westerners to publicly avow Buddhism, taking the three refuges and the five precepts. However, their understanding and adaptation of Buddhism was inconsistent and not whole-hearted. While Olcott promoted a pure, non-esoteric Buddhism, Blavatsky and Leadbeater were mainly interested in the esoteric and the occult. Even Olcott, the author of the influential Buddhist Catechism and the founder of Buddhist schools and societies, who stayed on in Sri Lanka after Blavatsky and Leadbeater had left, privately regarded the Theosophist’s Buddhism as identical with “the Wisdom-Religion of the Aryan Upanishads and the soul of all ancient world-faiths.” Olcott’s continued alliance with Theosophism and his dislike for Buddhist devotional rituals eventually led to a rift with Sinhalese revivalists such as Anāgārika Dhammapāla, nevertheless, due to his great assistance in the revival of Sinhalese Buddhism, Olcott remains a hero in the eyes of many Sinhalese.
In chapter 15, the life and Buddhist writings of Ānanda Metteyya, one of the first British monks and the first Buddhist missionary to England, are discussed. He was also the first Westerner to give detailed and accurate explanations of Buddhist meditation, which he had learned in Burma. The contents of this chapter are largely identical with Ānanda Metteyya: His Life and Mission, published by the BPS as Wheel 420/422.
In the last two parts of the book, Harris moves from the historical to the critical. In Part IV, building on earlier parts of the book, she presents a detailed critique of the concept of ‘Protestant Buddhism’ or ‘Reformed Buddhism.’ This concept is used by scholars to denote a reformist form of Buddhism that arose in the late nineteenth century that appears to be quite different from traditional Buddhism: rationalistic, textually puristic, individualistic, and lay-oriented. According to Harris, this form of Buddhism was the creation of neither the West nor the East, but arose through the interaction of both in this period. The direct role of Westerners, such as Rhys Davids and Olcott, in this movement has been overestimated by scholars presenting them as the initiators through their translations and catechisms. It is clear that Westerners did not initiate lay meditation practice because earlier scholars, such as Dickson, had reported on meditation as a traditional lay practice. Furthermore, the most thorough description of meditation during this period comes not come from Sri Lanka, but from Burma via Ānanda Metteyya. Descriptions of Buddhism as a rationalistic, philosophical religion and the Buddha as a reformer were already made by scholars much earlier in the nineteenth century. They, in turn, based some of their statements on the answers given by Buddhist monks to the questionnaires of the inquisitive Dutch governor Falck in the second half of the eighteenth century. The monks’ answers show the devotional and cosmological elements of ‘traditional Buddhism, ‘ but they also show rational aspects of ‘Reformed Buddhism, ‘ such as an active, ethical path for both the lay and ordained. Thus, the reformist movement drew on elements that were already existent in the tradition. Renewed interest in meditation was not initiated by Westerners, but rather arose under the influence of the Burmese tradition.
According to Harris, the key to the development of Reformed Buddhism lies not with Western orientalists, but rather in the adaptation of the arguments of Western opponents of Christianity by Buddhist revivalists who wished to counter Christian missionary writings. In reaction to the missionaries’ arguments that Buddhism was ineffective, irrational, unscientific, and nihilistic, the defenders of Buddhism had to present it in the opposite way. They could do so by emphasising the rational core existing in the Buddhist texts that they were familiar with, but also by showing irrationalities in the Bible that had been pointed out by Western sympathisers.
Part V deals with the negative outcome of the encounter with the Christian missionaries in the nineteenth century. Prior to this period, Sinhalese Buddhists were quite tolerant in general, and many of them saw nothing wrong with being externally a Christian and internally a Buddhist. They found it difficult to understand the exclusive attitudes of the Christian missionaries and their failure to worship the Buddha. In their view, there was nothing wrong with combining the two systems, as long as the Buddha was placed above Jesus. This tolerant and pragmatic attitude was not new to Buddhism: when ancient Buddhist missionaries went to non-Buddhist areas, they did not try to win people over by condemning the local religions, but rather by absorbing these into the Buddhist system. However, the Christian missionaries misapprehended and scorned this tolerance. In their view, humanity could be saved only by Jesus. In fact, some missionaries were quite pleased when a more defensive form of Buddhism arose that they could now confront.
Although the missionaries were initially treated with kindness and courtesy by the Sangha, these gestures were not reciprocated by the missionaries, who sought their presence only in order to learn how to undermine Buddhism. This abuse of good will and the contempt for Buddhism eventually led to a sense of mutual betrayal and a reciprocal contempt for Christianity. Sinhalese Buddhists initially responded by appealing to the colonial government that religious tolerance be upheld and that literature offensive to any religious group be banned. However, the government responded to this only occasionally by warning missionaries. When these appeals failed, other methods were tried. Treatises with reasoned Buddhist arguments against the Christians’ arguments were spread. However, when Gogerly published his polemic and confrontational work Kristiyāni Prajñapti (‘The Evidences and Doctrines of the Christian Religion’) in 1848, the Sangha rose strongly against Gogerly’s accusation of not teaching ‘pure’ Buddhism and against his attempt to undermine that Buddhism through rational arguments. After this, the tone of the encounter changed: Christian preachers regularly encountered rebuke and abuse. New Buddhist leaders appeared. Buddhist printing presses, Buddhist societies, Buddhist schools, etc., were founded. Debates with Christians that were earlier avoided were successfully taken on. Thus, Sinhalese Buddhists confidently and successfully challenged Christianity by drawing on Christian forms, such as the Sunday school.
The outcome of this encounter was that Sinhalese Buddhism, became reformed and modernised, but, at the same time, its adherents became more defensive, apprehensive, and intolerant. One of the consequences of the Buddhist revival in the 20th century was the rising Sinhala Buddhist nationalism of the 1950s. Influenced by the legacy of the nineteenth-century revival, this movement tried to compensate for what Buddhism had suffered under colonialism, successfully challenging what was viewed as the hegemony of the English language and the disproportionate percentage of Tamils in positions of power. In 1956, the year of the 2500th anniversary of the Buddha, a Sinhala nationalist party won the elections. It made Sinhala the official language through the Sinhala Only Act and made pledges to restore Buddhism to its rightful pre-colonial status. Similar to the situation in the nineteenth century, there were frequent warnings in the Buddhist newspapers and magazines about suspected threats to Buddhism. According to Harris, many Sinhala Buddhists admitted to her that the Sinhala Only Act was a mistake. Understandable as it was as a post-colonial reaction, combined with the government rhetoric about restoring Buddhism, it eventually had disastrous consequences in that it caused the Sri Lankan Tamils to lose confidence in the national government, and, thus, paved the way to the current armed conflict. The feelings of victimhood and betrayal that Sinhala Buddhists experienced in the 19th century currently carries on through feelings of beleaguerment regarding suspected alliances of Tamil tigers, Christian missionary groups, foreign NGOs, etc. It also carries on in the support for the use of armed force against the LTTE as the only way to stop this conflict.
The title of the book is overly general as the book deals only with the British Buddhist encounter in Ceylon. However, there was also a British-Theravada encounter in Burma, Siam, and other parts of Asia. Thus, in my opinion, Reformed Buddhism was not a movement confined to Sri Lanka, but rather a pan-Asian movement. Reformers, such as King Mongkut in Siam and Ledi Sayādaw in Burma, initiated similar movements that arose out of the confrontation and interaction with the British and the West. King Mongkut, the founder of the reformist Dhammayuttika monastic sect, was a promoter of a rationalistic, scientific Buddhism and downplayed the mythological aspects of traditional Buddhism. The Burmese scholar Ledi Sayādaw was an active missionary and scholar who corresponded with scholars in Britain. Even in Sikkim, the British educated King Sidkeang—influenced by Alexandra David-Néel, Bhikkhu Sīlācāra, and Bhikkhu Ñāṇatiloka—attempted to reform Sikkimese Lamaist Buddhism in the early twentieth century.
There were close contacts between Ceylonese Buddhists, Burmese Buddhists, and Siamese Buddhists that supported the reformist efforts in Sri Lanka. For example, the printing presses that were used by Buddhists for printing the first Buddhist books in Ceylon were donated by the King of Siam. The Thai Prince Prisdang, who was accepted into the Sinhalese Sangha by Vaskaduv÷ Subhūti in the late nineteenth century, planned to unify the Sinhalese Sangha with the help of the Thai King Chulalongkorn. He set up a Buddhist school in Guṇānanda’s temple in Kotahenna in Colombo. The new examination system at Vidyodaya College, that Harris mentions on p. 186, could indeed have had its roots in Thailand, but there it would have arisen out of influence of the British education system that came in vogue there in King Chulalonkorn reign. Thus, I agree with Harris that more research needs to be done on the interactions between Theravada countries during this period. Further, a study should be made on the Buddhist reactions to Christian missionary efforts and British Colonialism in Burma and Siam in the nineteenth century. It is likely that many parallels to what happened in Ceylon will be found. However, in Siam the main threat that had to be countered by way of reform and modernization was colonialism, not Christian missionary activity.
Although there are similarities with the nineteenth-century encounter with Christian missionaries, it appears to me that the current Sinhalese sentiments of victimhood and the support for the use of arms as a legitimate response by some Sinhala Buddhist groups that Harris mentions would come more out of the influence of Sinhalese historical treatises such as the Mahāvaṃsa, which glorify the struggles of Buddhist Sinhalese kings against South Indian invaders. What was new in the nineteenth-century encounter was that the Christian missionaries directly tried to challenge and undermine the Buddhist teachings through writing, preaching, and debate, while earlier invaders were content with destroying and looting temples. Moreover, the South Indian invaders came from a similar culture, and therefore there was no major cultural conflict. However, in nineteenth century Sri Lanka, besides the encounter with a hostile, exclusionist religion, there was also another far-reaching cultural encounter taking place, that is, the encounter of a mediaeval agricultural culture with modernity. Sinhalese Buddhists also had to face such as challenges such as Western education, technology, science, urbanisation, and the global economy, which are all, in one way of another, the result of the Reformation in Europe. Thus, the Buddhist-Christian debates and the Buddhist reformist movement, which became the symbol of successfully facing the Christian challenge, could perhaps also be seen as the symbol of Sinhalese Buddhist culture successfully facing the wider challenges that modernity brought.
The section dealing with the life and writings of Ānanda Metteyya in the early 20th century, although informative, steps out of the nineteenth century Sri Lankan context of the book and, therefore, seems somewhat out of place. Although Metteyya initially encountered Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka, he did not stay for long and became a monk in Burma. His writings and missionary efforts were mostly based on his studies and practice in Burma.
One correction: on p. 216 Harris mentions that there are over a hundred Western Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka today. There are only about thirty, and this has been so for decades.
The price of the book, £ 65, is very expensive in relation to its size. Hopefully, an inexpensive Asian edition of the book will be published in the future. The same observation applies for the other books published in the Routledge Critical Studies in Buddhism series.
Sutta Study: The Contemplation of Stilling
and the Epithets for Nibbāna in the Pali Canon
by Bhikkhu Ñāṇatusita
One of the contemplations, anussati, recommended by the Buddha is the recollection or contemplation of stilling, upasamānussati. The Pāli word upasamānussati—a compound consisting of upasama and anussati—is usually translated as “recollection of peace,” however, upasama has a slightly different and wider meaning than just “peace,” which is denoted by the word santi in Pāli. In its “active” or practice aspect (as action-noun) upasama means “stilling,” “calming,” “quieting,” “tranquilising,” “ceasing,” whereas in its “passive” or attainment aspect it means “stillness,” “calmness,” “ceasing,” etc. Thus, “recollection of stilling” would seem more appropriate as a translation.
An example of the usage of upasama is: “this is the ultimate stilling, namely, the stilling of greed, hatred, and delusion,” (MN 140.28, eso … paramo upasamo yadidaṃ rāgadosamohānaṃ upasamo).
An example of its verbal form upasam(m)ati is, “A great blazing fire ceases (or ‘stills’) without fuel, when the conditions have ceased, (it) is called ‘quenched’” (AN 6:43, mahāgini pajjalito anāhārūpasamati, saṅkhāresūpasantesu nibbuto ti pavuccati.” An example of its related (or variant) form vūpasama is:
Alas, all conditions are transient, of the nature to arise and cease,
having arisen, they cease—their stilling is happiness.
These usages, thus, show the two aspects of the contemplation: firstly, it is the contemplation of the process of stilling all mental and physical activities through the practice of samatha and vipassanā, and, secondly, it is the contemplation of the aspects of the final attainment, Nibbāna, the happy state of complete stillness and calm.
Upasamānussati is a contemplation little known and little practised. The contemplation is only mentioned in a few suttas in the Pali Canon, and its practice is not explained. In the Aṅguttara Nikāya (AN 1:16.10) it is said to be leading to detachment, stilling, and Nibbāna.
According to the Theravāda tradition, as represented in the Pāli Commentaries and the classical meditation manual called The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) (ch. 8, § 245ff), this contemplation has as its object the qualities of Nibbāna, i.e., the stilling of all suffering (sabbadukkhūpasamasaṅkhātassa nibbānassa guṇā). According to this treatise only a noble person (ariya) can do this practice to the full extent, but adds that a worldling (puthujjana) who values stilling can pay attention to it, because even through hearsay the mind gains confidence in stilling. The Visuddhimagga states that the practice will lead to access concentration through the suppression of hindrances and the arising of the jhāna factors. The benefits are sleeping and waking happily, calm faculties and mind, conscience and shame, confidence, respect by fellow monks, resolution to (attain) the superior (state of Nibbāna), and a good destiny if one does not attain a higher state.
Interestingly, the Path of Freedom, the English translation of the Chinese translation of the meditation manual called Vimuttimagga (pp.177f), describes a different approach. In this treatise, “stilling” is defined as the complete stilling of physical and mental movements or perturbations (iñjita). The method of practice is to recollect a bhikkhu who has developed stillness and how he eventually became an Arahant, an awakened being, through the gradual stilling of all mental activities and through the destruction of all defilements. One finally recollects that when the Arahant attains final Nibbāna at the breakup of the body, everything (i.e., the five khandhas) is stilled. Like the Visuddhimagga, the Vimuttimagga states that the practice will lead to access concentration, but it does not mention that one needs to be an Ariya in order to successfully practise it.
A way of practising not mentioned that in these manuals, but which would also be a valid way of practising this recollection, is to contemplate a peaceful, calm meditative state one has previously had oneself, how one did attain this state, and what were its benefits—similar to the Bodhisatta recollecting his meditative experience as a boy sitting under the rose-apple tree. Focusing the mind in this way, leads to calm and stillness.
The commentary (A-a II 22) to the Aṅguttara Nikāya explains that the recollection has the stilling of all suffering as object (sabbadukkhūpasamārammaṇa). It adds that the stilling can also be twofold, firstly, the final, absolute stilling of Nibbāna (accantūpasama), and, secondly, the stilling through destruction (of defilements) (khayūpasama), which is the way (magga) to Nibbāna.
A canonical contemplation (AN 4:114, etc.) on Nibbāna is: “This is peaceful, this is excellent, namely, the calming of all conditions, the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the destruction of craving, fading away, cessation, quenching.” (etaṃ santaṃ etaṃ paṇītaṃ yadidaṃ sabbasaṅkhārasamatho sabbūpadhipaṭinissaggo taṇhakkhayo virāgo nirodho nibbānaṃ). The Visuddhimagga recommends one to recollect Nibbāna through a similar contemplation given in AN 4:34: “As far as there are phenomena that are conditioned or unconditioned, fading away is declared to be the best of them, that is the quelling of intoxication, the dispelling of thirst, the abolition of reliance, the cutting off of the round (of rebirth), the destruction of craving, fading away, cessation, quenching,” (yāvatā dhammā saṅkhatā vā asaṅkhatā vā virāgo tesaṃ dhammānaṃ aggaṃ akkhāyati, yadidaṃ madanimaddano, pipāsavinayo, ālayasamugghāto, vaṭṭupacchedo, taṇhakkhayo, virāgo, nirodho, nibbānan-ti.) The Visuddhimagga adds that the contemplation can also be done through the qualities of stilling as given in the Asaṅkhata Saṃyutta (SN 43), etc.
It should be noted that Nibbāna is not necessarily the primary epithet given for the final aim of Buddhist practice, although it is the most commonly used one. In the Asaṅkhata Saṃyutta, Nibbāna is only given as the thirty-fourth in a list of forty-four epithets, starting with the Unconditioned (asaṅkhata).
In order to facilitate the contemplation of the qualities of Nibbāna, I have prepared a list which comprises all epithets that can be found within the limits of the main texts of the Sutta Piṭaka. There are more epithets in later, exegetical texts such the Niddesa, Paṭisambhidāmagga, Netti, etc. The epithets listed refer only to the state of Nibbāna, not to the state of the Arahant. Although some epithets are used for both states (e.g., in the suttas, anāsava is normally used as an attribute of the Arahant), there are many epithets used just for the arahat (e.g. aneja “unshakeable,” and akiñcana “not owning anything”) that do not denote the state of Nibbāna, at least not in the main Canonical texts. A list of the epithets for the Arahant would require another, much larger article.
The epithets are sometimes accompanied by superlatives such as parama or anuttara—e.g., parama santi, the ultimate peace—but because they are not always used, these superlatives have been put in brackets or left out.
In the Pāli Canon, Nibbāna is said to be a state, and one regularly finds an epithet being classified as a state, e.g. nibbānapada “the state of Nibbāna,” santipada “the state of peace,” nibbānadhātu “the Nibbāna element,” and amatadhātu, “the deathless element” Other classifiers, although not used in compounds, are dhamma (state, condition), ṭhāna (state, condition) and āyatana (sphere, base, state). These classifiers are usually not included in the list. Occasionally, where the context makes it clear that Nibbāna is referred to, the classifiers are used in isolation, e.g., SN 5:1, Sn 764–65.
For convenience, the epithets have been divided into sections of epithets sharing a common focus:
Stillness and peace
upasama, “the stillness” or “the calm,” MN 3.8, 11.15, 140.28, Dhp 205, Sn 737
(parama) santi, “(the ultimate) peace,” AN 4:23, It 77, Th 6, 32, Thī 212, It 43, 87, Sn 204, 915
anuttara santivarapada, “the unexcelled state of sublime peace,” MN 26:17
sabbasaṅkhārasamatha, “the calming of all conditions,” AN 4:114, Sn 732
anārambha, “the exertionless,” Sn 745
passaddhi, “the serene,” or “the tranquil,” AN 9:58, MN 144.11
Non conflict, Solitude
viveka/paviveka, “the solitude” or “the seclusion,” Dhp 205, AN 6:55, Th 640, Sn 915, SN 1:1, It 38
asambādha, “the uncrowded,” Thī 512
asapatta, “that which is without rivalry,” Thī 505, 512
nirupatāpa, “the untroubled,” or “that which is without vexation,” Thī 512
akhalita, “the faultless,” Thī 512
khema, “the secure,” SN 43:28, AN 9:52, Th 227, Thī 350
(anuttara) yogakkhema, “the (unexcelled) security from bondage,” MN 26.12, Thī 6, 8
saraṇa, “the refuge,” SN 43:43, Th 305, Dhp 194
nissaraṇa, “the escape,” Ud 8:3, Iti 43, SN 5:1
tāṇa, “the shelter,” or “the protection,” SN 43:42, Th 412
abhaya, “that which is free from fear,” AN 9:52, SN 6:3.4 (Th 708–09)
akutobhaya, “that which has no fear from anywhere,” AN 4:23
dīpa, “the island,” SN 43:40, Sn 1094, Th 412
leṇa, “the shelter,” SN 43:41
tittha, “the landing place” or “the harbour,” Th 766
pārimaṃ tīraṃ, khemaṃ appaṭibhayaṃ, “the further shore, safe and free from danger,” SN 35:238
niyyāna, “the way out” or “the deliverance,” Sn 170, 172 (Cf. MN 11.15)
Happiness, Relief, the Rnd of Suffering
(parama) sukha, “the (ultimate) happiness,” Dhp 203–204, It 43
nibbānasukhā paraṃ natthi, “there is nothing else like the happiness of Nibbāna,” Thī 476
susukha, “the great happiness,” Th 227, Ud 2:8
anuttara vimuttisukha, “the supreme peace of release,” AN 5:180
sama bhūmibhāga ramaṇīya, “the delightful stretch of level ground,” SN 22:84
anītika, “the unailing,” SN 43:32, Sn 1147
avyādhi, “the diseaseless,” MN 26.12
ārogya, “the healthy” or “the freedom from disease,” Sn 749, MN 75.19ff.
pipāsavinaya, “the dispelling of thirst,” AN 4:34, It 90
paramaṃhita, “the ultimate welfare,” Sn 233
avyāpajjha, “the freedom from harm,” SN 43:35, AN 6:55, Th 640
dukkhassa anta, “the end of suffering,” Ud 8:1, Dhp 275, 376
dukkhanirodha “the cessation of suffering,” MN 9.17, It 43
yattha dukkhaṃ nirujjhati “where suffering ceases,” Th 227, Sn 726
dukkhakkhaya “the destruction of suffering,” Sn 732, MN 140.25
asoka, “the sorrowless,” MN 26.13, Th 227, 723, Thī 514
bhāranikkhepana, “the putting down of the burden,” SN 22:22, Th 708 (Th 604)
mutti, “the freedom,” SN 43:38
anālaya, “that which is not reliant,” SN 43:39, 46:11
vimutti, “the release” or “the deliverance,” MN 44.29, It 109, Th
vimokkha, “the release” or “deliverance,” Th 906, 1098, Thī 506, 906, SN 1:1
sabbaganthappamocana, “the freedom from all bonds,” AN 4:23, It 102
sabbasaṃyojanakkhaya, “the destruction of all fetters,” Th 176
sabbūpadhipaṭinissagga, “the relinquishment of all acquisitions,” AN 4:114, MN 140.27
(sabba) upadhisaṅkhaya, “the annihilation of (all) acquisitions,” AN 4:23, 6:56
amata, “the deathless,” or “where there is no death,” SN 43:25, MN 26.13, Thī 513, Sn 225
ajarā, “the agingless,” or “where there is no ageing,” MN 26.13, Thī 511, 513
ajarāmaraṇapada, “the state without ageing and death,” Thī 513
asaṅkuppa, “the unshakeable,” Sn 1149
asaṃhīra, “the indestructible” or “the immovable,” Sn 1149. (See SED saṃhṛ and saṃhāra.)
dhuva, “that which is constant,” or “that which is stable,” SN 43:20, It 43
akampita, “that which does not tremble,” SN 5:7
acala sukha, “the unshakeable happiness,” Ud 8.10, Thī 352, MN 144.11
accuta, “that which does not pass away,” SN 22:95, Dhp 225, Sn 1086, Th 212
apalokita, “that which does not disintegrate,” SN 43:21
anata, “the uninclined,” SN 43:13, MN 144.11, Ud 8.2
nippapañca, “that which is without proliferation,” SN 43:23, AN 6:15, Th 902, 990
cutūpapāto na hoti, “(where) there is no passing away and reappearing,” MN 144.11, Sn 902, Ud 8.1
na ṭhitiṃ, na cutiṃ, na upapattiṃ, “(where there is) no staying, no passing away, no reappearing,” Ud 8.1
āgatigati na hoti, “(where) there is no coming and going (into existence),” MN 144.11, Ud 8.1
yattha na jāyati, na jīyati, na mīyati, na cavati, na uppajjati, “where one is not born, does not age, nor die, nor pass away, nor arise,” SN 2:3.6, AN 4:45, MN 49
suddhi/visuddhi, “purity,” SN 43:37, Th 415, Dhp 277
susukkasukka, “the very pure,” or “the very bright,” Th 212
asaṅkiliṭṭha, “the undefiled,” MN 26.13
virāga, “the fading away,” or “that which is without desire,” SN 43:36, Sn 225
viraja, “the stainless,” Th 227, It 43, Ud 8.8
anāsava, “the taintless,” SN 43:14 (Th 704)
āsavakkhaya, “the destruction of taints,” Th 116, 198, 218
nekkhamma, “the renunciation” or “the freedom from desire,” AN 3:39, 6:55, Th 640, Dhp 181, 272, Th 691
Other than saṃsāra
ajāta, “the unborn,” or “where there is no birth,” Ud 8:3, It 43, MN 26.13
asamuppanna, “the unarisen,” It 43
abhūta, “the unbecome,” Ud 8:3, It 43
akata, “the unmade,” Ud 8:3, It 43
asaṅkhata, “the unconditioned” or “the uncompounded,” SN 43:1, Th 725, Ud 8:3, It 43–44
yassa natthi upamā kvaci, “that for which there is no likeness,” Sn 1149 (Th 1013)
na tena dhammena sam’atthi kiñci, “there is nothing equal to that state,” Sn 225
appaṭibhāga, “that which is without counterpart,” MN 44.29
appaṭisaraṇa, “that which is without recourse,” SN 48.42
disā agatapubbā, “the direction never gone before,” AN 4:114
pāra, “the far shore,” SN 43:16, Dhp 85–86
maccuddheyyapāraṃ, “the far shore of the realm of death,” Sn 1146, SN 4:4
agati yattha mārassa, “where Māra has no access,” SN 5:7
anāpara, “the matchless,” Sn 1094
anidassana, “the unmanifest,” SN 43:22, DN 11.85
appamāṇa, “that which is measureless,” AN 4:67
paṭisotagāmi, “that which is going against the stream,” MN 26.19
aputthujjanasevita, “that to which worldings do not resort,” SN 5:7
appatiṭṭha, “that which is without support,” Ud 8:1
appavatta, “that which is without continuation,” Ud 8:1
anārammaṇa, “that which is without basis,” Ud 8:1
atakkāvacara, “that which is not within the range of thought,” MN 26.19, It 43
sabbesu dhammesu samūhatesu, “when all phenomena have been removed,” Sn 1076
n’eva idha vā huraṃ vā ubhayam antarena, “(where) there is no here nor beyond nor in between,” MN 144.11, Ud 8:2
tadāyatanaṃ, yattha neva pathavī, na āpo, na tejo, na vāyo, na ākāsānañcāyayanaṃ, na viññāṇañcāyatanaṃ, na ākiñcaññāyatanaṃ, na nevasaññānāsaññāyatanaṃ, nāyaṃ loko, na paraloko, na ubho candimasuriyā, “that sphere where there is no earth, nor water, nor fire, nor wind, nor sphere of endless space, nor the sphere of endless consciousness, nor the sphere of nothingness, nor the sphere of neither perception nor non perception, nor this world, nor the other world, neither sun nor moon,” Ud 8:1
nirodha, “the cessation,” Sn 755, AN 9:58, It 43
lokanta, “the end of the world,” SN 2:3.6, 35:116, AN 4:45–46
lokanirodha, “the cessation of the world,” AN 4:23
bhavanirodha, “the cessation of existence,” SN 12:68, AN 10:7, MN 9.29
yamhi nirujjhanti bhavāni sabbaso, “when existences completely cease” It 44
jīvitassa saṅkhayā añño punabbhavo natthi, “at the annihilation of life, there is no other further existence” Th 493
natthi dāni punabbhavo, “now there is no further existence,” Th 344, 908
vaṭṭupaccheda, “the cutting off of the round (of rebirth),” It 90
(sabba) kammakkhaya, “the destruction of (all) kamma,” AN 4:23, SN 5:8
jātimaraṇassa anta, “the end of birth and death,” Sn 467
jarāmaccuparikkhaya, “the complete destruction of old age and death,” Sn 1094
jātikkhaya, “the destruction of birth,” It 99, Sn 743
vikkhīṇo jātisaṃsāro, “the journeying on in births is annihilated, “Th 344, 908, SN 9:6, Sn 746, MN 22.32
saṃsārā vinaḷīkatā, sabbā gati samucchinnā, “the journeying on has been demolished, all destinations have been cut off,” Th 216
khaya, ”the destruction,” Sn 225, It 44, Th 491, 723
sakkāyanirodha, “the cessation of identity,” MN 44:4, SN 22:105, 35:136, Sn 766
āhārānaṃ nirodha, “the cessation of the nutriments,” Sn 747, Th 702
viññāṇanirodha, “the cessation of consciousness,” Sn 734
abhedi kāyo, nirodhi saññā, vedanā sītir-ahaṃsu sabbā, vūpasamiṃsu saṅkhārā, viññāṇaṃ attham āgamma, “the body breaks up, perception ceases, all feelings become cold, mental activities become still, consciousness comes to an end,” Ud 8:9
naññe dhamme bhavissanti, “(when) there will be no other phenomena,” Th 907, (Th 708)
vosāna, “the finish,” Th 784
rāgadosamohakkhaya, “the destruction of lust, anger, and delusion” SN 38:1, 45: 6–7, Ud 8:5, It 44, MN 140.28
taṇhakkhaya, “the destruction of craving,” SN 23:2, AN 4:114
taṇhāsaṅkhaya, “the annihilation of craving,” AN 6:55, Th 640
taṇhāya asesavirāganirodho, cāgo, paṭinissaggo, mutti, anālayo, “the remainderless cessation of craving, the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, non-reliance upon it,” SN 22:22, 46:11
upādānasaṅkhaya, “the annihilation of attachment,” AN 6:55, Th 640
sacca, “the truth,” SN 43:15, MN 140.26, Ud 8.2, SN 4:4, 5:1
amosadhamma, “that which doesn’t have a false nature,” Sn 758, MN 140.26
asammoha, “that which is free from delusion,” AN 6:55, Th 640
nibbāna, “the extinguishing “or “the quenching,” SN 43:34, Th 906, Sn 235
nibbuti, “the quenching” or “the allaying,” Sn 238, 917, Th 32, Th 702
sītibhāva, “the state of coolness,” AN 6:85, Thī 362
ajalita, “that which does not burn,” SN 5:7
kāyassa bhedā uddhaṃ jīvitapariyādānā idheva sabbavedayitāni anabhinanditāni sītibhavissanti, sarirāni avasissanti, “at the breaking up of the body, following the exhaustion of life, all that is felt, not being delighted in, will become cool right here, (only) physical remains will be left” SN 12: 51, It 44
agga, “the highest,” AN 4:34, It 90, Th 1142
parama, “the ultimate,” Dhp 184
paṇīta, “the sublime,” SN 43:26, SN 48:50, MN 26.19, AN 4:114, Sn 225
anuttara, “the unexcelled,” MN 26.18, Th 723
uttama, “the supreme,” MN 78.14, Th 212
vara, “the excellent,” Sn 235
(uttama) attha, “the (supreme) goal,” Dhp 403, Th 176
parāyaṇa, “the destination,” SN 43:44, MN 44.29
atthaṃ mahantaṃ gambhīraṃ duddasaṃ nipuṇaṃ aṇuṃ, “the goal that is great, profound, hard to see, subtle, fine,” Th 4, 71
susukhumanipuṇattha, “the goal which is very fine and subtle,” Th 210
accantaniṭṭhā, “the absolute conclusion,” MN 107.13, SN 22:4
accantapariyosāna, “the absolute end,” SN 22:4
brahmacariyapariyosāna, “the end of the holy life,” SN 45:6, MN 44.29
acchariya, “the wonderful,” SN 43:31
abbhuta, “the amazing,” SN 43:31
siva, “the auspicious,” SN 43:27, Thī 137
sududdasa / duddaso, “that which is (very) hard to see,” SN 43:18, MN 26.19, Th 4, 212
duranubodho, “that which is hard to understand,” MN 26.19
nipuṇa, “that which is subtle,” SN 43:17, MN 26.19, Th 4, 212
aṇu, “that which is fine,” or “that which is minute,” MN 26.19, Th 4, 1161
sukhuma, “that which is delicate,” or “that which is fine,” Th 220, 1160
gambhīra, “that which is profound,” MN 26.19, Th 4
paṇḍitavedanīyā, “that which can be experienced by the wise,” MN 26.19
rāgarattā na dakkhinti, tamokkhandhena āvaṭā, “it is not discerned by those delighting in lust, wrapped in the darkness (of ignorance)” MN 26.19
- The Critical Pali Dictionary, in the entry upasama, suggests that the correct reading is tesaṃ upasamo sukho. There seems to be no discernable difference in meaning between upasama and vupasama. The latter form seems to be used when it is easier to pronounce, usually after a vowel, than upasamo. [Back]
- Anicca vata sa?khara, uppadavayadhammino, uppajjitva nirujjhanti, tesa? vupasamo sukho. (SN 6:15) [Back]
- Although the word appaŝibhaga is not found in the text, it is implied. The com. to this sutta states that Nibbana is appaŝibhaga. [Back]
- Although the word appa?isara?a is not found in the text, it is implied. The com. to this sutta states that Nibbana is appa?isara?a. [Back]
- This refers to the complete cessation of the five khandhas at the passing away of the Arahant, in this case the Buddha. Cf the Dvayatanupassanasutta (Sn 3:12), SN 22:78, and the cessation of the khandhas as implied in the cessation of the twelve links of paŝiccasamuppada in SN 12:21 & 23. The Pali text is in the past tense, but to bring it in line with the other epithets, it has been put it in the present tense. [Back]
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Literacy in the 90's
The Role of SIL
This informative booklet, now published here on the Web, was originally printed in the 1990s. As a historical document, it reflects SIL's work in literacy during that decade.
Illiteracy: The Enduring Problem
In 1948, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) recognized education as a "fundamental right of every individual" [UNESCO 1948. Article 26.1]. Since then, significant progress has been made in the fight against illiteracy. From 1960 to 1985, the rate of world-wide illiteracy dropped from 39 to 28 percent [Hamadache 4].
Unfortunately, victory is not yet in sight. Literacy efforts have not kept pace with the world's rapid population growth. Today there are 405 million more illiterate adults than there were in 1960 [Hamadache 5].
The scourge of illiteracy most affects the world's poor - those who can least afford yet another burden in life. Developing nations have the largest proportion of illiterates. According to UNESCO's 1988 Statistical Yearbook, 54 percent of the adults in Africa were illiterate in 1985. In India, the rate of illiteracy is nearly 60 percent (1981) and in Bangladesh, over 70 percent (1981). Furthermore, the burden of illiteracy weighs most heavily on women and the rural poor. Throughout the developing world, nearly half the women cannot read, and in extreme cases, illiteracy rates for women exceed 85 percent [UNESCO 1988. (general reference)].
In most areas, the burden of illiteracy is further compounded by problems of geographic isolation, linguistic diversity, malnutrition, overpopulation, social and ethnic tensions, inadequate national infrastructures and non-supportive national and international economic policies.
Clearly, there will be no easy solution to this continuing problem. No government or organization can solve this problem on its own. A concerted international effort is needed with entities at all levels working together towards a viable solution.
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| 0.931644 | 406 | 3.21875 | 3 |
Hypereosinophilic (hy-per-ee-o-SIN-o-phil-ik) syndrome (HES) refers to a group of blood disorders that occur when you have high numbers of eosinophils — white blood cells that play an important role in your immune system. Over time, these high numbers of eosinophils enter various tissues, causing inflammation and eventually damaging your organs, most commonly targeting the skin, lung, heart, blood and nervous system. Hypereosinophilic syndrome can become life-threatening if not treated.
HES can affect anyone, but it occurs more often in men, usually between 20 and 50 years of age. Symptoms of HES vary, depending on what part of your body is affected. Skin symptoms include itching and rashes, for example. If your lungs are affected, you may be short of breath and have a cough.
April 28, 2015
- Hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES). American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. http://www.aaaai.org/conditions-and-treatments/related-conditions/hypereosinophilic-syndrome.aspx. Accessed Jan. 29, 2015.
- AskMayoExpert. What is the definition of the hypereosinophilic syndrome? Rochester, Minn.: Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research; 2015.
- Eosinophilia. The Merck Manual Professional Edition. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/hematology_and_oncology/eosinophilic_disorders/hyper eosinophilic_syndrome.html. Accessed Jan. 29, 2015.
- Roufosse F, et al. Clinical manifestations, pathophysiology, and diagnosis of the hypereosinophilic syndromes. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Jan. 29, 2015.
- Roufosse F, et al. Treatment of the hypereosinophilic syndromes. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Jan. 29, 2015.
- Gotlib J. World Health Organization-defined eosinophilic disorders: 2014 update on diagnosis, risk stratification, and management. American Journal of Hematology. 2014; 89:325-37.
- Golden AK. Decision Support System. Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. Feb.12, 2015.
- Kita, H. Alternaria and ribonucleases in Th2-type immunity. National Institutes of Health. http://projectreporter.nih.gov/. Accessed March 17, 2015.
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Architecture, as the architect Aldo Rossi has argued, is simultaneously a site, event, and sign. It is both structure in the traditional sense of the word, as well as the process by which that building is deployed. Inherent to this definition is the process of mediation. In this exhibition, buildings and spaces are understood as a set of activities, products, and attitudes that complement and complete the design and meaning of specific sites. Within this framework architecture can be thought of as a process of reception, representation, use, spectacularization, and commodification, as meaning is mediated by the rhetorical strategies of diverse media.
Through a series of case studies, students in a graduate seminar in architectural history (Arch #6805, "The History Practicum") reflected upon the built environment, its construction, and mediation. They sought to unveil the means by which the viewer was conditioned to see and interpret. In the process they made visible the various cultural mechanisms that are responsible for constructing the image, myth, and meaning of individual buildings, specific sites, entire cities, and landscapes.
The students chose items in the Kroch Rare and Manuscripts Collection (KRMC) that placed the topic of architectural tourism within the broader context of architectural historiography as well as contemporary politics, culture and society while simultaneously representing the strengths of the collection housed at Cornell University. Within this context they understood tourism to be both an instrument through which sites are experienced, as well as a cultural force that has profoundly shaped them. Tourism was considered to be simultaneously a cultural product and producer of culture. Not surprisingly, the material represented in the web exhibition, comes from various places and time periods.
The exhibition begins with material acquired by A. D. White during his 1889 trip to Egypt. As Cornell's first president White was particularly interested in the pedagogical value of material he purchased for the university. While White and Willard Fiske, the University's first librarian who journeyed together to Egypt, purportedly traveled for health reasons, their academic collecting was privileged. The photographs and artifacts they acquired were intended to foster an interest in and understanding of Egypt back home in Ithaca. Despite their seemingly lofty goals, White and Fiske, followed a highly prescribed tour of Egypt - relying heavily on the directives of guidebooks, traveling up the Nile in a boat operated by Thomas Cook, purchasing photographs produced for tourists.
A destination that was more popular than Egypt, and which attracted White and Fiske, as well as countless other tourists, was Italy. Italy provides a wonderful case study for archi-tourism. Its sites were well documented by postcards, photographs, and travel guidebooks such as the Baedecker - which in many ways defined the genre. Advising tourists on what to see, eat, and purchase, these books provided instrumental instruction for when and how to engage in architecture. A number of Cornell students journeyed to Italy as a part of their Cornell education. Landscape architect Edward Lawson was one such student. He sketched and photographs the sites that he visited. And in many ways, his trip provides the fulfillment of A. D. White's vision of having students become familiar with foreign sites.
While 19th-century mass media such as photography, postcards and guidebooks provided a stalwart way in which sites were experienced, the foundations of touristic description were established centuries before. Religious missionaries who traversed oceans to explore, document, and presumably convert New World communities, sent home some of the first Western reports of foreign places and peoples. Missionaries to the New World combined religious pedagogy with ethnography to understand the vast new landscapes they encountered. This methodology was applied other locations as well. As missionaries visited sites as far flung as China, their texts and images provided foundational stereotypes about the cultures they encountered.
The discourse of Art and Architectural History has long celebrated the sublime qualities of the picturesque. An analysis of the tourist promotion of the upstate New York landscape along the Erie Canal corridor during the 19th and early 20th century shows that the picturesque sublime was promoted hand in hand with the newly industrialized landscape. Waterfalls and factories were featured within the same photographic frame and in the process visitors were encouraged to visit and meditate on both. This more nuanced understanding of tourism to the region complicates our understanding of what many consider to be a familiar space.
Similarly photographers and painters carefully constructed views of landscapes that would eventually become national parks such as Yellowstone in order to win the support of Congress, which legalized the park's creation. In this case, mass media was used to transform landscape views into desirable American destinations before those landscapes had been legally defined as desirable. Here, media, politics, and landscape merge in unparalleled fashion.
Worlds Fairs have long been touted as one of the most important archi-tourist destinations of the 19th and 20th centuries. It is at these sites that architectural display and experimentation took place before the eyes of thousands of enraptured tourists. What is not so readily apparent is the way in which these sites, and their architectural creations, were carefully and profoundly mediated for the public. Architectural photography was curtailed and controlled. From Paris to Chicago and Buffalo, the role of photography in constructing anticipation, understanding, and memory of fair architecture is profoundly significant.
Menus provide a glimpse into a kind of virtual tourist geography - the spaces and places that people wanted to occupy, and the spaces and places restaurants thought that people might want to visit. During the 1940s, 1950s and early 1960s, increased prosperity and opportunities to travel in cars, on trains, steamships, and planes meant that traveling and tourism were on the mind. Restaurants took advantage of this flourishing opportunity and desire by creating menus that dramatically celebrated exotic as well as profane destinations. Using various tricks, menus encouraged the reader/eater to become involved in the trip. Colorful graphics lured the reader, unfamiliar foods reinforced themes, and interactive menus (some of which could be sent as post cards) allowed readers to appear to have traveled to new destinations.
All told, these various case studies how architecture and tourism have often developed hand in hand - facilitating each others development and presence within the popular imagination. While landscapes and sites can exist or be constructed and designed from scratch, it is their mediation that allows them to be consumed by tourists. As the case studies in this web exhibition show, mediation, whether in the form of literary accounts, photographs, souvenirs, maps, or menus, emerge as an essential architectural material within the realm of archi-tourism.
Not surprisingly, we are indebted to a number of individuals who helped ensure that this exhibit came to fruition. Aditya Gosh patiently modified his web designs to accommodate our changing whims. Ken Williams shared his understanding of web design with Aditya. Katherine Reagan, Curator of Rare Books and Manuscripts and Assistant Director for Collections in Cornell's Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, enthusiastically supported the project from the start and shared her knowledge of KRMC items. Elaine Engst, Director of KRMC and University Archivist, provided much needed advice and answered questions about the Cornell material. The staff of KRMC deftly dealt with our many requests. Rhea Garen aptly photographed the items selected by the students. And Mark Cruvellier, Architecture Department chair, provided the necessary financial support for our endeavors. Many thanks to all.
Enjoy!-Prof. D. Medina Lasansky
Participants in the seminar came from four different programs at Cornell University. The participants included:
Pete Levins (BArch and B.S. History of Architecture and Urban Development dual degree program, '12), [email protected]
Margot Lystra (MA/PhD program, History of Architecture and Urban Development), [email protected]
Whitten Overby (MA/PhD program, History of Architecture and Urban Development), [email protected]
Jimena Rosés-Sierra (MA in Design History, Theory and Criticism, Design and Environmental Analysis), [email protected]
Annie Schentag (MA/PhD program, History of Architecture and Urban Development), [email protected]
Scott Whitham (Masters of Professional Studies, Landscape Architecture), [email protected]
William McLeod, engraving from Harper's New York and Erie Railroad Guide, 1851, Kroch Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections (KRMC), Cornell University Library.
White, F. Letter to A. D. White. 18 December 1888. 01/02/02. Box 57. Kroch Division of Rare and Manuscript Collection (KRMC), Cornell University Library.
Abdullah Frerès, Ascension de Pyramide No8, ca. 1885, 13/1/1165, box 18, Willard Fiske Collection, Kroch Division of Rare and Manuscript Collection (KRMC), Cornell University Library.
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A Petrol engine or Gasoline engine is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition designed to run on petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile fuels. It differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in the fact that it uses spark plugs. In a diesel engine, merely the air is compressed, and the fuel is injected at the end of the compression stroke. In a petrol engine, the fuel and air are pre-mixed before compression. The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburettor but now (except in the smallest engines) it is done by electronically-controlled fuel injection. Pre-mixing of fuel and air allows a petrol engine to run at a much higher speed than a diesel, but severely limits their compression, and thus efficiency .
Petrol engines have many applications, including:
- Garden Tractors
- Motor cars
- Small machines, such as lawn mowers, chainsaws and portable Engine-generators
Petrol engines may run on the four-stroke cycle or the two-stroke cycle. For details of working cycles see:
Common cylinder arrangements are from 1 to 6 cylinders in-line or from 2 to 16 cylinders in V-formation. Alternatives include Rotary and Radial Engines the latter typically have 7 or 9 cylinders in a single ring, or 10 or 14 cylinders in two rings.
Petrol engines may be air-cooled, by fins on the cylinders, or liquid-cooled, by a water jacket and radiator. The coolant was formerly water but is now usually a mixture of water and ethylene glycol. This mixture has a lower freezing-point and a higher boiling-point than pure water. In addition, the cooling system is usually slightly pressurized to minimise evaporation of coolant.
The compression ratio is the ratio between the cylinder volumes at the beginning and end of the compression stroke. Broadly speaking, the higher the compression ratio, the higher the efficiency of the engine. However, compression ratio has to be limited to avoid pre-ignition of the fuel-air mixture which would cause engine knocking and damage to the engine. Modern motor-car engine generally have compression ratios of between 9:1 and 10:1, but this can go up to 11 or 12:1 for high-performance engines that run on, say, 98 R0N (93 AKI, US Premium- or European Super-grade) petrol. In the 1950s, with low-octane fuel and less well-designed cylinder heads, compression ratios were between 6.5:1 and 7:1. Old tractor engines running on tractor vaporising oil might have compression ratios as low as 4.5:1 but modern tractors have diesel engines.
- main article Ignition system
Petrol engines use spark ignition and high voltage current for the spark may be provided by a magneto or an ignition coil. In modern car engines the ignition timing is managed by an electronic Engine Control Unit (ECU).
Concerns about global warming and air pollution have put a question mark over the future of the petrol engine. Much has been done to improve its fuel efficiency and reduce emissions and this has bought it more time.
- Wikipedia as basic explanation of term
- Linked Tractor Wiki articles
|This page uses some content from Wikipedia. The original article was at Petrol engine. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with Tractor & Construction Plant Wiki, the text of Wikipedia is available under the Creative Commons by Attribution License and/or GNU Free Documentation License. Please check page history for when the original article was copied to Wikia|
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UC Berkeley Study: Corn Ethanol is Better than Gasoline, But Not by A Lot
26 January 2006
|Scatterplot of Net GHG and Net Energy Value results from the EBAMM model. Note Cellulosic ethanol to the right. Click to enlarge.|
A new analysis by researchers at the University of California, Berkeley concludes that the production of ethanol from corn uses less petroleum energy than the production of gasoline. However, they also conclude that the reduction in greenhouse gases derived by using corn ethanol as a fuel is smaller than some thought—between 10% to 15%.
The researchers note that new technologies now in development such as those for the production of cellulosic ethanol promise to make ethanol a truly green fuel with significantly less environmental impact than gasoline.
The UC Berkeley study, published in this issue of Science, deconstructed six separate high-profile—and contradictory—studies of ethanol. They assessed the studies’ assumptions and then reanalyzed each after correcting errors, inconsistencies and outdated information regarding the amount of energy used to grow corn and make ethanol, and the energy output in the form of fuel and corn byproducts.
It is better to use various inputs to grow corn and make ethanol and use that in your cars than it is to use the gasoline and fossil fuels directly. The people who are saying ethanol is bad are just plain wrong.
But it isn’t a huge victory—you wouldn’t go out and rebuild our economy around corn-based ethanol.—Dan Kammen, co-director of the Berkeley Institute of the Environment and UC Berkeley’s Class of 1935 Distinguished Chair of Energy
The goal of the UC Berkeley analysis was to understand how six studies of fuel ethanol could come to such different conclusions about the overall energy balance in its production and use. Kammen and Alex Farrell of the Energy and Resources Group at UC Berkeley, with their students Rich Plevin, Brian Turner and Andy Jones along with Michael O’Hare, a professor in the Goldman School of Public Policy dissected each study and recreated its analysis in a spreadsheet where they could be compared side-by-side.
The studies reviewed were:
Fossil Energy Use in the Manufacture of Corn Ethanol; Dr. Michael S. Graboski, Colorado School of Mines, Prepared for the National Corn Growers Association (2002)
The Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol: An Update; Hosein Shapouri, James A. Duffield, and Michael Wang; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Economic Report No. 814 (2002)
The 2001 Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol; Shapouri, H., Duffield, J., Mcaloon, A.J.; Proceedings Of The Conference On Agriculture As A Producer And Consumer Of Energy, Arlington, VA (2004)
The Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) Model, version 1.6; Michael Wang, Transportation Technology R&D Center, Argonne National Laboratory
“Thermodynamics of the Corn-Ethanol Biofuel Cycle”; Patzek, T.W.; Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 23(6), 519-567 (2004)
“Ethanol as Fuel: Energy, Carbon Dioxide Balances, and Ecological Footprint”; Marcelo E. Dias de Oliveira, Burton E. Vaughan, and Edward J. Rykiel, Jr.; BioScience, 55(7), 593 (2005)
“Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower”; David Pimentel and Tad W. Patzek; Natural Resource Research, 14(1), 65-76 (2005)
The UC Berkeley team has made its spreadsheet model, the Energy and Resources Group Biofuels Meta Model (EBAMM), available to the public on its Web site.
The team said it found numerous errors, inconsistencies and omissions among the studies, such as not considering the value of co-products of ethanol production—dried distillers grains, corn gluten feed and corn oil—that boost the net energy gain from ethanol production. Other studies overestimated the energy used by farm machinery.
On the other side, some studies ignored the use of crushed limestone on corn fields, which can be a significant energy input because of the need to pulverize the rock. Farrell noted that some numbers needed for the analysis, such as the amount of limestone applied, are just not known reliably. On the other hand, some of the studies used outdated data when more recent numbers were available, making ethanol look worse.
The UC Berkeley team calculated a Net Energy Value (Output energy - Input energy) for corn ethanol of 4.5 MJ/Liter. Cellulosic ethanol fares much better, with a calculated Net Energy Value of 22.8 MJ/L.
Farrell, Kammen and their colleagues considered not only the energy balance of corn ethanol production, but also the effect on the environment through production of greenhouse gases. While corn ethanol came out marginally better than gasoline in terms of greenhouse gas production, Farrell noted that corn production has other negative environmental impacts associated with fertilizer, pesticide and herbicide use. These need to be taken into account when considering the balance between corn ethanol and gasoline, though emerging cellulosic technologies using waste would push the equation more toward ethanol.
Two things are going to push the commercialization of cellulosic technology. One is driving the cost down, which is mainly research and development; the other is that environmental concerns are increasingly entering into commercial calculations about biofuels."—Alex Farrell
Kammen estimates that ethanol could replace 20% to 30% of fuel usage in this country with little effort in just a few years. In the long term, the United States may be able to match Sweden, which recently committed to an oil-free future based on ethanol from forests and solar energy.
Kammen last year published a paper, also in Science, arguing that even Africa could exploit its biomass to build a biofuel industry that could meet energy needs for the poor and develop a sustainable local fuel supply, a future much better than using fossil fuels.
“Ethanol can contribute to energy and environmental goals”; Farrell, A.E., R.J. Plevin, B.T. Turner, A.D. Jones, M. O’Hare, and D. Kammen; Science, 311. 506 - 508 (2006)
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The bottom line for ethanol — it's a stop-gap measure for transitioning from gasoline to ? (the next auto fuel). Link: Green Car Congress: UC Berkeley Study: Corn Ethanol is Better than Gasoline, But Not by A Lot.A new analysis [Read More]
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When we look around we can see the land and sea to be full of flavors and food available in various forms. Man can tantalizingly treat his taste buds from all the food available. Over the years, mankind learned to cook and assemble each food in the best way possible. There are many food items which we use in our daily meal and they are high in nutritional value but they may either have poisonous varieties or they need to be treated or cooked properly in order to avoid the poisoning. I thought to gather some information on such food items and list down a few of them.
10. Raw Cashew Nuts
Cashew nuts are delicious and the most desired of all the nuts. They are “Nature’s Vitamin Pill”. They are rich in zinc and good fat. These mouth watering nuts are related to poisonous ivy and poisonous oak. Urushiol is a skin irritant present in the shell of the raw unroasted cashew nuts. The cashew nuts when eaten or brought in contact with the skin when raw and not roasted cause skin itching, rash and allergy. There is a liquid present on the inner surface of the shell of the cashew nut. This liquid poisons the nut, if accidentally comes in contact with the cashew nut while breaking the shell.
9. Kidney Beans
Legumes have amazing nutritional qualities and are a part of balanced diet. They are high proteins, minerals, dietary fibers and complex carbohydrates and have low fat and cholesterol. We use legumes in our daily life but we are unaware that some legumes contain a toxin known as phytohemagglutinin (PHP) which is very high in kidney beans. One raw kidney bean contains around 70,000 hau and only few raw kidney beans have serious health hazards depending on the sensitivity of the person eating them. This toxin effects the cell metabolism and agglutinates most red blood cells. It attacks epithelial cells lining of the intestine and disables it. Only 5 raw kidney beans can cause reaction within 3 hours including nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Recovery occurs in 4 to 5 hours. This doesn’t mean that one should stop eating the beans. The beans should be treated and cooked properly to bring the poison to a safe level. If cooked incorrectly the poison increases by many folds. They should be soaked in water for a long time before cooking. Then after throwing that water they should be boiled in fresh water at 100 degrees for 10 minutes or more.
8. Stone Fruits (Peach, Apricot, Almond etc.)
Stone fruits include fruits like peach, apricot, almonds and cherries. They have excellent and exotic taste and high nutritional value. Stone fruits contain poisonous hydrocyanic (prussic) acid (HCN) in the pits and foliage. Since the poisonous cyanide is combined with one or more sugars, these molecules are referred to as cyanogenetic glucosides. HCN poisoning can be fatal. The cells stop absorbing oxygen and thus die from lack of oxygen even though oxygen is plentiful in the blood. Only 0.06gram is enough to cause death in many people. To avoid this, the seeds of the stone fruits should never be eaten. Almonds are the exception.
There are many berries like honeysuckle, wild strawberry, yew, holly, American bittersweet, elderberry, doll’s eye and jerusalem cerry among many other which may fool anyone by their looks and fragrance but care should be taken in eating berries because they may be poisonous in nature. Wild strawberry is so difficult to identify from the farmed strawberry. They look identical but differ in taste. The wild one is not as sweet as the farmed one. Only 3 pieces of holly, yew and many other berries cause nausea, sickness, vomiting and diarrhea. Rule is that we should avoid eating wild berries and if one eats a wild poisonous berry by mistake, one must immediately throw out.
6. Ackee/Vegetable Brain/Akee/Akee Apple
The fruit of the ackee is from an evergreen tree. This fruit is from the family of lychee and longan. The fruit is poisonous in nature and has a high content of fatty acids, zinc, proteins and vitamins. Only the inner, fleshy yellow arils can be consumed after proper cleaning and cooking. Raw ackees and the inner red tissue of the ripe ackees contain potent alkaloid toxins. These toxins cause fatal hypoglycemia after vomiting and seizures. This is known as Jamacian vomiting sickness. To avoid poisoning from the fruit, it must be harvested and cooked with care and in a proper way. The farmers must allow the pods of the fruit to ripen and open naturally in the tree. Picking should be done only after the pods are open. Careful cleaning of the fruit is done before cooking. The fruit must be boiled for at least 30 minutes and the water is discarded.
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By Tom Grier for Latex Allergy 101 (Updated 10/8/2015)
Allergic reactions to products containing natural rubber latex often result from exposure of sensitized individuals to one or more proteins that occur naturally in raw latex preparations. At least 13 distinct proteins have been identified and associated with latex sensitivities in health care workers, spina bifida patients, and children or adults within the general population, with most allergic patients reacting to multiple latex proteins that vary somewhat between these groups.
The biological functions or enzymatic activities associated with most latex allergens have been determined. Several of these proteins are active enzymes involved in defending the latex plant from microbial attacks, particularly colonization and growth of numerous fungi. In general, proteins that serve similar functions in different plants (whether genetically related or not) usually contain highly conserved sequences and three‐dimensional structures, so it is not surprising to find plant defense or pathogenesis‐related proteins with activities comparable to those found in latex in a wide variety of plants that include many common foods.
Cross‐reactivity with foods
These relationships are relevant to latex allergy because a number of these common plant defense proteins are potent allergens. The tendency of latex‐sensitive individuals to express allergic reactions after ingestion of certain foods has been recognized for many years, and subsequent clinical and laboratory studies have confirmed both the sources of the offending allergens and their relevance to the allergic condition. Our immune systems recognize particular antigen structures as foreign without regard to the origin of these molecules. Close structural similarities between any two allergens from divergent sources can produce similar allergic reactions in sensitive patients, and is termed cross‐reactivity or cross‐sensitization. Ingestion of some foods produce allergic symptoms in patients sensitive to latex inhalation or contact due to the presence of these common or cross‐reactive protein allergens.
This association between latex sensitivity and food allergy is often referred to as the latex‐fruit syndrome, although many vegetable foods have also been identified as possessing clinical and/or immunologic cross‐reactivities with latex proteins. The foods shown below have been linked allergenically to latex in published reports and are grouped based on high, moderate or low/undetermined degrees of association to latex or prevalence of allergic reactions. It is likely that other foods not yet identified also possess some allergenic similarities to latex.
Avocado, Banana, Chestnut, Kiwi
Apple, Carrot, Celery. Melons, Papaya, Potato, Tomato
Apricot, Buckwheat, Cassava/Manioc, Castor bean, Cherry, Chick pea, Citrus fruits, Coconut, Cucumber, Dill, Eggplant/Aubergine, Fig,
Goji berry/Wolfberry, Grape, Hazelnut, Indian jujube, Jackfruit, Lychee, Mango, Nectarine, Oregano, Passion fruit, Peach, Peanut, Pear,
Peppers (Cayenne, Sweet/bell), Persimmon, Pineapple, Pumpkin, Rye, Sage, Strawberry, Shellfish, Soybean, Sunflower seed, Tobacco, Turnip, Walnut, Wheat, Zucchini
It is important to note that some of the foods on listed above may not produce clinically important reactions in latex‐sensitive individuals, for numerous reasons. However, recognition of the foods that are known to share some major or minor allergens with latex can help patients and their families minimize exposures to possible sources of provocative allergens and understand the risks associated with inclusion of these foods in their diets.
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Quercus alba L. White oak, eastern white oak, northern white oak. Family Fagaceae. ITIS Taxonomic Serial Number 19290. USDA PLANTS Symbol QUAL. TROPICOS # 13100028.
Images Branchlet with leaves. Individual leaf 1. Individual leaf 2. Individual leaf 3. Individual leaf 4. Individual leaf 5. Branchlet with buds. Close-up of buds. Branchlet with staminate flowers. Close-up of fruits. Herbarium sheet 1. Herbarium sheet 2. Herbarium sheet 3. Herbarium sheet 4. Herbarium sheet 5.
Plant habit and life style. Plants Angiosperms, monoecious, (15)2035(40) m tall.
Stems. Pith continuous. Young twigs (1-year-old or less) green or purple or red, 23(4) mm wide, glabrous or glabrate or pubescent. Twigs (24 years old) glabrous. Leaf scars half-round, bundle scars numerous, stipule scars inconspicuous, stipule scars not circumferential. Bark of mature trunks exfoliating or flaky or furrowed or plated or ridged.
Buds. Buds axillary or terminal, bud clusters at ends of twigs present, reddish-brown, 35(6) mm long, ellipsoid or globose or ovoid, blunt, glabrous or glabrate, bud scales imbricate.
Leaves. Leaves deciduous, simple, petiolate, alternate or spiral, (7)1218(25) cm long, (4)711(17) cm wide, elliptic or obovate or ovate, leaf margins entire, leaf margins plane or undulate, shallowly lobed or moderately lobed or deeply lobed or divided, pinnately lobed, leaf lobes (4)68(11) per leaf, leaf apices acute or rounded, leaf bases cuneate. Leaf upper surface green, glabrous or glabrate, puberulent. Leaf lower surface green or silver or white, glabrous or glabrate or pubescent or with tufts in vein axils, puberulent. Leaf venation pinnate, secondary veins on either side of the midvein (3)57. Petioles (0.4)12.5(3) cm long, glabrous. Stipules present, caducous, scarious, not circumferential.
Flowers. Flowering April or May or June. Inflorescences axillary, catkins or flowers solitary or spikes, flowers sessile. Flowers unisexual, epigynous. Perianth. Calyx radially symmetric, synsepalous. Sepals (2)6(8) per flower, red or yellow, sepal apices acute, caducous. Corolla absent. Androecium. Stamens (2)6(12) per flower, separate. Gynoecium. Ovaries inferior, pistils 1 per flower. Gynoecium syncarpous, 3 carpels per flower, styles 3 per pistil, placentation axile. Other floral features. Hypanthia present, involucres present.
Fruits. Fruits accessory fruits or acorns or nuts, (1)1.52.5(3.5) cm long, brown or reddish-brown, fruit maturation 1 years.
Habitat. Habitat bottomland forests or dry-mesic upland forests or mesic upland forests or mixed forest edges or suburban plantings.
Special Diagnostic Characters. Staminate flowers in pendent catkins, pistillate flowers solitary or in few- to many-flowered spikes; pistillate flowers enclosed by a scaly involucre which develops into the acorn cup.
Cite this publication as: ‘Stephen M. Seiberling, Alan S. Weakley, and Peter S. White (2005 onwards). Common Trees of the North Carolina Piedmont: Identification, Descriptions, Illustrations, and Glossary. Version: March 7, 2006. <http://www.ibiblio.org/openkey/intkey/>’.
Back to Contents
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"Farming required a great deal of hand labor and this was especially true on the diversified farms of Berrien County".
The Pratts grew strawberries, raspberries, cherries, peaches and apples. This wide variety of crops resulted in a picking season which began in the middle of June and lasted through the late apples in the fall. The most satifactory pickers were hobos.
"These were men in their late 30's to 60's who would start with strawberries in Louisiana and work north as the season advanced".
Hobos' mode of transportation was simply railroad boxcars. These men had an informal headquarters at Riverside just northeast of Benton Harbor. They would work in the area around Riverside and stay at the farms all season never going to town, but wouldn't go too far away to work. When the Pratts moved to Watervliet about 15 miles away they refused to stay at a job that was that far from "home". The hobos had their own bunkhouse, the hobo house, and did their own cooking. W.M.Pratt would do their grocery shopping for them and deduct the money from their wages. They didn't ask for their wages until they were ready to leave at the end of the season.
"Some would have money when they came, and occasionally one would ask my father to keep it for them. One man, on arrival, gave him over $300 to keep, remarking that, 'Jim', one of the other men, 'is going to kill me'. Father took the money, but assumed there was little likelihood of a killing or the prospective victim would hardly have chosen to work on the same farm. There was no trouble though Father noticed that the two of them seemed never to sleep."
Wikipedia definitions: "Hobos differentiate themselves as travelers who are homeless and willing to work, whereas a tramp travels but will not work. while a bum does neither"..
My note: When my Dad was in the fruit business in the 30's the pickers around Watervliet were mostly what were called "Arkies", that is migratory worker families from Arkansas (and probably other states), who would go back home when the picking season was over. This is in contrast to the "Okies" of the same Depression era who migrated to California permanently. Their story was told by John Steinbeck in his "Grapes of Wrath" (which I read as a sophomore in high school. I still remember doing an oral book report in Miss Heldt's English Class). (emailed July 12)
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Computers will play an extraordinary part in the new civilization. Today, millions of people work in factories, producing vast amounts of goods. In the future, with the development of the human mind (which has barely begun to manifest itself), we will create computers par excellence, which will respond to human thought - scientists are already beginning to do this. They will respond so completely that they can be programmed to make all the artifacts that we use in everyday life. This will free humanity for leisure and for an exploration of our own nature and creativity. Today's robots are as nothing compared to the unbelievable sophistication which will characterize the computers of the future, computers which will be programmed, by thought, to create in the way that we create.
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| 0.926837 | 228 | 2.90625 | 3 |
Symbolism, Imagery, Allegory
Yams are a crop grown exclusively by men. Growing yams is labor intensive, and the size of a man's fields and harvest says much about his work ethic. Yams are grown to gain wealth and also to feed one's family. They are a symbol of masculinity and ability as a provider.
According to Umuaro religion, the harvest can't take place until the Feast of the New Yam is called by Ulu's chief priest, Ezeulu. And in order to punish Umuaro, Ezeulu stubbornly maintains that he can't call the feast until he eats the three remaining sacred yams. Ezeulu claims that according to Ulu, he can only eat one yam a month. While Ezeulu keeps to this rigid schedule, the rest of Umuaro begins to fall into famine and death.
At the end of Arrow of God, the Christian church invites the people of Umuaro to sacrifice their yams to the Christian god. When this happens, it symbolizes the triumph of Christianity over traditional Umuaro religion.
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How house-hunting ants choose the best home
Press release issued: 22 April 2009
Direct comparison of alternatives isn’t always the best way to make a decision – at least if you’re an ant. House-hunting rock ants collectively manage to choose the best nest-site without needing to study all their options, according to new research from the University of Bristol.
Dr Elva Robinson and colleagues in the University’s School of Biological Sciences fitted rock ants (Temnothorax albipennis) with tiny radio-frequency identification tags, each measuring 1 / 2,000 (one two-thousandth) the size of a postage stamp, then observed as they chose between a poor nest nearby and a good nest further away.
The ant colonies showed sophisticated nest-site choice, selecting the superior site even though it was nine times further away than the alternative. The best nest was chosen, despite the fact that very few individual ants made direct comparisons between the nest-sites.
When a colony of rock ants needs to emigrate to a new nest, scouting ants first discover new nests and assess them then the scouts recruit nest-mates to the new nest using tandem-running, where an informed ant leads a second ant to her destination. When the number of ants in the new nest reaches a quorum, scouts begin rapid transport of the rest of the colony by carrying nest-mates and brood.
In the Bristol tests, very few ants appeared to make direct comparisons between the two nests by making multiple visits to each before choosing one or the other. However, approximately half (forty-one per cent) of the ants that first visited the near nest later switched to the far nest, whereas only a tiny minority (three per cent) of the ants that first visited the far nest switched to the near nest. This ultimately resulted in the entire colony ending up in the better nest.
Dr Robinson said: “Each ant appears to have its own ‘threshold of acceptability’ against which to judge a nest individually. Ants finding the poor nest were likely to switch and find the good nest, whereas ants finding the good nest were more likely to stay committed to that nest. When ants switched quickly between the two nests, colonies ended up in the good nest. Individual ants did not need to comparatively evaluate both nests in order for the entire colony to make the correct decision.
“On the other hand, animals – including humans – who use comparative evaluation frequently make ‘irrational’ decisions, due to the context in which options are compared or by inconsistently ranking pairs of options, (for example option A preferred to B, B preferred to C but C preferred to A).
“The ants’ threshold rule makes an absolute assessment of nest quality that is not subject to these risks, and circumvents the necessity for memorization and comparison of every site visited. Thus, simple individual behaviour substitutes for direct comparison, facilitating effective choice between nest sites for the colony as a whole.”
The research is published today in Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
‘Do ants make direct comparisons?’ Elva J. H. Robinson, Faith D. Smith, Kathryn M. E. Sullivan and Nigel R. Franks Proc. R. Soc. B
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| 0.943677 | 677 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Canadians living in homeless shelters and rooming houses have a much shorter life expectancy than the general population - and poverty is not the only factor contributing to their premature deaths, researchers conclude.
In a 10-year study, researchers found the chance of surviving to age 75 among the homeless or inadequately housed is 32 per cent for men and 60 per cent for women, compared to 51 per cent and 72 per cent respectively for the lowest income group in Canada's population.
To put that in perspective, the probability that a 25-year-old man living today in marginal housing would make it to age 75 is equal to the life expectancy of the average young male in 1921 - long before the advent of antibiotics and other life-saving treatments.
For homeless or poorly housed females, their chance of surviving to 75 is the same as women in the general population of Canada in 1956.
"Even compared to the poorest one-fifth of the Canadian population, people living in shelters, rooming houses and hotels had a much lower probability of survival," said lead researcher Stephen Hwang, an internal medicine specialist at St. Michael's Hospital in Toronto's downtown core.
"In fact, the men living in rooming houses are four times more likely to die [prematurely]than people in the general population."
There are many factors that contribute to a lower life expectancy, said Hwang, noting that illnesses linked to alcohol and drug abuse, as well as tobacco-related diseases, are "greatly increased in this population."
"For people living in these marginal housing situations, their access to care and the control of their chronic conditions is worse than in the general population," he said, explaining that poorly managed high blood pressure and diabetes can dramatically ratchet up the risk of death from heart attack and stroke.
Those in shelters and rooming houses often suffer from mental illnesses, and suicide is more common. Exposure to deadly violence also occurs more often when compared to the general population, he said.
"I guess violence and injury travel with poverty, and so the individuals are more than just poor, they're living in ... situations that probably further increase the risk [of death]"
The study, published online Monday by the British Medical Journal, looked at 1991 census data on 15,100 people of varying ages across Canada, who reported being homeless or living in rooming houses or hotels.
Using death records, the researchers determined 3,280 had died in the next 10 years, allowing them to calculate mortality rates and life expectancy for different age groups.
While most people may realize that being homeless and relying on shelters can put one's health and life at risk, Hwang said those residing in rooming houses and low-end hotels are just as disadvantaged.
Based on his experience treating patients, he said it's often easier for people in shelters to access medical care because staff will see a person looking ill and send them to a hospital or bring in a doctor or a nurse.
"Rooming houses and other marginal housing situations are kind of a hidden world. You can be on death's door in a room in your rooming house and no one may know that."
Hwang said the study's findings are a de facto call to government to ensure that all citizens have "decent and affordable housing."
"If you improve the housing situation of these individuals, would their chance of dying decrease? Our study doesn't directly tell us that it would make a difference, but I believe that it would."
James Frankish, director of the Centre for Population Health Promotion Research at the University of British Columbia, called the study "interesting and important."
"It raises very interesting questions about this Pandora's box of chronic disease in low-income, marginalized people," he said from Vancouver. "It's not just being poor, it's something about their social conditions, the actual physical environment in which they live."
Improving the health and life expectancy of people on the bottom rungs of society isn't just about providing a roof over their heads, but also about helping them with social reintegration - getting involved in the community, working if they can, going back to school and connecting to others, he said.
"This study ... clearly shows that we're putting ... pretty ill people in pretty marginalized housing. And then what?
"They're either going to die an untimely death, which this study shows that they do, or they often end up having very expensive and inappropriate use of the health system, because they don't have physicians, they don't have GPs. They use the emergency ward, which is a really expensive way to get care. Or they don't get any care until they're really sick and then they have to be hospitalized."
"As Canadians, what are we prepared to do about it?"Report Typo/Error
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| 0.972824 | 991 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Find over 200 print-friendly fact sheets about heart disease and related health topics.
Back labor occurs during labor and delivery if your baby is
positioned in the birth canal with the back of his or her head pressing against
your spine. Back labor can cause severe, persistent low back pain.
November 2, 2011
Sarah Marshall, MD - Family Medicine & Kirtly Jones, MD - Obstetrics and Gynecology
To learn more visit Healthwise.org
© 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
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Major Biology Themes
What exactly do we mean by "big recurring themes"? Well, you will see all of these ideas over and over again, in a bunch of different contexts and situations. Let's get cracking.
Evolution is an important theme in biology. If you go looking for it, you will be able to find an aspect of every living creature out there that is in fact a product of evolution. How did life get to be the way that it is? Evolution, that's how.
2. Levels of organization
How do systems, processes, and events at one level of organization affect other levels? Are units at one level just the sum of units at other levels, or are there emergent properties unique to certain levels? As you may have guessed by our strategic bolding, the latter choice is the answer.
Let’s face it: Life is a control freak. Everything is regulated, and when regulation fails, the results are generally not good. How does regulation work at the different levels of organization, such as molecules, organs, and ecosystems?
4. Structure and function
How do biological structures relate to the functions they perform? Is a specific structure ideal or optimal for that function? If not, how might this less-than-optimal structure be explained by evolution?
5. Unity and diversity
Certain structures and processes may be common to many or all life forms, but Nature has modified them in diverse ways, resulting in a tremendous range of variation.
This list of themes isn’t complete yet, and as you bask in your newfound, undying love of biology, you will no doubt come up with themes of your own. Try to keep these ideas in the back of your mind…preferably forever, but if that’s not possible, then at least as long as you’re learning biology. They will enable you to keep everything you learn in perspective so that you can see how all the little tidbits of information fit into the big picture. That’s what biology is all about: little, teensy tiny tidbits and how they fit into a bigger picture. Oh, and organization, organization, and more organization.
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| 0.93138 | 448 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Ketones (also called ketone bodies) are substances produced by
the body as it breaks down fats for energy, a process called ketosis.
Normally the body obtains the energy it needs from sugars
(carbohydrates). A person may begin to break down fats and produce ketones
Having too little insulin, which prevents the body from using sugar for energy, causing it
to break down fat instead.
Prolonged vomiting or
A diet that is low in sugars and starches
Ketone testing can be done anytime using a urine test strip or a blood sugar meter that tests for ketones. If ketone
levels are very high or if the person is dehydrated, ketones may begin to build
up in the blood. High blood levels of ketones may cause fruity-smelling breath,
loss of appetite, nausea or vomiting, and fast, deep breathing. In severe
cases, it may lead to coma and death. In a pregnant woman, even a moderate
amount of ketones in her blood may harm the fetus.
of ketones may signal diabetic ketoacidosis, a dangerous condition that is caused by very high blood
E. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal Medicine & Rhonda O'Brien, MS, RD, CDE - Certified Diabetes Educator
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| 0.838524 | 270 | 3.328125 | 3 |
By Gene and
There's a lot of misinformation about bats. Many people think they're dangerous critters, but actually, bats are one of man's best friends because they eat mosquitoes and other pesky insects. To attract bats to your backyard, make a roosting box or bat house and hang it on a tree or on your house. The box works best if it is positioned about 12 to 15 feet high. If possible, put it on the east side of the tree or house so that it will receive the morning sun but be shaded during the afternoon. Bats seem to take up residence in boxes that are protected from the wind.
The bat roosting box is easy to build using pine boards. It is designed with partitions or walls inside, which the bats attach themselves to. If the partitions are smooth, roughen them up with a chisel or saw cuts so that the bats can climb on them. Some bat experts suggest putting a band of black tape, tar paper, or paint on the front and side surfaces to attract bats to the box.
To build the bat roosting box, begin by cutting the parts to length. All the parts are cut from lx8 lumber. After you have cut the parts to length, trim the sides (B) so that they are 53/4 inches wide. When you assemble the house, put the edge with the saw marks facing the back of the bat house.
Assembly is easy, but first draw layout lines on the sides to help you position your nails accurately. Make light pencil lines on the outside face of each side 3/8 inch from the front and back edges. Then draw another line 2 7/8 inches from the back edge (remember that the rough edge goes toward the back); the nails that hold the partition © in place go along this line. This line should extend only 9 inches down from the top edge of the side, because the partition will not run the full length of the side.
Drive five evenly spaced number 4 aluminum finishing nails along each of the longer lines and four evenly spaced nails along each of the shorter lines. Pound the nails into the wood just deep enough so their points emerge from the other side. Put some glue on the edge of the back (A), and then place a side against it. Carefully align the parts at the top, then drive the nails through the side into the edge of the back. Next, put glue on the edge of the partition and place it in alignment with the center set of nails. Check that it is flush with the top edge of the side, and then drive the nails through the side into its edge. Install the front (E) in the same way.
Turn the unit over and apply glue to the upward-facing edges of the back, partition, and front, and nail the second side in place. Check alignment at the top and make sure that the partition is in alignment with the nails. Put the bottom (D) in place, and secure it with nails driven through the front and side into its edge.
The top (F) is glued and nailed in place with its back edge flush with the back piece (A). First, draw nail layout lines on the top piece 3/8 inch from its back edge and 11/2 inches from its sides. Then drive five evenly spaced nails along the back line and four nails along each side line just deep enough so their points emerge from the other side. Apply glue to the top edges of the house assembly, and nail the roof in place.
You can stain the house with any outdoor-type stain, but we don't recommend painting it because paint will eventually peel. We gave our house a coating of water seal and left it natural. Install a large brass picture hanger on the back of the bat house, and it's ready for tenants.
Four hours for cutting, building, and assembling, plus drying time for glue and finish.
You may be interested in these popular woodworking plans:
Find helpful advice and tips about tools, finishing, safety practices and a glossary of woodworking terms at Before You Begin
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Renewables bring down the wholesale cost of energy, finds new studyRSS Feed
A new report shows that renewables are cutting the wholesale price of energy and lessening the impact of subsidies on bill payers.
The report has been published today by independent energy company Good Energy and is backed by experts at the University of Sheffield.
It follows recent announcements by the Government that it will cut subsidies for renewables such as solar and wind in order to keep bills as low as possible for families and businesses.
Good Energy’s report shows that wind and solar brought down the wholesale cost of electricity by £1.55 billion in 2014.
That meant an overall net cost for supporting the two renewable sources last year was £1.1 billion, 58% less than the cost reflected in the capped budget set for green subsidies, known as the Levy Control Framework.
Good Energy Chief Executive Juliet Davenport OBE said:
"This analysis puts the bill payer at the centre of the debate around renewable energy subsidies. Let's give them the full picture and not just half of it.
"What is not taken into account is the fact that renewable energy, such as wind and solar, has actually been bringing the cost of energy down for consumers.”
"The bill payer money invested into supporting renewables yields significant benefits, let's be very clear about that."
Experts from the University of Sheffield have backed the report and are about to publish the results of their own study on the savings onshore and offshore are contributing to wholesale energy costs.
Dr Lisa Clark, from the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Sheffield, said:
"Decarbonising electricity generation is critical for the future sustainability of the planet. In the UK wind is a really important source of renewable electricity."
"At the moment the costs of renewable subsidy schemes such as Feed-in Tariff and Renewable Obligation have cast doubt over future of renewables. But there are very few reports of the actual financial savings from renewable generation like wind and existing savings to consumers."
"However, this report provides clear evidence that UK wind generation is typically saving UK consumers around £1.5 billion per year. This is more or less the same amount that the subsidies cost. At the University of Sheffield we have recently finished a similar study and we find very similar numbers.
"So not only is wind energy decarbonising our electricity generation, it isn't costing any more than any other source of electricity to do so."
Paul Barwell, Chief Executive of the Solar Trade Association said:
"With the Government’s consultation on the Feed-in Tariff review closing this week (October 23rd), this report is very timely. This analysis shows that the net effect on bills of supporting new rooftop solar - under the STA's £1 plan - is zero. The £100m we need added to consumer bills over three years will be completely offset by the savings from solar lowering the wholesale price. This is just the evidence that the Government needs."
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| 0.954271 | 618 | 2.828125 | 3 |
George Eastman, who was born in Waterville, N.Y., received patent #306,594 on October 14, 1884 for photographic film. Eastman's invention revolutionized photography by using coated paper and rollers, rather than heavy glass dry plates, to reproduce images. Eastman began looking for ways to "make the camera as convenient as the pencil," after amassing the heavy, complicated, and expensive equipment he needed to keep a picture record of his vacation. This invention allowed him to mass produce a small hand-held box camera filled with rolls of film with 100 exposures. Millions of Americans recorded the first snap shots of their everyday lives using the Kodak camera, which was introduced in 1888. In 1977, George Eastman was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
In addition to an inventive spirit, Eastman also had a strong belief in the power of advertising. He first registered "KODAK®," a term he created, as a trademark in 1888. Today the word "Kodak," and the Eastman Kodak Company's distinctive yellow trade dress, are well-known around the world.
Eastman's patent and many of the Eastman Kodak trademarks, as well as the more than 6 million patents issued since the first in 1790 and the 2.3 million trademarks registered since 1870, can be seen on the Department of Commerce's United States Patent and Trademark Office website at www.uspto.gov.
Last year USPTO issued 182,223 patents and registered 127,794 trademarks.
# # #
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The discovery last month of cochlodinium, or rust tide, in Three Mile Harbor in East Hampton came amid the ongoing closure of Georgica Pond to the harvesting of crabs and other marine life due to the discovery in July of another toxic algal bloom, cyanobacteria.
Rust tide, which is not harmful to humans but can kill shellfish and finfish, has now appeared in town waterways for 11 consecutive years, with recent sampling by Christopher Gobler of Stony Brook University showing some of the highest densities since its first appearance. The algal bloom is a potential threat to this autumn’s bay scallop harvest.
“The rust tide has been blooming in Three Mile Harbor for three to four weeks now,” Dr. Gobler wrote in an email on Monday. “It has also been blooming in Sag Harbor and Accabonac Harbor, although less so recently in the latter,” he wrote.
Diane McNally, clerk of the East Hampton Town Trustees, who manage town waterways on behalf of the public, said that Georgica Pond would remain closed because of the continued presence of cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae, which she said is not widespread. Cyanobacteria produces toxins that can be harmful to people and animals if ingested. The pond’s status was to be on the agenda of the trustees’ Aug. 26 meeting, which was canceled.
In a document related to Georgica Pond dated Sunday, Dr. Gobler wrote that the water-quality monitoring he has been doing in conjunction with the trustees for the past two years has revealed multiple problems, including low oxygen levels, fish kills, blooms of macroalgae, or seaweeds, and cyanobacteria blooms. High levels of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as high temperatures and poor water circulation, promote the growth of cyanobacteria. “These issues must be addressed to alleviate these blooms,” he wrote.
Development of a management plan to address the pond was the focus of an Aug. 14 meeting between representatives from East Hampton Town and Village, the trustees, the Nature Conservancy, Dr. Gobler, and an environmental consultant. The plan was also a topic at the town board’s work session on Tuesday.
The pond should be opened to the ocean more frequently and for longer periods in order to increase flushing, raise salinity levels, and lower nutrient levels, Dr. Gobler wrote, all of which should discourage the development of algal blooms. However, “there are no comprehensive reports on the response of Georgica Pond to these openings; they could have unintended consequences on the ecosystem and its human and nonhuman residents or may be fully beneficial,” he wrote. “Once they are better understood, openings may be utilized more frequently or strategically to benefit all users of the pond.”
The most prominent nutrient sources must be identified, and the relative importance of nitrogen and phosphorus in promoting cyanobacteria blooms over a full year must be assessed, Dr. Gobler wrote.
A watershed management plan in development by participants of the Aug. 14 meeting will follow Dr. Gobler’s recommendations, East Hampton Town Supervisor Larry Cantwell said at the work session. Kim Shaw, the director of the town’s Natural Resources Department, will work with the trustees and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation to that end, he said.
Use of fertilizers in watershed areas should be limited, according to the plan, and barriers installed at key locations to prevent pollutants from entering the pond. Natural buffers along the shoreline should be enlarged, and shoreline property owners should be educated as to the detrimental impact of fertilizer on the pond’s health.
The discussion also included requiring maximum setbacks from waterfront areas in all new construction, and the replacement of aging septic systems from which nutrients may be leaking into the watershed.
With reporting by Joanne Pilgrim
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Take an adventure holiday in VENEZUELA with World Expeditions, one of the world’s leading travel companies.
Venezuela is a land of contrasts. Whilst it is one of the wealthiest countries in South America, with good roads and tourism infrastructure, it is also home to Indian groups which continue to live their traditional lifestyle. The northern Caribbean coastline runs for 2800 kilometres, whilst to the south, bordering Brazil, is Amazon rainforest. The south is also characterised by the swampy lands of the Orinoco delta and the Guiana Highlands where the tepuis, or table mountains, are located. To the northwest, bordering on Colombia, is the northern end of the Andes, known as the Sierra Nevada de Merida, where the highest peak is Pico Bolivar (5007m). To the north of the Andes is the largest lake in South America, Lago Maracaibo.
Before the Spanish Conquest in the Fifteenth century, the country was settled by three main Indian tribes. Christopher Columbus set foot on Venezuelan soil in 1498, and the Spanish settlement began around 1500. The father of Venezuela, Simon Bolivar or El Liberatador, paved the way for independence from the Spanish as far south as Argentina. Independence was achieved in 1821 when Bolivar defeated Spanish forces in Carabobo, and he went on to liberate Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador by 1824. This fighting was done at great expense to the Venezuela which is estimated to have lost 25% of its population during the liberation period.
Venezuela is made up of more than 20 Indian groups, representing around 1% of the population. Within these Indian communities, more than 40 different languages are used. The majority of the population (around 70%) are a mixture of European, Indian and African races. The remainder is represented by whites (21%) and blacks (8%). Spanish is the official language. The population is 23.5 million, of which around 20% reside in Caracas.
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Particularly after the introduction of flashy Tesla Roadster, more people are growing enamored with new electric vehicles, but the limited range is still enough to discourage most people who get past the price tag. Researchers at the Massachusetts Institue of Technology might have found a way to fix that problem, according to CNET.
Edmunds.com looked at two of the biggest-name plug-in cars this year, the pure-electric Nissan Leaf and the hybrid-plug-in Chevrolet Volt. Obviously the Volt can go as far as necessary on its conventional engine, but its electric range reaches only between 30 and 40 miles. Relying exclusively on its electric engine, the Leaf clearly far outstrips the Volt, but still limits drivers to roughly 100 miles before requiring a recharge. Perfect for day-to-day driving, but not as good for the occasional road trip.
Limited range in itself is a problem, but Edmunds points out that most conventional cars also need a refill after around 300 miles. The biggest issue for electric cars is the combination of short range, as well as the requirement of frequent recharges, and extremely long recharge times. The Leaf needs between 4 and 8 hours with a special recharging setup, while the Volt can take as little as 4 hours with a 240-volt power supply or as much as 10 hours with only 120 volts.
The Leaf can be charged in as little as 30 minutes with a special quick-charge station, but these are still few and far between. In either case, these cars can easily become impractical if you live in an apartment and cannot install your own charging station.
Enter MIT professors Yet-Ming Chiang and Craig Carter. Along with some of their students, these two researchers developed a new approach to an old technology known as semi-solid flow batteries. Flow batteries are a relatively old concept that suspends charged particles in a compound that resembles slime, but the low energy density of these semi-solids requires the use of huge storage containers that generally make more sense for industrial purposes.
The MIT group was able to improve the energy density 10 fold, allowing for flow batteries small enough to use in automobiles and actually smaller than existing lithium-ion electric car batteries. The biggest advantage to these new batteries, however, is that pumping stations could remove depleted material and replace it with a fresh charge in the same time and similar fashion to present-day gas pumps.
Compare that to the concept Wired reported on a couple years ago of battery exchange stations.
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How to Help Your Dog Have Healthy Teeth
Beyond brushing your dog’s teeth, you can help keep your canine companion’s canines clean in a variety of ways. Most of the methods have something to do with feeding your dog the right kind of food and giving him appropriate kinds of chews:
Provide dental toys intended to reduce plaque and tartar.
Some toys are made so that you can squeeze doggie toothpaste into them, so they sometimes take the place of brushing. Busy Buddy, Kong toys, and Nylabone all have products intended to clean teeth.
Feed certain premium dog foods.
Some premium dog foods have additives that make their products more dental friendly by making them more abrasive. Hill’s and Iams each markets a dental dog food, and so do many other brands.
Treat with tartar-control biscuits.
Many pet food manufacturers have come up with tartar-control biscuits and snacks.
Give appropriate kinds of dog chews.
Some chews, such as Greenies and Pedigree’s Dentabone, are made to help reduce plaque and tartar.
Throw ’em large bones.
Giving your dog a big marrow bone or knucklebone from a cow often helps clean canine teeth. Some veterinarians recommend boiling them for safety or freezing them raw to make them harder. Bones are controversial, because they harbor bacteria and can cause blockages when chewed or swallowed. Never give a dog small sharp bones that can splinter.
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Garden Dictionary Word: field records (syn. field notes, syn. field data)
field records (syn. field notes, syn. field data)
A pocket-sized notebook which holds complete data on a field trip, including the precise location of places explored, dates, flora collected with any assigned numbers such as a tube of pollen or seeds, information on such things as a location in shade or sun, insects found on plants, moisture, bloom or fruit and their colors, and nearby plants, etc.
A| B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z
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Working with Hmong Audiences -
A Collection of Resources for Nutrition Education
This collection of resources was gathered by a Work Group of Cooperative Extension educators from Wisconsin and Minnesota. The members of the Work Group came together to share experiences, resources and knowledge related to working with Hmong audiences in the area of nutrition education. Additional resources related to working with or teaching Hmong families and individuals are being sought and developed by members of the Work Group, and will be posted as they become available.
Notes from Wisconsin/Minnesota Hmong Work Group meetings or conferences:
- Minutes from April 19-20, 1999 meeting in Eau Claire, WI - PDF*
- Work Group members' comments after the meeting on April 19-20 - PDF*
- Minutes from telephone conference held August 18, 1999 - PDF*
- Minutes from telephone conference held November 19, 1999 - PDF*
- Minutes from telephone conference held January 7, 2000- PDF*
History and Culture of the Hmong people
The Hmong in Wisconsin and Minnesota
Books, Reference Materials and Web Sites on Hmong Audiences
Nutrition Education Needs of Hmong Learners
- Summaries of available information on the nutrition education needs of Hmong learners, based on the core areas:
- Food Security
- Food Safety
- Diet Quality
- "Hmong Food." A brief description of traditional foods and eating patterns of Hmong families. http://www.como.stpaul.k12.mn.us/Vue-Benson/AY111.html
- "Cultural Diversity: Eating in America-Hmong." A summary of common eating habits of Hmong families in America and implications for nutrition education programs with Hmong learners. http://ohioline.ag.ohio-state.edu/hyg-fact/5000/5254.html
- "Hmong American Food Practices, Customs, and Holidays-Ethnic and Regional Food Practices Series." A 20-page booklet by the American Dietetic Association and the American Diabetes Association describing typical foods and meals eaten by Hmong Americans. Includes a nutrient database for selected foods, a glossary and implications for nutrition education with Hmong learners. $10.00 (plus shipping and handling) for non-ADA members. Ordering information: (800) 877-1600 ext. 5000; or go to: http://www.eatright.org/bibethnic.html
- Food Resource Management
Assessing the Nutrition Education Needs of Hmong Learners - Tools for Educators
Nutrition Education Resources for Hmong Learners
- Planning: tools and worksheets to facilitate planning educational programs and activities
- Educational Materials Review Form - PDF* - for materials used with diverse audiences. This review form has been developed by staff from Minnesota and Wisconsin. It is suggested that the form be used to review and evaluate teaching materials being considered for use with Hmong learners.
- Planning for a Teaching Event - Worksheet - PDF*
- Teaching resources - Activities, written material and handouts, videos, etc.
- Resources for teaching about Food Safety
- "Keep Your Food Safe" Booklet in Hmong - PDF*
- "Keep Your Food Safe" Booklet in English - PDF*
- "Food Safety at Home" teaching materials. (Not available in Hmong language, but may be suitable for use with Hmong learners.) A kitchen scene depicting common kitchen hazards. Handouts, poster, training guides and a CD-ROM version are available. Ordering information available at: http://ftw.che.umn.edu/products.html
- Resources for teaching about Choosing a Good Diet (Diet Quality) (includes feeding children, breastfeeding)
- Resources for teaching about Food Resource Management (includes food preparation)
Evaluation tools/ideas for use in documenting knowledge and/or behavior changes by learners.
Chat Room for extension educators who work with Hmong audiences, for sharing ideas, challenges and solutions. (Future resource)
These documents are in Adobe Acrobat© Portable Document Format (PDF). In order to view these files, Adobe Acrobat© Reader software must be installed on your computer. For assistance in obtaining or configuring Adobe Acrobat© see the CES - Adobe Acrobat© Help Page. For hints about using PDF documents see the "Web hints/tips" section of this site.
Return to top of page.
For information about this web site contact: WNEP web specialist
© 1997 Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System, doing business as the Division of Cooperative Extension of the University of Wisconsin-Extension.
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In 1969, when she was 40, Angelou’s first autobiography, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings was published. Frequently banned because of its honest and gripping re-telling of childhood sexual abuse, racism, and questions about sexuality, it knocked open doors and gave other African-American women writers permission to tell their stories without fear or shame. At the time of its publication, The Black Arts Movement of the time pushed the idea that all Black art had to be functional in the fight for civil rights. Black art was supposed to be crafted around the entire race as a whole. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings may have been styled after slave narratives, but it was unique in its storytelling because Angelou wasn’t trying to uplift all Black people. She didn’t write for a white audience in order to gain its empathy. I Know Why… was centered on one Black girl’s coming of age story. Angelou broke boundaries by defiantly lifting her head and identifying herself as an individual and not as savior to anyone other than herself.
Angelou’s poetry, particularly her third collection called Still I Rise, elevated her further. Her poems “Phenomenal Woman” and “Still I Rise” have become tradition at talent shows across Black America, but they exude a confidence that shows up in the arrogance of Kanye West and Nicki Minaj. At six feet tall with wide eyes, a wide nose, a gap between her teeth, large feet, a deep voice, and short hair, Angelou was not a “traditional beauty.” She learned to push back against what she was not and built up all that she was. She understood that the confidence she held was a mystery to those who might have been prettier, wealthier, and/or not African American. The love she had for herself astounded, and in poems like “Phenomenal Woman” and “Still I Rise,” other African American women found again permission to accept and love themselves. As novelist Tayari Jones tweeted following the announcement of Maya Angelou’s death, Angelou refused to be a tragic figure.
Maya Angelou is more than her most popular work like I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, “Phenomenal Woman,” “Still I Rise,” her inauguration poem for former President Bill Clinton, or even her famous relationship with Oprah Winfrey. It’s perhaps her friendship with Oprah that leaves the country with an image of her as grey-haired sagacity. However, before Angelou could get to a point where she soothed national audiences with poetic wisdom, she dealt with the horrors of racism, poverty, and sexual assault in order to find her strength and self-esteem. As a child, Dr. Maya Angelou suffered through the trauma of molestation via silence. What a joy it must have been to have her later years filled with audiences who hung on her every word.
Nichole Perkins is a freelance writer, based in her hometown of Nashville, Tennessee.
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Kim Jong-un, the son of Kim Jong-il, stands third from the left at a conference commemorating the 65th anniversary of the Korean Worker's Party, the ruling party of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK)., a photo by Pan-African News Wire File Photos on Flickr.
Achievements of Korean socialism
By Caleb T. Maupin on December 20, 2012
Reprinted From Workers World
The recent launch of a satellite into orbit is only the latest of many achievements of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. The northern half of the Korean peninsula is led by the Korean Workers Party, a revolutionary communist organization. The banks, factories and other commanding heights have been held in common and guided by a planned economy since 1948.
The DPRK’s socialist revolution has resulted in many achievements for the Korean people.
Building up industry
Before driving out the Japanese colonialists, north Korea had very little industrial production. After the revolution, Kim Il Sung led the country in developing its infrastructure. But from 1950 to 1953, the U.S. invaded the DPRK and tried to eradicate all that had been built with a massive bombing campaign. The Koreans resisted and finally an armistice was signed. Over the next three years, in the Three-Year Plan of 1954-1956, the industrial growth rate was at least 30 percent, even according to hostile U.S. sources. (“A Country Study: North Korea,” U.S. Library of Congress)
Between 1953 and 1956, the DPRK tripled its gross domestic product. Huge steel plants were erected. Electric power plants were also constructed. The country became industrialized at a pace that astounded economists all over the world. (“Korea: Division, Reunification, and U.S. Foreign Policy” by Martin Hart-Landsberg, Monthly Review Press, 1998)
Even during the extreme flooding and droughts of the “arduous march” period of the early 1990s, after the collapse of the USSR, no person in the DPRK has ever been deprived of their basic human right to housing. Dr. Bruce Cummings of the University of Chicago pointed out in his book “North Korea, Another Country” that the DPRK makes universal housing a priority. (New Press, 2003)
Currently, the country is working to construct 100,000 new “dwelling houses” in Pyongyang. (Korean Central News Agency, Jan. 22, 2010)
Article 70 of the DPRK’s constitution says: “Citizens have the right to work. All able-bodied citizens choose occupations in accordance with their wishes and skills and are provided with stable jobs and working conditions. Citizens work according to their abilities and are paid in accordance with the quantity and quality of their work.” There is no unemployment in the DPRK.
During the period of Japanese occupation, many working people in Korea were illiterate. The socialist revolution in the northern half of the country established a system of compulsory universal education. According to the CIA World Factbook, literacy in the DPRK is 99 percent.
Kim Il Sung, the founder of the DPRK, emphasized how important education was for constructing socialism. His book “Theses on Socialist Education” is considered one of his most important writings.
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What is a .WAV file?
WAV is short for Waveform audio format
A .WAV File is the standard audio format for storing music, sound bits, noises, and other such items on your computer.
In fact all those sound effects when your computer shuts down, starts up, or gets an email are .WAV files.
Wav files are rather large uncompressed high clarity audio files.
Uncompressed files are files that have not been "made smaller", for lack of a better term. A good compression example would be clothes. When they are in your closet they take up alot of room, but you can put them in a suitcase sit on the suitcase and zip it up. That last bit could be considered compression.
Other sound formats such as .MP3 have came about recently that are smaller as they have been compressed.
Do not fear however as .WAV is here to stay! .WAV files are the international audio currency and problably will always stay that way.
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NEW YORK, NY.-
Matisse: Radical Invention, 19131917, a large-scale investigation into a pivotal moment in the career of Henri Matisse (18691954), presents an important reassessment of the artists work between 1913 and 1917, revealing this period to be one of the most significant chapters in Matisses evolution as an artist. On view from July 18 through October 11, 2010, at The Museum of Modern Art
, the exhibition examines paintings, sculptures, drawings, and prints made by the artist between his return to Paris from Morocco in 1913 to his departure for Nice in 1917. Over these five years, he developed his most demanding, experimental, and enigmatic works: paintings that are abstracted, often purged of descriptive detail, geometrically composed, and dominated by blacks and grays. Comprising nearly 110 of the artists works, Matisse: Radical Invention, 19131917 is the first exhibition devoted to this period, thoroughly exploring Matisses working processes and the revolutionary experimentation of what he called his methods of modern construction.
Organized by The Museum of Modern Art and The Art Institute of Chicago, the exhibition is curated by John Elderfield, Chief Curator Emeritus of Painting and Sculpture at The Museum of Modern Art, and Stephanie DAlessandro, Gary C. and Frances Comer Curator of Modern Art at The Art Institute of Chicago. The exhibition is the result of a five-year collaboration between MoMA and The Art Institute of Chicago, combining new archival and art-historical research, fresh physical examinations of artworks, and innovative methods of scientific investigation to generate an unprecedented understanding of Matisses work during these years. Technical examinations have revealed the evolution of objects from this period and illuminated previously unknown relationships among them.
Matisse: Radical Invention, 19131917 is organized chronologically, and begins with the immediately preceding years of 19071912. When Matisse was 22 years old, he began to study under Symbolist painter Gustave Moreau, who sent his pupils to make copies of Old Master paintings in the Musée du Louvre. Matisse pursued a similar practice in his independent work, reusing compositions and a range of subjects and poses in an effort to pare down forms to what he called a truer, more essential character. On view is Paul Cézannes (French, 18391906) Three Bathers (187982), a work Matisse had acquired in 1899 which then became a touchstone for the artist as he worked on issues of color and construction in his own bathers compositions. Also on view are Matisses Nude with a White Scarf (1909) and Bathers with a Turtle (1908), which inaugurated Matisses new practice of extensively reworking his canvases.
By 1909 Matisse had formed relationships with a number of important and supportive collectors, including Sergei Shchukin, who commissioned decorative panels by Matisse for the stairway of his Moscow home. For this project Matisse initially suggested imagery of dance and bathers, subjects that would allow him to synthesize his evolving interests in harmonious colors, arabesques, and flat, overall designs with the tradition of décorations, pictures of mythical subjects intended to evoke tranquility. The composition of bathers begun that year would be transformed over the following nine years to become Bathers by a River, on view in the final gallery of the exhibition. Also in 1909, Matisse continued to work on his largest sculpture to that point, the bas-relief Back, begun in 1908, which he would return to several times over the next 21 years. On each occasion Matisse began with a new plaster cast of the relief; but instead of destroying the previous states when he moved on to the next version, Matisse preserved them, resulting in Back (I), Back (II), Back (III), and Back (IV), each of which is on view within the exhibition. The last gallery of the exhibition also includes a digital presentation illustrating the known states of Bathers by a River and Back, exploring the techniques that provided the foundation for the artists most radical inventions of this period.
In winter 191011 Matisse traveled to Spain and Morocco, following the harsh reception of his recent works at the 1910 Salon dAutomne. During his travels, rich textiles and Moorish architecture inspired him to introduce decorative patterning and flat expanses of color to his canvases, such as The Manila Shawl (1911). In the years that followed, he continued to explore the language of color, juxtaposing flat areas of contrasting hues, as in Zorah in Yellow (1912). Other paintings, including Fatma, The Mulatto Woman (1912), dissolve form and reconstruct space into vaporous, interwoven layers of color
The exhibition continues with the spring of 1913, when, after his final return from Morocco, Matisse abruptly altered his course, pursuing an interest in formal structure that accompanied and then superseded his prior focus on color. Evidence of this attempt to forge a new path can be seen in Bathers by a River (190910; 1913; 191617) which the artist drastically altered in 1913. In addition to photographic illustrations of Matisse working on that major painting, the section includes two paintings from 1913, The Blue Window and Flowers and Ceramic Plate.
1914, New Ambitions
On January 1, 1914, Matisse and his wife, Amélie, moved into an apartment on the fourth floor of 19 quai Saint-Michel in Paris, directly beneath the studio he had occupied from 1894 to 1907. Matisse wanted a break from his studio in Issy in order to better focus on his artistic exploration. The new space energized him, and in just over six months he produced almost a dozen canvases. Although Matisse used a different visual approach in almost every painting, the works are united by palette and size, giving them the quality of a series. These remarkably bold works constitute Matisses response to Cubisms new challenge to the representation of form and space. On view is Interior with Goldfish (1914), the first of four great canvases from this period that picture the artists studio. The form and position of the fishbowl, furniture, grillwork, and planter within the work underwent multiple revisions, many of which are visible in the finished painting. He reprised this composition in Goldfish and Palette (191415) simplifying the vertically banded format of the earlier work into a single broad black band.
Also on view is View of Notre Dame (1914) and Woman on a High Stool (1914), the latter of which shares its simplified geometric forms, heavy contouring, and austere palette with the work of Cézanne and the Cubist paintings of Matisses own peers. In View of Notre Dame (1914), which depicts the Paris cathedral as seen from Matisses studio window, he reworked features of the canvas before covering almost the entire surface in blue, leaving early compositional elements visible beneath the paint.
The section concludes with Portrait of Yvonne Landsberg (1914): startling even to its maker, it is one of the most dramatic of Matisses canvases from early 1914. After many campaigns of wiping, incising, and repainting, work on this canvas ended with the artist scraping the lines that radiate from the figure, echoing the curve of the subjects hairline and the arms of her green chair. This painting is joined by Branch of Lilacs (1914), and Still Life with Lemons (1914), a work that demonstrates Matisses interest in the visual vocabulary of Cubism.
August 19141915, Interruptions and Returns
Matisses daring achievements in 1914 came to a dramatic and abrupt end with the outbreak of World War I. The period between August 1914 and the end of 1915 was full of stops and starts, interruptions and returns, as the artist tried to negotiate the challenges of wartime and satisfy his own creative ambitions.
In summer 1915 Matisse and his family moved from Paris back to Issy, which they had left the previous year when their home there was requisitioned by the French military. While reorganizing his studio, the artist was inspired by the rediscovery of his 1893 canvas La Desserte (After Jan Davidsz. de Heem), on view in this section, which he had copied from the 1640 original in the Musée du Louvre when he was a student. He remade the composition with Still Life after Jan Davidsz. de Heem's "La Desserte" (1915) adding everything Ive seen since, he said, and working with the methods of modern construction. He was most likely referring to Cubism, which he used to toughen his visual approach, though continuing to privilege detail and brilliant color.
In his new work he also returned to still lifes, portraits, and open windows or doorsfamiliar subjects that he could easily set down on canvas and then develop when time allowed. On view is Composition (1915), in which Matisse returned to his earlier mode of working, drawing the composition and then filling it in with color. In contrast, the surface of Head, White and Rose (191415), reveals the extent of the artists revisions; the scraping and overlapping layers of paint as Matisse reworked a naturalistic image into an abstracted face. These canvases are joined by The Italian Woman (1916), which demonstrates how, even in his most daring and austere paintings of this period, Matisse continued to reuse and repeat themes, this work being the first of a series of over 50 paintings and drawings of the Italian model Laurette that Matisse would make over the next year.
Finally, over the summer of 1916 Matisse brought many of his most ambitious works to conclusion, including the sculpture Jeannette (V) (1916). This work, with its formal and psychological concentration, is more radical than its predecessors (Jeannette IIV), demonstrating a primal, atavistic power well beyond the traditional protocols of portraiture.
This section also focuses on Matisses printmaking. In fall 1913, after a six-year hiatus, Matisse returned to printmaking; and when he relocated to his quai Saint-Michel studio, he purchased a hand etching press with which to make his own prints. Through early 1917 he produced eight lithographs, 66 drypoints and etchings, and at least 69 monotypes, the latter for the first and only time in his career. Their modest subjects reflected the world around himeveryday life in the studio, and especially his family and friends. The format, tools, and techniques of printmaking had a great impact on Matisses practice, and in its potential for simplification of color and form the medium complemented the artists formal goals.
The section concludes with a series of prints Matisse made to benefit his compatriots imprisoned by German forces. From the early days of Frances involvement in World War I, Matisses hometown of Bohain-en-Vermandois was under German control. Matisse had no news of his family for months, and his concern deepened with reports of the poor condition of civilians transported to a prison camp in Havelberg, Germany. This situation spurred the artist to aid the French war effort, and with funds from sales of his prints he was able to send weekly shipments of food and other necessities to Havelberg. Although Matisse mainly sold single prints, in at least one instance he sold a set, in June 1915 to the French collector Jacques Doucet: a group of portraits of artists, wives, and daughters of men who had been called away to serve and friends otherwise affected by the conflict. Each was inscribed, For the civil prisoners of Bohain-en-Vermandois. The selection on view represents examples of all but one of the works Doucet acquired.
JanuaryNovember 1916, The Challenge of Painting
The year of 1916 was one of the worst of the war for France, punctuated by the terrible battles of Verdun and the Somme. That year, Matisse made progress on some of the most difficult but pivotal works of his career, notably The Moroccans (1916) and Bathers by a River (190917). In The Moroccans, he employed his demanding methods of modern construction on an ambitious scale. Its surface is thick with the trails of repeated reworking, products of the artists attempt to reconsider and adjust his approach to familiar motifs. Matisse conceived this souvenir of Morocco in 1912, stretched a canvas for it in 1913, returned to his composition on an enlarged scale in 1915 and started this new canvas in 1916. Black is the principal agent in The Moroccans, at once simplifying, dividing, and joining the three zones of the canvas: the still life of melons and leaves on a tiled pavement, bottom left; the architecture with domed marabout, top left; and the figures, right, among them a seated Moroccan seen from the behind and, above the shadowed archway, figures in two windows. Matisse built up the surface with thin layers of pigment, with the color of the underlying layers modifying those on top.
Other paintings of this time demonstrate that the artist had begun to loosen his approach in certain ways, with the works in this gallery suggesting that Matisse was slowly beginning to experiment with a new process while preserving the same formal concerns: paring down what he had previously painted not by scraping it away but by applying new paint to cover and reshape what lay below. In The Window (1916), light from the outside powerfully enters the room. Turquoise merges floors and walls, flattening deep space and solid forms into a single plane. The thick band of white paint signals the powerful, dematerializing nature of light. In Bowl of Oranges (1916), the still life fills the canvass visual field, producing an effect of colossal size. Matisse reinforced this sense of monumentality through near-sculptural handling of paint, applying coarse, hatched strokes, layering new pigment over dry layers, reserving the heaviest paint for areas of reflected light, and employing a thinner application in the dense, dark shadows. This compressed composition echoes the dense, compacted areas of the surface of The Moroccans and recalls its vivid yellow melons and other circular motifs.
19161917, Changing Course
In spring, summer, and fall 1916 Matisse returned yet again to Bathers by a River and his Back series, both of which were by then significantly altered from their 1913 states. The artist built upon his earlier processes of scraping and incising while adding new material, reducing and fragmenting form. He also painted The Piano Lesson (1916), the most ambitious of his interiors in this whole period, and, in early 1917, the starkest of this periods portraits, Portrait of Auguste Pellerin (II). While these works make no direct reference to the war in style or subject, they were physical and mental challenges for the artist, pushing his art to levels of extremity and difficulty that may be considered his responses to the conflict.
The Piano Lesson depicts the living room of Matisses home at Issy-les-Moulineaux, with his elder son, Pierre, at the piano. The painting also features, at bottom left, the artists sculpture Decorative Figure (1908) and, at upper right, his painting Woman on a High Stool. The artist began with a naturalistic rendering which he then purged of detail as he worked, scraping down areas and rebuilding them in broad fields of color. His incising on the window frame and stippling on the left side produced a pitted quality that suggests the eroding effects of light or time, a theme reiterated by the presence of the metronome on the piano.
Portrait of Auguste Pellerin (II) (1917) is the second of two portraits commissioned by Pellerin, a wealthy Parisian businessman and renowned art collector. The firsta colorful, thinly painted workwas rejected by the sitter as too daring. The artist began again, on this larger, more vertical canvas, reworking and revising as he went; the dark ground conceals the changes made to the position, size, and contours of the sitters head, and incised lines define the shape of Pellerins black suit and keep his torso from merging completely into the background. Matisse transformed what had been the more naturalistic portrait into a radically formal, masklike representation.
The artists major preoccupation in 191617 was the advancement of Bathers by a River. He transformed the almost monochrome canvas of 1913 into a composition of vertical bands with now greatly enlarged and abstracted figures confined within the rigid geometric structure. His changes closely relate to those that he made in transforming Back (II) into Back (III) at the same time in the Issy studio. In the painting, a central black band both divides and coheres its two halves, one filled with verdant foliage, the other void of incident. Matisses final work on the canvas was to revise the colored band between the third and the fourth figure, and to lightly scrape into the paint at the left side to reveal the layers beneath. The incising of the foliage here relates to that of the contemporaneous landscapes Shaft of Sunlight, the Woods of Trivaux (1917) and Garden at Issy (1917).
Matisse: Radical Invention, 19131917 concludes with a digital presentation illustrating the known states of Bathers by a River and Back, exploring the techniques that provided the foundation for the artists most radical inventions of this period.
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Arthur Evelyn St. John Waugh, known as Evelyn Waugh, was an English writer of novels, biographies and travel books. He was also a prolific journalist and reviewer. His best-known works include his early satires Decline and Fall and A Handful of Dust, his novel Brideshead Revisited and his trilogy of Second World War novels collectively known as Sword of Honour. Waugh is widely recognised as one of the great prose stylists of the 20th century.
The son of a publisher, Waugh was educated at Lancing and Hertford College, Oxford, and worked briefly as a schoolmaster before becoming a full-time writer. As a young man, he acquired many fashionable and aristocratic friends, and developed a taste for country house society that never left him. In the 1930s he travelled extensively, often as a special newspaper correspondent; he was reporting from Abyssinia at the time of the 1935 Italian invasion. He served in the British armed forces throughout the Second World War, first in the Royal Marines and later in the Royal Horse Guards. All these experiences, and the wide range of people he encountered, were used in Waugh's fiction, generally to humorous effect; even his own mental breakdown in the early 1950s, brought about by misuse of drugs, was fictionalised.
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Massachusetts may not want to admit it, but the number of opiate addicted babies born in the Bay State is far more than the number that state officials have previously calculated. It's three times higher than the national average. In fact, this unfortunate statistic seems to be affecting the entire New England area.
Current Count Greatly Exceed Original Figures
Despite state tallies, the Federal Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality decided to conduct its own count on drug addicted babies. Upon doing so, the organization found over a thousand more hospital births involving babies born with narcotics in their systems. This drastically dwarfs the 128 babies that Massachusetts had originally included in their tally, The Boston Globe reported. “There has to be some lapse there. We see that many at Boston Medical Center alone,” Dr. Elisha Wachman, a neonatologist at Boston Medical Center told The Globe. Figures showed that there was an average of 17.5 opiate addicted newborns per 1,000 births in Massachusetts hospital.. The national average for babies born with narcotics in their system is five out of every 1,000 births, The Globe reported. These numbers reflect the overall increase in deaths due to accidental opiate overdose, Science World reported.
Affecting The Entire New England Area
Opiate addicted newborns are an increasing problem throughout the New England area, with Maine seeing a 7 percent increase in births and Vermont having a 10 percent increase in the problem since 2002, Science World reported. Many other states do not require that the number of drug addicted babies be recorded. “Some states are doing a lot. Some are doing nothing,” US Representative Katherine Clark explained in reference to the current issue, as reported by The Globe.According to Wachman, understanding the problem is the first step towards solving it. “If you don’t know the scope of the problem, how can you begin to address it?,” Wachman told The Globe. According to the Boston publication, this largely unreported number of opiate addicted babies may be partly due to the fear that women who give birth to them are in danger of having their children seized by child protection agencies. Unfortunately without proper care babies born with opiate addiction with experience withdrawal symptoms such as difficulty with breathing and feeding, diarrhea, vomiting, and seizures. These symptoms can last for months and these babies often must be kept in the hospital for an average of 19 days while doctors administer varying amount of morphine.
What’s Causing This?
Overprescribing by doctors and the large presence of drug dealers in cities has led to the large amount of opiate addiction in Massachusetts. Now we have people openly admitting a heroin habit of 20 bags a day, and I haven't talked to a single person who did not get started by using the pills," Jim Baker, chief of police in Rutland county, Vermont told The Enquirer. Massachusetts has created a new task force to deal with analyzing “the available data to measure the impact of neonatal abstinence syndrome,” Anne Roach, spokeswoman for the Massachusetts Department of Public Health told The Globe. According to The Enquirer, the price of heroin has reached an all-time low due to the constant supply by the Mexican drug trade. Today one is able to buy a single dose of the drug for around $4.
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Part of the Fundamental Manufacturing Processes Video Seriesthis program examines two of the oldest manufacturing processes: shearing and bending. Shearing is the cutting of sheet metal by means of two opposing blades. It is used to cut large sheets of material into smaller more manageable sections. Bending is the creation of three-dimensional shapes out of two-dimensional material, and is a fast, economical way to produce an endless variety of parts from sheet metal and plate.
The sheet metal shearing segment shows the shearing process while explaining and definingandnbsp;blade rake/shear angle, blade/knife clearance, blade/knife angle of inclination, knife sharpness, the componentsandnbsp;and types of shears, process gaging, camber, bow, twist, and the coil slitting process.
The sheet metal bending segment concentrates mainly on the terms defining a bend — neutral axis, bend allowance, bend radius, and springback — and focuses on the primary bending machine, the press brake. Various examples of press brake dies, gaging, and bending operations, such as air bending and bottom bending, are shown along withandnbsp;a segment on folding technology.
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A blog for all those who work on Pompeii and the other archaeological sites of the Bay of Naples.
Both peristyles in the House of the Faun have Doric entablatures. The first peristyle has Ionic columns-- the so-called Pompeian Ionic order. The Ionic columns replaced earlier Doric ones sometime in the early first century B.C. I can't think of Doric entablatures in other houses off of the top of my head, but I assume there are more.
Hi Ethan, thanks for the post. I was aware of the chronological changes in this house and of the orders in both peristylia but I was more looking for surviving examples. I'm pretty sure none of the entablatures from either peristyle remain in situ (or restored) although I know there are numerous architectural elements scattered throughout the building. Do you (or anyone else) know if these contained elements from the frieze? The reason I'm curious is that I am working on a reconstruction of a first century villa at Castelporziano on the coast, south of Ostia where we have a doric order colonnade. Hence my desire to find some better preserved Pompeian examples!
We are no architecture experts but are these of any interest?The Doric and Ionic in the House of M. Epidius Rufus: http://pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/R9/9%2001%2020.htmThe parts of a long frieze of terracotta covered with stucco with reliefs of "Nereidi su ippocampi" found in an angle of the peristyle of the House of the Faun: http://pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/R6/6%2012%2002%20p3.htmNot a house we know but, the other frieze is The punishment of Ixion on the wheel the only surviving a metope from the Doric temple in the Triangular Forumhttp://pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/R8/8%2007%2031.htmThere are also a number of lararia with this kind of architecture in miniature.We are "thinking" our way around Pompeii and will let you know if we come up with any others.Jackie and Bob at pompeiiinpictures
Dear Jackie and Bob. That is a really helpful post, particularly the (apparent) metope reliefs from the Casa del Fauno. Ethan, were these what you are referring to? I'll have a dig around to see if I can find some further discussion on these (besides PAH). But if anyone else knows of any other elements of Doric entablature at Pompeii from private dwellings (triglyphs and metopes from the frieze etc) than I am all ears!
We have found a mention of Doric entablatures in Richardson's book: Pompeii - an architectural history on pages 90-91, and page 124. He seems to be referring to the Temple of Apollo, (p.91 "The entablature, now heavily picked and chiselled for restuccoing, was Doric, a common Pompeian fashion in the Tufa period" and also the House of the Faun (p.124 "The order is Pompeian Ionic with Attic bases, with a plain architrave and Doric frieze, a popular combination in late Tufa period architecture". These are the only two he mentions in the index.We are still "thinking our way around Pompeii" but so far have not come up with any other examples in the many places we have been to. Hope this helps.
Post a Comment
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The Shakespeare Conference: SHK 13.2135 Friday, 25 October 2002
Date: Thursday, 24 Oct 2002 16:01:55 -0700
Subject: St. Crispin's Day
Today, Oct. 25, was the feast day of Sts. Crispin and Crispinian, and
the 587th anniversary of the Battle of Agincourt. Shakespeare has Henry
V famously exhort his men by calling on Crispin (at 4.3.18ff):
This day is called the Feast of Crispian.
He that outlives this day and comes safe home
Will stand a-tiptoe when this day is named
And rouse him at the name of Crispian.
He that shall see this day and live t'old age
Will yearly on the vigil feast his neighbours
And say, 'Tomorrow is Saint Crispian...'
And there are three more references to St. Crispin in this speech, for a
total of six.
It seems that Shakespeare merged Crispin and Crispinian into one, and
called him variously Crispin, Crispian, and Crispin Crispian. Regarding
them in the plural, who were they? Dr. Phyllis Jestice's "Saints of
the Day" daily email to the Medieval-Religion list has this:
"Crispin and Crispinian (d. c. 287) There are two alternative views on
these two brothers. A late legend reports that they went to preach in
Gaul, where they lived as shoemakers until caught up in a persecution,
tortured, sentenced to a variety of lurid executions that all failed,
and were finally beheaded. A more prosaic modern interpretation is that
they may have been early Roman martyrs whose relics were sent to
Gary Taylor's edition of H5 summarizes the link to Shakespeare by saying
that the brothers were the patron saints of shoemakers and that the
feast day was listed in Elizabethan and Jacobean almanacs, and was
important into the 17th century. Brewer's Phrase & Fable elaborates by
saying the brothers were patron saints of not just shoemakers but also
saddlers and tanners.
But what accounts for Shakespeare's repeated invocation of "Crispian"?
The speech is startlingly democratic in its call, which suggests that
such references to Crispian would resonate strongly in the audience.
Were these French or Roman saints as popular as that in Protestant
S H A K S P E R: The Global Shakespeare Discussion List
The S H A K S P E R Web Site <http://www.shaksper.net>
DISCLAIMER: Although SHAKSPER is a moderated discussion list, the
opinions expressed on it are the sole property of the poster, and the
editor assumes no responsibility for them.
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"It's Just Harmless Entertainment"
Over 1000 studies –including a Surgeon General's special report in 1972 and a National Institute of Mental Health report 10 years later – attest to a causal connection between media violence and aggressive behavior in some children. Studies show that the more "real-life" the violence portrayed, the greater the likelihood that it will be "learned."
By age 18, a U.S. youth will have seen 16,000 simulated murders and 200,000 acts of violence.
According to the American Psychiatric Association, "The debate is over… For the last three decades, the one predominant finding in research on the mass media is that exposure to media portrayals of violence increases aggressive behavior in children."
The average youth living in the U.S. watches television 25 hours a week and plays computer games an additional seven hours.
Media violence may cause aggressive and antisocial behavior, desensitize viewers to future violence and increase perceptions that they are living "in a mean and dangerous world."
Children younger than 8 "cannot uniformly discriminate between real life and fantasy/entertainment… They quickly learn that violence is an acceptable solution to resolving even complex problems, particularly if the aggressor is the hero."
Television alone is responsible for 10% of youth violence.
"Violence is like the nicotine in cigarettes. The reason why the media has to pump ever more violence into us is because we've built up a tolerance. In order to get the same high, we need ever-higher levels… The television industry has gained its market share through an addictive and toxic ingredient."
Two overviews of existing studies conducted by the Surgeon General's office in 1972 and 1982 called television violence "a contributing factor to increases in violent crime and antisocial behavior."
"Not every child who watches a lot of violence or plays a lot of violent games will grow up to be violent. Other forces must converge, as they did recently in Colorado. But just as every cigarette increases the chance that someday you will get lung cancer, every exposure to violence increases the chances that some day a child will behave more violently than they otherwise would."
"A steady diet of violent content over time creates a culture that tells kids that violence is the accepted way we solve our problems."
Television violence can lead to imitation.
Witnessing repeated violent acts can lead to desensitization and a lack of empathy for human suffering.
The cumulative impact of violence-laden imagery can lead to a "mean-world" perspective, in which viewers have an unrealistically dark view of life.
66% of children (ages 10 to 16) surveyed say that their peers are influenced by TV shows.
65% say that shows like The Simpsons and Married… With Children encourage kids to disrespect parents.
62% say that sex on TV shows and movies influences kids to have sex when they are too young.
77% say there is too much sex before marriage on television.
44% of kids say they watch something different when they're alone than with their parents (25% choose MTV).
54% of kids have a TV in their bedroom.
Children spend more time watching television than in any other activity except sleep.
Television reaches children at a younger age and for more time than any other socializing institution except the family.
Research has shown that "mindless" television or video games may idle and impoverish the development of the pre-frontal cortex, or that portion of the brain that is responsible for planning, organizing and sequencing behavior for self-control, moral judgment and attention.
Children often behave differently after they've been watching violent programs on television. Children who watched violent shows were more likely to strike out at playmates, argue, disobey authority and were less willing to wait for things that children who watched nonviolent programs.
Reducing the amount of time grade-school children spend watching television games and watching television can make them less aggressive toward their peers.
In considering decisions about contraceptives, STDs and sexual health choices, teens are almost as likely to get their information from TV (60%) as from a health care provider (62%). [Kaiser Family Foundation, 5/23/01]
Please visit the PTC website at www.parentstv.org for more info.
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I tried writing a script that would display the contents of a cookie set by another website but it didn't work.
<?php echo 'Website cookie is '.$_COOKIE['locale']; ?>
But I get an undefined index error. Can cookies only be retrieved by the issuing site? I've got the add on Cookie Manager in Firefox opened and each cookie has a site and name. So can a cookie only be viewed if the site requesting it also issued it and (obviously) the right name is given? How is the enforced - are web browsers simply programmed this way or do the cookies have some sort of inbuilt security?
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NATIONAL | summer 2003
Jobless gap between the genders is closing
A single mother with a 13-year- old daughter, Jo-Anne Hurlston, 47, lost her job as dean of career and student
services at a Washington, D.C., high school last June. For the first time in her adult life, she was unemployed.
More than 3.8 million women— 5.6 percent— are currently unemployed in the United States. Although the women’s unemployment rate is less than men’s rate of 6.3 percent, this gap is narrowing.
"Women's unemployment is becoming much more sensitive to business cycles,” said Vicky Lovell, PhD, of the Institute for Women and Policy Research. Women are starting to catch up with men in unemployment figures partly because of recent job losses in industries with high female employment such as the service sector.
The new Depression: not just for men.
Hurlston has an extensive background in hotel serivices, human resources and education, yet after 200 applications and only three interviews, she remains jobless.
With her education and skills, are Hurlston's difficulties finding work unique? Not according to the Economic Policy Institute's Jared Bernstein, Ph.D., who, in a study published at the end of 2002, found that the current economic downturn has had a particularly negative impact on women and those with at least some college education.
Comparing employment rates between the recfession in the early 1990s and today, Bernstein found that the larger drop in employment rates in the current recession "has been driven almost exclusively by women."
In the last recession, according to Bernstein's study, the employment rate for women with some college decreased slightly (by .5 percent) while the rate for college graduates actually increased a small amount (by .3 percent). But, at the end of last year, employment rates for both groups of women had fallen by 2 percent.
The unemployment rate for "women who maintain families" has also been especually high: In April, 8.5 percent were unemployed, a rate that was 6.3 percent in April 2001.
The jobless rate of low-income single mothers is even higher. A new Economic Policy Institute report found the average last year at 12.3 percent. But rather than repair the safety net during a time of high unemployment, the U.S. House of Representitves voted to increase the work requirement for those in need of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) to 40 hours per week.
New TANF work mandates are "difficult and problematic when there are no jobs out there" said Lisalyn R. Jacobs, J.D., vice president for government relations, NOW LDEF. "They are especually difficult when there is virtually no additional support for child care."
The gap between male and female unemployment rates may be narrowing, but the gender gap in unemployment insurance is not. Not only does the wage gap mean lower unemployment benefit levels for women but also women are far less likely than men to receive unemployment insurance in the first place.
In 2001, 46.9 percent of unemployed men nationwide received unemployment insurance compared with 40 percent of unemployed women. A new study by the National Employment Law Project found that in 41 states, women were less likely to receive unemployment insurance benefits than men. The gender gap was as high as 24.8 percent in North Dakota.
While Jo-Anne Hurlston was able to obtain unemployment insurance, her benefits ran out in April. Hurlston is frustrated and worried about the future. "I have an issue with the fact that the unemployment rate is so high and I don't see our government doing anything about it. Who cares what is happening to us?" she asked.
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In the coming decades, cities will be bigger than ever, energy more expensive, and the climate more volatile. These new challenges, to use the politician’s favorite euphemism, will make it harder than ever to meet electricity demands, run transportation systems smoothly and keep buildings safe. The answer? Resilience, say some experts. But what does that really mean?
To define the term and learn how the concept is being applied today, Future Tense—a partnership of Arizona State University, the New America Foundation, and Slate—and Scientific American co-hosted a discussion called “Can Megacities Be Resilient?” on Wednesday night at New America’s SoHo office. SciAm associate editor David Biello was joined by Leah Cohen, New York City's climate resilience advisor, and Steven Koonin, inaugural director of NYU's new Center for Urban Science and Progress and former undersecretary of energy for science. Though most of the conversation focused on how New York City is working to build up its resilience, its actions can be instructive to other urban areas. Indeed, many of its efforts were inspired by partners around the world.
First things first: defining resilience. In her role at the New York City mayor’s office, Cohen said resilience is “really about risk management” and the capacity to “withstand and recover from environmental changes.” The mayor’s office is focused on protecting critical city infrastructure, safeguarding development on the shoreline that could threatened by climate change-induced sea-level rise, and keeping people safe by strengthening emergency response. Koonin added that these efforts aren’t motivated solely by climate change—the city’s systems also need to be resilient in the face of blackouts, terrorist threats, natural disasters, and other events—foreseen or not.
This all sounds eminently reasonable, but implementing it—especially, as Biello pointed out, in a time of budget constraints—is tricky, to say the least. The key components: intensive planning and priority setting. Those, in turn, require good, strong data.
Koonin calls himself “at heart a hard-core data geek.” He hopes to wire cities so that they constantly generate information about how people actually live, thus allowing for resources to be allocated in a much more targeted, efficient manner. He cited one proposal that may seem extreme—requiring that all cars that enter city limits have a GPS navigator, so that traffic information can be dissected. “You can feel the 1984 vibe,” Biello said as people in the standing-room-only audience murmured. But Koonin stressed that individual privacy will be respected from the outset of any such initiatives. Furthermore, he emphasized, companies already have much of that information. At least government would put it to good use.
Jarring as it may sound, there’s a logic behind pinpointing where resources are needed, especially as populations boom. According to Cohen, New York City may have an additional 1 million residents by 2030, even as it faces effects of climate change —like more hot days and an increased risk of flooding. But they aren’t thinking about “going in and getting rid of neighborhoods and restoring them to wetlands,” she says. Instead, they are looking to “green infrastructure” and how to do things like retrofit existing buildings.
Koonin and Cohen agreed that one of the best ways to help cities like New York develop resilience is to work with other places facing the same problems. For instance, if you’re worried about earthquakes, Koonin said, look to the seismic codes of Japan, which requires gradual upgrades to its buildings. Cohen pointed to some efforts of the Dutch as models for how New York City could address sea-level rise. The NYC mayor’s office is involved the C40 group of dozens of cities—originally 40, but now more than 50—that are engaged in discussion about climate change. Perhaps the biggest hurdle, aside from budget, is bureaucracy. Koonin believes that when it comes to inefficiencies, “We do a lot of this to ourselves, the way we divide up governmental authorities.” Too many departments are involved in the same areas—like energy policy.
Which gets to a fundamental issue here. Resilience requires seemingly disparate fields—fiscal policy, national security, environmental protection, infrastructure—to work together to create robust systems. But only when they work together properly, instead of engaging in turf disputes, will things get better instead of worse.
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Traditional fruit gardens planted by indigenous communities in the Malaysian rainforest increase the diversity of the animals who make it their home, research has found.
The study, led by researchers at The University of Nottingham’s campuses in the UK and Malaysia, has shown that the impact of humans can have positive outcomes for the conservation of this precious ecosystem when managed effectively.
The research, published this month (February) in the journal Biological Conservation, suggests that traditional agroforestry systems introduced by the indigenous human population could be useful in supporting endangered and vulnerable species of animals.
Dr Markus Eichhorn, forest ecologist in the University’s School of Life Sciences in the UK, said: “There has been a long history of misunderstanding between managers of nature reserves and the people who continue to live inside them. In this wildlife reserve we have found that the traditional practices of the local indigenous people can have some benefits for animal conservation. This means that it is possible for both groups to work together for common goals.”
Conflict with indigenous communities
Rainforests throughout the world have a long history of human habitation – indigenous people have occupied and cultivated Southeast Asian forests for more than 11,000 years.
Conflicts often arise between conservation practitioners and indigenous communities living in the forest because of a lack of understanding of how their traditional agricultural methods impact on the conservation management of the rainforest.
Jon Moore, MRes student and first author of the study said: “The rainforests of Southeast Asia are often described as food deserts because they contain relatively few trees with fleshy fruits and these don’t produce fruit every year – making fruit a very unreliable food resource for fruit-eating animals, compared with most other tropical forests. As a consequence, Southeast Asian forests have lower densities of frugivorous animals, which are also very vulnerable to changes and loss of their natural habitat.”
To overcome this problem indigenous people have used their own methods to increase the amount and variety of fruit available to them.
The Chewong is an indigenous group of around 400 people who have lived in the rainforest in the central peninsular of Malaysia since Krau Wildlife Reserve was established as a reserve in 1923. Some of them continue to use traditional methods of cultivation, hunting, fishing and gathering wild fruits, herbs and plants for medicines.
Their agricultural practices include thinning small patches of the rainforest maintaining some of the naturally occurring tree species and planting additional native trees that provide them with fruit including durian, mango and rambutan. They lightly tend their gardens, harvesting their fruit during the months of June, July and August.
Hunting, habitat fragmentation, and human-wildlife conflicts have led to the total loss in the area of some animals including the Asian elephant and Sumatran rhino and a sharp fall in the number of others such as the Malayan tiger, the gaur, and the sambar deer.
The Chewong fruit gardens involve minimal forest clearance and the new trees thrive alongside the existing vegetation.
Enhancing the ecosystem
Dr Eichhorn worked with colleagues in the University’s School of Geography at The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, led by Dr Ahimsa Campos-Arceiz to investigate whether these fruit gardens enhanced the number and diversity of animals in the ecosystem.
They placed cameras alongside active animal trails in a total of 15 plots in the Krau Wildlife Reserve, Pahang – seven fruit gardens and eight control plots - baiting them with fruit including langsat and mango, then recording the animals that triggered the cameras.
The study recorded more than 1,670 animals from 21 species including one endangered (Malayan tapir), five vulnerable (Asian small-clawed otter, southern pig-tailed macaque, sun bear, sambar deer and Malayan Peacock Pheasant) and two near-threatened (Crested Fireback and the Great Argus). This compared to just six species of conservation concern in the control areas.
Fruit gardens did not differ significantly in terms of the overall number of mammals but were found to attract larger species of animals compared to the other areas of the rainforest.
Dr Ahimsa Campos-Arceiz said: “Over the generations, the Chewong developed a life style that avoids conflict with wildlife such as tigers and elephants. Their fruit gardens increase the concentration of native fruits in the forest, and these fruits can be shared with wildlife because fruiting trees produce larger crops than the Chewong can eat.”
While fruit gardens were found to encourage the diversity of animals in the rainforest, this is just one way in which the activities of indigenous people impact on its environment.
The researchers say it needs to be considered as part of a wider range of activities including hunting, gathering forestry materials for building, making medicines and planting other crops including rice and cassava when integrating conservation management schemes alongside indigenous communities.
The University of Nottingham experts also collaborated with local wildlife authorities and academics from Prince of Songkla University in Thailand for the study.
The paper, Fruit Gardens Enhance Mammal Diversity and Biomass in a Southeast Asian Rainforest, is published in the journal Biological Conservation.
— Ends —
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Notes to editors: The University of Nottingham has 43,000 students and is ‘the nearest Britain has to a truly global university, with a “distinct” approach to internationalisation, which rests on those full-scale campuses in China and Malaysia, as well as a large presence in its home city.’ (Times Good University Guide 2016). It is also one of the most popular universities in the UK among graduate employers and the winner of ‘Outstanding Support for Early Career Researchers’ at the Times Higher Education Awards 2015. It is ranked in the world’s top 75 by the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, and 8th in the UK by research power according to the Research Excellence Framework 2014. It has been voted the world’s greenest campus for three years running, according to Greenmetrics Ranking of World Universities.
Impact: The Nottingham Campaign, its biggest-ever fundraising campaign, is delivering the University’s vision to change lives, tackle global issues and shape the future. More news…
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THE first severely bitter fruit of the alliance of Great Britain with the American savages was tasted in the Wyoming Valley in the summer of 1778. That valley is a beautiful region of Pennsylvania, lying between mountain ranges and watered by the Susquehanna River that flows through it. The first European known to have trodden the soil of the valley was Count Zinzendorf the Moravian, seeking the good of souls. The region was claimed as a part of the domain of Connecticut granted by the charter of that province given by Charles the Second, and was called the county of Westmoreland. The first settlers there, forty in number, went from Connecticut about the middle of the last century. When the old war for independence broke out, the valley was a paradise of beauty and fertility. As that war went on, and an alliance between the British and Indians became manifest, the people of the valley felt insecure. They built small forts for their protection, and called the attention of the Continental Congress, from time to time, to their exposed situation. When St. Leger was besieging Fort Schuyler, on the Mohawk River, in 1977, parties of Indian warriors threatened the valley, but the inhabitants there were spared from much harm until the summer of 1778.
Among the Tory leaders in northern and western New York were John Butler and his son Walter N. They were less merciful toward the Whigs than their savage associates in deeds of violence. John Butler was a colonel in the British service; and in the spring of 1778, he induced the Seneca warriors in western New York to consent to follow him into Pennsylvania. He had been joined by some Tories from the Wyoming Valley, who gave him a correct account of that region; and on the last day of June he appeared at the head of the beautiful plains with more than a thousand men, Tories and Indians. They captured the uppermost fort, and Butler made the fortified house of Wintermoot, a Tory of the valley, his headquarters. The whole military force to oppose the invasion was composed of a small company of regulars and a few militia. When the alarm was given, the whole population flew to arms. Grandfathers and their aged sons, boys, and even women, seized such weapons as were at hand, and joined the soldiery. Colonel Zebulon Butler, an officer of the Continental Army, happened to be at home, and by common consent he was made commander-in-chief. Forty Fort, a short distance above Wilkes-Barre, was the place of general rendezvous, and in it were gathered the women and children of the valley.
On the 3d of July, Colonel Zebulon Butler led the little band of patriot-soldiers and citizens to surprise the invaders, at Wintermoot's. The vigilant leader of the motley host, informed of the movement, was ready to receive the assailants. The Tories formed the left wing of Colonel Butler's force resting on the river, and the Indians, led by Gi-en-gwa-tah, a Seneca chief, composed the right that extended to a swamp at the foot of the mountain. These were first struck by the patriots, and a general battle ensued. It raged vehemently for half an hour, when, just as the left of the invaders was about to give way, a mistaken order caused the republicans to retreat in disorder. The infuriated Indians sprang forward like wounded tigers, and gave no quarter. The patriots were slaughtered by scores. Only a few escaped to the mountains, and were saved. In less than an hour after the battle began, two hundred and twenty-five scalps were in the hands of the savages as tokens of their prowess.
The yells of the Indians had been heard by the feeble ones at Forty Fort, and terror reigned there. Colonel Dennison, who had reached the valley that morning, had escaped to the stronghold, and prepared to defend the women and children to the last extremity. Colonel Butler had reached Wilkes-Barre fort in safety. Darkness put an end to the conflict, but increased the horrors. Prisoners were tortured and murdered. At midnight sixteen of them were arranged around a rock, and strongly held by the savages, when a half-breed woman, called Queen Esther, using a tomahawk and club alternately, murdered the whole band one after the other excepting two, who threw off the men who held them and escaped to the woods. A great fire lighted up the scene and revealed its horrors to the eyes of friends of the victims, who were concealed among the rocks not far away. Early the next morning, Forty Fort was surrendered, on a promise of safety for the persons and property of the people. The terms were respected a few hours by the Indians while John Butler remained in the valley. As soon as he was gone, they broke loose, spread over the plains, and with torch, tomahawk, and scalping-knife made it an absolute desolation. Scarcely a dwelling or an outbuilding was left unconsumed; not a field of corn was left standing; not a life was spared that the weapons of the savages could reach. The inhabitants who had not fled during the previous night were slaughtered or narrowly escaped. Those who departed made their way toward the eastern settlements. Many of them perished in the great swamp on the Pocono Mountains, ever since known as "The Shades of Death." The details of that day of destruction in the beautiful Wyoming Valley, and the horrors of the flight of survivors, formed one of the darkest chapters in human history. Yet Lord George Germain, the British Secretary for the colonies, praised the savages for their prowess and humanity, and resolved to direct a succession of similar raids upon the frontiers, and to devastate the older settlements. A member of the bench of Bishops in the House of Lords revealed the fact, in a speech, that there was "an article in the extra-ordinaries of the army for scalping-knives."
The settlements in the valleys of the Mohawk and Schoharie were great sufferers from Indian and Tory raids, during 1778. The Johnsons were anxious to recover their property and influence in the Mohawk country, and Brant, their natural ally by blood relationship and interest, joined them. Their spies and scouts were out in every direction. At a point on the upper waters of the Susquehanna, Brant organized scalping-parties and sent them out to attack the border settlements. These fell like thunderbolts upon isolated families or little hamlets in the Schoharie country, and the blaze of burning dwellings lighted the firmament almost every night in those regions, and beyond. Springfield, at the head of Otsego Lake, was laid in ashes in May. In June, Cobleskill, in Schoharie country, and the blaze of burning dwellings lighted the firmament almost every night in those regions, and beyond. Springfield, at the head of Otsego Lake, was laid in ashes in May. In June, Cobleskill, in Schoharie county, was attacked by Brant and his warriors, who killed a portion of a garrison of republican troops stationed there, and plundered and burned the houses. In July a severe skirmish occurred on the upper waters of the Cobleskill, between five hundred Indians and some republican regulars and militia. These marauders kept the dwellers in that region in continual alarm all the summer and autumn of 1778, and, finally, at near the middle of November, during a heavy storm of sleet, a band of Indians and Tories, the former led by Brant and the latter by Walter N. Butler, fell upon Cherry Valley and murdered, plundered, and destroyed without stint. Butler was the arch-fiend on the occasion, and would listen to no appeals from Brant for mercy to their victims. Thirty-two of the inhabitants, mostly women and children, were murdered, with sixteen soldiers of the garrison. Nearly forty men, women, and children were led away captives, marching down the valley that night in the cold storm, huddled together half-naked, with no shelter but the leafless trees and no resting-place but the wet ground. Tryon county, which then included all of the State of New York west of Albany county, was a "dark and bloody ground" for full four years.
Return to Our Country, Vol II
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Government agencies interested in building out privately-run internal clouds , will find that there are a growing number of open-source tools to help them.
Two such tools are Eucalyptus and Deltacloud. Both platforms offer a set of application programming interfaces that can serve as a front end, or a broker, to a private cloud or even a set of clouds, which would allow users to pick the best cloud service for the job.
Of the two packages, Eucalyptus is farther along in terms of development: NASA uses Eucalyptus for its Nebula cloud. The Energy Department's Argonne National Laboratory is also exploring Eucalyptus, for scientific research. Deltacloud is still in development, though agencies could participate and help define it features.
In short, Eucalyptus provides a front end that replicates the environment offered by the Amazon Web Services (AWS). The goal was to build an interface "where a user or program cannot tell the difference between Amazon and what we built," Wolski said. This project was possible because "Amazon documents its APIs very carefully," he said. Behind the APIs, Eucalyptus handles the coordination with the virtual machines, storage provisioning and networking.
Read the whole story at http://fcw.com/articles/2009/11/17/hybrid-clouds.aspx
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Surgical Management of Epilepsy in Children
What is epilepsy?
Epilepsy is a disorder of the nervous system, characterized by seizures that range from mild, episodic loss of attention or sleepiness to severe convulsions with loss of consciousness.
How is epilepsy diagnosed in children?
If a child exhibits signs of epilepsy, a thorough evaluation by a pediatric neurologist is needed to decide on the best treatment option, including surgery.
- Your doctor will conduct a thorough physical and will ask for a detailed family and patient history.
- Your doctor may order imaging of the brain using an MRI. There are other diagnostic procedures that can be used to examine the electrical activity within the brain.
There are three surgical diagnostic procedures that will sometimes lead to surgical treatment of epileptic seizures. These procedures are used to assist a physician in evaluating the cause of a patient’s seizures and locate the place within the brain from where the seizures are generated. After the procedure, a patient remains within the epilepsy monitoring unit (EMU) for observation.
- Depth Electrodes — Depth electrodes are used to allow for EEG monitoring of electrical activity inside the brain. Depth electrodes are multiple contact polyurethane “probes that are inserted into specified areas of the brain via small holes made in the skull and covering of the brain. The insertion is stereotactically guided using MRI imaging techniques, targeting a specific area within the brain monitored by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) during surgery. The entry point, trajectory and depth are calculated by a computer to allow for precise placement of the electrode.
- Subdural Grid Placement — Subdural grids are sheets or strips of electrodes embedded in a thin, flexible sheet of polyurethane. Within the grid are electrode discs made of a platinum alloy. The grids are surgically placed, by way of an open craniotomy (the skull is opened to expose part of the brain), over and around areas suspected to be linked to a patient’s seizures. The exact number of discs used and specific location of placement depends on the individual needs of the patient.
- Subdural Strips — Subdural strips are generally used to determine in which hemisphere the brain seizures originate. They are also used when access to a particular area of the brain may be somewhat limited. When used alone, these strips are implanted through small burr holes in the skull, the size of a nickel. After the holes are drilled, the strips are placed under fluoroscopic guidance. After the grids have been placed, the patient is observed for seizure activity in the EMU. The patient may also undergo cortical stimulation or functional brain mapping several times. This procedure helps the physician define the relationship between the area causing the seizures and the functional areas of the brain that need to be preserved. This information is used to define and plan the second surgery — removal of the grids and potentially removal of the area causing the seizures (the epileptogenic zone). The mapping is done by applying a small amount of electrical current through a pair of electrodes to see what function, if any, is directly under that electrode.
Treatment for pediatric epilepsy
The Johns Hopkins difference involves multiple specialties in reviewing the cases of children with epilepsy. Neurosurgeons, pediatric neurologists, nutritionists, neuropsychologists, among others, join together to develop the treatment plan. The team will decide if surgery is the best option. Learn more about multidisciplinary care.
The purpose of surgery is to eliminate or lessen the severity of the seizures. Learn more about our surgical expertise.
Surgical treatment options
The surgical treatments provided by our fellowship trained pediatric neurosurgeons include:
The Vagus Nerve Stimulator (VNS)
The Vagus Nerve Stimulator (VNS) is a device, somewhat like a heart pacemaker, placed in the upper chest below the left collarbone. It is connected to a wire which leads to a nerve in the neck. By stimulating this vagus nerve, the device can help reduce the number of seizures. In fact, about a third of patients experience a thirty to fifty percent reduction of seizures. Around three percent of patients actually become seizure-free.
The device stimulates automatically and periodically throughout the day and night. Patients can also learn to "turn on" the stimulator if they feel a seizure coming on, which can often stop the seizure from occurring. Because the vagus nerve affects the throat, patients may experience hoarseness or sore throat and may have difficulty speaking when using this device. Adjusting the strength of the stimulation can often address this side effect.
Vagus nerve stimulator placement requires surgical implantation under general anesthesia. Patients need multiple clinical appointments after implantation to turn the VNS on and adjust stimulation strength.
In very rare cases where a patient has seizures that start independently on either side of the brain and spread, a corpus callosotomy may be recommended. This procedure involves severing the fibers connecting the two halves (hemispheres) of the brain.
Disconnecting the two hemispheres helps stop the spread of seizures in the brain and may protect some patients from injury caused by seizure-related falls. This procedure does not usually stop the patient from having seizures and may actually increase the frequency of certain kinds of localized seizures.
After surgery, the patient may experience temporary or permanent limitations of speech, movement of certain body parts or behavior alteration. It is important for patients and their families to be informed of these risks and understand that this surgery is not performed with hope of curing seizures, but rather with hope of helping to reduce their severity.
Hemispherectomy (also known as hemidecortication or functional hemispherectomy) is the complete removal or partial removal and disconnection of almost an entire half of the brain (hemisphere).
This procedure is usually performed on children with severe and very frequent seizures at select centers in the world including Johns Hopkins. These patients typically have a severely damaged hemisphere for assorted reasons (hence the seizures) and generally are weaker on the side of the body opposite of the diseased hemisphere.
Experience has shown that less extensive surgery is not useful in this situation. Suitable for only a very few patients, hemispherectomy has proven to be a very successful type of seizure surgery. Potential risks including hydrocephalus and infection. The severe one-sided weakness present before surgery is likely to persist after surgery, although most patients are usually able to walk with some rehabilitation.
Patients also experience loss of the visual field on the weak side. When successful, this surgery cures the epilepsy. Johns Hopkins has performed this surgery over 125 times since the 1980s and helps coordinate a reunion for patients every three years.
Follow-up care is extremely important in tracking the progress of a child’s recovery. Your pediatric neurosurgeon will schedule follow-up appointments to make sure your child is making a full recovery.
To request a consultation or make an appointment, please contact Johns Hopkins Pediatric Neurosurgery at 410-955-7337.
Request an Appointment
Pediatric Neurosurgery: 410-955-7337
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Every battle has a turning point when the slack water of uncertainty becomes the ebb tide of defeat or the flood water of victory.
ADMIRAL CHARLES TURNER JOY
For most of the men who fought the battles of the Pusan Perimeter in early September 1950, it was a period of confusion. So many actions went on simultaneously that only a wide-screen view could reveal the situation as the commander had to cope with it in its totality. Since this panoramic approach is not feasible, the story in this chapter will follow the battles from the east coast near P'ohang-dong westward to Taegu and the Naktong River for the first two weeks of September. The next chapter will follow the battles for the same period of time in the southern part of the Pusan Perimeter.
It is necessary to keep in mind that not one of the battles in this phase of the war was an isolated event, but that everywhere over the extent of the Perimeter other battles of equal, greater, or lesser intensity were being waged. As an example of their impact, on 3 September 1950 General Walker faced at least five distinct and dangerous situations on the Perimeter-an enemy penetration in the east at P'ohang-dong, severance of the lateral corridor at Yongch'on between Taegu and P'ohang-dong, alarming enemy gains in the mountains north of Taegu, the threat posed by North Korean units slicing through the defenses of the Naktong Bulge area of the lower Naktong, and enemy penetration behind the greater part of the 25th Division in the Masan area in the extreme south. In addition, at this time in the east the ROK II Corps was on the point of collapse; above Taegu the 1st Cavalry Division withdrew closer to that city; and in the south disaster threatened the U.S. 2d and 25th Divisions.
Action in the East-Task Force Jackson
Although the N.K. II Corps' general attack in the north and east was planned for 2 September, the enemy 12th Division, now numbering about 5,000 men, started earlier to move forward from the mountain fastnesses where it had reorganized after its defeat in the Kigye and P'ohang-dong area. (Map 14) The division was low in food supply, weapons, and ammunition, and its men were in a state of lowered morale. On 26 August, American and ROK officers in the P'ohang-dong-Kigye area with great optimism congratulated each other on having repulsed what they thought was the
Page 398 SOUTH TO THE NAKTONG, NORTH TO THE YALU
last serious threat to the Pusan Perimeter. In their view the North Koreans were now on the defensive and the war might end by Thanksgiving.
Nearest to the N.K. 12th Division was the ROK Capital Division. At 0400, 27 August, a North Korean attack overran one company of the ROK 17th Regiment, Capital Division, north of Kigye. This caused the whole regiment to give way. Then the 18th Regiment on the right fell back because of its exposed flank. The 17th Regiment lost the town of Kigye, and the entire Capital Division fell back three miles to the south side of the Kigye valley. This enemy blow fell with startling impact on Eighth Army in the predawn hours of 27 August.
At the briefing at Eighth Army headquarters in Taegu on Sunday, 27 August, General Walker showed his concern over this development. One of those present was Maj. Gen. John B. Coulter who had arrived in Korea about a month earlier. Half an hour after the briefing ended, General Walker called General Coulter to him and said, "I can't get reliable reports. I want you to go to the eastern front and represent me. I am sending a regiment from the 24th Division to help."
Coulter flew to Kyongju at once, arriving there at noon. Walker in the meantime formally appointed Coulter Deputy Commander, Eighth Army, placing him in command of the ROK I Corps, the U.S. 21st Infantry, the 3d Battalion, 9th Infantry, and the 73d Medium Tank Battalion, less C Company. General Coulter designated these units Task Force Jackson and established his headquarters in the same building in Kyongju in which the ROK I Corps commander and the KMAG officers had their command post. He assumed command of Task Force Jackson at 1200, 27 August.
When he arrived at Kyongju that Sunday, General Coulter found the ROK I Corps disintegrating rapidly and in low morale. Coulter talked to the ROK commanders and their staffs about the terrible effect of their failure to stop the North Koreans and the danger it posed for the entire Pusan Perimeter. General Walker had instructed him to issue his orders to the ROK I Corps commander or his chief of staff in the form of advice, which Coulter did. Coulter had the mission of eliminating the enemy penetration in the Kigye area and of seizing and organizing the high ground extending from north of Yongch'on northeasterly to the coast at Wolp'o-ri, about twelve miles north of P'ohang-dong. This line passed ten miles north of Kigye. Coulter was to attack at once with Task Force Jackson, his immediate objective being to gain the first high ground north of Kigye. The U.S. 21st Infantry Regiment on the morning of 27 August was moving to a position north of Taegu, when General Walker revoked its orders and instructed Colonel Stephens to turn the regiment around and proceed as rapidly
EUSAK WD, G-3 Sec, Msg 0655 from KMAG, 27 Aug 50; Ibid., Aug 50 Summ, p. 77; GHQ FEC C-3 Opn Rpt 64, 27 Aug 50; New York Herald Tribune, August 28, 1950. Bigart dispatch of 27 August. Interv, author with Lt Gen John B. Coulter, 3 Apr 53. Ibid., EUSAK WD, G-3 Sec, 27 Aug 50; GHQ FEC G-3 Opn Rpt 64, 27 Aug 50; Ibid., Sitrep, 28 Aug 50; Capt. George B. Shutt, Operational Narrative History of Task Force Jackson, MS in National Archives Record Service.
PERIMETER BATTLE Page 399
(MAP 14: THE N.K. ATTACKS IN THE EAST, 27 August-15 September 1950)
as possible to Kyongju and report to General Coulter. The regiment departed Taegu at 1000 and arrived at Kyongju that afternoon. Coulter immediately sent the 3d Battalion north to An'gang-ni where it went into a position behind the ROK Capital Division.
General Coulter's plan to attack on 28 August had to be postponed. The ROK I Corps commander told him he could not attack, that there were "too many enemy, too many casualties, troops tired." Also, the N.K. 5th Division above P'ohang-dong had begun to press south again and the ROK 3d Division in front of it began to show signs of giving way. On the 28th, Colonel Emmerich, the KMAG adviser to the ROK 3d Division, at a time he deemed favorable, advised Brig. Gen. Kim Suk Won, the ROK division commander, to counterattack, but General Kim refused to do so. The next day Kim said he was going to move his command post out of
Ltr, Coulter to author, 7 Jul 53: Ltr, Stephens to author, 14 May 53; EUSAK WD, G-3 Sec, 27 Aug 50; 21st Inf WD, 27 Aug 50; 24th Div WD, 27 Aug 50.
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P'ohang-dong. Emmerich replied that the KMAG group was going to stay in P'ohang-dong. Upon hearing that, Kim became hysterical but decided to stay for the time being to avoid loss of face. That day, 28 August, General Walker issued a special statement addressed to the ROK Army, and meant also for the South Korean Minister of Defense. He called on the ROK's to hold their lines in the Perimeter, and said:
It is my belief, that the over-extended enemy is making his last gasp, while United Nations forces are daily becoming stronger and stronger. The time has now come for everyone to stand in place and fight, or advance to a position which will give us greater tactical advantage from which the counter-offensive can be launched. If our present positions are pierced, we must counterattack at once, destroy the enemy and restore the positions.
To you officers and soldiers of the Army of the Republic of Korea, I ask that you rise as one and stop the enemy on your front in his tracks.
The ROK disorganization was so great in the face of continued enemy pressure that Task Force Jackson could not launch its planned co-ordinated attack. Colonel Stephens' 21st Infantry was in an assembly area two miles north of An'gang-ni and ready for an attack the morning of the 28th, but during the night the ROK 17th Regiment lost its position on the high ridge northward at the bend of the Kigye valley, and the attack was canceled. The ROK's regained their position in the afternoon but that night lost it again. At the same time, elements of the enemy 5th Division penetrated the ROK 3d Division southwest of P'ohang-dong. General Coulter directed Colonel Stephens to repel this penetration. During the 29th, B Company, 21st Infantry, supported by a platoon of tanks of B Company, 73d Medium Tank Battalion, successfully counterattacked northwest from the southern edge of P'ohang-dong for a distance of a mile and a half, with ROK troops following. The American units then withdrew to P'ohang-dong. That night the ROK's withdrew, and the next day an American infantry-tank force repeated the action of the day before. Colonel Stephens now received orders to take over from the ROK 3d Division a sector extending 1,000 yards north and 3,000 yards northwest of-P'ohang-dong.
Also on the 29th, the ROK Capital Division, with American tank and artillery support, recaptured Kigye and held it during the night against enemy counterattacks, only to lose it finally at dawn. American air attacks continued at an increased tempo in the Kigye area. On 31 August, the aircraft carrier USS Sicily alone launched 38 sorties. ROK troops reported finding the bodies of many North Koreans, apparently killed by air attack. They also found many suits of white clothing scattered on the ground, abandoned when enemy soldiers changed into uniforms.
Coincidentally with this air action in the Kigye area; U.S. naval vessels continued their efforts to help stop the N.K. 5th Division on the east coast. A
Ltr, Coulter to author, 7 Jul 53; EUSAK WD, G-3 Sec, 28 Aug 50; 21st Inf WD, 28 Aug 50; GHQ FEC Sitrep, 28 Aug 50; Ltr, Emmerich to Farrell, 29 Aug 50, recommending relief of Gen Kim Suk Won; New York Times, August 28, 1950. Ltr, Stephens to author, 14 May 53, and accompanying map of 21st Inf positions; EUSAK WD, G-3 Sec, Msg 1710 from TF Jackson; 21st Inf WD, 29 Aug 50.
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cruiser and two destroyers concentrated their fire power on the Hunghae area five miles north of P'ohang-dong where the enemy division's troop assembly and forward supply center were located. On 29 and 30 August the three vessels fired almost 1,500 5-inch shells at enemy targets there in support of the ROK 3d Division. Despite this aerial and naval support, on the last day of August the battle continued to go against the ROK forces both at Kigye and P'ohang-dong.
Aerial observation on 1 September disclosed that North Koreans were moving southward in the mountains above Kigye and P'ohang-dong. The next day another major enemy attack was forming north and northwest of Kigye. In the afternoon, KMAG advisers with the Capital Division estimated that 2,500 enemy soldiers had penetrated a gap between the ROK 17th and 18th Regiments.
At the same time, enemy pressure built up steadily north of P'ohang-dong, where the N.K. 5th Division fed replacements on to Hill 99 in front of the ROK 23d Regiment. This hill became almost as notorious as had Hill 181 near Yongdok earlier because of the almost continuous and bloody fighting there for its control. Although aided by U.S. air attacks and artillery and naval gunfire, the ROK 3d Division was not able to capture this hill, and suffered many casualties in the effort. On 2 September Colonel Stephens' 21st Infantry attacked northwest from P'ohang-dong in an effort to help the ROK's recapture Hill 99. A platoon of tanks followed the valley road between P'ohang-dong and Hunghae. Stephens assigned K Company Hill 99 as its objective. The 21st Infantry made very slow progress in this attack, and in some quarters none at all. Casualties were heavy. By 1525 that afternoon K Company could account for only thirty-five men. The company was unable to take Hill 99 from the well dug-in North Koreans who threw showers of hand grenades to repel all efforts to reach the top. Two tanks of the 6th Tank Battalion were lost in this attack, one in an enemy mine field and another because of a thrown track. At dusk an enemy penetration occurred along the boundary between the ROK Capital and 3d Divisions three miles east of Kigye.
The next morning, an hour and a half after midnight, the N.K. 12th Division, executing its part of the co-ordinated N.K. II Corps general attack, struck the Capital Division on the high hill masses south of the Kigye valley. This attack threw back the ROK 18th Regiment on the left in the area of Hills 334 and 438, and the ROK 17th Regiment on the right in the area of Hill 445. By dawn of 3 September the enemy penetration there had reached the vital east-west corridor road three miles east of An'gang-ni. As a result of this 5-mile enemy gain during the night the Capital Division all but collapsed.
Interv, author with Coulter, 3 Apr 53; GHQ FEC G-3 Opn Rpts 64-68, 27-31 Aug 50; Ibid., Sitreps, 28 Aug-2 Sep 50; EUSAK WD, G-3 Sec, 31 Aug 50; Ibid., POR 149, 31 Aug 50; 21st Inf WD, 31 Aug 50. Ltr and marked map, Stephens to author, 14 May 53; EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl, 2 Sep 50; 21st Inf WD, 2 Sep 50; 6th Tk Bn WD, 1-3 Sep 50; Emmerich, MS review comments, 30 Nov 57. EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl, 0845 3 Sep 50; Ibid., PIR 53, 3 Sep 50; GHQ FEC G-3 Opn Rpt 71, 3 Sep 50; Ibid., Sitrep, 3 Sep 50; ROK Army Hq, MS review comments, 11 Jul 58.
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This dire turn of events forced General Coulter to withdraw the 21st Infantry at once from the line northwest of P'ohang-dong and concentrate it forthwith in the vicinity of Kyongju. The 2d Battalion, commanded by Lt. Col. Gines Perez, had joined the regiment as its third battalion on 31 August, but General Coulter had held it in Task Force reserve at An'gang-ni. That battalion now took up a horseshoe-shaped defense position around the town, with some elements on high ground two miles eastward where they commanded the Kyongju-P'ohang-dong highway. The rest of the regiment closed into an assembly area north of Kyongju. At the same time, General Walker started the newly activated ROK 7th Division toward the enemy penetration. Its 5th Regiment closed at Yongch'on that afternoon, and the 3d Regiment, less its 1st Battalion, closed at Kyongju in the evening. Walker also authorized Coulter to use the 3d Battalion, 8th Infantry; the 9th Infantry Regimental Tank Company; and the 15th Field Artillery Battalion as he deemed advisable. These units, held at Yonil Airfield for its defense, had not previously been available for commitment elsewhere. The two antiaircraft batteries of automatic weapons (D Battery, 865th AAA Battalion, and A Battery, 933d AAA Battalion) were not to be moved from the airfield except in an emergency.
During the day (3 September), Colonel Emmerich at P'ohang-dong sent General Coulter a message that the ROK 3d Division commander was preparing to withdraw from P'ohang-dong. Coulter went immediately to the ROK I Corps commander and had him issue an order that the ROK 3d Division would not withdraw. Coulter checked every half hour to see that the division stayed in its P'ohang-dong positions.
That night, 3-4 September, the ROK I Corps front collapsed. Three enemy tanks overran a battery of ROK artillery and then scattered two battalions of the newly arrived ROK 5th Regiment. Following a mortar preparation, the North Koreans entered An'gang-ni at 0220. An hour later the command post of the Capital Division withdrew from the town and fighting became increasingly confused. By 0400 American tanks ceased firing because remnants of the Capital Division had become hopelessly intermingled with enemy forces. Colonel Perez said, "We couldn't tell friend from foe." At daylight, G Company, 21st Infantry, discovered that it was alone in An'gang-ni, nearly surrounded by the enemy. ROK troops had disappeared. At 1810, G Company withdrew from the town and dug in along the road eastward near the rest of the 2d Battalion at the bridge over the Hyongsan-gang. North Koreans held the town and extended southward along the railroad.
Receiving orders from Colonel Stephens to withdraw the 2d Battalion and join the regiment above Kyongju, Colonel Perez had to fight his way through an enemy roadblock on the east side of
Interv, author with Coulter, 3 Apr 53; Ltr, Stephens to author, 14 May 53; EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl 0840, 1420 3 Sep 50; Ibid., G-3 Sec and Br for CG, 3 Sep 50; New York Herald Tribune, September 6, 1950, Bigart dispatch EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl, 4 Sep 50; 21st Inf WD, 28 Aug-28 Sep 50 Summ, for 3-4 Sep: GHQ FEC Sitrep, 4 Sep 50; New York Herald Tribune, September 6, 1950, Bigart dispatch.
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[Caption] ASSAULT TROOPS OF COMPANY K, 21st Infantry, under mortar fire on Hill 99, 2 September.
the Hyongsan-gang three miles southeast of An'gang-ni. When he got through he discovered that G Company was missing. Colonel Stephens ordered Perez to turn around and get G Company. The 2d Battalion fought its way back north and found G Company at the bridge. Reunited, the battalion fought its way out again, with tanks firing down the road ahead of the column and into the hills along the sides. Enemy fire knocked the tracks off three Patton tanks. Friendly artillery then destroyed them to prevent enemy use. The 2d Battalion arrived in the Kyongju area shortly before noon.
By noon, 4 September, enemy units had established roadblocks along the Kyongju-An'gang-ni road within three miles of Kyongju. A 2-mile-wide gap existed between the ROK 3d and Capital Divisions in the P'ohang-dong area. But the big break in the United Nations line was in the high mountain mass west of the Hyongsan valley and southwest of An'gang-ni. In this area northwest of Kyongju there was an 8-mile gap between the Capital Division and the ROK 8th Division to the west. From that direction the enemy posed a threat, General Coulter thought, to the railroad and the road net running south through the Kyongju corridor to Pusan. He was not equally concerned about enemy ad-
21st Inf WD, 5 Sep 50; 24th Div WD, 4 Sep 50; Ltr, Stephens to author, 14 May 53.
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vances in the P'ohang-dong coastal area. Faced with this big gap on his left flank, Coulter put Stephens' 21st Infantry in the broad valley and on its bordering hills northwest of Kyongju to block any enemy approach from that direction.
The situation at Kyongju during the evening of 4 September was tense. The ROK corps commander proposed to evacuate the town. He said that the North Koreans were only three miles away on the hills to the north, and that they would attack and overrun the town that night. General Coulter told him that he would not move his command post-that they were all staying in Kyongju. And stay they did. Coulter put four tanks around the building where the command posts were located. Out on the roads he stationed KMAG officers to round up ROK stragglers and get them into positions at the edge of the town. One KMAG major at pistol point stopped ROK troops fleeing southward. Most of his staff at Kyongju found Coulter irritable and hard to please, but they also say that he went sleepless and was determined to hold Kyongju.
That night radio conversations between tankers on the road just north of Kyongju, overheard at Coulter's headquarters, told of knocking North Koreans off the tanks. The expected North Korean attack on Kyongju, however, never came. The enemy turned east, crossed the highway a few miles north of the town, and headed toward Yonil Airfield. The next day the Air Force, attacking enemy gun positions four miles north of Kyongju along the road, found enemy targets at many points within the triangle Kigye-Kyongju-P'ohang-dong.
North of P'ohang-dong the situation worsened. At 0200 5 September Colonel Emmerich hastened to Yonil Airfield where he conferred with Lt. Col. D. M. McMains, commanding the 3d Battalion, 9th Infantry, stationed there, and informed him of the situation in P'ohang-dong. Emmerich obtained a platoon of tanks and returned with them to the town. He placed the tanks in position and awaited the expected enemy armored attack. At 0530 he received information that elements of the ROK 22d Regiment had given way. Enemy troops entered this gap and just before 1100 the American tanks in P'ohang-dong were under heavy enemy machine gun fire. Five N.K. self-propelled guns approached and began firing. At a range of one city block the tanks knocked out the lead gun, killing three crew members. In the ensuing exchange of fire the other four withdrew. Emmerich then directed air strikes and artillery fire which destroyed the other four guns. But, nevertheless, that afternoon at 1435 the order came to evacuate all materiel and supplies from the Yonil airstrip.
That night, 5-6 September, events reached a climax inside P'ohang-dong.
Interv, author with Coulter, 3 Apr 53; Ltr, Stephens to author, 14 May 53; EUSAK WD, Br for CG, 4 Sep 50; 6th Med Tk Bn WD, 4 Sep 50. Interv, author with Coulter, 3 Apr 53; Interv, author with Col John F. Greco, 12 Aug 51 (Greco was Coulter's G-2 at Kyongju); Interv, author with Maj Wm. C. Hungate, Jr., 28 Jul 51; Interv, author with Maj George W. Flagler, 28 Jul 51 (both Hungate and Flagler were at Kyongju with Coulter); Shutt, History of Task Force Jackson. Interv, author with Coulter, 3 Apr 53; EUSAK WD, G-3 Sec, 5 Sep 50; Ibid., Br for CG, 5 Sep 50: Ibid., PIR 55, 5 Sep 50; 21st Inf WD, 5 Sep 50; GHQ FEC Opn Rpt 74, 6 Sep 50; Ibid., Sitrep, 6 Sep 50; Shutt, History of Task Force Jackson; Emmerich, MS review comments, 30 Jan 57.
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At midnight, after ten rounds of enemy mortar or artillery fire struck near it, the ROK 3d Division command post moved to another location. Enemy fire that followed it to the new location indicated observed and directed fire. The ROK division commander and his G-2 and G-3 "got sick." The division withdrew from P'ohang-dong, and on 6 September this coastal town was again in enemy hands. The ROK Army relieved both the ROK I Corps and the 3d Division commanders.
Because the big gap between the ROK Capital and 8th Divisions made it impossible for I Corps at Kyongju to direct the action of the 8th Division, the ROK Army at 1030, 5 September, transferred that division to the control of the ROK II Corps, and attached to it the 5th Regiment of the ROK 7th Division. This shift of command came just as the N.K. 15th Division penetrated the ROK 8th Division lines to enter Yongch'on in the Taegu-P'ohang-dong corridor. From west of An'gang-ni the ROK 3d Regiment drove toward Yongch'on, still trying to close the gap.
The startling gains of the North Koreans in the east on 4 September caused General Walker to shift still more troops to that area. The day before, he had ordered the 24th Division to move from its reserve position near Taegu to the lower Naktong River to relieve the marines in the Naktong Bulge area of the 2d Division front. It bivouacked that night in a downpour of rain on the banks of the Naktong near Susan-nil. On the morning of the 4th, before it could begin relief of the marines, the 24th received a new order to proceed to Kyongju. General Davidson, the assistant division commander, proceeding at once by jeep, arrived at Kyongju that evening. Division troops and the 18th Infantry started at 1300 the next day, 5 September, and, traveling over muddy roads, most of them arrived at Kyongju just before midnight. General Church had arrived there during the day. All division units had arrived by 0700, 6 September.
General Coulter knew that the N.K. 15th Division had crossed the Taegu lateral corridor at Yongch'on and was heading in the direction of Kyongju. On the 6th, he ordered the 21st Infantry to attack the next day up the valley and bordering hills that lead northwest from Kyongju into the high mountain mass in the direction of Yongch'on. When it attacked there on 7 September the 21st Infantry encountered virtually no opposition.
At 1230 Eighth Army redesignated Task Force Jackson as Task Force Church, and half an hour later General Coulter departed Kyongju for Taegu to resume his planning duties. General Church was now in command on the eastern front. That afternoon, 7 September, General Church canceled General Coulter's order for the 21st Infantry to attack into the mountains. He felt it was a useless dispersion of troops and he wanted the regiment concentrated near Kyongju. Church made still another change in the disposition of the
Interv, author with Emmerich, 5 Dec 51; Interv, author with Coulter, 3 Apr 53. GHQ FEC Sitrep, 5 Sep 50; Ibid., G-3 Opn Rpts 73-74, 5-6 Sep 50. Ltr, Davidson to author, 18 Feb 54; 24th Div WD, 5-6 Sep 50: EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl, 1800 5 Sep 50; EUSAK Opn Ord for CG 24th Div and CG TF Jackson, 5 Sep 50.
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task force. On the 8th he moved its command post from Kyongju to the vicinity of Choyang-ni, four miles southward. He believed the command post could be more easily defended there in the open if attacked than in a town, and that traffic congestion near it would be less.
Fighting continued between the North Koreans and the ROK Capital Division on the hills bordering the valley from An'gang-ni to Kyongju. The 3d Battalion, 19th Infantry, became involved there just after midnight, 8-9 September. An enemy force attacked K Company and drove it from Hill 300, a defensive position midway between An'gang-ni and Kyongju. North Koreans held the hill during the 9th against counterattack. Farther north, on the left side of the valley, the ROK 17th Regiment attacked and, with the support of the U.S. 13th Field Artillery Battalion, captured Hill 285 and held it against several enemy counterattacks. On the opposite side of the valley (east) the ROK 18th Regiment made limited gains. These battles took place in drenching typhoon rains. Low-hanging clouds allowed very little air support. The rains finally ceased on 10 September.
In this second week of September elements of the N.K. 5th Division had spread out over the hills west, southwest, and south of P'ohang-dong. One North Korean force, estimated to number 1,600 men, reached Hills 482 and 510, four to five miles southwest of Yonil Airfield. Facing this enemy force were two regiments of the ROK 3d Division, which held a defensive position on the hills bordering the west side of the valley south of the airfield. Enemy pressure threatened to penetrate between the two ROK regiments.
On the evening of 9 September, General Church formed Task Force Davidson to eliminate this threat to Yonil. The airfield itself had not been used since the middle of August except for emergency landing and refueling of planes, but evacuation of Air Force equipment, bombs, and petroleum products was still in progress. General Davidson commanded the task force, which was composed of the 19th Infantry, less the 3d Battalion; the 3d Battalion, 9th Infantry; the 13th Field Artillery Battalion; C Battery, 15th Field Artillery Battalion; A Company, 3d Engineer Combat Battalion; the 9th Infantry Regimental Tank Company; two batteries of antiaircraft automatic weapons; and other miscellaneous units.
The enemy having cut off all other approaches from the Kyongju area, the task force spent all of 10 September making a circuitous southern approach to its objective. It arrived in its assembly area at Yongdok-tong, one mile south of Yonil Airfield, at 1900 that evening. General Davidson early that morning had flown on ahead from Kyongju to Yongdok-tong. Colonel Emmerich was there to meet him when his light plane landed on the road. On the flight over, Davidson looked for but did not see any
Ltrs, Church to author, 3 May and 26 Jul 53; Ltr, Davidson to author, 18 Feb 54 24th Div WD, 7-8 Sep 50; EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl, 7 Sep 50; Ibid., POR 171, 7 Sep 50. 24th Div WD, 9 Sep 50; 3d Engr C Bn WD, Sep 50, Summ. Interv, author with Davidson, 28 Jan 54; Ltr, Davidson to author, 18 Feb 54; 19th Inf WD, 10 Sep 50; 24th Div WD, 9 Sep 50; EUSAK WD, G-3 Sec, 10 Sep 50; 3d Engr C Bn Unit Hist, 6 Aug-28 Sep 50.
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enemy soldiers. Emmerich told Davidson the North Koreans had driven the ROK's from Hill 131. This hill was on the southern side of the boundary between the two ROK regiments holding the Yonil defensive position. Davidson and Emmerich agreed that the ROK's would have to recapture Hill 131 during the night and that then the task force would attack through the ROK 3d Division to capture the main enemy positions on Hill 482. They thought that if the task force could establish the ROK's on Hill 482 the latter should be able to hold it and control the situation themselves thereafter. Emmerich took Davidson to meet the ROK 3d Division commander. Davidson told him that he was in command in that area and informed him of his plan for the attack. That night the ROK's did succeed in recapturing Hill 131 and restoring their lines there. In this attack the ROK 3d Engineer Battalion fought as infantry, and under the leadership and guidance of Capt. Walter J. Hutchins, the KMAG adviser to the battalion, contributed heavily to the success.
The next morning, 11 September, the 19th Infantry passed through the left-hand ROK regiment just south of Hill 131 and, with the 1st Battalion leading, attacked west. At 0930 it captured without opposition the first hill mass two miles west of the line of departure. The 2d Battalion then passed through the 1st Battalion and continued the attack toward Hill 482 (Unje-san), a mile westward across a steep-sided gorge. There, North Koreans held entrenched positions, and their machine gun fire checked the 2d Battalion for the rest of the day. The morning of 12 September four Australian pilots struck the enemy positions with napalm, and an artillery preparation followed the strike. The 2d Battalion then launched its attack and secured the rough and towering Hill 482 about noon. In midafternoon, ROK forces relieved Task Force Davidson on the hill mass, and the latter descended to the valley southwest of Yongdok-tong for the night. During the day, General Walker had visited the task force's command post two or three times. On 13 September, Task Force Davidson returned to Kyongju.
While this action was in progress near Yonil Airfield, the week-long battle for Hill 300 north of Kyongju came to an end. A regiment of the ROK 3d Division captured the hill on 11 September. In midafternoon the 3d Battalion, 18th Infantry, relieved the ROK's there. Scattered over Hill 300 lay 257 counted enemy dead and great quantities of abandoned equipment and weapons, some of it American. In this fighting for Hill 300, the U.S. 3d Battalion, 18th Infantry, lost eight lieutenants and twenty-nine enlisted men killed.
Tuesday, 12 September, may be considered as the day when the North Korean offensive in the east ended. By that date, the N.K. 12th Division had been virtually destroyed and the 5th Division was trying to consolidate its
Ltr, Davidson to author, 18 Feb 54; 24th Div WD, 10 Sep 50; EUSAK WD, G-3 Sec, 10 Sep 50; Emmerich, MS review comments, 30 Nov 57. Ltr, Davidson to author, 18 Feb 54; 24th Div WD, 11-12 Sep 50; Ibid., Opn Summ, 26 Aug-28 Sept 50; EUSAK POR 186, 12 Sep 50; EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl, 1046 12 Sep 50. 21st Inf WD, 11 Sep 50; 24th Div WD, 26 Aug-28 Sep 50, p. 40; 24th Div Arty WD. 12 Sep 50; Ltr, Stephens to author, 14 May 53. The 3d Battalion, 19th Infantry, was attached to the 21st Infantry during this action.
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survivors near P'ohang-dong. Aerial observers reported sighting many enemy groups moving north and east.
The ROK 3d Division followed the withdrawing 5th Division, and the Capital Division advanced against the retreating survivors of the enemy 12th Division. On 15 September some elements of the Capital Division reached the southern edge of An'gang-ni. Reports indicated that enemy troops were retreating toward Kigye. With the enemy threat in the east subsiding, Eighth Army dissolved Task Force Church, effective at noon 15 September, and the ROK Army resumed control of the ROK I Corps. Eighth Army also ordered the 24th Division to move to Kyongsan, southeast of Taegu, in a regrouping of forces. The 21st Infantry Regiment had already moved there on the 14th. The 9th Infantry was to remain temporarily at Kyongju in Eighth Army reserve.
In the eastern battles during the first two weeks of September, the ROK troops, demoralized though they were, did most of the ground fighting. American tanks, artillery, and ground units supported them. Uncontested aerial supremacy and naval gunfire from offshore also supported the ROK's, and probably were the factors that tipped the scales in their favor. After the initial phase of their September offensive, the North Koreans labored under what proved to be insurmountable difficulties in supplying their forward units. The North Korean system of supply could not resolve the problems of logistics and communication necessary to support and exploit an offensive operation in this sector of the front.
Enemy Breakthrough at Yongch'on
In the high mountains between the Taegu sector on the west and the Kyongju-east coast sector, two North Korean divisions, the 8th and 15th, stood ready on 1 September to attack south and sever the Taegu-P'ohang-dong corridor road in the vicinity of Hayang and Yongch'on, in co-ordination with the North Korean offensive in the Kigye-P'ohang area. Hayang is 12, and Yongch'on 20, air miles east of Taegu. The N.K. 8th Division was astride the main Andong-Sinnyong-Yongch'on road 20 air miles northwest of Yongch'on; the 15th was eastward in the mountains just below Andong, 35 air miles north of Yongch'on on a poor and mountainous secondary road. The objective of the 8th Division was Hayang; that of the 15th was Yongch'on, which the enemy division commander had orders to take at all costs. Opposing the N.K. 8th Division was the ROK 6th Division; in front of the N.K. 15th Division stood the ROK 8th Division.
In ten days of fighting the N.K. 8th Division gained only a few miles, and not until 12 September did it have possession of Hwajong-dong, 14 air miles northwest of Yongch'on. In this time it
ATIS Res Supp Interrog Rpts, Issue 106 (N.K. 12th Div), p. 70; Ibid., Issue 96 (N.K. 5th Div), p. 43. There are many individual enemy interrogation reports in ATIS Interrogation Reports, Issues 6 and 7 (N.K. Forces), describing the condition of these two divisions at this time. 21st Inf WD, Summ, Sep 50; EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl, 1125 14 Sep 50; Ibid., Br for CG, 14 Sep 50; EUSAK PIR 64 and 65, 14-15 Sep 50; Ibid., POR 192 and 195, 14-15 Sep 50; GHQ FEC G-3 Opn Rpt 83, 15 Sep 50. ATIS Res Supp Interrog Rpts, Issue 4 (N.K. 8th Div), p. 25; Ibid., Issue 3 (N. K. 15th Div), p. 44.
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lost nearly all the twenty-one new tanks of the 17th Armored Brigade that were supporting it. Just below Hwajong-dong, towering mountains close in on the road, with 3,000-foot-high Hill 928 (Hwa-san) on the east and lesser peaks 2,000 feet high on the west. At this passage of the mountains into the Taegu corridor, the ROK 6th Division decisively defeated the enemy 8th Division and, in effect, practically destroyed it. Of these battles around Hwajong-dong an enemy diarist wrote on 2 September, "Today we opened a general attack"; after 6 September, "We underwent extremely desperate battles. With no place to hide or escape from the fierce enemy artillery bombardment our main force was wiped out." On 8 September he wrote, "We suffered miserably heavy casualties from fierce enemy air, artillery, and heavy machine gun attacks. Only 20 remain alive out of our entire battalion."
On the next road eastward above Yongch'on, the N.K. 15th Division launched its attack against the ROK 8th Division on 2 September. Although far understrength, with its three regiments reportedly having a total of only 3,600 men, it penetrated in four days to the lateral corridor at Yongch'on. North of the town one regiment of the ROK 8th Division panicked when an enemy tank got behind its lines. Elements of the enemy division were in and south of Yongch'on by midafternoon 6 September. The North Koreans did not remain in the town, but moved to the hills south and southeast of it overlooking the Taegu-Kyongju-Pusan road. On 7 September some of them established a roadblock three and a half miles southeast of Yongch'on, and other elements attacked a ROK regiment a mile south of the town. During the day, however, the ROK 5th Regiment of the newly activated 7th Division, attacking from the east along the lateral corridor, cleared Yongch'on itself of enemy and then went into a defensive position north of the town. But the next day, 8 September, additional elements of the 15th Division arrived before Yongch'on and recaptured it. That afternoon the 11th Regiment of the ROK 1st Division arrived from the Taegu front and counterattacked the enemy in and near the town. This action succeeded in clearing the enemy from most of Yongch'on, but some North Koreans still held the railroad station southeast of it. Still others were an unknown distance southeast on the road toward Kyongju.
There, in the hills southeast and east of Yongch'on, the enemy 15th Division came to grief. Its artillery regiment foolishly advanced ahead of the infantry, expended its ammunition, and, without support, was then largely destroyed by ROK counterbattery fire. The artillery commander lost his life in the action. After the ROK 5th and 11th Regiments arrived in the vicinity of Yongch'on to
Ibid., Issue 4 (N.K. 8th Div). p. 25; ATIS Interrog Rpts, Issue 4, Rpts 922 and 923, pp. 47 and 51; ATIS Enemy Documents, Nr 28, p. 7, diary of Pak Han Pin, 83d Regt, 8th Div; EUSAK WD, 9 Sep 50, PW Interrog Rpt, 2d Lt Wong Hong Ki; Ibid., PIR 53, 3 Sep 50; New York Herald Tribune, September 7, 1950. EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl, 1230 3 Sep 50, and an. to PIR 53, 3 Sep 50, and PIR 56, 6 Sep 50; Ibid., Br for CG, 7 Sep 50; GHQ FEC Sitrep, 8-9 Sep 50; Time Magazine, September 18, 1950, J. Bell article; New York Herald Tribune, September 7, 1950, Bigart dispatch.
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reinforce the demoralized 8th Division, ROK battle action was so severe against the enemy units that they had no chance to regroup for co-ordinating action. On 9 and 10 September ROK units surrounded and virtually destroyed the N.K. 15th Division southeast of Yongch'on on the hills bordering the Kyongju road. The North Korean division chief of staff, Col. Kim Yon, was killed there together with many other high-ranking officers. The part played by KMAG officers in rounding up stragglers of the ROK 8th Division and in reorganizing its units was an important factor in the successful outcome of these battles. On 10 September, the ROK 8th Division cleared the Yongch'on-Kyongju road of the enemy, capturing 2 tanks, 6 howitzers, 1 76-mm. self-propelled gun, several antitank guns, and many small arms. The capture of the self-propelled gun is a revealing story in itself. The driver drove the gun, followed by a truckload of enemy infantry, from the southeast through the ROK lines to Yongch'on, where he stopped and was quietly eating dinner with ROK troops when he came under suspicion and had to make a dash for it, hotly pursued by groups of ROK's. He surrendered four miles northward to a lone ROK soldier with the explanation that he could not drive the vehicle and shoot at the same time.
Advancing north of Yongch'on after the retreating survivors of the N.K. 15th Division, the ROK 8th Division and the 5th Regiment of the ROK 7th Division encountered almost no resistance. On 12 September, elements of the two ROK organizations were eight miles north of the town. On that day they captured 4 120-mm. mortars, 4 antitank guns, 4 artillery pieces, 9 trucks, 2 machine guns, and numerous small arms. ROK forces now also advanced east from Yongch'on and north from Kyongju to close the big breach in their lines.
Perhaps the most critical period of the fighting in the east occurred when the N.K. 15th Division broke through the ROK 8th Division to Yongch'on. The enemy division at that point was in a position to turn west toward Taegu and take Eighth Army and the 1st Cavalry Division there in the rear, or to turn east and southeast and take Task Force Jackson in the rear or on its left flank. It tried to do the latter. But General Walker's quick dispatch of the ROK 5th and 11th Regiments from two widely separated sectors of the front to the area of penetration resulted in destroying the enemy force before it could exploit its breakthrough. General Walker's prompt judgment of the reinforcements needed to stem the North Korean attacks in the Kyongju-P'ohang and the Yongch'on areas, and his rapid shifting of these reinforcements to the threatened sectors from other fronts, constitute a notable command achievement in the battles of the Pusan Perimeter.
EUSAK WD, POR 180, 10 Sep 50; Ibid., 14 Sep 50, interrog of Lee Yong Sil; Ibid., 9, 11, 12 Sep 50, interrogs of 1st Lt Kim Yong Chul, Cpl So Yong Sik, Capt Pak Chang Yong; ATIS Res Supp Interrog Rpts, Issue 106 (N.K. Arty), p. 62; Ibid., Issue 3 (N.K. 15th Div), p. 44; GHQ FEC Sitrep, 11 Sep 50; New York Times, September 11 and 13, 1950. There are scores of interrogations of prisoners from the N.K. 15th Division in ATIS Interrogation Reports, Issues 4, 5, and 9. EUSAK WD, 14 Sep 50; GHQ FEC Sitrep, 13 Sep 50; New York Times, September 13, 1950. Ltr, Stephens to author, 14 May 53; Interv, author with Maj Gen Edwin K. Wright (FEC G-3 at the time), 7 Jan 54; Ltr, Landrum to author, recd 28 Jun 54; Interv, author with Stebbins, 4 Dec 53.
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Back on Taegu
While four divisions of the N.K. II Corps attacked south in the P'ohang-dong, Kyongju, and Yongch'on sectors, the remaining three divisions of the corps-the 3d, 13th, and 1st, in that order from west to east-were to execute their converging attack on Taegu from the north and northwest. The 3d Division was to attack in the Waegwan area northwest of Taegu, the 13th Division down the mountain ridges north of Taegu along and west of the Sangju-Taegu road, and the 1st Division along the high mountain ridges just east of the road. (Map 15)
Defending Taegu, the U.S. 1st Cavalry Division had a front of about thirty-five miles. General Gay outposted the main avenues of entry into his zone and kept his three regiments concentrated behind the outposts. At the southwestern end of his line General Gay initially controlled the 3d Battalion, 23d Infantry, 2d Division, which had been attached to the 1st Cavalry Division. On 5 September the British 27th Brigade, in its first commitment in the Korean War, replaced that battalion. Next in line northward, the 5th Cavalry Regiment defended the sector along the Naktong around Waegwan and the main Seoul highway southeast from there to Taegu. Eastward, the 7th Cavalry Regiment was responsible for the mountainous area between that highway and the hills bordering the Sangju road. The 8th Cavalry Regiment, responsible for the latter road, was astride it and on the bordering hills.
Greatly concerned at the beginning of September over the North Korean attack and penetration of the southern sector of the Pusan Perimeter in the 2d and 25th Divisions' zone, General Walker on 1 September ordered the 1st Cavalry Division to attack north or northwest in an effort to divert to that quarter some of the enemy strength in the south. General Gay's initial decision upon receipt of this order was to attack north up the Sangju road, but his staff and regimental commanders all joined in urging that the attack instead be against Hill 518 in the 7th Cavalry zone, and they talked him out of his original intent. Only two days before, Hill 518 had been in the ROK 1st Division zone and had been considered an enemy assembly point. The 1st Cavalry Division, accordingly, prepared for an attack in the 7th Cavalry sector and for diversionary attacks by two companies of the 3d Battalion, 8th Cavalry, on the 7th Cavalry's right flank. This left the 8th Cavalry only one rifle company in reserve. The regiment's 1st Battalion was on the hill mass to the west of the Bowling Alley and north of Tabu-dong; its 2d Battalion was astride the road.
This planned attack against Hill 518 chanced to coincide with the defection and surrender on 2 September of Maj. Kim Song Jun, the S-3 of the N.K. 19th Regiment, 13th Division. He reported that a full-scale North Korean attack was to begin at dusk that day. The N.K. 13th Division, he said, had just taken in 4,000 replacements, 2,000 of them without weapons, and was now back to a strength of approximately 9,000 men. Upon receiving this intelligence, General Gay alerted all front-line units to
1st Cav Div WD, 1 Sep 50; Ibid., G-3 Jnl, 2 Sep 50.
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(MAP 15: THE N.K. ATTACKS ON TAEGU, 2-15 September 1950)
be prepared for the enemy attack.
Complying with Eighth Army's order for what was in effect a spoiling attack against the North Koreans northwest of Taegu, General Gay on 1 September ordered the 7th Cavalry to attack the next day and seize enemy-held Hill 518. Hill 518 (Suam-san) is a large mountain mass five miles northeast of Waegwan and two miles east of the Naktong River. It curves westward from its peak to its westernmost height, Hill 346, from which the ground drops abruptly to the Naktong River. Situated north of the lateral Waegwan-Tabu-dong road, and
1st Cav Div WD, 1-2 Sep 50; GHQ FEC, History of the N.K. Army, p. 73; EUSAK WD, 5 Sep 50, ATIS Interrog Rpt 895, Maj Kim Song Jun; ATIS Interrog Rpts, Issue 3, pp. 214ff.: ATIS Res Supp Interrog Rpts, Issue 104 (N.K. 13th Div), p. 67; Ltr and attached notes, Gay to author, 17 Jul 53; Ltr, Col Harold K. Johnson to author, n.d., but recd in Aug 54.
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[Caption] 1ST CAVALRY OBSERVATION POST overlooking the enemy-held Hill 518 complex northeast of Waegwan, 1 September.
about midway between the two towns, it was a critical terrain feature dominating the road between the two places. After securing Hill 518, the 7th Cavalry attack was to continue on to Hill 314. Air strikes and artillery preparations were to precede the infantry attack on 2 September. Forty pieces of artillery, four-fifths of that available to the 1st Cavalry Division, were to support the attack.
On the morning of 2 September the Air Force delivered a 37-minute strike against Hills 518 and 346. The artillery then laid down its concentrations on the hills, and after that the planes came over again napalming and leaving the heights ablaze. Just after 1000, and immediately after the final napalm strike, the 1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, attacked up Hill 518.
The plan of regimental attack unfortunately brought a minimum of force against the objective. While the 1st Battalion made the attack, the 2d Battalion was in a blocking position on its left (west) and the newly arrived 3d Battalion, in its first Korean operation, was
Ltr, Gay to author, 17 Jul 53: 77th FA Bn Hist, Sep 50; 7th Cav WD, 1-2 Sep 50. The 77th FA Bn was in direct support of 7th Cav. To assist in firing support for the regiment were A Btry, 61st FA Bn (105-mm.); B and C Btrys, 9th FA Bn (155 mm.); and one plat, B Btry, 82d FA Bn (155- mm.)
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to be behind the 2d Battalion and in an open gap between that battalion and Hill 518. The 1st Battalion moved up through ROK forces and, from high ground, was committed along a narrow ridge line, attacking from the southeast in a column of companies. This in turn resolved itself in a column of platoons, and finally in a column of squads. The final effect, therefore, was that of a regimental attack amounting to a one-squad attack against a strongly held position.
The attack was doomed to failure from the start. The heavy air strikes and the artillery preparations had failed to dislodge the North Koreans. From their positions they delivered mortar and machine gun fire on the climbing infantry, stopping the weak, advanced force short of the crest. In the afternoon the battalion withdrew from Hill 518 and attacked northeast against Hill 490, from which other enemy troops had fired in support of the North Koreans on Hill 518.
The next day at noon, the newly arrived 3d Battalion resumed the attack against Hill 518 from the south, over unreconnoitered ground, and, as did the 1st Battalion the day before, in a column of companies that resolved itself in the end into a column of squads. Again the attack failed. Other attacks failed on 4 September. An enemy forward observer captured on Hill 518 said that 1,200 North Koreans were dug in on the hill and that they had 120-mm. and 82-mm. mortars with ammunition.
While these actions were in progress on its right, the 2d Battalion, 5th Cavalry Regiment, on 4 September attacked and captured Hill 303. The next day it had the utmost difficulty in holding the hill against enemy counterattacks. By 4 September it had become quite clear that the N.K. 3d Division in front of the 5th and 7th Cavalry Regiments was itself attacking, and that, despite continued air strikes, artillery preparations, and infantry efforts on Hill 518, it was infiltrating large numbers of its troops to the rear of the attacking United States forces. That day the I&R Platoon reported that enemy soldiers held Hill 464, a high hill mass opposite Hill 518 on the south side of the Waegwan-Tabu-dong road, and that it had to destroy its radio and machine gun to keep them from falling into enemy hands. That night large enemy forces came through the gap between the 3d Battalion on the southern slope of Hill 518 and the 2d Battalion westward. For a time those in the 3d Battalion command post thought the attack was going to turn east and overrun them but, instead, the North Koreans turned west and occupied Hill 464 in force. By 5 September, although it was not yet known by the 7th Cavalry, Hill 464 to its rear probably had more North Koreans on it than Hill 518 to its front. North Koreans cut the Waegwan-Tabu-dong road east of the regiment so that its communications with friendly units now were only to the west. During the day the 7th Cavalry made a limited withdrawal on Hill 518. Any hope that the regiment could capture the hill vanished. One American officer described the situation north of Taegu at this time with the comment, "I'll be damned
7th Cav Regt WD, 4 Sep 50; 1st Cav Div WD, 5 Sep 50; 77th FA Bn Hist, 5 Sep 50; EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl, 0400 5 Sep 50; Lt Col James B. Webel (Capt and S-3, 7th Cav, Sep 50), MS review comments, 15 Nov 57.
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if I know who's got who surrounded." On the division right, Tabu-dong was in enemy hands, on the left Waegwan was a no-man's land, and in the center strong enemy forces were infiltrating southward from Hill 518. The 7th Cavalry Regiment in the center could no longer use the Waegwan-Tabu-dong lateral supply road behind it, and was in danger of being surrounded. After discussing a withdrawal plan with General Walker and Colonel Collier, General Gay on 5 September issued an order for a general withdrawal of the 1st Cavalry Division during the night to shorten the lines and to occupy a better defensive position. The movement was to progress from right to left beginning with the 8th Cavalry Regiment, then the 7th Cavalry in the Hill 518 area, and finally the 5th Cavalry in the Waegwan area. This withdrawal caused the 3d Battalion, 8th Cavalry, to give up a hill it had just attacked and captured near the Tabu-dong road on the approaches of the Walled City of Ka-san. In the 7th Cavalry sector the 1st, 3d, and 2d Battalions were to withdraw in that order, after the withdrawal of the 1st Battalion, 8th Cavalry, on their right. The 2d Battalion, 5th Cavalry, on Hill 303 north of Waegwan was to cover the withdrawal of the 7th Cavalry and hold open the escape road.
Crisis in Eighth Army Command
At this time, about 5 September, as the 7th Cavalry Regiment was forced into a withdrawal, and enemy penetrations in the south had opened the way to Pusan, a crisis developed in appraisals and decisions called for in the Eighth Army command. Everywhere around the Perimeter the North Koreans were penetrating the defense positions and in some places making spectacular gains. It was a question whether the Eighth Army and the ROK's could hold anything like the Pusan Perimeter based on the line of the Naktong. The ROK Army and most of the American divisions appeared to be near the breaking point. Should the United Nations line be withdrawn to the Davidson Line? That question was under debate in Eighth Army headquarters. The decision to withdraw to that line seemed near as the North Koreans captured P'ohang-dong and drove to the edge of Kyongju in the east, reached Yongch'on in the Taegu lateral corridor, captured Waegwan, Tabu-dong, and Ka-san north of Taegu, drove through the old Naktong Bulge area to Yongsan, and in the south split the U.S. 25th Division and poured into its rear areas almost to the edge of Masan. (The Naktong Bulge and Masan penetrations have not yet been described, but they had already taken place as part of the North Korean co-ordinated attack.)
General Walker discussed the issue of withdrawing to the Davidson Line one night with his principal staff officers, most of the division commanders, and General Coulter, his deputy commander in the east. Colonel Dabney, Eighth Army G-3, told General Walker that
5th Cav Regt WD, 4 Sep 50; 7th Cav Regt WD, 4-5 Sep 50; 1st Cav Div WD, 4-5 Sep 50; 77th FA Bn Hist, 5-6 Sep 50; Webel, MS review comments, Nov 57; New York Times, September 5, 1950. 1st Cav Div WD, 5 Sep 50; 7th Cav Regt Opn Ord 14, 051840 Sep 50; Ltr, Gay to author, 17 Jul 53; Brig Gen Marcel G. Crombez, Notes for author, 28 Jun 55.
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for once he did not know what to recommend, that the decision was a hard one to make, but that he hoped the Army could stay. He pointed out that North Korean penetrations in the past had waned after a few days and that they might do so again. Upon orders from Colonel Landrum, Dabney started the G-3 Section that evening working on preparing withdrawal orders for Eighth Army. The staff section worked all night long on them. They were published and ready for issuing at 0500 in the morning, but they were held in the G-3 Section pending General Walker's personal order to put them into effect. The order was not given. At some time during the night Walker reached the decision that Eighth Army would not withdraw.
But at this time Eighth Army headquarters did leave Taegu. The tactical situation had deteriorated so much on the afternoon of 4 September that the 1st Cavalry Division ammunition supply point in Taegu loaded nearly all its ammunition on rail cars on Eighth Army' orders and prepared for a hasty evacuation southward. The Army transportation officer placed an embargo on all rail shipments north of Samnangjin on the main line, and north and east of Kyongju on the east line. The next morning, 5 September, General Walker reached the decision to move the main army headquarters back to the old Fisheries College between Pusan and Tongnae, north of Pusan, and it made the move during the day. The ROK Army headquarters moved to Pusan. The ROK Army headquarters opened at Pusan at 0800 and Eighth Army headquarters at 1600, 6 September. Walker himself and a few staff officers remained in Taegu as an advanced echelon of the army command post, constituting a tactical headquarters. The principal reason General Walker moved Eighth Army headquarters to Pusan was for the greater protection of the army signal communication equipment. Had the Eighth Army teletype equipment been destroyed or captured by the enemy there was no other similar heavy equipment in the Far East to replace it. The Army's operations would have been seriously handicapped had this signal equipment been lost or damaged.
At this time, General Garvin issued verbal orders to service troops in the 2d Logistical Command at Pusan to take
Ltr, Dabney to author, 19 Jan 54: Notes, Landrum to author, recd 28 Jun 54; Interv, author with Wright, 7 Jan 54; Interv, author with Stebbins, 4 Dec 53; Interv, author with Tarkenton, 3 Oct 52; Interv, author with Col Robert G. Fergusson, 2 Oct 52; Interv, author with Bullock, 28 Jan 54; Collier, MS review comments, 10 Mar 58. Notes, Landrum to author, recd 28 Jun 54; Interv, author with Allen, 15 Dec 53; Collier, MS review comments, 10 Mar 58; FEC CofS files, Summ of conversation, Hickey with Landrum, 060900 Sep 50; GHQ FEC Sitrep, 7 Sep 50; EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl, 2030 6 Sep 50; 1st Cav Div, Ordnance Act Rpt, Sep 50. Communication between Eighth Army and the Far East Command would have suffered most if this equipment had been lost or damaged, not the tactical control of units in Korea under Eighth Army. The Marc 2, 4-van unit for teletype, and a 1,200-line switchboard could not have been replaced-there was only one each in Korea and Japan. The big teletype unit with 180 lines to Pusan and the trunk cables constituted the critical items in U.N. signal communication at this time. Interv, author with Col William M. Thama (Deputy Sig Off, FEC, 1950), 17 Dec 53; Interv, author with Col Thomas A. Pitcher (Acting EUSAK Sig Off, Sep 50), 16 Dec 53; Interv, author with Lt Col William E. Kaley, 16 Dec 50.
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defensive positions on the hills bordering the port city and within the city itself if and when the tactical situation required it.
What the South Korean civilian estimate of the situation was at this time can be surmised from the fact that about 5 September prominent Koreans started to leave Pusan for the island of Tsushima, midway in the Korean Strait between Korea and Japan. Operators of small 10- to 20-ton vessels smuggled them across to the island. Wealthy and influential Chinese residing in the Pusan area were planning to leave for Formosa, the first group expecting to depart about 8 September. They, too, were to be smuggled away in small vessels.
This period in early September 1950 tested General Walker as perhaps no other did. Walker was generally an undemonstrative man in public, he was not popular with the press, and he was not always popular with his troops. He could be hard and demanding. He was so at this time. When many of his commanders were losing confidence in the ability of Eighth Army to stop the North Koreans he remained determined that it would. On one occasion in early September he told one of his division commanders in effect, "If the enemy gets into Taegu you will find me resisting him in the streets and I'll have some of my trusted people with me and you had better be prepared to do the same. Now get back to your division and fight it." He told one general he did not want to see him back from the front again unless it was in a coffin.
By day, General Walker moved around the Perimeter defense positions either by liaison plane or in his armored jeep. The jeep was equipped with a special iron handrail permitting him to stand up so that he could observe better while the vehicle was in motion, and generally it was in rapid motion. In addition to his .45 automatic pistol, he customarily carried a repeating shotgun with him, because, as he told a fellow officer, "I don't mind being shot at, but ---- these are not going to ambush me." Walker was at his best in Korea in the Pusan Perimeter battles. Famous previously as being an exponent of armored offensive warfare, he demonstrated in August and September 1950 that he was also skilled in defensive warfare. His pugnacious temperament fitted him for directing the fighting of a bitter holding action. He was a stout-hearted soldier.
The 7th Cavalry's Withdrawal Battle
It was in this crisis that the 7th Cavalry began its withdrawal northwest of Taegu. In his withdrawal instructions for the 7th Cavalry, Col. Cecil Nist, the regimental commander, ordered, "The 2d Battalion must clear Hill 464 of enemy tonight." This meant that the 2d Battalion must disengage from the enemy to its front and attack to its rear
2d Logistical Comd Activities Rpt, Sep 50, G-3 and Trans Secs. Operation Plan 4, dated 10 September, confirmed these orders. EUSAK WD, PIR 57, an. 2, 441st Counter Intelligence Corps Agent Rpt, 7 Sep 50. Notes, Landrum to author, recd 28 Jun 54; Interv, author with Maj Gen Leven C. Allen, 15 Dec 53; Interv, author with Bullock, 28 Jan 54; Interv, author with Lt Col Paul F. Smith, 1 Oct 52; Collier, MS review comments, Mar 58. Ltr, Wright to author, 12 Feb 54.
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[Caption] GENERAL WALKER CROSSING THE NAKTONG in his armored jeep with handrail.
to gain possession of Hills 464 and 380 on the new main line of resistance to be occupied by the regiment. Since efforts to gain possession of Hill 464 by other elements had failed in the past two or three days this did not promise to be an easy mission.
Heavy rains fell during the night of 5-6 September and mud slowed all wheeled and tracked vehicles in the withdrawal. The 1st Battalion completed its withdrawal without opposition. During its night march west, the 3d Battalion column was joined several times by groups of North Korean soldiers who apparently thought it was one of their own columns moving south. They were made prisoners and taken along in the withdrawal. Nearing Waegwan at dawn, the battalion column was taken under enemy tank and mortar fire after daybreak and sustained about eighteen casualties.
The 2d Battalion disengaged from the enemy and began its withdrawal at 0300, 6 September. The battalion abandoned two tanks, one because of mechanical failure and the other because it was stuck in the mud. The battalion moved to the rear in two main groups: G Company to attack Hill 464 and the rest of the battalion to seize Hill 380, half a mile farther south. The North Koreans quickly discovered that the 2d Battalion
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was withdrawing and attacked it. The battalion commander, Maj. Omar T. Hitchner, and his S-3, Capt. James T. Milam, were killed. In the vicinity of Hills 464 and 380 the battalion discovered at daybreak that it was virtually surrounded by enemy soldiers. Colonel Nist thought that the entire battalion was lost.
Moving by itself and completely cut off from all other units, G Company, numbering only about eighty men, was hardest hit. At 0800, nearing the top of Hill 464, it surprised and killed three enemy soldiers. Suddenly, enemy automatic weapons and small arms fire struck the company. All day G Company maneuvered around the hill but never gained its crest. At midafternoon it received radio orders to withdraw that night. The company left six dead on the hill and, carrying its wounded on improvised litters of ponchos and tree branches, it started down the shale slopes of the mountain in rain and darkness. Halfway down, a friendly artillery barrage killed one of the noncommissioned officers, and a rock thrown by one of the exploding shells hit Capt. Herman L. West, G Company commander, inflicting a painful back injury. The company scattered but Captain West reassembled it. Cautioning his men to move quietly and not to fire in any circumstances, so that surrounding enemy troops might think them one of their own columns, West led his men to the eastern base of Hill 464 where he went into a defensive position for the rest of the night.
On the division left, meanwhile, the 2d Battalion, 5th Cavalry, on Hill 303 came under heavy attack and the battalion commander wanted to withdraw. Colonel Crombez, the regimental commander, told him he could not do so until the 7th Cavalry had cleared on its withdrawal road. This battalion suffered heavy casualties before it abandoned Hill 303 on the 6th to the enemy.
While G Company was trying to escape from Hill 464, the rest of the 2d Battalion was cut off at the eastern base of Hill 380, half a mile southward. Colonel Nist organized all the South Korean carriers he could find before dark and loaded them with water, food, and ammunition for the 2d Battalion, but the carrier party was unable to find the battalion. At dawn on 7 September the men in G Company's perimeter at the eastern base of Hill 464 saw in the dim light four figures coming down a trail toward them. Soon recognizing them as North Koreans, the men killed them. This rifle fire brought answering fire from enemy troops in nearby positions. At this time, Captain West heard what he recognized as fire from American weapons on a knob to his west. Thinking that it might be from the Weapons Platoon which had become separated from him during the night, he led his company in that direction. He was right; soon the company was reunited.
7th Cav Regt WD, 6-7 Sep 50; Capt Robert M. Ballard, Action of C Company on Hill 464, an. to 7th Cav Regt WD, 6 Sep 50; Webel, MS review comments, 15 Nov 57; New York Herald Tribune, September 8, 1950, Bigart dispatch. Ballard, Action of G Company on Hill 464 Capt. Russell A. Gugeler, Combat Actions in Korea, ch. 4, "Attack to the Rear," pp. 41-42. 5th Cav Regt WD, 5-6 Sep 50; Notes, Crombez for author, 28 Jul 55.
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The Weapons Platoon, led by Lt. Harold R. Anderegg, had undergone a strange experience. After becoming separated from the rest of the company, three times during the night it encountered North Koreans on the trail it was following but in each instance neither side fired, each going on its way. At dawn, the platoon came upon a group of foxholes on a knoll. Enemy soldiers were occupying some of them. In a swift action which apparently surprised and paralyzed the North Koreans, the platoon killed approximately thirteen and captured three enemy soldiers. From the body of an officer the men took a brief case containing important documents and maps. These showed that Hill 464 was an assembly point for part of the N.K. 3d Division in its advance from Hill 518 toward Taegu.
Later in the day (7 September), Capt. Melbourne C. Chandler, acting commander of the 2d Battalion, received word of G Company's location on Hill 464 from an aerial observer and sent a patrol which guided the company safely to the battalion at the eastern base of Hill 380. The battalion, meanwhile, had received radio orders to withdraw by any route as soon as possible. It moved southwest into the 5th Cavalry sector. At one point it escaped ambush by turning aside when North Koreans dressed in American uniforms waved helmets and shouted, "Hey, this way, G.I.!"
East of the td Battalion, the enemy attacked the 1st Battalion in its new position on 7 September and overran the battalion aid station, killing four and wounding seven men. That night the 1st Battalion on division order was attached to the 5th Cavalry Regiment. The rest of the 7th Cavalry Regiment moved to a point near Taegu in division reserve. During the night of 7-8 September the 5th Cavalry Regiment on division orders withdrew still farther below Waegwan to new defensive positions astride the main Seoul-Taegu highway. The enemy 3d Division was still moving reinforcements across the Naktong. Observers sighted fifteen barges loaded with troops and artillery pieces crossing the river two miles north of Waegwan on the evening of the 7th. On the 8th the North Korean communiqué claimed the capture of Waegwan.
The next day the situation grew worse for the 1st Cavalry Division. On its left flank, the N.K. 3d Division forced the 1st Battalion, 5th Cavalry, to withdraw from Hill 345, three miles east of Waegwan. The enemy pressed forward and the 5th Cavalry was immediately locked in hard, seesaw fighting on Hills 203 and 174. The 1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, before it left that sector to rejoin its regiment, finally captured the latter hill after four attacks.
Only with the greatest difficulty did the 5th Cavalry Regiment hold Hill 203 on 12 September. Between midnight and 0400, 13 September, the North Koreans attacked again and took Hill 203 from E Company, Hill 174 from L Company, and Hill 188 from B and F Companies. In an afternoon counterattack
Ballard, Action of G Company on Hill 464; 7th Cav Regt WD, 7 Sep 50; Gugeler, Combat Actions in Korea, pp. 39-45. Ballard, Action of G Company on Hill 464; 7th Cav Regt WD, 6-7 Sep 50. 1st Bn, 7th Cav WD, 7 Sep 50; 1st Cav Div WD, 7 Sep 50; 7th Cav Regt WD, 7th Sep 50, Opn Ord 15: GHQ FEC Sitrep, 8 Sep 50.
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the regiment regained Hill 188 on the south side of the highway, but failed against Hills 203 and 174 on the north side. On the 14th, I Company again attacked Hill 174, which had by now changed hands seven times. In this action the company suffered 82 casualties. Its 2d Platoon with 27 Americans and 15 ROK's at the start had only 11 Americans and 5 ROK's when it reached its objective. Even so, the company held only one side of the hill, the enemy held the other, and grenade battles between the two continued for another week. The battalions of the 5th Cavalry Regiment were so low in strength at this time as to be scarcely combat effective. This seesaw battle continued in full swing only eight air miles northwest of Taegu.
Troopers in the Mountains-Walled Ka-san
Hard on the heels of Major Kim's warning that the North Korean attack would strike the night of 2 September, the blow hit with full force in the Bowling Alley area north of Taegu. It caught the 8th Cavalry Regiment defending the Sangju road badly deployed in that it lacked an adequate reserve. The North Koreans struck the 2d Battalion, 8th Cavalry, the night of 2-3 September on Hill 448 west of the Bowling Alley and two miles north of Tabu-dong, and overran it. On the right, E Company, although not under attack, was cut off and had to withdraw by a roundabout way. Lt. Col. Harold K. Johnson, commanding officer of the 3d Battalion, placed I Company in a blocking position just north of Tabu-dong astride the road. There, two enemy tanks and some enemy infantry struck it at 0200 in the morning of 3 September. In this action, I Company suffered many casualties but repelled the enemy attack. The overrun 2d Battalion withdrew through the 3d Battalion which had assembled hastily in a defensive position south of Tabu-dong. During the day, elements of the N.K. 1st Division forced the 8th Cavalry I&R Platoon and a detachment of South Korean police from the Walled City of Ka-san on the crest of Hill 902, four miles east of Tabu-dong. On 3 September, therefore, Eighth Army lost to the enemy both Tabu-dong and Hill 902, locally called Ka-san, the dominant mountain-top ten miles north of Taegu.
The North Koreans now concentrated artillery north of Hill 902 and, although its fire was light and sporadic, it did cause minor damage in the 99th Field Artillery positions. This sudden surge of the enemy southward toward Taegu caused concern in Eighth Army headquarters. The Army ordered a ROK battalion from the Taegu Replacement Training Center to a position in the rear of the 8th Cavalry, and the 1st Cavalry Division organized Task Force Allen, to be commanded by Assistant Division Commander Brig. Gen. Frank
EUSAK WD, Br for CG, 130800 Sep 50; Ibid., G-3 Sec, 15 Sep 50; 1st Cav Div WD, 9-10, 13-15 Sep 50; 5th Cav Regt WD, 13-15 Sep 50; 7th Cav Regt WD, 10 Sep 50; New York Times, September 9, 1950 (London rebroadcast of Moscow broadcast); I Corps WD, 15 Sep 50, Hist Narr, p. 5; ATIS Interrog Rpts, Issue 6 (N.K. Forces), Rpt 1157, Che Nak Hwan, p. 127 Allen, Korean Army Troops, USA, pp. 6-7. 8th Cav Regt WD, 3 Sep 50; 1st Cav Div WD, 3 Sep 50; EUSAK WD, G-3 Sec, 3 Sep 50; Ibid., PIR 53, 3 Sep 50; Ltr, Johnson to author, recd Aug 54.
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[Caption] RUINS OF ANCIENT FORTRESS and stone wall on the crest of Ka-san (Hill 902).
A. Allen, Jr. This task force comprised two provisional battalions formed of division headquarters and technical service troops, the division band, the replacement company, and other miscellaneous troops. It was to be used in combat should the North Koreans break through to the edge of the city.
Eighth Army countered the North Korean advance down the Tabu-dong road by ordering the 1st Cavalry Division to recapture and defend Hill 902. This hill, ten miles north of Taegu, gave observation all the way south through Eighth Army positions into the city, and, in enemy hands, could be used for general intelligence purposes and to direct artillery and mortar fire. Hill 902 was too far distant from the Tabu-dong road to dominate it; otherwise it would have controlled this main communication route. The shortage of North Korean artillery and mortar ammunition nullified in large part the advantages the peak held as an observation point.
Actually, there was no walled city on the crest of Ka-san. Ka-san, or Hill 902, the 3,000-foot-high mountain which differs from most high peaks in this part of Korea in having an oval-shaped semi-level area on its summit. This oval is a part of a mile-long ridge-like crest, varying from 200 to 800 yards in width, which slopes down from the peak at 902
1st Cav Div WD, 3 Sep 50, Ordnance Stf Sec; Ltr, Gay to author, 17 Jul 53.
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[Caption] D COMPANY, 8TH ENGINEER COMBAT BATTALION, position on the summit of Hill 755.
meters to approximately 755 meters at its southeastern end. On all sides of this ridge crest the mountain slopes drop precipitously. In bygone ages Koreans had built a thirty-foot-high stone wall around the crest and had converted the summit into a fortress. One man who fought in the shadow of the wall commented later, "It looked to me like they built that wall just to keep the land from sliding down." Most of the summit in 1950 was covered with a dense growth of scrub brush and small pine trees. There were a few small terraced fields. Koreans knew Ka-san as the Sacred Mountain. Near the northern end of the crest still stood the Buddhist Poguk Temple.
When the 1st Cavalry Division on 29 August assumed responsibility for the old ROK 1st Division sector north of Taegu it sent a patrol from the I&R Platoon to the top of Ka-san. There the patrol found 156 South Korean police. There was some discussion between General Gay and Eighth Army about whether the 1st Cavalry Division or the ROK 1st Division should have the responsibility for the mountain. General Gay maintained that his understrength division with a 35-mile front was already overextended and could not extend eastward beyond the hills immediately adjacent to the Tabu-dong road. Uncertainty as to final responsibility for Ka-san ended on the afternoon of 3 September after North Koreans had seized the mountain. The Eighth Army G-3 Sec-
Page 424 SOUTH TO THE NAKTONG, NORTH TO THE YALU
tion telephoned Col. Ernest V. Holmes, Chief of Staff, 1st Cavalry Division, and told him that the 1st Cavalry Division had responsibility for the Walled City. Holmes replied he believed that General Gay, who was then absent from the headquarters, would not like the decision, but that pending his return he would send a company of engineers to Ka-san. When General Gay returned to his command post he said that if the army had ordered the responsibility it had to be complied with, and he approved Holmes' decision to send a company to the mountain.
After his telephone conversation with Eighth Army, Colonel Holmes ordered Lt. Col. William C. Holley, commanding officer of the 8th Engineer Combat Battalion, to report to Col. Raymond D. Palmer, commanding the 8th Cavalry Regiment. That afternoon Colonel Palmer in his command post on the Tabu-dong road outlined to Holley and the commanding officers of D Company, 8th Engineer Combat Battalion, and E Company, 8th Cavalry, his attack plan to regain control of Ka-san. The Engineer company, commanded by 1st Lt. John T. Kennedy, was to lead the attack, E Company following. Once the force had gained the crest and E Company had established itself in defensive positions, the Engineer company was to come off the mountain. Luckily, many of the men in D Company had been infantrymen in World War II.
That evening, D Company loaded into trucks and in a driving rain traveled north, eventually turning off the main road to the designated assembly area. On the way they met two truckloads of South Korean police going south, some of them wounded. These were the police who, together with the detachment of the I&R Platoon, had been driven off Ka-san that afternoon. After waiting in the rain awhile for orders, the Engineer company turned around and went back to camp.
The next morning (4 September) at breakfast, D Company received orders to move immediately as infantry to Ka-san. One platoon had to forego its breakfast. The company carried no rations since E Company, 8th Cavalry, was to bring food and water later. The Engineer troops arrived at their assembly area near the village of Kisong-dong two miles east of the Tabu-dong road, where Colonel Holley set up a communications command post. Sniper fire came in on the men as they moved up the trail half a mile to the base of Ka-san's steep slope. Word was given to the company that there were about seventy-five disorganized enemy troops on Ka-san. But actually, during the afternoon and evening of 3 September, the N.K. 2d Battalion, 2d Regiment, 1st Division, had occupied the summit of Ka-san.
The Engineer company started its attack up the mountain about noon, 4
Ltr and notes, Gay to author, 17 Jul 53; Interv, author with Holmes, 27 Oct 53; 1st Cav Div WD, 29 Aug 50. Ltr, Capt John T. Kennedy to author, 2 Apr 52; Interv, author with Holley, 20 Feb 52: Interv, author with 1st Sgt Cornelius C. Kopper (D Co, 8th Engr C Bn, in 1950), 20 Feb 52. Ltr, MSgt James N. Vandygriff to author, 19 May 53 (Vandygriff was Plat Sgt, 2d Plat, D Co, 8th Engr C Bn, Sep 50); Ltr, Capt Thomas T. Jones to author, 21 Jun 53 (Plat Ldr, 3d Plat, D Co, 8th Engr C Bn, Sep 50); EUSAK WD, 11 Sep 50, interrog of Kim Choe Ski; Ibid., G-3 Jnl, 0620 4 Sep 50; GHQ FEC Sitrep, 4 Sep 50.
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September, following a trail up a southern spur. The 1st Platoon was in the lead, single file, followed by the 2d and 3d Platoons. Colonel Palmer considered the mission so important that he and his G-2, Capt. Rene J. Guiraud, accompanied the engineers. Platoon Sgt. James N. Vandygriff, 2d Platoon, D Company, in a brief conversation with Colonel Holley as he went ahead of the latter on his way up the trail, said he thought it was a suicide mission.
Less than a mile up the trail, D Company came under machine gun fire from its right front, which inflicted several casualties. Lieutenant Kennedy rejected Vandygriff's request to take a squad and knock out the gun, so the file got past the line of fire as best it could until BAR fire from the 3d Platoon silenced the weapon. Farther up the trail another enemy machine gun fired from the right along the trail and held up the advance until radio-adjusted artillery fire silenced it.
The file of men, with Lt. Robert Peterson of the I&R Platoon as guide, left the trail-like road, which dead-ended, dropped over into a ravine on the left, and continued the climb. Enemy mortar fire killed two men and wounded eight or ten others in this phase of the ascent. At this time the 2d Platoon leader collapsed from a kidney ailment and command passed to Sergeant Vandygriff. Vandygriff led his platoon, now at the head of the company, on up the gully and finally, about 1700, came through a tunnel under a small ridge and the stone wall into the bowl-shaped summit of Hill 755, the southern arm of the Hill 902 crest. The 2d and 3d Platoons soon arrived, in that order. When he was within fifty feet of the top, Colonel Palmer received radio orders from General Gay to come off the mountain; Gay had not known that Palmer had accompanied the attack until he telephoned Holley trying to locate him.
Lieutenant Kennedy quickly placed the approximately ninety men of his company in position facing in an arc from west to northeast; the 2d Platoon took the left flank near the stone wall, the 1st Platoon took the center position on a wooded knoll, and the 3d Platoon the right flank at the edge of a woods. Just as he reached the top, 2d Lt. Thomas T. Jones, commanding the 3d Platoon, saw and heard three North Korean mortars fire, approximately 1,000 yards away on a grassy ridge to the right (east). He suggested to Lieutenant Kennedy several times that he request artillery fire on these mortars, but Kennedy did not act on the suggestion. Kennedy established his command post inside the tunnel behind the 2d Platoon position. The D Company position was entirely within the area enclosed by the stone wall, which was nearly intact except on the northeast near the 3d Platoon position where it had crumbled and was covered with brush and trees. Lieutenant Jones pointed out to his platoon sergeant and squad leaders where he wanted them to take position at the edge of the woods facing the enemy mortars he had seen on the grassy ridge beyond. He then remained a few minutes
Ltr, Jones to author, 21 Jun 53; Ltr, Vandygriff to author, 19 May 53; Ltr and notes, Gay to author, 17 Jul 53: Interv, author with Holley, 20 Feb 52; Ltr, Kennedy to author, 2 Apr 52; Interv, author with Guiraud, 21 Apr 54.
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in conversation with Lieutenant Kennedy.
A few minutes later Jones joined his 3d Squad men at the edge of the woods. They told him that the platoon sergeant and the rest had continued on toward the narrow grassy ridge. Just then one of the squad called Jones to the edge of the woods and pointed out ten or twelve well-camouflaged North Korean soldiers, one of them carrying a machine gun, coming down the narrow ridge toward them from the mortar position. Apparently this group was a security force for the mortars because they dropped to the ground about one-third of the way down the ridge.
Jones decided he had better bring back his other two squads to form a solid line and, expecting to be gone only a few minutes, he left his SCR-300 radio behind. That, as he said later, was his big mistake. Jones found one squad but the other had gone on farther and was not visible. While he studied the terrain and waited for a messenger he had sent to bring back that last squad, North Koreans attacked the main company position behind him. Judging by the firing and yelling, Jones thought North Koreans were all over the wooded bowl between him and the rest of the company. When the firing ended, all he could hear was North Korean voices. Jones never got back to his 3d Squad. He and the rest of the platoon dropped down off the ridge into a gully on the left, the two squads separated but for a time within sight of each other.
That night Jones and the eight men with him stayed in the ravine just under the crest. Without his radio he could not communicate with the rest of the company which he thought had been destroyed or driven off the hill. The next day when American fighter planes strafed the hilltop it confirmed his belief that no D Company men were there. Some of the men in the advanced squad made their way to safety, but North Koreans captured Jones and the eight men with him near the bottom of Ka-san on 10 September as they were trying to make their way through the enemy lines. This account of the 3d Platoon explains why-except for the 3d Squad which rejoined D Company that evening-it was out of the action and off the crest almost as soon as it arrived on top, all unknown to Lieutenant Kennedy and the rest of the company at the time.
Half an hour after D Company had reached Hill 755, an estimated enemy battalion launched an attack down the slope running south to Hill 755 from the crest of Hill 902. The main attack hit Vandygriff's 2d Platoon just after Vandygriff had set up and loaded his two machine guns. These machine guns and the protection of the 15-foot wall on its left enabled D Company to turn back this attack, which left one dead and three wounded in the 2d Platoon. That night, enemy mortar and small arms fire harassed the company and there were several small probing attacks. Having
Ltr, Jones to author, 21 Jun 53: Ltr, Kennedy 10 author, 2 Apr 52; Ltr, Vandygriff to author, 19 May 53 Ltrs, Jones to author, 26 May, 21 and 30 Jun 53; 1st Lt Thomas T. Jones, "Two Hundred Miles to Freedom," The Military Engineer (September- October 1951), pp. 351-54. The North Koreans, strangely enough, released Jones and three other soldiers later near Ch'unch'on in central Korea, where they entered the lines of the ROK 6th Division.
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no communication with the 3d Platoon, Kennedy sent a patrol to its supposed position. The patrol reported back that it could find no one there but had found the rocket launchers and two light machine guns.
It rained most of the night, and 5 September dawned wet and foggy on top of Hill 755. Just after daylight in a cold drizzle the North Koreans attacked. The engineers repulsed this attack but suffered some casualties. Enemy fire destroyed Vandygriff's radio, forcing him to use runners to communicate with Kennedy's command post. Ammunition was running low and three C-47 planes came over to make an airdrop. Kennedy put out orange identification panels, then watched the enemy put out similarly colored one. The planes circled, and finally dropped their bundles of ammunition and food-to the enemy. Immediately after the airdrops, two F-51 fighter planes came over and attacked D Company. It was obvious that the enemy panels had misled both the cargo and fighter planes. The fighters dropped two napalm tanks within D Company's perimeter, one of which fortunately failed to ignite; the other injured no one. The planes then strafed right through the 2d Platoon position, but miraculously caused no casualties. Soon after this aerial attack, enemy burp gun fire wounded Kennedy in the leg and ankle.
Sometime between 1000 and 1100 the advanced platoon of E Company, 8th Cavalry Regiment, arrived on top of Hill 755 and came into D Company's perimeter. Some of the engineers fired on the E Company men before the latter identified themselves. The E Company platoon went into position on the right of Vandygriff, and Kennedy turned over command of the combined force to the E Company commander. Kennedy then assembled twelve wounded men and started down the mountain with them. The party was under small arms fire most of the way. A carrying party of Korean A-frame porters led by an American officer had started up the mountain during the morning with supplies. Enemy fire, killing several of the porters, turned it back.
The day before, E Company had been delayed in following D Company to Hill 755. Soon after the Engineer company had started up the trail on the 4th, E Company arrived at Colonel Holley's command post at the base of the mountain. Enemy mortar fire was falling on the trail at the time and the company commander said he could not advance because of it. Holley radioed this information to Colonel Palmer who designated another company commander and said, "Tell him to come on through." This second officer broke his glasses on a rock and informed Holley that he could not go on. Holley put him on the radio to Palmer who ordered him to continue up the hill. Soon thereafter this officer was wounded in the leg. Holley then designated a third officer, who started up the mountain with E Company that evening about 2000. Enemy fire stopped the company 500 yards
Ltr, Vandygriff to author, 19 May 53; Ltrs, Kennedy to author, 2 Apr 52 and 4 Jun 52. Ltrs, Kennedy to author, 2 Apr and 4 Jun 52; Ltr, Vandygriff to author, 19 May 53; GHQ FEC Sitrep, 5 Sep 50. Ltr, Vandygriff to author, 19 May 53; Ltrs, Kennedy to author, 2 Apr and 4 Jun 52.
Page 428 SOUTH TO THE NAKTONG, NORTH TO THE YALU
short of the crest before dawn. It was this same company that the N.K. 13th Division had cut off when it launched its attack the evening of 2 September and overran the 2d Battalion north of Tabu-dong. Tired and dispirited from this experience and their roundabout journey to rejoin the regiment, E Company men were not enjoying the best of morale.
Shortly after the E Company platoon joined Vandygriff, the North Koreans attacked again. The E Company infantrymen had brought no mortars with them-only small arms. In this situation, Vandygriff took a 3.5-inch rocket launcher and fired into the North Koreans. They must have thought that it was mortar or 75-mm. recoilless rifle fire for they broke off the attack. Vandygriff checked his platoon and found it was nearly out of ammunition. He then instructed his men to gather up all the weapons and ammunition from enemy dead they could reach, and in this manner they obtained for emergency use about 30 to 40 rifles, 5 burp guns, and some hand grenades.
In the course of gathering up these enemy weapons, Vandygriff passed the dug-in position of Pfc. Melvin L. Brown, a BAR man in the 3d Squad. Brown was next to the wall on the extreme left of the platoon position at a point where the wall was only about six or seven feet high. At the bottom of the wall around Brown's position lay about fifteen or twenty enemy dead. Vandygriff asked Brown what had happened. The latter replied, "Every time they came up I knocked them off the wall." Earlier in the day, about 0800, Kennedy had visited Brown and had seen five enemy dead that Brown had killed with BAR fire. Subsequently Brown exhausted his automatic rifle ammunition, then his few grenades, and finally he used his entrenching tool to knock the North Koreans in the head when they tried to climb over the wall. Brown had received a flesh wound in the shoulder early in the morning, but had bandaged it himself and refused to leave his position.
At 1330 General Gay ordered the 8th Cavalry Regiment to withdraw its men off Ka-san. Gay decided to give up the mountain because he believed he had insufficient forces to secure and hold it and that the enemy had insufficient ammunition to exploit its possession as an observation point for directing artillery and mortar fire. It is not certain that this order actually reached anyone on the hill. Colonel Holley could not reach anyone in D Company, 8th Engineer Combat Battalion.
Rain started falling again and heavy fog closed in on the mountain top so that it was impossible to see more than a few yards. Again the enemy attacked the 2d Platoon and the adjacent E Company infantrymen. One of the engineers was shot through the neck and Vandygriff sent him to the company command post. In about thirty minutes he returned. "What's wrong?" asked Vandygriff. Barely able to talk from his wound
Interv, author with Holley, 20 Feb 52; Ltrs, Kennedy to author, 2 Apr and 4 Jun 52; Ltr, Vandygriff to author, 19 May 53; Ltr, Jones to author, 21 Jun 53. Ltr, Vandygriff to author, 19 May 53; Ltrs, Kennedy to author, 1 Apr and 4 Jun 52. Interv, author with Holley, 20 Feb 52; Ltr, Gay to author, 17 Jul 53.
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and shock, the man replied that there was no longer a command post, that he could not find anyone and had seen only enemy dead. Vandygriff now went to the infantry sergeant who was in command of the E Company platoon and asked him what he intended to do. The latter replied, in effect, that he was going to take his platoon and go over the wall.
Vandygriff went back to his own platoon, got his squad leaders together and told them the platoon was going out the way it came in and that he would give the wounded a 30-minute start. Enemy fire was falling in the platoon area now from nearly all directions and the situation looked hopeless. Sgt. John J. Philip, leader of the 3d Squad, started to break up the weapons that the platoon could not take out with them. Vandygriff, noticing that Brown was not among the assembled men, asked Philip where he was. The latter replied that he didn't know but that he would try to find out. Philip returned to the squad's position and came back fifteen minutes later, reporting to Vandygriff that Brown was dead. Asked by Philip if he should take the identification tags off the dead, Vandygriff said, "No," that he should leave them on because they would be the only means of identification later. Vandygriff put his platoon in a V formation and led them off the hill the same way they had come up, picking up four wounded men on the way down.
At the base of the mountain, Colonel Holley and others in the afternoon saw E Company men come down from the top and, later, men from the engineer company. Each group thought it was the last of the survivors and told confused, conflicting stories. When all remaining members of D Company had been assembled, Colonel Holley found that the company had suffered 50 percent casualties; eighteen men were wounded and thirty were missing in action.
Among the wounded carried off the mountain was an officer of D Company, 8th Engineer Combat Battalion. Enemy machine gun fire struck him in the leg just before he jumped off a high ledge. Two men carried him to the bottom and at his request left him in a Korean house, expecting to come back in a jeep for him. A little later, other members escaping off the mountain heard his screams. Two weeks passed before the 1st Cavalry Division recaptured the area. They found the officer's body in the house. The hands and feet were tied, the eyes gouged, a thumb pulled off, and the body had been partly burned. Apparently he had been tied, tortured, and a fire built under him.
Soldiers of the ROK 1st Division captured a North Korean near Ka-san on 4 September who said that about 800 of his fellow soldiers were in the Walled City area with three more battalions following them from the north. The Engineer company had succeeded only in establishing a perimeter briefly within the enemy-held area. By evening of 5
Ltr, Vandygriff to author, 19 May 53. Department of the Army General Order 11, 16 February 1951, awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously to Pfc. Melvin L. Brown. Ltr, Jones to author, 21 Jun 53; Intervs, author with Holley and Kopper, 20 Feb 52 Maj Hal D. Steward, "Engineers Fight as Infantry," Ad Cosantoir (August, 1951), pp. 366-67.
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September, Ka-san was securely in enemy hands with an estimated five battalions, totaling about 1,500 enemy soldiers, on the mountain and its forward slope. A North Korean oxtrain carrying 82-mm. mortar shells and rice reportedly reached the top of Ka-san during the day. The ROK 1st Division captured this oxtrain a few days later south of Ka-san.
When Lieutenant Jones went back up the mountain as a prisoner on 10 September he saw at least 400-500 enemy soldiers on the ridge. A Mosquito spotter plane flew over and he felt sure it would sight the large number of enemy troops and call in fighter planes for strafing attacks. But, he said, "The pilot of the plane took one look and went away which amazed me, except that the minute they heard the plane the North Koreans all either hit the ground or squatted and ducked their heads, which attested to the effectiveness of the leaves, branches, etc., that almost every man had stuck in the string netting on the back of his shirt and the top of his cloth hat."
Now, with Ka-san firmly in their possession, the N.K. 13th and 1st Divisions made ready to press on downhill into Taegu.
On the 6th, the day after the American troops were driven off Ka-san, an enemy force established a roadblock three miles below Tabu-dong and other units occupied Hill 570, two miles southwest of the Walled City and overlooking the Taegu road from the east side. The next morning five tanks of the 16th Reconnaissance Company prepared to lead an attack against the roadblock. The enemy troops were in a rice field west and on the hills east of the road. General Gay was at the scene to watch the action. He ordered the reconnaissance company commander to launch the attack into the rice fields at maximum speed, saying, "I don't want a damn tank moving under 25 miles per hour until you are on top of those men." The tank attack speedily disposed of the enemy in the rice field, but the infantry spent several hours clearing the hills on the east side of the road.
Enemy artillery during 7 September shelled batteries of the 9th and 99th Field Artillery Battalions, forcing displacement of two batteries during the day. U.S. air strikes and artillery kept both Hills 902 and 570 under heavy attack. Even though the 1st Cavalry Division fell back nearly everywhere that day, General Walker ordered it and the ROK II Corps to attack and seize Hill 902 and the Walled City, the time of the attack to be agreed upon by the commanders concerned. He directed the ROK 1st Division and the 1st Cavalry Division to select a boundary between them and to maintain physical contact during the attack.
On the morning of the 8th, Lt. Col. Harold K. Johnson's 3d Battalion, 8th Cavalry, after executing a withdrawal during the night from its former position, tried to drive the enemy from Hill 570. The three peaks of this mountain
EUSAK WD, PIR 55, 5 Sep 50; Ibid., G-3 Jnl, 0750 and 1900 5 Sep 50 Ibid., interrogation of Kim Choe Ski, 11 Sep 50. Ltr, Jones to author, 30 Jun 53. Ltr, Gay to author, 17 Jul 53; 1st Cav Div WD, 7 Sep 50. EUSAK WD, G-3 Sec and G-3 Jnl, 1330 7 Sep 50; Ibid., Br for CG, 7 Sep 50.
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mass were under clouds, making it impossible to support the infantry attack with air strikes or artillery and mortar fire. Johnson placed all three of his rifle companies in the assault against the three peaks; two of them reached their objectives, one with little opposition, the other catching enemy soldiers asleep on the ground. But enemy counterattacks regained this second peak. The main enemy force on Hill 570 was on the third and highest of the three peaks and held it firmly against the L Company attack. The I Company commander and the L Company executive officer were killed, as were several noncommissioned officers. The Eighth Army Intelligence Section estimated that 1,000 enemy soldiers were on Hill 570, only eight air miles north of Taegu, and on 8 September it stated that the continued pressure against the eastern flank of the 1st Cavalry Division sector "represents what is probably the most immediate threat to the U.N. Forces."
That same day, 8 September, the 1st Cavalry Division canceled a planned continuation of the attack against Hill 570 by the 3d Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, when enemy forces threatened Hills 314 and 660, south and east of 570.
In the midst of this enemy drive on Taegu, an ammunition shortage became critical for the U.N. forces. The situation was such that General MacArthur on 9 September sent messages urging that two ammunition ships then en route to Yokohama and Pusan carrying 172,790 rounds of 105-mm. shells, with estimated arrival time 11 September, proceed at maximum speed consistent with the safety of the vessels. Eighth Army on 10 September reduced the ration of 105-mm. howitzer ammunition from fifty to twenty-five rounds per howitzer per day, except in cases of emergency. Carbine ammunition was also in critical short supply. The 17th Field Artillery Battalion, with the first 8-inch howitzers to arrive in Korea, could not engage in the battle for lack of ammunition.
The N.K. 1st Division now began moving in the zone of the ROK 1st Division around the right flank of the 1st Cavalry Division. Its 2d Regiment, about 1,200 strong, advanced six air miles eastward from the vicinity of the Walled City on Hill 902 to the towering 4,000-foot-high mountain of P'algong-san. It reached the top of P'algong-san about daylight on 10 September, and a little later new replacements, prodded by burp guns from behind, made a wild charge toward the ROK positions. The ROK's turned back the charge, killing or wounding about two-thirds of the attacking force.
The 1st Cavalry Division now had most of its combat units concentrated on its right flank north of Taegu. The 3d Battalion, 7th Cavalry, attached to the 8th Cavalry Regiment, was behind that regiment on Hills 181 and 182
Johnson, Review notes for author on draft chapter, Aug 54: 8th Cav Regt WD, 8 Sep 50; EUSAK PIR 58, 8 Sep 50; 7th Cav Opn Ord 16 and WD overlay, 8 Sep 50. Schnabel, FEC, GHQ Support and Participation in the Korean War, ch. 4, pp. 22-23; 24th Div WD, G-4 Summ, 25-26 Aug and 10-11 Sep 50; 159th FA Bn Unit Rpt, 1-30 Sep 50; GHQ FEC Sitrep, 9 Sep 50. EUSAK WD, 14 Sep 50, interrog rpt of Kim Yong Gi; ATIS Interrog Rpts, Issue 6, Rpt 1103, p. 8; ATIS Res Supp Interrog Rpts, Issue 3 (N.K. 1st Div), p. 36.
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astride the Tabu-dong road only 6 air miles north of Taegu. The rest of the 7th Cavalry Regiment (the 1st Battalion rejoined the regiment during the day) was in the valley of the Kumho River to the right rear between the enemy and the Taegu Airfield, which was situated 3 miles northeast of the city. The 5th Cavalry was disposed on the hills astride the Waegwan road 8 air miles northwest of Taegu. On its left the entire 8th Engineer Combat Battalion was in line as infantry, with the mission of holding a bridge across the Kumho River near its juncture with the Naktong east of Taegu.
The fighting north of Taegu on 11 September in the vicinity of Hills 660 and 314 was heavy and confused. For a time, the 1st Cavalry Division feared a breakthrough to the blocking position of the 3d Battalion, 7th Cavalry. The rifle companies of the division were now very low in strength. On 11 September, for instance, E Company, 5th Cavalry, in attacking Hill 203 on the division left toward Waegwan had only 3 officers and 63 men. The day before, C Company, 7th Cavalry, had only 50 men. Colonel Johnson stated later that any company of the 3d Battalion, 8th Cavalry, that had 100 men during this period was his assault company for the day.
While the 3d Battalion, 8th Cavalry, again vainly attacked Hill 570 on 11 September, enemy soldiers seized the crest of Hill 314 two miles southeast of it and that much closer to Taegu. Actually, the two hill masses are adjacent and their lower slopes within small arms range of each other. The North Koreans drove the 16th Reconnaissance Company from the hill and only the ROK 5th Training Battalion, previously hurried into the line from Taegu in a supporting position, prevented the enemy from gaining complete control of this terrain feature. This ROK battalion still held part of the reverse slope of Hill 314 when the 3d Battalion, 8th Cavalry, hurried to the scene from its fruitless attacks on Hill 570 and tried to retake the position. The ROK battalion twice had attacked and reached the crest but could not hold it, and had dug in on the lower southern slopes. The 3d Battalion, 7th Cavalry, command post had to fight off infiltrating enemy on 12 September as it issued its attack order and prepared to attack through the 8th Cavalry lines against Hill 314.
This attack on the 12th was to be part of a larger American and ROK counterattack against the N.K. 13th and 1st Divisions in an effort to halt them north of Taegu. The 2d Battalion, 7th Cavalry, relieved the ROK units on Hill 660, east of Hill 314, and had the mission of securing that hill. Farther east the ROK 1st Division had the mission of attacking from P'algong-san toward the Walled City on Hill 902. The point nearest Taegu occupied by enemy forces at this time was Hill 314. Some called it the "key to Taegu." Although this may be an exaggeration, since other hills, like links in a chain, were possibly equally important, the enemy 13th Division valued its possession and had concentrated about 700 soldiers on it. The
Ltr, Gay to author, 17 Jul 53; 1st Cav Div WD, Sep 50. 1st Cav Div WD, 11 Sep 50; 1st Bn, 7th Cav Regt WD, 10 Sep 50; 5th Cav Regt WD, Sep 50 Narr; Review notes, Johnson to author, Aug 54.
PERIMETER BATTLE Page 433
North Koreans meant to use it, no doubt, in making the next advance on Taegu. From it, observation reached to Taegu and it commanded the lesser hills southward rimming the Taegu bowl.
Hill 314 is actually the southern knob of a 500-meter hill mass which lies close to the east side of Hill 570 and is separated from that hill mass only by a deep gulch. The hill mass is shaped like an elongated teardrop, its broad end at the north. The southern point rises to 314 meters and the ridge line climbs northward from it in a series of knobs to 380 and, finally, to 500 meters. The ridge line from the 314-meter to the 500-meter point is a mile in length. All sides of the hill mass are very steep.
Lt. Col. James H. Lynch's 3d Battalion, 7th Cavalry, on the eve of its attack against Hill 314 numbered 535 men, less its rear echelons. The battalion, which had been organized at Fort Benning, Ga., from the 30th Infantry Regiment of the 3d Division, had arrived in Korea at the end of August. The ill-fated action of the 7th Cavalry at Hill 518, begun nine days earlier, had been its first action. This was to be its second. The battalion attack plan this time differed radically from that employed against Hill 518 and was a direct development of that failure. The key aspect of the Hill 314 attack plan was to mass as many riflemen as possible on top of the narrow ridge line, by attacking with two companies abreast along the ridge, and not to repeat the mistakes of Hill 518 where the fire power of only a platoon, and at times of only a squad, could be brought to bear against the enemy. Because of the ammunition shortage there was no artillery preparation on Hill 314, but there was an air strike before Colonel Lynch's battalion, with L Company on the left and I Company on the right, at 1100, 12 September, started its attack. The point of departure was the front lines of the 3d Battalion, 8th Cavalry, on the lower slope of the hill.
Enemy 120-mm. mortar fire was falling on and behind the line of departure as the battalion moved out. For 500 yards it encountered only sporadic small arms and machine gun fire; then enemy rifle fire became intense and preregistered mortar fire came down on the troops, pinning them to the ground. On the left, men in L Company could see approximately 400 North Koreans preparing to counterattack. They radioed for an air strike but the planes were on the ground refueling. Fortunately, they were able to repulse the counterattack with combined artillery, mortar, and small arms fire. The air strike came in at 1400, blanketing the top and the north slope of the ridge.
By this time enemy mortar fire had caused many casualties, and elements of L and I Companies became intermingled. But, in contrast to the action on Hill 518, the men continued the attack largely of their own volition after many of the officers had become casualties. The example of certain officers,
Ltr, Johnson to author, recd Aug 54; 1st Cav Div WD, 12 Sep 50; 7th Cav Regt WD, 12 Sep 50: Attack Ord, 3d Bn, 7th Cav Regt, attached to 1st Lt Morris M. Teague, Jr.'s, Narrative and Supporting Documents Concerning Hill 314, in the 7th Cav Regt WD. Teague, Hill 314 Narr; Ltr, Gay to author, 17 Jul 53; Webel, MS review comments, 15 Nov 57; 7th Cav Regt WD, 12 Sep 50.
Page 434 SOUTH TO THE NAKTONG, NORTH TO THE YALU
however, pointed the way. The commanding officer of I Company, 1st Lt. Joseph A. Fields, reorganized his company under mortar fire without regard to his own safety after the company had suffered 25 percent casualties; 1st Lt. Marvin H. Haynes led a small group which killed or drove off enemy troops that had overrun part of L Company; and Capt. Robert W. Walker, commanding officer of L Company, continued his superb personal leadership. Fields was wounded, Haynes killed. MSgt. Roy E. McCullom, the weapons platoon leader of I Company, organized his men as riflemen, and though wounded three times, in shoulders and right arm, he led them on until he received a fourth wound in the head. Wounded by mortar fragments, 2d Lt. Marshall G. Engle, I Company, refused evacuation twice, telling litter teams to go farther forward and get the more critically injured. Engle lay on the hill for twelve hours, far into the night, receiving another mortar wound during that time before a litter team finally evacuated him.
Fifteen minutes after the air strike, the 3d Battalion resumed its attack toward the crest. As it neared it the North Koreans came out of their positions in a violent counterattack and engaged at close quarters. Some men gained the crest but enemy mortar and machine gun fire drove them off. They reached it a second time but could not hold it. Another air strike hit the enemy. Then, a third time, Captain Walker led a group of men of L and I Companies to the top. When Walker reached the crest he shouted back, "Come on up here where you can see them! There are lots of them and you can kill them." The men scrambled up a 60-degree slope for the last 150 yards to the top, where they closed with the North Koreans and overran their positions. Walker and the remaining men of the two companies secured the hill at 1r30 and then Walker reorganized the two companies jointly under his command. There were fewer than forty effectives left in L Company and about forty in I Company; the latter had lost all its officers.
General Gay caused a special study to be made of this action, so outstanding did he consider it to be. He found that the 3d Battalion suffered 229 battle casualties in the first two hours, most of them incurred during the second hour of the attack. Of these, 38 Americans were killed and 167 wounded, the remainder were attached South Koreans. The battalion aid station reported treating 130 casualties. Other wounded were treated at the 8th Cavalry aid station. Many men with minor wounds did not ask for medical attention until the battle had ended, and there were only five cases of combat shock in contrast to the eighteen on Hill 518. Enemy mortar fire caused 80 percent of the casualties.
Colonel Lynch's battalion held Hill
1st Cav Div WD, 12 Sep 50; 7th Cav Regt WD, 12 Sep 50; Medical Log, Hill 314, attached to 3d Bn, 7th Cav Unit Rpt, 12 Sep 50; Teague, Hill 314 Narr. Medical Log with 3d Bn, 7th Cav, Unit Rpt; Teague, Hill 314 Narr. Medical Log with 3d Bn, 7th Cav, Unit Rpt; Ltr, Gay to author, 17 Jul 53; Webel, MS review comments, 15 Nov 57; Interv, author with Robert Best, ORO analyst, 3 Apr 53. Best made a study of the Hill 314 action and stated that the 3d Battalion casualties were 30 Americans killed, 119 wounded, and 10 ROK's killed or wounded. General Gay and Colonel Webel say these figures are inaccurate.
PERIMETER BATTLE Page 435
314 for the next six days and gathered up a large amount of enemy equipment and ammunition. The enemy soldiers on Hill 314 wore American uniforms, helmets, and combat boots. Many of them had M1 rifles and carbines. Two hundred of their number lay dead on the hill. Of the other 500 estimated to have been there, prisoners said most of them had been wounded or were missing.
Several atrocity cases came to light during the action on Hill 314. Capt. James B. Webel found the first one on the afternoon of the 12th while the final action on the hill was taking place. He came upon an American officer who had been bound hand and foot, gasoline poured over him, and burned. A 5-gallon can lay close to the body. Two days later members of the battalion found on the hill the bodies of four other American soldiers with their hands tied. The bodies bore evidence that the men had been bayoneted and shot while bound.
After the capture of Hill 314 on 12 September, the situation north of Taegu improved. On 14 September the 2d Battalion, 8th Cavalry, attacked and, supported by fire from Hill 314, gained part of Hill 570 from the N.K. 19th Regiment, 13th Division.
Across the army boundary on the right, the ROK 1st Division continued its attack northwest and advanced to the edge of the Walled City. The ROK 11th Regiment seized Hill 755 about dark on 14 September, and small elements of the ROK 15th Regiment reached the stone ramparts of the Walled City area at the same time. The ROK's and North Koreans fought during the night and on into the 15th at many points along the high mountain backbone that extends southeast from the Walled City to Hills 755 and 783 and on to P'algong-san. Prisoners taken by the ROK's estimated that there were about 800 North Koreans on this high ridge. The ROK 1st Division later estimated that approximately 3,000 enemy were inside the Walled City perimeter and about 1,500 or 2,000 outside it near the crest. It appears that at this time the bulk of the N.K. 1st Division was gradually withdrawing into the Walled City and its vicinity. Indications were that the N.K. 13th Division also was withdrawing northward. Aerial observers on the afternoon of 14 September reported that an estimated 500 enemy troops were moving north from Tabu-dong. But, while these signs were hopeful, General Walker continued to make every possible preparation for a final close-in defense of Taegu. As part of this, fourteen battalions of South Korean police dug in around the city.
The fighting continued unabated north of Taegu on the 15th. The 2d Battalion, 8th Cavalry, still fought to gain control of Hill 570 on the east side of the Tabu-dong highway. On the other side, the 2d Battalion, 8th Cavalry, attacked Hill 401 where an enemy force had penetrated in a gap between the 8th and 5th Cavalry Regiments. The fighting on Hill 401 was particularly severe. Both sides had troops on the
7th Cav Regt WD, 12 and 15 Sep 50: Teague, Hill 314 Narr; Webel, MS review comments, 15 Nov 57; 1st Cav Div WD, 14 Sep 50. I Corps WD, Sep 50, Hist Narr, pp. 5-6; EUSAK WD, G-3 Jnl, 14 Sep 50 GHQ FEC G-3 Opn Rpts 82 and 83, 14-15 Sep 50: Ibid., Sitrep, 15 Sep 50; EUSAK WD, an. to PIR 64, 14 Sep 50.
Page 436 SOUTH TO THE NAKTONG, NORTH TO THE YALU
mountain when night fell. In this action, SFC Earl R. Baxter, at the sacrifice of his life, covered the forced withdrawal of his platoon (2d Platoon, L Company), killing at least ten enemy soldiers in close combat before he himself was killed by an enemy grenade.
While the N.K. II Corps was striving to capture Taegu and penetrate behind Eighth Army toward Pusan by way of the P'ohang-Kyongju corridor, the N.K. I Corps along the lower Naktong and in the south had unleashed simultaneously a violent offensive to bring the entire Pusan Perimeter under assault. Of the entire Perimeter, the parts tactically most vulnerable to enemy action lay along the lower Naktong, and accordingly they promised the greatest dividends strategically to successful North Korean attack. There the battle in early September rose to great intensity and for a period the outcome hung in the balance.
Ltr, Johnson to author, recd Aug 54; 1st Cav Div WD, 15 Sep 50. General Order 328, to May 1951, awarded the Distinguished Service Cross posthumously to Sergeant Baxter. EUSAK WD.
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Have you ever wanted to learn Latin? Few schools teach it any more, and
if you are reading this page, you probably don't live near one of them.
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Have you ever wished your children could learn Latin? Studies have found
that the verbal parts of SAT scores have dropped dramatically since Latin
ceased to be taught in the schools. That is because the words being tested
mostly derive from the Latin. Latin has given English its intellectual
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Learning Latin gives the student a historical perspective. You can't study
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Mary DeForest began learning Latin at the age of 11 and has studied it
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Click on enroll, and print out the form.
Fill out the form and send it to
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of Colorado at Denver
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Pedestrian Safety Skills for Parking Lots
Parking lots can be tricky to navigate for young pedestrians. This is an area where pedestrians and cars often share the same pathways. Safety issues for children are different for adults because child pedestrians are usually shorter than the cars, and drivers may not always see them. Also, children, particularly those aged 8 to 10 years, tend to be impulsive and may dart out into parking lot traffic. Ideally, parking lots are designed with pedestrians in mind by including sidewalks and marked crosswalks. However, since this is not always the case, it's important to teach children how to safely walk through parking lots.
The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has developed a Child Pedestrian Safety Curriculum for students in grades K-5 and is available online for free. Lesson 4 of the curriculum covers safety skills for navigating parking lots. Here are some highlights that may be helpful for children:
* Always hold the hand of a parent or guardian when walking through the parking lot
* Don't run or chase someone through the parking lot
* Make sure to keep at least two steps away from the bumpers of cars at all times
* Stay out of empty parking spaces
* Walk along medians and sidewalks if they are present
* If a toy rolls into a parking space, stay still (don't run after it) and tell an adult where it went
Discussions on School Parking Lot Design
School parking lots must accommodate the needs of several different users. They must be navigable by buses, parents dropping off students, and provide space for staff vehicles. Often parking lots are situated in the front of the building. In this case, parking lots should also provide pathways for pedestrians and bicyclists entering the school. All of these users need to move through the parking lot safely and efficiently.
Here are some helpful tips when designing or re-designing school parking lots:
* If possible, locate the parking lot behind the school's main entrance to reduce the exposure of pedestrians and bicyclists to vehicles.
* Traffic Calming measures may be used to slow down cars in front the school entrance - an area that is a common crossing point for pedestrians. Raised crosswalks may be appropriate. To see more information on raised crosswalks, look at the engineering section of the Safe Routes to School Guide.
* There are advantages and disadvantages to the vehicle parking orientation. To read about this discussion, see our entry on the advantages and disadvantages of using back-in and head-out angles parking.
* For more information on how a school can separate cars and buses from bicyclists, see our entry on the topic.
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Job Costing System
In this system of costing, the cost object is an individual unit of product or service, batch, or lot. A classic example is an order based job made for a specific customer. Hence the name job costing.
Relevant Cost ConceptsCost object
Direct cost of a cost object
Indirect cost of a cost object
Cost pool: Cost pool is grouping of individual cost items. It can be very broad comprising of hundreds of cost items. Or it can be narrow having only two items
Cost-allocation base: Cost allocation bases are used to link an indirect cost pool to a cost object. Usually cost drivers are used as cost allocation bases. Horngren gave the example automobile operating cost of an organization. The cost driver is number of miles traveled. Number of miles traveled is used as a cost allocation base. Different jobs are charged for automobile cost on the basis of number of miles traveled by the persons of the organization in producing and delivering the job.
Relevant Costing ConceptsActual Costing: Actual costing is costing method that traces direct costs to a cost object by using actual direct-cost rate of cost item times the actual quantity of the direct-cost input (item) and allocates indirect costs based on the actual indirect-cost rate (rates in case multiple indirect cost pools are there) times the actual quantity of the cost-allocation base (appropriate base when multiple cost pools are used).
Normal Costing: In this method of costing, direct costs are traced to cost object in the same manner as in actual costing. But indirect costs are allocated on the basis of budgeted indirect-cost rate and the actual cost quantity of cost allocation base.
Source Documents in Job CostingAn accountant in financial accounting system makes entries on the basis of some source documents and journal and ledger are the main registers for accounting entries.
Similarly cost accounting is also based on source documents and records. A key document or record or account in cost accounting is job cost record (or job cost sheet). It records and accumulates all the costs assigned to a specific job as resources were consumed in producing the goods and services specified in the job. Hence, the job cost record is started as soon as the work begins on a particular job.
Each entry in a job cost record is based on a source document.
Materials from the store are ordered by the manufacturing engineers using a materials requisition record. This form is the source document for charging job cost records and department for the cost of direct materials used on a specific job.
For recording direct labor related costs in job cost record, labor-time record is the source document. Each employees of the organization can have a labor time record and the time that he spends on various jobs is recorded on a daily basis on this record. The cost per hour of each employee is determined and accordingly labor cost is recorded in job cost records.
The indirect cost items are given standing order numbers and standing order cost records are maintained for them. Based on materials requisition records and labor-time records costs are charged to standing order cost records.
Special attention needs to be paid to the accuracy of the source documents as the accuracy of job cost records depends on the reliability of inputs.
Seven Step Procedure of Job CostingStep 1: Identify the chosen cost object. The specific jobs for which job cost is to be ascertained is to uniquely identified and a job cost record is to be opened for each job.
Step 2: Identify the direct costs of the job: The job number is to be mentioned in the material requisition record and labor-time records. From these source documents, the job cost records are to be posted or charged with direct costs.
Step 3: Select the cost allocation bases to use for allocating indirect costs to the job.
Step 4: Identify the indirect costs associated with each cost allocation base.
Step 5: Compute the rate per unit of each cost-allocation base.
Step 6: Compute the indirect costs allocated to the job.
Step 7: Compute the total cost of the job by adding all direct and indirect costs.
Journal and Ledger Entries in Cost AccountingLike in financial accounting, in cost accounting also journal and ledger are maintained.
Job costing system has a separate job cost record for each job and entries are made in it for each cost item charged to it. A summary of the job cost record is posted in a subsidiary ledger. In the general ledger, Work-in-Process Control Account is there and it presents the totals of the separate job cost records pertaining to all unfinished jobs.
A general ledger account with control in their name or title signifies or indicates that they are supported by underlying subsidiary ledgers that have additional details. Materials Control Account and Accounts Payable Control Account are additional examples of control accounts. Material Control Account has a subsidiary ledger – Stores Ledger that has detail on each type of material stored and used in the company. Accounts Payable Control Account has a subsidiary ledger that has accounts of individual suppliers.
Horngren has given examples of transactions to illustrate the use of journal entries in cost accounting.
1. Purchases of materials on credit $89,000
Materials Control A/c Dr. $89,000
To Accounts Payable Control $89,000
2. Materials issued to manufacturing departments: direct materials: $81,000, and indirect materials $4,000
Work-in Process Control A/c Dr. $81,000
Manufacturing Overhead Control A/c Dr. 4,000
To Materials Control $85,000
3. Total manufacturing payroll or salaries and wages: Direct $39,000 and indirect, $15,000
Work-in Process Control A/c Dr. $39,000
Manufacturing Overhead Control A/c Dr. 15,000
To Materials Control $54,000
ReferencesHorngren, Charles T., George Foster, and Srikant Datar, Cost Accounting: Managerial Emphasis, Tenth Edition, Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA, 2000
Videos on Job Costing
Updated 23 April 2015
First published 8 Dec 2011
originally posted in Knol
http://knol.google.com/k/narayana-rao/job-costing/ 2utb2lsm2k7a/ 1212
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Benazir Bhutto was the first lady to rule any muslim country in this world. She was also one of the most
influential leaders of south asia.
Benazir Bhutto was born in Karachi, Pakistan to a prominent political family. At age 16 she left her homeland to study at Harvard's Radcliffe
College. After completing her undergraduate degree at Radcliffe she studied at England's Oxford University, where she was awarded a second degree in 1977.
Later that year she returned to Pakistan where her father, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, had been elected prime minister, but days after her arrival, the military seized power and her father was imprisoned. In 1979 he was hanged by the military government of General Zia Ul Haq.
Bhutto herself was also arrested many times over the following years, and was detained for three years before being permitted to leave the country in 1984. She settled in London, but along with her two brothers, she founded an underground organization to resist the military dictatorship. When her brother died in 1985, she returned to Pakistan for his burial, and was again arrested for participating in anti-government rallies.
She returned to London after her release, and martial law was lifted in Pakistan at the end of the year. Anti-Zia demonstrations resumed and Benazir Bhutto returned to Pakistan in April 1986. The public response to her return was tumultuous, and she publicly called for the resignation of Zia Ul Haq, whose government had executed her father.
She was elected co-chairwoman of the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) along with her mother, and when free elections were finally held in 1988, she herself became Prime Minister. At 35, she was one of the youngest chief executives in the world, and the first woman to serve as prime minister in an Islamic country.
Only two years into her first term, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismissed Bhutto from office. She initiated an anti-corruption campaign, and in 1993 was re-elected as Prime Minister. While in office, she brought electricity to the countryside and built schools all over the country. She made hunger, housing and health care her top priorities, and looked forward to continuing to modernize Pakistan.
At the same time, Bhutto faced constant opposition from the Islamic fundamentalist movement. Her brother Mir Murtaza, who had been estranged from Benazir since their father's death, returned from abroad and leveled charges of corruption at Benazir's husband, Asif Ali Zardari. Mir Murtaza died when his bodyguard became involved in a gunfight with police in Karachi. The Pakistani public was shocked by this turn of events and PPP supporters were divided over the charges against Zardari.
In 1996 President Leghari of Pakistan dismissed Benazir Bhutto from office, alleging mismanagement, and dissolved the National Assembly. A Bhutto re-election bid failed in 1997, and the next elected government, headed by the more conservative Nawaz Sharif, was overthrown by the military. Bhutto's husband was imprisoned, and once again, she was forced to leave her homeland. For nine years, she and her children lived in exile in London, where she continued to advocate the restoration of democracy in Pakistan. In the autumn of 2007, in the face of death threats from radical Islamists, and the hostility of the government, she returned to her native country.
Although she was greeted by enthusiastic crowds, within hours of her arrival, her motorcade was attacked by a suicide bomber. She survived this first assassination attempt, although more than 100 bystanders died in the attack. With national elections scheduled for January 2008, her Pakistan People's Party was poised for a victory that would make Bhutto prime minister once again. Only a few weeks before the election, the extremists struck again. After a campaign rally in Rawalpindi, a gunman fired at her car before detonating a bomb, killing himself and more than 20 bystanders. Bhutto was rushed to the hospital, but soon succumbed to injuries suffered in the attack. In the wake of her death, rioting erupted throughout the country. The loss of the country's most popular democratic leader has plunged Pakistan into turmoil, intensifying the dangerous instability of a nuclear-armed nation in a highly volatile region.
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In 1989, two years after his first visit to the Amazon, singer/songwriter Sting co-authored a book called “Jungle Stories: The Fight for the Amazon” (Barrie & Jenkins). In the book he writes, “To visit the forest just once is to be haunted forever after by its mysterious beauty and to be made aware of just how important its preservation is to everyone on the planet.”
In February of the same year, Sting and Chief Raoni of the Kayapo tribe visited Japan as part of a world tour to publicize the destruction of the Amazon rain forests. Kenko Minami, a Japanese concert promoter, was asked to help coordinate the tour, and, like Sting, her life changed forever.
Minami had never met anyone so frightening and yet so gentle as Raoni, and when she shook his hand, she felt a mystical connection to his rain-forest home. Three months later, in May 1989, Minami established the Nettai Shinrin Hogo Dantai, the Rain Forest Foundation of Japan (RFJ), to raise awareness of the Amazon and to help protect its indigenous peoples.
Minami, 57, has now made 20 trips to Brazil, staying with the Kayapo and Xingu tribes for two to three months each visit.
Sadly, in her years as director of RFJ, conditions in the Amazon have only worsened. Despite decades of international hand-wringing, little has been done to stem the destruction caused by developers, miners and the landless poor.
“The Amazon ecosystem is unique even in Brazil. During the ice ages the area remained green, so the forests are full of invaluable genetic resources, truly unusual plants and animals. As a result, Brazil, too, wants to protect the area as a ‘show window’ of conservation and a source of genetic material. But poachers are increasingly moving into the park to steal unique animal species and exotic woods, such as mahogany,” she said in a recent interview.
More destructive are the daily fires and the bulldozers that drag massive chains through the jungles uprooting whole swaths of trees and laying waste to as many as 100 hectares of forest each day. “Every year an area equal to about 21,000 Tokyo Domes disappears from the Amazon as the forests are turned into farms, many of them for soybeans that are sold to Japan,” Minami explained.
Last year, 26,130 sq. km of Amazonian rain forest were cleared, the second-highest total since 1994 when 29,000 sq. km were destroyed, according to Brazil’s Environment Ministry.
Other threats to the forests and the native Indios population include highway construction, dams, clearing for cattle grazing, logging, mining (iron ore, bauxite and gold), pollution (toxic mercury is used in gold mining) and diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis, influenza and venereal diseases brought in by outsiders.
Perhaps the only fact more shocking than the ongoing destruction is that it has continued despite decades of awareness that the Amazon is critical to our planet’s health. The Amazon Basin contains about half of the world’s remaining tropical forests; it produces almost a third of the oxygen we breathe; and it is home to as much as half of all the Earth’s genetic resources (plant and animal), according to RFJ.
In fact, many experts believe that these forests contain cures for diseases, such as cancer and AIDS, and yet just 2 percent of the genetic material in the region has been identified. Only Indio medicine men, who can recognize more than 6,000 plant species, know the medicinal qualities of these plants.
“The only protection the forest has is the Indians,” writes Sting — and the Brazilian government agrees, in theory.
In 1992, at the United Nations Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil’s then President Fernando Collor de Mello promised that his country would set aside 10 percent of its entire land area for the sole use of indigenous peoples. To date, however, only 4 percent has been officially demarked, while the other 6 percent, a total of 238 areas, remains unprotected, according to Minami.
It is estimated that 500 years ago as many as 10 million Indios lived in the Amazon Basin. Today, several hundred thousand remain in 200 tribes scattered across the Amazon. The Yamomami are the largest group, about 20,000 individuals, while the Kayapo total 15,000.
Some might call the Kayapo lucky. They live in Xingu National Park, which covers 180,000 sq. km and is home to 18 tribes of Indios, totaling about 20,000 individuals
“I want to trust the government,” says Chief Raoni in “Jungle Stories.” “I keep hoping that they will set down our frontiers once and for all. [But] if we lose our land, the white man will destroy the whole forest. And then, where will we go to hunt the tapir, the ant bear, the panther? What will we eat when there is no game left?”
Raoni’s words are hauntingly reminiscent of a letter written to the president of the United States in 1854 by Chief Seattle, a Native American: “What is man without the beasts? If all the beasts were gone, men would die from a great loneliness of the spirit. For whatever happens to the beasts, soon happens to man.”
RFJ has sponsored numerous initiatives, including medical support, conservation activities and most recently a new school for Indio children funded with Japanese government assistance.
Still, Minami believes each of us must reconsider our values and embrace the changes that need to be made if we are going to conserve the Amazon, and the Earth, for future generations. “This planet is all one body. If we cut off one part of that body, the rest of the body will suffer. This is the awareness we need to develop,” Minami urged.
As Chief Seattle wrote, more than 150 years ago, “The Earth does not belong to man, man belongs to the Earth. All things are connected. Whatever befalls the Earth, befalls the sons of the Earth. Man did not weave the web of life, he is merely a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.”
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HI-SEAS Project Inaugural Ham Radio Event Will Commemorate Gagarin’s Space Flight
The Hawaii Space Exploration Analog and Simulation — HI-SEAS -- “Mars mission,” recently underway in Hawaii, will launch its Amateur Radio special event on April 12 — the anniversary of Soviet Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin’s historic spaceflight in 1961. Ron Williams, N9UIK, one of two radio amateurs on the mission — the other is Ross Lockwood, VA6RLW — said this week that the team’s first Amateur Radio activity will begin Saturday, April 12, at 1900 UTC. The team will solicit callers from special event station K6B, and explain the nature and purpose of the event. Amateur Radio communication to and from the “Martian” enclave will incorporate a 20 minute delay in each direction, to emulate actual transmissions between the Red Planet and Earth. USSR Cosmonaut Gagarin was the first human launched into space during the US-Soviet “Cold War” space race.
“The HI-SEAS crew will be celebrating in our habitat and will recognize this human achievement on its anniversary, during our first ham radio activity,” Williams said. The HI-SEAS “astronauts” will be spending the next 4 months in a self-contained, solar-powered habitat at a remote site some 8000 feet up on the slopes of Mauna Loa volcano.
Special event station K6B will call on the WH6FM 2 meter repeater, which is connected to the AllStar VoIP system (node 27084) as well as to the Western Intertie Network, or the WIN System, linked repeaters (reflector 9101). K6B also will transmit into local 2 meter and 70 centimeter repeaters. At 2000 UTC, K6B will begin operation on 28.300 MHz.
“Please remember that we will maintain simulation by imposing a time delay between our transmission and reception that simulates the Earth-to-Mars distance and the time it would take a signal to get there and back,” said Williams, a neuropsychologist. The delay also is being applied to Internet communication.
Williams said that imposing the delay makes the K6B operation “unique to any Amateur Radio special event ever conducted.” He said that NASA is “very interested” in learning how to deal with radio signal delay to and from space.
After transmitting, Williams explained, the K6B operator will turn off the radio for 40 minutes — simulating a 20 minute delay in each direction. “During those 40 minutes, a control operator will take call signs from those wishing to contact us, be acknowledged, and receive a commemorative QSL card,” he said. “At the end of the 40 minutes, we will turn the radio back on and listen for the control operator to allow, one by one, hams to call in and give us signal reports or other pertinent information or greetings.” Acknowledgements of these contacts will arrive without the self-imposed delay.
The HI-SEAS team plans to activate K6B every Saturday at 1900 and 2000 UTC for the duration of their mission, which wraps up in July. The experiment is being conducted by the University of Hawaii and Cornell University.
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Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium)
Chrysanthemum is used for its effects on the eyes. Traditional Chinese Medicine teaches that the herb corrects imbalances in liver and kidney function that cause blurred vision, dizziness, dry red eyes, excessive tearing, or spots in front of the eyes.
Chrysanthemum also treats headaches accompanying infection, carbuncles, furuncles, and vertigo. Wild chrysanthemum is though to be more useful than the cultivated variety for treatment of sores abscesses, especially those of the head and back. Chrysanthemum also contains compounds that fight staph infections of the skin.
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4. The German illustrated festival book
Excerpted from Helen Watanabe-O'Kelly, 'The Early Modern Festival Book: Function and Form' in J.R. Mulryne, Helen Watanabe-O'Kelly and Margaret Shewring (eds.), 'Europa Triumphans': Court and Civic Festivals in Early Modern Europe (Aldershot and Burlington VT: Ashgate, 2004) vol. I, pp. 5-18.
Festival books can take many forms, as plain narrative or chronicle, whether in prose or in verse, as fictitious letter or dispatch, as urbane dialogue, as part poetry, or at least as prose with lyric inserts, and as extensive allegory. Festival books can embed the account in a fictional framework (the festival then claiming to be something the narrator saw in a dream) or be couched in the form of a courtly romance. They can take the form of an illustrated libretto, or can be used by the author as the occasion for a series of lengthy moral and philosophical reflections. An important sub-group, found particularly in the German tradition, is the festival book consisting wholly or largely of plates, a development that owes much to the influence of the Emperor Maximilian I.
Maximilian I (born 1459, reigned 1493-1519) came to power just before the ‘Reichsreform’, at a time when the office of Emperor and the Habsburg claim to the Imperial throne needed to be affirmed. With the help of a team of historians, genealogists, writers and artists he set about weaving round himself a myth of power, virtue and culture. His learned image-makers produced works of dynastic history and genealogy, while Maximilian himself stylised his own life as a courtly romance in a series of works that portrayed him as a knight participating in various sorts of chivalric combat. For the execution of these works he drew on the services of the foremost artists of his day and used both manuscript and the new art of printing. A vital element in his self-mythologisation was the series of ideal paper blueprints for festival architecture and floats: Dürer’s 192 woodcuts for the Triumphal Arch (1515), the 136 woodcuts by Burgkmair, Altdorfer, Dürer and others which constitute the Triumphal Procession (1517) and Dürer’s Great Triumphal Car (1522). These ideal (or ‘virtual’) festivals and their representation, as well as the accompanying woodcuts, functioned as models down the centuries both for actual festivals and for their depiction in festival books.
Maximilian also drew on the older manuscript tradition, commissioning an illustrated manuscript tournament book from Hans Burgkmair the Elder (1453-1530), completed in 1555 by his son Hans Burgkmair the Younger (c.1500-c.1560). Based on such manuscript depictions is the famous printed and illustrated compendium of 36 medieval tournaments between 938 and 1487 by the herald Georg Ruexner or Rixner (Simmern, 1530). The pre-existing corpus of tournament books commissioned by Maximilian, and the large quantity and high quality of the illustrations relating to festivals, had a lasting influence on the festival book as a genre and on its illustrations.
This influence helps one to understand why it is that the books emanating from the German-speaking courts far outstrip those produced by the north Italian courts in the quality and number of their illustrations. One would expect it to be the other way around, since Italian festival culture led Europe in its sophistication. But it is the history of printing and the development of book illustration in a particular territory that determine whether a festival book is illustrated or not, and the quality and number of the illustrations, not the level of its festival culture.
So the Germans, who developed the art of the woodcut and of the copper engraving at the same time as they discovered the art of printing with moveable type, who had a number of excellent artists such as Dürer and Cranach the Elder to develop the form, and who had the prestigious works produced by Maximilian as models, were producing beautifully illustrated festival books at a time when this was not at all common elsewhere. One has to wait until the volumes produced by Louis XIV’s Royal Press in Paris in the 1660s and 1670s for an illustrated work of comparable magnificence from France.
The German courts continued to be influenced by this tradition, for most princely libraries in the Empire contained copies both of the Stuttgart festival books and of at least some of the works produced for Maximilian. Thus it is that a court such as Dresden, the capital of Electoral Saxony, which has no tradition of the illustrated festival book up to then, should produce a remarkable example of the genre in 1680. This is Gabriel Tzschimmer’s account of the meeting of Johann Georg II, Elector of Saxony, and his three younger brothers and their families in Dresden in 1678, the so-called ‘Durchlauchtigste Zusammenkunft’.
The actual account - there is a much larger discursive second part - consists of 316 folio pages with 30 huge fold-out plates depicting tournaments, hunts, processions, ballets and theatrical scenes. Such a volume eloquently sums up the tradition of the illustrated festival book as a prime artefact of the early modern, particularly the German, art of printing.
© The British Library
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The Dangerous Consequences of High-Stakes Standardized Testing
Tests are called "high-stakes" when they used to make major decisions about a student, such as high school graduation or grade promotion. To be high stakes, a test has to be very important in the decision process or be able to override other information (for example, a student does not graduate if s/he does not pass the test regardless of how well s/he did in school). Currently, 17 states require students to pass a test to graduate, and 7 more are planning such tests.
Tests are called "standardized" when all students answer the same questions under similar conditions and their responses are scored in the same way. This includes commercial norm-referenced tests as well as state criterion-referenced or standards-based exams. They can include multiple-choice or open-ended (constructed) responses.
Research has shown that high-stakes testing causes damage to individual students and education. It is not a reasonable method for improving schools. Here are a few of the many reasons why:
1) High-stakes tests are unfair to many students.
Some students simply do not test well. Many students are affected by test anxiety or do not show their learning well on a standardized test, resulting in inaccurately lower scores.
Many students do not have a fair opportunity to learn the material on the test because they attend poorly-funded schools with large class sizes, too many teachers without subject area certification, and inadequate books, libraries, laboratories, computers and other facilities. These students are usually from low-income families, and many also suffer problems with housing, nutrition or health care. High-stakes tests punish them for things they cannot control.
Students with learning disabilities, whose first language is not English, or who attend vocational schools fail high-stakes tests far more frequently than do mainstream students.
Some people say that it is unfair to students to graduate them if they have not been adequately educated. But if students do not have access to an adequate and equitable education, they end up being held accountable while the system is not. States must take responsibility and be held accountable for providing a strong educational opportunity for all.
2) High-stakes testing leads to increased grade retention and dropping out.
Grade retention has repeatedly been proven to be counterproductive: students who are retained do not improve academically, are emotionally damaged by retention, suffer a loss of interest in school and self-esteem, and are more likely to drop out of school.
The most comprehensive national study finds that graduation tests lead to a higher dropout rate for students who are relatively low-achievers in school, while they do not produce improved learning for those who stay in school.
3) High-stakes testing produces teaching to the test.
The higher the stakes, the more schools focus instruction on the tests. As a result, what is not tested often is not taught. Whole subjects may be dropped; e.g., science, social studies, art or physical education may be eliminated if only language arts and math are tested. Important topics or skills that cannot be tested with paper-and-pencil tests – such as writing research papers or conducting laboratory experiments – are not taught.
Instruction starts to look like the tests. For example, reading is reduced to short passages followed by multiple-choice questions, a kind of "reading" that does not exist in the real world. Writing becomes the "five-paragraph essay" that is useless except on standardized tests.
Narrowing of curriculum and instruction happens most to low-income students. In schools serving wealthier areas, teachers and parents make sure most students gain the skills and knowledge they need to succeed in college and life. Too often, poor kids in under-funded schools get little more than test coaching that does not adequately prepare them for further learning. In some schools, the library budget is spent on test prep materials, and professional development is reduced to training teachers to be better test coaches. All this further limits educational opportunities for low-income children.
Some people say that teaching to the test is fine if test content is important. However:
- Most tests include many topics that are not important, while many important areas are not included on standardized tests because they cannot be measured by such tests.
- Teaching to the test produces a classroom climate and style of teaching that is ineffective and turns many students off to learning.
- Teaching to the test does not produce real and sustained gains on independent learning measures. Teaching to the test does not work if the goal is high-quality learning.
4) High-stakes testing drives out good teachers.
As learning largely depends on teacher quality, real improvements in schools can only come through teachers. Good teachers are often discouraged, even disgusted, by the overemphasis on testing. Many excellent teachers leave. It is absurd to believe that the "best and brightest" will want to become teachers when teaching is reduced to test prep and when schools are continually attacked by politicians, business leaders and the media. When narrow tests are used to hold schools accountable, teachers also leave low-performing schools where they are needed most.
5) High-stakes testing misinforms the public.
People have a right to know how well schools are doing. However, tests fail to provide sufficient information. The new federal requirement that only assessment scores be used to determine whether schools are improving will make the situation worse.
Teaching to the test causes score inflation (score gains that don’t represent actual improvements in learning) which misleads the public into thinking schools are improving, when they may not be better – and due to teaching to the test, may even be worse.
Most tests are secret, so the public cannot know what students are expected to know. State academic content standards typically are too long, often too obscure, and much of what is in them is not tested.
Tests are a narrow slice of what parents and the public need to know about schools. They don’t include non-academic areas and they are weak measures of academics.
Test results don’t take into account non-school factors that affect learning, such as poverty, hunger, student mobility, lack of medical care, safety, community resources, parents’ education - all of which must be addressed if "no children are to be left behind."
Conclusion: High-stakes testing does not improve education.
Test standards and major research groups such as the National Academy of Sciences clearly state that major educational decisions should not be based solely on a test score. High-stakes testing punishes students, and often teachers, for things they cannot control. It drives students and teachers away from learning, and at times from school. It narrows, distorts, weakens and impoverishes the curriculum while fostering forms of instruction that fail to engage students or support high-quality learning. In a high-stakes testing environment, the limit to educational improvement is largely dictated by the tests - but the tests are a poor measure of high-quality curriculum and learning. In particular, the emphasis on testing hurts low-income students and students from minority groups. Testing cannot provide adequate information about school quality or progress. High-stakes testing actively hurts, rather than helps, genuine educational improvement.
For a print formatted PDF of this fact sheet click here.
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Studio, the group entitled Science and Art, "is composed also of nude ideal figures in recumbent positions, the female with a palette and brush, the male with a pair of compasses. Sir Thomas is still at work on these groups." The bas relief beneath the figures here originally appeared beneath those representing Naval and Military Power.(The Victoria Memorial) by Sir Thomas Brock, K.C.B., R.A. (1847-1922) 1911. Bronze. Facing the Mall, London. As Malcolm C. Salaman pointed out in the 1911
. Note Brock's representation of brushes and palette in the left-hand photograph and the head covering in the detail at right.
Art and the sculpted face next to it. The round riveted machinery behind Science could be the base of a crane or a locomotive cylinder, but whichever or whatever it is, it embodies engineering rather than what we today would consider science.. Note a sculptor's hammer behind
- The plaster sketch model published in the 1911 Studio
- Rear view of Art with a visitor's hand showing the scale of the work
- Mermaid (bronze high relief beneath Science and Art)
- Mermaid (detail)
Photograph at top by George P. Landow; others by Robert Freidus [You may use these images without prior permission for any scholarly or educational purpose as long as you (1) credit the photographer and (2) link your document to this URL in a web document or cite it in a print one.]
Beattie, Susan. The New Sculpture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983.
Salaman, Malcolm C. “Sir Thomas Brock's Queen Victoria Memorial.” The Studio 53 (June 1911) 29-40. Internet Archive digitized from a copy in the University of Toronto Library.
Last modified 25 December 2010
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Senegal: Africa's New AIDS Alliance
January 12, 2004
Practitioners of modern medicine are joining forces with traditional healers to help fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Africa. In many rural areas of the continent that are out of reach of Western-style medicine, traditional healers wield considerable influence.Adapted from:
"Most people in Africa don't have access to primary health care," said Dr. Virginia Davis Floyd, a visiting scholar in traditional knowledge at Spelman College in Atlanta. "We're not even talking about hospitals. Since we don't have doctors or nurses in many of these places, the only primary provider is the traditional healer."
Floyd is executive director of Prometra USA, the U.S. arm of a Senegal-based organization that has studied and increased awareness of traditional medicine since 1971. The group has 22 chapters worldwide.
Roughly 63-70 percent of the 40 million HIV/AIDS patients worldwide live in sub-Saharan Africa. Floyd advocates multiple roles for traditional healers, from dispensing their homegrown medical knowledge to using their highly respected position to educate communities about HIV/AIDS. She said approximately 85 percent of sub-Saharan Africans get part or all of their health care from traditional healers.
In Senegal, Prometra, funded by the UN Development Program, organized a collaboration between traditional healers and modern medicine. Prometra built traditional healing huts close to public health centers, enabling patients to go from one to the other.
Floyd cautioned that not all healers are genuine and skilled, and that it is important to distinguish between knowledgeable healers and charlatans. She said that although traditional healing is gaining acceptance in the West, for many that stops with acupuncture and herbal remedies.
"It's difficult for people to understand the holistic component of African medicine that is also spiritual and mental. It's outside our Western logic," Floyd said.
01.07.04; Sheila M. Poole
Senegal Public Health Advocates Worry Country Backtracking in Progress Against HIV/AIDS, Might Waste International Aid
This article was provided by CDC National Prevention Information Network. It is a part of the publication CDC HIV/Hepatitis/STD/TB Prevention News Update.
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Flu Shots May Reduce Heart Attack Risk
Study Shows Getting Flu Shots Early May Provide the Most Protection Against Heart Attacks
Sept. 21, 2010 -- Yearly flu shots may do more than stave off the seasonal flu -- they may also prevent heart attacks, according to a new study in the Canadian Medical Association Journal. And the earlier you get the flu shot, the greater this protection, the study shows.
"If substantiated, this finding has implications for timely supply and administration of influenza vaccine and could lead to changes in recommendations for timing of vaccination," concludes A. Niroshan Siriwardena, PhD of the University of Lincoln in the U.K.
Heart attack risk tends to rise in the winter months, just like the flu, suggesting a link between the two conditions. Exactly how the flu shot may protect against first heart attack is not clear, but infection could somehow trigger plaque rupture in the arteries, resulting in a heart attack or stroke, the researchers suggest.
The new study included 16,012 people who had a heart attack between Nov. 1, 2001 and May 31, 2007, and 62,694 sex- and age-matched people who did not have heart attacks. Those who got their flu shot during the past year had a 19% reduced risk for heart attack, compared with their counterparts who did not get a flu shot that year.
The earlier in the flu season that participants got the flu shot, the lower their risk for first heart attack, the study showed. By contrast, the pneumonia vaccine did not provide protection against heart attack.
Inflammation May Play a Role
"Heart attacks increase during the winter time, and we think that the fact that there are more infections during the winter may be one of the reasons," says Stephen Nicholls, MD, PhD, a cardiologist at the Cleveland Clinic in Ohio.
"The findings of the current study are interesting and important," he tells WebMD. "If you get the flu vaccine, and get it early, you are less likely to get the flu and less likely to have a heart attack."
"If you have plaque that builds up in your artery walls and you get a viral infection, you do tend to have more inflammation, and when a plaque becomes inflamed, it's more likely to rupture and cause a heart attack," he says.
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Alfonso I (Alfonso the Battler)ălfŏnˈsō, äl–, d. 1134, king of Aragón and Navarre (1104–34), brother and successor of Peter I. The husband of Urraca, queen of Castile, he fought unsuccessfully to extend his authority over her kingdom. He also fought energetically against the Moors, from whom he captured Zaragossa (1118), Calatayud (1120), and many other towns. His raid (1125) into Andalusia bolstered Christian morale, and he encouraged Christians in Muslim lands to settle in his domain. Alfonso was killed in battle against his stepson, Alfonso VII of Castile, and was succeeded by his brother Ramiro II in Aragón and by García IV in Navarre.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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BIRMINGHAM, Ala. (WIAT) – The British government passes the Stamp Act, and FDR passes a much more “spirited” act. Plus the first championship for one of the sporting world’s most recognizable trophy is held. Find out all the details in today’s, “This Day in History.”
On this day in 1765, the British government passed the Stamp Act, which caused the first direct British tax on the colonists. Already dealing with other major taxes, including the Quartering Act of 1765, which required colonists to provide food and lodging to British soldiers, the Stamp Act push colonists were pushed to the breaking point by their mother country. The next year saw group uprisings, and documents drafted to stop the Stamp Act. Eventually, the British government realized that enforcing the act would cost more than just abolishing it, so they repealed the tax. However, the Stamp Act debacle helped push the colonist’s movement against the British government, and the eventual battle for independence.
On this day in 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Beer and Wine Revenue Act. The law levied a federal tax on all alcoholic beverages to raise revenue for the federal government and gave states the option to further regulate the sale and distribution of beer and wine. The act was the beginning of the end for Prohibition, put into place by the 18th Amendment and Volstead Act in 1919. FDR, who had developed a taste for alcohol years earlier, was not a fan of the temperance movement. He considered the act “of the highest importance” for its fund generating potential, which he believed could help get the country out of the Great Depression. The Beer and Wine Revenue act was followed up in December of 1933, by the passage of the 21st Amendment, officially ending Prohibition.
On this day in 1894, the first Stanley Cup championship took place in Montreal, Canada. The Montreal AAA defeated the Ottawa Generals, 3-1 to win Lord Stanley’s Cup. The cup has since become one of the most cherished and recognized trophies in sport.
This year’s NCAA Tournament is still in its early stages, but this day has marked the “one shining moment” for a few teams.
- 1958: Kentucky defeated Seattle (84-72)
- 1969: UCLA defeated Purdue (92-72)
- It was UCLA’s 5th national championship in 6 years
Today also marks the one-year-anniversary of 10-year-old Luke Bresette’s tragic death at the Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport. The airport held a moment of silence to honor his memory.
Copyright 2014 WIAT-CBS42
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It is important to understand that all heel pain is not from plantar fasciitis. Other medical problems can cause foot and heel pain. Diabetes and blood vessel disease, both serious medical problems, can cause heel pain. Arthritis, traumatic injury and bruising, gout, stress fractures (caused by repeated stress on bone), and other diseases can also cause heel pain. Rarely, tumors (either benign or cancerous) or infections can cause heel pain. If you develop persistent heel pain, see your doctor for an evaluation.
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Moon Confirmed to Have Earth-Like Core! January 8, 2011Posted by Nick Azer in : interior composition , trackback
Recent research utilzing modern seismic analysis with Apollo-era data has confirmed that the Moon has an Earth-like core!
After years of speculation, this confirmation narrows down the potential scenarios that could have created the Moon—namely, that the Moon was likely a fragment blasted off of old Earth.
The lunar core does differ, in that there’s also a partially-molten border layer there.
For more details, check out this Discovery News article; and for a great look at the formation of the Moon in general, see the pretty neat “Moon” episode of the History Channel series “The Universe”. The episode’s available over Netflix instant streaming, and even (for now…) on Youtube.
Once again, it’s shown how little we really know about the Moon to this point (confirmation only coming 40 years after Apollo). It’s full of surprises, and its overall composition should prove an important force into what moon colonization happens where.
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The 1898 portion of the Museum was originally designed for use as a Federal Post Office and Custom House to handle the large volume of foreign mail created by the city’s international tobacco business. It is built on the site of a former boarding house.
The structure was designed by Federal Treasury Supervising Architect William Martin Aiken in the eclectic style popular with Victorian America. Aiken incorporated many architectural styles including Stick, Queen Anne, Italianate, Romanesque, Flemish and Gothic. Its highly pitched roof with large eagles on the four corners, steep gabled windows and elaborate terra cotta ornamentation combine to give importance to a relatively small building. Contrary to popular myth, the design was not inspired by the architect’s visit to China.
The building was constructed by Charles A. Moses of Chicago. His bid of $32,243.00 was the lowest of 14 bids submitted. David A. Murphy, Superintendent of Construction of U.S. Public Buildings, supervised the construction. Ground was broken in September 1897, and construction was completed in 1898.
It measures 62 feet, 2 inches by 62 feet, 2 inches overall and is built on a smooth stone foundation. The brick exterior has decorative terra cotta around all openings and on the corners. The terra cotta was manufactured by the Northwestern Terra Cotta Company of Chicago. The hipped roof with flared eaves is made of slate over long leaf pine, with the roof framing being of steel construction.
There are a total of 20 dormers on the building, five on each side. The central gable dormer on each side has a curvilinear opening and is flanked by hip roof dormers. All dormers are surmounted by pinnacles, and there is a series of three stepped pinnacles on the angles of the roof line. Each corner is decorated with a copper eagle on a pedestal. An ornate tower is located at the apex of the roof.
There is one brick chimney on the south side. The windows are double hung arched windows, and the doors are aluminum with arched transoms. There is a small stoop on the east side. The floor plan features an entrance on the Second Street side. The second level of the building was used to secretly view mail handlers. The Postmaster had his office to the right of the entry lobby with a private bath. The floor is of Knoxville, Tennessee marble, and the plastered walls feature extensive natural white oak trim. The building contains three vaults. It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972.
Note: Information was compiled from various sources including Nineteenth Century Heritage, Clarksville, Tennessee by Ursula Beach and Eleanor Williams.
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| 0.9673 | 557 | 2.65625 | 3 |
New Features (Collection Framework)
As the name indicates collections is a group of objects known as its elements. Basically it is a package of data structures that includes ArrayLists, LinkedLists, HashSets, etc. A collection is simply an object that groups multiple elements into a single unit. It is also called as a container sometimes. It is used to store, retrieve, manipulate, and communicate aggregate data.
to Collections API
A collection is simply an object that groups multiple elements into a single unit. It is also called as a container sometimes. It is used to store, retrieve, manipulate, and communicate aggregate data.
and Disadvantages of collection Framework
In this section, you will read the advantages and disadvantages of Java Collection Framework.
6.0 Collection Framework
Some of the new collections APIs have been introduced in Java 6.0.
In Collection framework, we are able to improve the performance hashing function that is used by java.util.HashMap. It provides some new Collection interfaces also.
Lets See How to Work With Collections Framework With the Help of Following Examples.
In NavigableMap we use methods to return the key value pair like navMap.put(1, "January"); whereas in NavigableSet we use methods to return values.
In the example below we have used NavigableSet method to sort the elements in ascending order, descending order, also to retrieve the element which is immediately greater than or equal to 35 etc.
In this section provides you an example to HashSet collection frame work. A HashSet is a set that doesn't allow duplicate elements and doesn't order or position its elements.
This section discusses an example to demonstrate the various methods of List interface. We are using two classes ArrayList and LinkedList in the example code.
In the following example, we have used the TreeMap method, which stores its elements in a tree and orders its elements based on their values. Here in the example we have used the key of the element to show the values of the element.
In the following example, we have used the TreeSet collection, which is similar to TreeMap that stores its elements in a tree and maintain order of its elements based on their values.
Simple Java Program for beginners that prints HelloWorld! on console.
Posted on: January 30, 2005 If you enjoyed this post then why not add us on Google+? Add us to your Circles
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Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince
Chapter 19: Elf Tails
Where a Vietnamese word has been borrowed from Chinese, the original Chinese character is shown in parentheses.
xiǎo-jīnglíng = 'elf'.
尾巴 wěiba = 'tail'.
Xiǎo-jīnglíng de gēnzōng
|小精靈 xiāo-jīnglíng = 'elf'.
的 de = connecting particle
跟蹤 gēnzōng = 'tail, follow'.
Shimobe yōsei no bikō
|しもべ妖精 shimobe yōsei = 'servant spirit'.
の no = connecting particle
尾行 bikō = 'act of tailing, shadowing'.
|Servant elves' tailing|
|Vietnamese||Gia tinh bám đuôi||Gia tinh (家精) = 'house spirit'.
bám = 'to stick to, hang on to, follow'.
đuôi = 'tail'.
|Elves following tail|
The 'elf tails' of the title are not quite what you might expect. After all, it's not really very certain that elves actually have tails. This is, in fact, another case of word play by the author.
In this chapter, Harry asks the house-elves Kreacher and Dobby to 'tail' Malfoy to find out what he is doing. 'Tail' means 'to surreptitiously follow or shadow'; it is the kind of word likely to be found in detective stories. Since the elves are working as 'tails', they are 'elf tails'.
The Mainland translator translates the title quite literally as 'tails (of the physiological kind) belonging to elves'. This has nothing to do with shadowing or following. In the main body of the chapter, where Harry commands Dobby and Kreacher to 'tail' Malfoy, the word 跟踪 gēnzōng 'to shadow, follow' is used. At no stage in the chapter, does the translator draw any connection between 小精灵尾巴 xiǎo-jīnglíng wěiba ('elves' tails') and the mission to 'tail' Malfoy. For the Mainland reader, the title 'Elf tails' can only be seen as a complete mystery.
The Taiwanese translator does not attempt to reproduce the word play, giving the game away from the start by using the word 跟蹤 gēnzōng 'to tail, to follow' in the chapter title. Although the word play is lost, there are no surprises or mysteries in store when readers come to the relevant scene.
The Japanese translator similarly uses 尾行 bikō, a word meaning 'to follow or shadow'. The only connection with 'tails' here is the character 尾, which means 'tail', although very few Japanese would think about the word's etymology to the extent of imagining physical tails or 尾 o.
The Vietnamese translator manages to come somewhat closer to capturing the English wordplay. Đuôi means 'tail'; bám đuôi means 'to stick on to (someone's) tail, to follow'. However, like the Japanese and Taiwanese translations and unlike the English, the Vietnamese version reveals what is going to happen during the chapter.
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The latest news from academia, regulators
research labs and other things of interest
Posted: May 22, 2012
HyperSolar Completes Proof of Concept Nanoparticle-Based Prototype that Successfully Produces Renewable Hydrogen
(Nanowerk News) HyperSolar, Inc., the developer of a breakthrough technology to produce renewable hydrogen using sunlight and any source of water, today announced that its first proof of concept prototype is successfully producing renewable hydrogen. By integrating its unique, low-cost polymer coating with a small-scale solar device to form a self-contained particle, the company has proven the scientific validity of its breakthrough technology.
"Using our self-contained particle in a low cost plastic bag, we have successfully demonstrated our ability to mimic photosynthesis to produce renewable hydrogen from virtually any source of water using the power of the Sun"
"Using our self-contained particle in a low cost plastic bag, we have successfully demonstrated our ability to mimic photosynthesis to produce renewable hydrogen from virtually any source of water using the power of the Sun," commented Tim Young, CEO of HyperSolar. "Unlike approaches taken by others in the past, our small scale solar devices actually float in the water. Our next step is to complete the development of our nanoparticles, extremely small solar devices, optimized to significantly reduce the cost of separating hydrogen from water."
A video showing the proof of concept prototype is available at the company's website, www.hypersolar.com. It features the self-contained particle floating in a common baggy filled with wastewater from a pulp and paper mill. The video clearly shows hydrogen bubbles being generated in the small baggy. The company's next prototype will feature nanoparticles, which can be mass-produced at a low cost and can float freely in large scale bag systems to generate large quantities of renewable hydrogen, the cleanest and greenest of all fuels, using only sunlight and water.
Young concluded, "We believe we are on the right track to produce the lowest cost renewable hydrogen. Most hydrogen used today is not renewable and not very clean because it is produced from finite hydrocarbon sources, such as oil, coal and natural gas. Renewable hydrogen produced from nearly infinite sources of water and sunlight, is clean and carbon free. The worldwide impact of using renewable hydrogen to generate electricity and power fuel cell vehicles would be extraordinary."
HyperSolar recently entered into a yearlong sponsored research agreement with the University of California, Santa Barbara to help accelerate the development process and assure that the key milestones are reached.
About HyperSolar, Inc.
HyperSolar is developing a breakthrough, low cost technology to make renewable hydrogen using sunlight and any source of water, including seawater and wastewater. Unlike hydrocarbon fuels, such as oil, coal and natural gas, where carbon dioxide and other contaminants are released into the atmosphere when used, hydrogen fuel usage produces pure water as the only byproduct. By optimizing the science of water electrolysis at the nano-level, our low cost nanoparticles mimic photosynthesis to efficiently use sunlight to separate hydrogen from water, to produce environmentally friendly renewable hydrogen. Using our low cost method to produce renewable hydrogen, we intend to enable a world of distributed hydrogen production for renewable electricity and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. To learn more about HyperSolar, please visit our website at http://www.HyperSolar.com.
Source: HyperSolar (press release)
If you liked this article, please give it a quick review on reddit or StumbleUpon. Thanks!
Check out these other trending stories on Nanowerk:
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What is the K to 12 Program?
The K to 12 Program covers 13 years of basic education with the following key stages:
- Kindergarten to Grade 3
- Grades 4 to 6
- Grades 7 to 10 (Junior High School)
- Grades 11 and 12 (Senior High School)
Why are we now implementing 13 years of basic education?
- The Philippines is the last country in Asia and one of only three countries worldwide with a 10-year pre-university cycle (Angola and Djibouti are the other two).
- A 13-year program is found to be the best period for learning under basic education. It is also the recognized standard for students and professionals globally.
What has been done to get ready for K to 12? Are we really ready for K to 12?
- SY 2011-2012: Universal Kindergarten implementation begins
- SY 2012-2013: Enhanced curriculum for Grades 1-7 implemented
- 2013: K to 12 enacted into Law
- 2014: Curriculum for Grades 11-12 finished
This 2015, we are getting ready for the implementation of Senior High School (SHS) in SY 2016-2017
We are on the fifth year of the implementation of the K to 12 Program. Our last mile is the Senior High School. All 221 divisions of the Department of Education (DepEd) have finished planning and have figures on enrolment a year in advance. These plans were reviewed by a separate team and finalized upon consultation with other stakeholders.
- Classrooms: DepEd has built 66,813 classrooms from 2010 to 2013. There are 33,608 classrooms completed and undergoing construction in 2014. As of DepEd is planning to establish 5,899 Senior High Schools nationwide. As of June 22, 2015, DepEd has issued provisional permits to 2,847 private schools set to offer Senior High School in 2016.
- Teachers: From 2010-2014, DepEd has filled 128,105 new teacher items. DepEd is targeting two kinds of teachers: those who will teach the core subjects, and those who will teach the specialized subjects per track. DepEd will hire 37,000 teachers for Senior High School for 2016 alone.
- Textbooks: Learning materials are being produced for elementary to junior high while textbooks for Senior High School (which has specialized subjects) are being bid out.
- Curriculum: The K to 12 curriculum is standards- and competence-based. It is inclusive and built around the needs of the learners and the community. The curriculum is done and is available on the DepEd website. It is the first time in history that the entire curriculum is digitized and made accessible to the public.
Private SHS: There are 2,847 private schools cleared to offer Senior High School as of June 22, 2015.
How will the current curriculum be affected by K to 12? What subjects will be added and removed?
- The current curriculum has been enhanced for K to 12 and now gives more focus to allow mastery of learning.
- For the new Senior High School grades (Grades 11 and 12), core subjects such as Mathematics, Science and Language will be strengthened. Specializations or tracks in students’ areas of interest will also be offered.
- Changes to specific subjects are detailed in the K to 12 Curriculum Guides, viewable and downloadable at bit.ly/kto12curriculum.
How will schools implementing special curricular programs such as science high schools, high schools for the arts, and technical vocational schools be affected by K to 12?
Schools with special curricular programs will implement enriched curriculums specific to their program (e.g. science, arts) following the K to 12 standards.
How will multi-grade teaching be affected by K to 12?
Multi-grade teaching will continue and will use the K to 12 Curriculum.
How will specific learning groups such as indigenous people, Muslim learners, and people with special needs be affected by K to 12?
The K to 12 Curriculum was designed to address diverse learner needs, and may be adapted to fit specific learner groups.
Under K to 12, will Kindergarten be a pre-requisite for entering Grade 1?
Yes. Republic Act No. 10157, or the Kindergarten Education Act, institutionalizes Kindergarten as part of the basic education system and is a pre-requisite for admission to Grade 1.
With K to 12, will there be an overlap between the Day Care program of Local Government Units (LGUs) and DepEd Kindergarten?
No. Day Care Centers of LGUs take care of children aged 4 or below, while the DepEd Kindergarten program is intended for children who are at least 5 years old by October 31st of the present school year.
With K to 12, should schools prepare permanent records for Kindergarten students?
Yes. While the assessment on readiness skills of students in Kindergarten is not academically driven, a good measure of the child’s ability to cope with formal schooling is needed for future learning interventions.
Who is in charge of Kindergarten teacher compensation?
DepEd is the main agency that employs and pays Kindergarten teachers in public schools. However, there are LGUs that help in the Kindergarten program and provide honoraria for additional Kindergarten teachers in public schools.
Which Mother Tongue will be used as the language of instruction in multi-cultural areas?
The principle of MTB-MLE is to use the language that learners are most comfortable and familiar with; therefore, the common language in the area or lingua franca shall be used as the language of instruction
Will Mother Tongue Based Multi-Lingual Education (MTB-MLE) include other languages in the future?
Languages other than the 19 current mother tongues (Bahasa Sug, Bikol, Cebuano, Chabacano, Hiligaynon, Iloko, Kapampangan, Maguindanaoan, Meranao, Pangasinense, Tagalog, Waray, Ybanag, Ivatan, Sambal, Akianon, Kinaray-a, Yakan, and Surigaonon.)
What is Senior High School?
Senior High School (SHS) covers the last two years of the K to 12 program and includes Grades 11 and 12. In SHS, students will go through a core curriculum and subjects under a track of their choice.
Will SHS mean two more years of High School?
Yes. These two additional years will equip learners with skills that will better prepare them for the future, whether it be:
- Skills Development (Further Tech-Voc training)
- Higher Education (College)
How will students choose their Senior High School specializations?
Students will undergo assessments to determine their strengths and interests. These will include an aptitude test, a career assessment exam, and an occupational interest inventory for high schools. Career advocacy activities will also be conducted to help guide students in choosing their specialization or track.
How will student specializations/tracks be distributed across Senior High Schools?
Specializations or tracks to be offered will be distributed according to the resources available in the area, the needs and interests of most students, and the opportunities and demands of the community.
Will SHS ensure employment for me?
SHS creates the following opportunities:
- Standard requirements will be applied to make sure graduates know enough to be hirable.
- You will now be able to apply for TESDA Certificates of Competency (COCs) and National Certificates (NCs) to provide you with better work opportunities.
- Partnerships with different companies will be offered for technical and vocational courses.
- You can now get work experience while studying; and companies can even hire you after you graduate.
Entrepreneurship courses will now be included. Instead of being employed, you can choose to start your own business after graduating, or choose to further your education by going to college.
How will SHS affect my college education?
- SHS, as part of the K to 12 Basic Curriculum, was developed in line with the curriculum of the Commission of Higher Education (CHED) – the governing body for college and university education in the Philippines.
- This ensures that by the time you graduate from Senior High School, you will have the standard knowledge, skills, and competencies needed to go to college.
Is SHS really necessary? Must I go to SHS?
Yes, according to the law. Beginning SY 2016-2017, you must go through Grades 11 and 12 to graduate from High School.
If I choose not to go to SHS, what happens to me?
You will be a grade 10 completer, but not a high school graduate. Elementary graduates are those who finish grade 6; high school graduates must have finished grade 12.
What will I learn in SHS that the current high school curriculum doesn’t include?
Senior High School covers eight learning areas as part of its core curriculum, and adds specific tracks (similar to college courses) based on four disciplines:
- Academic (which includes Business, Science & Engineering, Humanities & Social Science, and a General Academic strand)
- Technical-Vocational-Livelihood (with highly specialized subjects with TESDA qualifications)
- Arts & Design
SHS Students may pick a track based on how he or she will want to proceed after high school graduation. You can learn more about the tracks and strands (as well as their curriculum) on deped.gov.ph.
Where will Senior High School be implemented? Will my school offer SHS?
- Existing public and private schools, including colleges, universities and technical institutions may offer Senior High School.
- There may also be stand-alone Senior High Schools established by DepEd or private organizations.
Can a private school offer Senior High School before SY 2016-2017?
Private schools may offer Grade 11 as early as SY 2015-2016 to interested students. However, Senior High School before SY 2016-2017 is voluntary for both private schools and students, and there will be no funding assistance from the government to private Senior High School before SY 2016-2017.
Will SHS modelling schools that implemented the SHS program in SY 2012-13 be allowed to implement the SHS Program?
SHS modelling schools listed in DepEd Order No. 71, s. 2013 may implement the SHS program, but they must go through the process of applying a provisional SHS permit, and must meet the standards and requirements for the SHS Program.
Which private institutions are allowed to offer Senior High School?
- All schools and organizations must first apply for a permit from DepEd. Different institutions may also partner with each other and apply for SHS as a group.
- Temporary permits will be issued by DepEd for those who meet the requirements for the Senior High School Program.
- There are 334 private schools with SHS permits beginning in SY 2014 or 2015. Last March 31, 2015, provisional permits have been issued to 1,122 private schools that will offer Senior High School in 2016.
- If you are interested in applying for a Senior High School permit, please visit: https://bit.ly/AppGuidelinesforSHS.
What other information should applicants remember in applying for a SHS permit?
- All applications must only be submitted via email to [email protected]
- Applications must contain the requirements detailed in DepEd Memo No. 4, series of 2014, viewable at https://bit.ly/AppGuidelinesforSHS. Only applications with complete documentary requirements will be processed by the SHS-NTF on a first come-first served basis. Submission of letters of intent only will not be processed.
- The proposed SHS Curriculum consistent with the final SHS Curriculum issued by DepEd must be submitted upon application.
Who receives, evaluates and approves the applications for provisional SHS permits? Who issues the permits?
- The SHS-National Task Force (SHS-NTF) will receive applications from interested parties, establish the process and criteria in evaluating selected applicants, and evaluate the SHS applications of non-DepEd schools.
- Regional Offices will be deputized to conduct on-site validation for all applicants. The on-site validation will focus on the provision of SHS requirements for the proposed track/strand, and will certify that a school exhibits the necessary SHS requirements to implement the program.
- The DepEd Secretary approves applications for the SHS Program and issues provisional permits to applicants upon the recommendation of the Undersecretary for Programs and Projects.
- The Regional Office releases the provisional permit to the applicant.
Will the additional two years of High School mean additional expenses?
- Senior High School “completes” basic education by making sure that the high school graduate is equipped for work, entrepreneurship, or higher education. This is a step up from the 10-year cycle where high school graduates still need further education (and expenses) to be ready for the world.
- SHS will be offered free in public schools and there will be a voucher program in place for public junior high school completers as well as ESC beneficiaries of private high schools should they choose to take SHS in private institutions.
- This means that the burden of expenses for the additional two years need not be completely shouldered by parents.
Where can I find out more about SHS?
You can find out more at www.deped.gov.ph/k-to-12. You can also ask your school administration (public or private) to contact the DepEd division office to help organize an orientation seminar.
What is the Voucher Program?
- This program enables Grade 10 completers from public and private Junior High Schools (JHS) to enroll in a (1) private high school, (2) private university or college, (3) state or local university or college, or (4) technical-vocational school, which will offer the Senior High School program starting School Year 2016-2017.
- Through the Voucher Program, students and their families are able to exercise greater choice in deciding the Senior High School program that is most relevant to their needs and career goals. A certain amount will be subsidized by DepEd to private SHS to offset the cost of tuition.
Who will benefit from the Voucher Program? Can I apply?
- All JHS completers from public junior high schools are qualified to receive the full voucher values.
- Private junior high school completers who are on Education Service Contracting (ESC) grants will receive 80% of the full voucher value.
- JHS completers from private schools and non-DepEd schools can also apply for vouchers worth 80% of the full voucher value.
- Students will be notified of their eligibility prior to completing Grade 10. No monetary value is given to the student directly instead the subsidy is remitted to the Senior High School where he/she will enroll.
How much is the value of the voucher?
The actual amount of the vouchers will depend on the location of the SHS where the student will enroll.
- JHS completers who will enroll in a SHS located in the National Capital Region (NCR) will receive a full voucher value of PhP 22,500.
- JHS completers who will enroll in a SHS located in Non-NCR Highly Urbanized Cities (HUCs) will receive a full voucher value of PhP 20,000. These cities include Angeles, Bacolod, Baguio, Butuan, Cagayan de Oro, Cebu City, Davao City, General Santos, Iligan, Iloilo City, Lapu-lapu, Lucena, Mandaue, Olongapo, Puerto Princesa, Tacloban, and Zamboanga City.
- JHS completers who will enroll in a SHS located in other cities and municipalities will have a full voucher value of PhP 17,500.
The voucher must be used in the school year immediately following the year of JHS completion. A voucher recipient may only be able to avail of the voucher subsidy for two (2) successive years.
Non-DepEd schools may charge tuitions that are higher than the voucher subsidy amounts. Students and parents are expected to cover the difference between the tuition fee charged by the school and the voucher subsidy from government.
How can I apply for the voucher program?
Learn more on the Deped website
What are the advantages of the Voucher Program?
- For Students
The voucher program can provide high-quality education for all types of students. Even those who normally do not have the financial means will be able to choose from different schools. They will not be limited to the schools that are provided by the DepEd.
- For Private Schools
Private schools with SHS will be able to tap into an expanded market — students from public junior high schools
But are we really sure that it will work in the Philippine education system?
In SY 2012-2013, DepEd tested the SHS program to over 10,000 students in a total of 56 schools around the Philippines. The results of this modelling program, including best practices and learning experiences of students, have influenced the creation of the current SHS curriculum.
How can I help improve basic education?
- Private partners can donate through the Adopt-A-School program. A 150% tax incentive will be provided for every contribution.
- Help spread awareness and information on the K to 12 Program.
How will SHS Affect me? Will I lose my Job?
- No high school teachers will be displaced
- The Department of Education (DepEd) is in constant coordination with CHED and DOLE on the actual number of affected faculty from private higher education institutions (HEIs). The worst-case scenario is that 39,000 HEI faculty will lose their jobs over 5 years. This will only happen if none of the HEIs will put up their own Senior High Schools, which is since we are currently processing over 1,000 SHS applications from private institutions.
- DepEd is also hiring more than 30,000 new teachers in 2016 alone. The Department will prioritize affected faculty who will apply as teachers or administrators in our SHS.
I am a graduate of a science/math/engineering/course. Can I apply as an SHS teacher?
- If you are willing to teach on a part-time basis, you will not be required to take and pass the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET).
- If you want a permanent position, you will need to take and pass the LET within five years after your date of hiring to remain employed full-time.
I am a hired TVI course graduate/HEI faculty/practitioner. Can I apply as an SHS teacher?
- Graduates of technical-vocational courses must have the necessary certification issued by TESDA and undergo training to be administered by DepEd or HEIs.
- Faculty of colleges and universities must be full-time professors and be holders of a relevant Bachelor’s degree.
- DepEd and private schools may also hire practitioners with expertise in the specialized learning areas offered by the K to 12 Program as part-time teachers.
*Faculty of TVIs and HEIs will be given priority in hiring for the transition period from September 2013 until SY 2021-2022.
I am a practitioner. Can I apply as an SHS teacher?
- You may teach as part-time teacher in Senior High School under the track subjects. We encourage you to consider this to share your valuable knowledge and experience to our SHS learners.
How will K to 12 affect the college curriculum?
- The College General Education curriculum will have fewer units. Subjects that have been taken up in Basic Education will be removed from the College General Education curriculum.
- Details of the new GE Curriculum may be found in CHED Memorandum Order No. 20, series of 2013.
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They say that health is the greatest wealth. And in these days of fast paced lifestyles, modern technology (limiting outdoor activities), eating out regularly, lack of sleep and heavy doses of stress, anyone who makes efforts to stay healthy, is indeed doing a commendable job . I am not writing this blog to talk on the age old topic of benefits of eating healthy exercising daily and blah blah, but to highlight the National Eating Disorder Awareness Week from Feb 6-12.
The age group of 15-24 to which many of us belong, is the one most affected by the general notions of looking good- size zero, starving body frames and six packs. Research shows that 30% of girls and 25% of boys in the age group of 15-19 have confessed to being teased about their weight at school, and also at home by family members. That is the start of teens refusing to eat, starving themselves and following crazy diets just to “fit-in” more effectively. Also, there is no denying the fact that such issues of extreme weight control and binge eating affect girls more than boys. Studies have established the fact that adolescent girls who diet are at a shocking 324% greater risk for obesity than those who don’t diet.
That’s enough information to realize how unfair it is to criticize kids for being obese and how dangerous it is for young people to live with serious eating disorders. In recognition of the National Eating Disorder Awareness Week, Ryerson’s Health Promotion team is hosting a series of free events. Titled “Your Body Rocks!”, the events comprise of a talk by an eminent professor, healthy cooking lessons and an interactive event. Check here for more details.
Another interesting link I stumbled upon- http://quitrunchill.org/ , a free web based program for smokers and ex smokers and basically for people who want to stay healthy. I must say its quite innovative and a nice initiative taken by young people for the benefit of others going through the same issues.
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On September 11, 2013, our hearts are heavy at the Asbestos Disease Awareness Organization (ADAO) as we remember the nearly 3,000 innocent lives that were taken 12 years ago.
New York City Police Detective James Zadroga, who would have been 42 years old this year, died after working at Ground Zero on September 11, 2001. He did not die on 9/11, though; he died 5 years later from respiratory failure traced back to exposure to toxic chemicals at Ground Zero. The James Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act is named in his memory. In 2012, the fatal asbestos-caused disease mesothelioma was one of a long list of cancers added to the Act, bringing the total to over 65 diseases, and allowing others like Zadroga and their families to receive treatment and compensation.
Countless more have died since then due to toxic exposure. When the towers collapsed, building debris blanketed Lower Manhattan, exposing thousands of residents and workers to known hazards in the air, including over 1,000 tons of asbestos. Consequently, a disproportionate number of area residents and 9/11 emergency service workers have since died of cancer. For example, a comprehensive cancer study of New York City Firefighters after 9/11 found that firefighters working at the site of the terrorist attacks contracted 10% more cancers than the general public and 19% more cancers than firefighters who did not work at the site.
One of the many tragedies of 9/11 is that several men and women who courageously served as first responders at Ground Zero are now suffering from preventable asbestos-caused diseases, highlighting our country’s deadly legacy of utilizing asbestos products. As a nation, we have an opportunity to prevent such tragedies in the future – beginning by banning the import of asbestos. Unbeknownst to many Americans, the U.S. continues to use asbestos. The United States Geological Survey reported that U.S. consumption of asbestos increased 13% in 2011. How many more must suffer before we say: “Enough”?
“Whether You’re Sick Or Not,” said Rep. Maloney. “Remember To Register.” The deadline to register as a potential claimant with the 9/11 Victims Compensation Fund (VCF) is Oct. 3, 2013. Call the VCF at (855) 885-1555 for more information.
On behalf of ADAO, I send the families of 9/11 my heartfelt condolences as we reinforce our commitment to education, advocacy, and community support. We will never forget those we lost on 9/11 and those who battle disease today. In the spirit of raising awareness we encourage you to share our latest Infographic “Irrefutable Facts About Asbestos.”
John, I will always remember you.
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Portion control is one of the keys to maintaining a healthy weight. Instead of counting calories or using measuring cups, quickly estimate portion sizes for your proteins, veggies, carbs, and fat by looking at your hands, as these visual guides illustrate.
Using your hand to estimate your portions is familiar territory we've discussed before. While other guides have shown us how to measure an inch, teaspoon, or ounce with your hand, these portion control guides from Livestrong are much easier to remember and simpler to follow. You only need to know four hand equivalents for the portions of a complete meal:
-Your palm determines your protein portions.
-Your fist determines your veggie portions.
-Your cupped hand determines your carb portions.
-Your thumb determines your fat portions.
There are two guides, one for men and one for women (click to expand or right-click to save):
While everyone's hands are different sizes, Livestrong points out that because your hand size is relative to your body size, it's a great personalized food measurement tool.
Check out the full article for more details on the recommended food portions and flexible meal planning.
A Quick and Easy Way to Estimate Portion Size | Livestrong
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Add to Cart
More books from Elementary Languages
Sopa de letras
A Spanish Vocabulary Review with Word-Search Puzzles
Elementary Languages, Philippe Delannoy Ph.D.
If you thought that reviewing Spanish vocabulary meant memorizing long lists of words, think again! This book of Sopa de Letras ( Letter Soup, or Word Search ) puzzles lets you review Spanish vocabulary through a series of puzzles presented in increasing order of difficulty.
In order to solve each puzzle, you have to pay close attention to the spelling of each word. Doing so will help you remember those words better. The fun part of it is that you can actually relax with a good puzzle while learning and reviewing selected groups of Spanish vocabulary.
In the second section of this puzzle book, you will find a Spanish-English lexicon featuring all the words used in the puzzles.
When you are done enjoying all the puzzles, you will have reviewed more than 900 words in forty categories.
- Publication Date:
- Aug 31 2010
- 1453736719 / 9781453736715
- Page Count:
- Binding Type:
- US Trade Paper
- Trim Size:
- 8" x 10"
- Spanish; Castilian
- Black and White
- Related Categories:
- Foreign Language Study / Spanish
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ERIC Number: ED436559
Record Type: RIE
Publication Date: 1997
Reference Count: N/A
Ohio Proficiency Tests for Grade 4. Practice Test. Writing, Reading, Mathematics, Citizenship, Science.
Ohio State Dept. of Education, Columbus.
This booklet contains the practice tests for the fourth-grade Ohio Proficiency Tests. The work students do on these tests helps the teacher know how well the student understands the subjects of reading, writing, mathematics, citizenship, and science. The writing test consists of two writing tasks. The other tests are made up of multiple choice, short answer, and extended response questions. Examples of each item are given for each of the subject tests. (SLD)
Publication Type: Tests/Questionnaires
Education Level: N/A
Authoring Institution: Ohio State Dept. of Education, Columbus.
Identifiers: Ohio Fourth Grade Proficiency Test; Practice Tests
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From 11:00PM PDT on Friday, July 1 until 5:00AM PDT on Saturday, July 2, the Shmoop engineering elves will be making tweaks and improvements to the site. That means Shmoop will be unavailable for use during that time. Thanks for your patience!
Get out the microscope, because we’re going through this poem line-by-line.
The speaker was the oldest of the three brothers, so he figures it's his job to keep everyone's spirits up. He does his best to keep his two brothers cheerful.
The other two brothers did as well as they could, too, given their different personalities and the circumstances.
The youngest brother was their father's favorite, because he looked so much like their mother. He has her forehead and her bright blue eyes.
The speaker says he felt really sorry for his youngest brother – he was so young and sweet, it seemed especially wrong for him to be in a dungeon like this.
The youngest brother was a good-looking kid with a really sweet personality.
But the speaker distracts himself with a parenthetical, side comment: he compares his brother's beauty to "day," but then reminds us that "day" isn't exactly beautiful to him anymore, since he's been in prison.
But then he gets back on track: he says that his brother's beauty was like a day up in the Arctic, where you don't see a sunset for the entire summer.
So the youngest brother is associated with summer, and daylight, and freedom. His natural personality is to be cheerful.
The youngest brother only ever cried when someone else was hurt or unhappy – he never cried for himself.
When he was sympathizing with someone else, though, he could really turn on the waterworks – unless, of course, he was able to do something for the person, and "assuage" their pain.
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Project Punjab Energy Development Agency, Office Building, Chandigarh
PUNJAB ENERGY DEVELOPMENT AGENCY
IS NOT BASED ON ANY
PRE-CONCEIVED NOTION OF
• IT EVOLVES BASED
ON LAWS OF
PERCEIVED SUN PATH
SUN PATH IS DYNAMIC & CURVILEANER WHY DO
WE DESIGN BUILDINGS AS CUBOIDS
• Entire building envelope a : Solar Receptor, Converter, Dissipater
• SOLAR ENVELOPE
• SOLAR ENVELOPE CAN BE DESIGNED WITH COMPONENTS RESPONDING
Produce direct energy through PV.
Distribute day-light, within the building, creating a healthy day-lit
environment and in open spaces.
Create ventilation: Solar Chimneys
To cool or heat the building, when coupled with earth tunnels using the
thermal inertia of the earth and Trombe walls, in innovative approaches.
DOUBLE SKINNED BUILDING ENVELOPE
-HEAT BARRIER THROUGH INSULATION / DEAD AIR CAVITY
-T.A.P. (THERMOSYPHON AIR PANEL)
- THROUGH SOLAR / MECHANICAL ACTIVATION
THERMAL INNER SKIN
INTERACTS WITH INTERNAL
STRUCTURAL OUTER SKIN
K14 CSP Case Study Project : Opriya Mohanty UNVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM U.K.
Performance of downdraught evaporative cooling system in atrium and its neighboring
office space, (PEDA) building – Chandigarh, India.
An investigation into the contribution of PHDC system in
the atrium and its space conditioning systems to the
thermal comfort in their adjacent office spaces in the
Punjab Energy Development Agency building (PEDA).
The Office complex building for PEDA at Chandigarh, India is
a project aimed at demonstrating an architectural design
developed in response to elements of nature : Sun, wind,
light and the utilization Of Solar Passive Systems.
Context & Site microclimatic analysis
Architectural building design needs to respond to the
composite climatic context of the site. The final design
solution needs to satisfy the diverse and often conflicting
conditions of a hot-dry, hot-humid, temperate and cold
period of Chandigarh.
The climatic periods : two months of hot-dry, hot-humid
(two months) and cold period (two months) require
strategies of design that allow for cooling in the hot dry
period, natural ventilation in the hot-humid period and
heating in the cold period. Cooling remains as the
predominant requirement since the total over-heated
period extends from mid-April to mid-August.
The comfort temperature varies during whole year, but the
maximum comfort temperature in summer varies from 29 c
to 31 c when external temperature varies from 40 c to 45c.
hence we need to design the building to achieve
comfortable temperature by keeping the highest or hottest
week of the year in mind to avoid the overheating inside
Temperature and rain fall variation
Average Insolation Summer
WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
should be taken in to consideration while designing the wind
tower and building openings,
Architect has taken priority during placement of wind tower
as well as the openings for better movement of air flow
Over shadowing analysis
Building is not overshadowed by its surrounding building, due to its
orientatiion and well designed facades ,building is having its own
shadow during summer which helps to minimise the over heating.
Shell roof in atrium space to minimize overheating and
Ventilation system in atrium and office space
through wind tower and solar chimney
during summer day and night
Daylight study in U. Ground office space
Simulation through PHDC air
PASSIVE DOWN DRAFT INDIRECT+ DIRECT EVAPORATIVE
COOLING COUPLED WITH EARTH AIR TUNNEL UNDER THE
WATER BODY ( Architect’s design idea)
The comfort temperature range varies from 24 to 31 during different seasons of the year. Comfort relative humidity range 30to 80 %. Required air flow rate as from manual calculations can be 3.5 m3/sec. so the air flow rate can be
achieved in all the cases. Required airflow rate is very low due to less occupancy and equipment gain. Good thermal mass of the building helps the building to perform in extreme conditions. Appropriate building design and orientation
having properly placed building elements reduced or minimize the solar gain in summer. Features like light Vault, Solar chimney, Hyperbolic parabolised atrium roof help to minimize the solar gain. Instead of designing indirect plus direct
evaporative cooling system proposed by the architect, PDEC system can be used to make the building favorable place to work. From the above results it can be concluded that the temperature, relative humidity and airflow rate increase
from case 1 to case 3 which leads to unsuccessful result. Hence the central atrium space in between neighboring offices is working properly having PDEC system with one tower and it would be the best option to work with. From all the
cases we can conclude that ground office space also getting an ambient temperature during summer.
Comparison study of different cases
Result - Hottest day 161
Evaporative cool towers work best with open floor plans that permit the air to circulate through out the building without any obstacles. From the TAS result it can be concluded that the atrium
space is working properly with application of PDEC system by getting 10-12°C lower than ambient temperature, which also helps to cool the neighboring south office space to maintain a
comfortable space to work. From all evidences Punjab energy development agency (PEDA) can be called as a passive solar complex. Overall the building performs well whole of the year except
the peak summer period which can be improved through the evaporative cooling system.Hence Without any major changes in building profile and structure ,we can rebuilt the existing wind
tower and solar chimneys by incorporating the PDEC system ,which can perform better during hot and dry summer days.
•Evaporative cooling towers work best with open floor plans that permit the air to
circulate through out the building without any obstacles.
•Good thermal mass of the building helps the building to perform in extreme
conditions. Appropriate building design and orientation having properly placed
building elements reduced or minimize the solar gain in summer.
•Elements like light Vault, Solar chimney, Hyperbolic parabolised atrium roof help
to minimize the solar gain.
•From the TAS result it can be concluded that the atrium space is working properly
with application of PDEC system by getting 10-12°C lower than ambient
temperature, which also helps to cool the neighboring south office space to
maintain a comfortable space to work.
• From all evidences Punjab Energy Development Agency (PEDA)
office building can be called as a passive solar complex. Overall the
building performs well whole of the year. Evaporative cooling is
required in May & June
14 kwh /sq.m/per year
GOVT. OF INDIA
Most Energy Efficient Building
in the country
Tribune : May 2004
Tribune : Jan 2004 HRH Prince Charles Visit October 2010
Round table discussion
TO MY MIND
EVOLVES AT MEETING POINT:
WHEN ART BECOMES SCIENCE AND SCIENCE
AT THIS POINT
LOFTY BECOMES MUNDANE
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| 0.860014 | 1,630 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Clicking the File Explorer icon pinned to Windows 8's desktop taskbar opens the Libraries folder by default.
Wouldn't it be better if clicking this icon directly opened Computer? Well fortunately, you can easily customize the shortcut to make that happen.
Open with Computer viewTo begin, right click on the File Explorer icon on the taskbar to bring up the Jump List. Then, right click on the File Explorer command towards the bottom of the list and select the Properties command from the context menu. This process is illustrated in Figure B.
When you Jump List appears, right click on the File Explorer command and select Properties.When you see the Properties dialog box, select the text in the Target text box, as shown in Figure C. Then, replace it with this command line:
To complete the operation, just click OK.
Replace the text in the Target text box to change the folder that opens when you click the File Explorer icon.
Now when you click the File Explorer icon on the taskbar, you'll see Computer, as shown in Figure D.
The File Explorer icon on the taskbar will now open Computer.
GUID command line
For those of you who may be wondering, the command line shown above takes advantage of a GUID (Globally Unique Identifier), which is the sequence of characters enclosed in the brackets. Every object in the Windows environment has a GUID that is stored in the registry and passing the GUID to the specially configured explorer.exe command as a parameter allows Windows to access that object. (Keep in mind that the GUIDs in Windows are also referred to as CLSIDs.)If you would like to reconfigure the File Explorer icon on the taskbar to point to other common navigation points, you can just replace the GUID portion of the command line. In Table A, you'll find a couple more command lines for accessing other objects in Windows.
Greg Shultz is a freelance Technical Writer. Previously, he has worked as Documentation Specialist in the software industry, a Technical Support Specialist in educational industry, and a Technical Journalist in the computer publishing industry.
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Sukumar, R and Gadgil, Madhav (1988) Male-female differences in foraging on crops by Asian elephants. In: Animal Behaviour, 36 (4). pp. 1233-1235.Full text not available from this repository.
Males and females may differ in morphology or behaviour because of contrasting factors affecting their reproductive success. In polygynous mammals with a marked sexual dimorphism, males are more likely to exhibit risky behaviour promoting reproductive success (Trivers 1985). In this study the authors present evidence that pubertal and adult male Asian elephants, Elephas maximus (above 15 years) incur greater risks than female-led family herds by foraging on cultivated crops which have more nutritive value than wild food plants.
|Item Type:||Editorials/Short Communications|
|Additional Information:||Copyright of this article belongs to Elsevier science.|
|Department/Centre:||Division of Biological Sciences > Centre for Ecological Sciences|
|Date Deposited:||23 Sep 2010 08:13|
|Last Modified:||23 Sep 2010 08:13|
Actions (login required)
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by Staff Writers
London, UK (SPX) Nov 03, 2011
A mobile workforce can help improve a country's economy but the effects of commuting on the health of commuters and on the costs to industry in terms of sick days is largely unknown. From a commuter's point of view, the advantages of daily travel, such as a better paid job or better housing conditions, need to be weighed against adverse health effects.
New research published in BioMed Central's open access journal BMC Public Health shows that commuting by car or public transport, compared to walking or cycling, is associated with negative effects on health.
Researchers from Lund University looked at 21,000 people, aged between 18 and 65, who worked more than 30 hours a week and commuted either by car, train or bus, or were active commuters, who travelled by walking or cycling.
'One way' journey time was compared to the volunteer's perceived general health, including sleep quality, exhaustion and everyday stress.
Erik Hansson from the Faculty of Medicine at Lund University explained, "Generally car and public transport users suffered more everyday stress, poorer sleep quality, exhaustion and, on a seven point scale, felt that they struggled with their health compared to the active commuters.
The negative health of public transport users increased with journey time. However, the car drivers who commuted 30 - 60 minutes experienced worse health than those whose journey lasted more than one hour. "
Erik continued "One explanation for the discrepancy between car and public transport users might be that long-distance car commuting, within our geographical region, could provide more of an opportunity for relaxation.
"However, it could be that these drivers tended to be men, and high-income earners, who travelled in from rural areas, a group that generally consider themselves to be in good health.
"More research needs to be done to identify how exactly commuting is related to the ill health we observed in order to readdress the balance between economic needs, health, and the costs of working days lost."
All About Human Beings and How We Got To Be Here
Comment on this article via your Facebook, Yahoo, AOL, Hotmail login.
Our brains are made of the same stuff, despite DNA differences
Washington DC (SPX) Nov 03, 2011
Despite vast differences in the genetic code across individuals and ethnicities, the human brain shows a "consistent molecular architecture," say researchers supported by the National Institutes of Health. The finding is from a pair of studies that have created databases revealing when and where genes turn on and off in multiple brain regions through development. "Our study shows how 650,0 ... read more
|The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2011 - Space Media Network. AFP and UPI Wire Stories are copyright Agence France-Presse and United Press International. ESA Portal Reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement,agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by Space Media Network on any Web page published or hosted by Space Media Network. Privacy Statement|
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| 0.940459 | 651 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Space Rocket Launch Sites Around the World
1 - Vandenberg
2 - Edwards
3 - Wallops Island
4 - Cape Canaveral
5 - Kourou
6 - Alcantara
7 - Hammaguir
8 - Torrejon
9 - Andoya
10 - Plesetsk
11 - Kapustin Yar
12 - Palmachim
13 - San Marco
14 - Baikonur
15 - Sriharikota
16 - Jiuquan
17 - Xichang
18 - Taiyuan
19 - Svobodny
20 - Kagoshima
21 - Tanegashima
22 - Woomera
Space Launch Sites Around the World
Other NASA Centers | Commercial Spaceports | Converting ICBMs to Space Rockets | Rockets
You may scroll down the page or click one of these links to jump to the site
There are not many spaceports around the world. Fewer than two dozen have been constructed during the Space Age. Some are well known places open to the public, while others are top secret closed sites. The spaceports dot the globe at locations dictated by political realities and technical requirments for lifting satellites to orbit above Earth. Over the decades since 1957, some 5,000 satellites have been boosted above the atmosphere from these sites. The busiest spaceports are Cape Canaveral, Vandenberg, Baikonur, Plesetsk, Kourou, Tanegashima, Jiuquan, Xichang and Sriharikota.
The space programs of the United States and Russia have been comparable in size and by far the world's largest. They were followed in size by the space programs of the ESA, France, Japan, Germany, Italy, India, the United Kingdom, Canada, Brazil, Belgium and Spain. As we move through the 21st century, competition among these nations is intense and increasing.
Click a country name below for additional detail
Countries are listed in alphabetical order.
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Latitude 31.1o S Longitude 136.8o E
In 1967, a U.S. Redstone rocket carried the Australian science satellite, WRESAT, to orbit from Woomera. That made Australia the fourth nation in the world – after the USSR, the U.S. and France – to place in Earth orbit a satellite launched from its own territory. In 1971, Great Britain became the sixth nation to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The science satellite Prospero, also named Black Knight 1, rode atop a British rocket called Black Arrow in a launch from Woomera. No further satellites have been launched from Woomera, and most of the rocket range equipment has been destroyed or sold off for scrap. However, the pads at Woomera compose something new called Spaceport Australia. The Australian Space Council is planning for launches from Woomera as well as from Darwin and the Cape York Peninsula. Sparsely populated Woomera has some infrastructure, is usually cloud free, and would be a good location for access to polar orbits.
Brazil Alcantara Launch Center
Latitude 2.3o S Longitude 44.4o W
The Alcantara Launch Center, on the Atlantic coast of Brazil outside Sao Luis, launches the VLS rocket. Pads are also on the ground for the Sonda 3/4 sounding rockets, meteorological rockets and other science launchers. CLA's position nearer the equator offers an advantage over Cape Canaveral.
Canada Fort Churchill, Manitoba
Latitude 58.8o N Longitude 94.1o W
Canadian Space Agency
The Canadian National Research Council operated the range along with the U.S. Air Force through it's contractor at the time, Pan American World Airways, operated the Churchill Rocket and Research Range in the Arctic on the Hudson Bay 15 miles east of the community of Churchill, Manitoba, which calls itself the polar bear capital of the world. It is in the area of maximum Northern Lights (aurora) activity. The Canadian Army conducted the first series of rocket firings at Fort Churchill in 1954. During International Geophysical Year (IGY) 1957-58, Canada and the U.S. built the Churchill Range to launch suborbital sounding rockets to probe the upper atmosphere. On November 8, 1958, a Nike-Cajun sounding rocket was launched from Churchill with the first Canadian science payload. Some 200 Aerobie and Nike Cajun sounding rockets were launched during IGY. On September 5, 1959, launch at the Churchill Range of the first truly Canadian sounding rocket, the Black Brant 1, built at Winnipeg, Manitoba. More than 3,500 suborbital flights took off from the range through 1989. Churchill was disadvantaged by its location, which limited research to only one kind of aurora. Most Northern Lights sounding rocket flights were relocated to Poker Flat Research Range in Alaska, which offered broad auroral research. Black Brants also were launched from East Quoddy in New Brunswick to probe changes in the upper atmosphere during solar eclipses in 1970 and 1972. Akjuit Aerospace Corp. would like to redevelop the Churchill Rocket and Research Range as SpacePort Canada, the worldÂąs first commercial polar spaceport. It would have three launch pads capable of sending medium-size satellites to orbit. In 1996, Russia agreed to launch its Start rockets from Churchill, but the market for space launches dropped and plans are on hold.
China Jiuquan Space Launch Center - Shuang Cheng Tzu
Latitude 40.6o N Longitude 99.9o E
On April 24, 1970, the Peoples Republic of China became the Fifth nation to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The satellite was named Mao-1. It rode atop a rocket called Long March-1 in a launch from Jiuquan Space Launch Center in Inner Mongolia. Today, China has three main spaceports. Jiuquan Space Launch Center was built north of Jiuquan City in the 1960s in the Gobi desert 1,000 miles west of Beijing, China. It was China's first launch site. Jiuquan was limited to southeastern launches into 57-70 degree orbits to avoid overflying Russia and Mongolia. Western nations had called this site Shuang Cheng Tzu. Long March space rockets and atmospheric sounding rockets are fired from Jiuquan. Jiuquan is used for recoverable Earth observation and microgravity missions. Due to the site's geographical location, most Chinese commercial flights take off from other spaceports. China launched to Earth orbit the piloted spacecraft Shenzhou 5 atop a Long March 2F rocket from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center on October 15, 2003. Inside the capsule was China's first astronaut, Yang Liwei. The flight made China the third nation able to send a man to space, following a trail blazed by Russia and the United States.
China Xichang Space Launch Center
Latitude 28.25o N Longitude 102.0o E
Xichang Space Launch Center offers better access to geostationary orbits than Jiuquan. It was built 40 miles north of Xichang City in 1978. Its first launch was in 1984. Xichang launches Long March space rockets. The local population lives near the launch pads. When the first Long March 3B rocket crashed in 1996 on a hillside a mile from the launch pad, six persons were killed and 57 injured. When a Long March 2E exploded in 1995, debris killed six and injured 23 in a village five miles downrange.
China Taiyuan Space Launch Center - Wuzhai
Latitude 37.5o N Longitude 112.6o E
Taiyuan Space Launch Center started as test base for missiles and rockets too big to fly from Jiuquan. U.S. Space Command refers to the site as Wuzhai. Its single space launch pad opened in 1988 for launching Long March 4 space rockets ferrying remote sensing, meteorological and reconnaissance satellites to polar orbits. Long March 2C rockets carried Iriidum satellites from there for the U.S. in the 1990s.
Europe Kourou, French Guiana
Latitude 5.2o N Longitude 52.8o W
On December 24, 1979, European Space Agency became the seventh to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The satellite was named CAT. It rode atop a rocket called Ariane in a launch from Kourou, French Guiana. Today, the European Space Agency fires space rockets from the Kourou space launch complex known as Centre Spatial Guyanais. CSG is owned by the French national space agency, CNES. It is used by the European Space Agency (ESA) and its commercial space launch arm Arianespace to blast ESA's Ariane rockets to space. CSG is one of the most favorable sites for launches of satellites to geostationary orbit. Kourou's position near the equator offers an advantage over Cape Canaveral for eastbound launches. French Guiana's coastline permits launches into both equatorial and polar Sun-synchronous orbits with inclinations up to 100.5o. Hundreds of sounding rockets and balloons and space satellites have been launches from Centre Spatial Guyanais.
France Hammaguir, Algeria, and Kourou, French Guiana
Latitude 31.0o N Longitude 8.0o W (Hammaguir)
Latitude 5.2o N Longitude 52.8o W (Kourou)
On November 26, 1965, France became the third nation to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The satellite was named Asterix 1. It rode atop a rocket called Diamant in a launch from Hammaguir, Algeria. Today, France is part of the European Space Agency, which fires space rockets from the Kourou space launch complex known as Centre Spatial Guyanais. CSG is owned by the French national space agency, CNES. It is used by the European Space Agency (ESA) and its commercial space launch arm Arianespace to blast ESA's Ariane rockets to space.
Great Britain Woomera
Latitude 31.1o S Longitude 136.8o E
On October 28, 1971, Great Britain became the sixth nation to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The satellite was named Black Knight 1. It rode atop a rocket called Black Arrow in a launch from Woomera, Australia.
India Sriharikota Island
Latitude 13.9o N Longitude 80.4o E
On July 18, 1980, India became the eighth nation to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The satellite was named Rohini 1. It rode atop a rocket called SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle) in a launch from Sriharikota Island. Shar Space Launch Center on the Sriharikota Island on India's east coast state of Andhra Pradesh is used by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) to launch space satellites on PSLV (Polar SLV) and GSLV (Geostationary SLV) rockets as well as atmospheric sounding Rohini rockets.
On December 5, 1989, Iraq became the tenth nation to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The satellite was the 3rd stage of a three-stage rocket in a launch from Al-Anbar.
Israel Palmachim Air Base in the Negev Desert
Latitude 31.5o N Longitude 34.5o E
On September 19, 1988, Israel became the ninth nation to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The satellite was named Horizon 1 (Ofeq 1). It rode atop a rocket called Shavit in a launch from Israel's Palmachim Air Force Base south of Tel Aviv near the town of Yavne in the Negev Desert. The secret launch site at at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea is visible from the coast highway.
Italy San Marco Range off the Kenya coast
Latitude 2.9o S Longitude 40.3o E
Italy's San Marco Range actually is a pair of platforms in Formosa Bay three miles off the coast of Kenya. The San Marco platform is the launch pad. Santa Rita platform holds the firing control blockhouse. The range started firing rockets in 1966. Eight satellites were boosted to space from there by 1976. Italy used the offshore platform for another launch in 1988.
Japan Kagoshima on Kyushu Island
Latitude 31.2o N Longitude 131.1o E
On February 11, 1970, Japan became the fourth nation to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The satellite was named Ohsumi. It rode atop a rocket called Lambda 4S-5 in a launch from Kagoshima. In 1962, Japan started building its Kagoshima Space Center on leveled hilltops facing the Pacific Ocean at Uchinoura on the southern tip of Kyushu Island. It was used first for atmospheric sounding rockets and meteorological rockets, then later for space satellite launches. Japan's first six satellites were launched from Kagoshima. The large M-5 orbital rocket was first launched there in 1997. Hundreds of suborbital and two dozen orbital launches have been made.
Japan Tanegashima Island
Latitude 30.4o N Longitude 131.0o E
Japan's National Space Development Agency (NASDA) operates the Tanegashima Space Center orbital launch site on the southeastern tip of Tanegashima Island 650 miles southwest of Tokyo. The complex's northern Osaki Launch Site fires H2 and J1 rockets and has static test facilities for liquid-fuel rocket engines. The southern Takesaki Launch Site fires sounding rockets and carries out static firings of H2 rocket solid-fuel boosters. It has the H2 Range Control Center.
Morocco Ben Guerir
Ben Guerir, Morocco, is one of NASA's space shuttle trans-Atlantic abort landing (TAL) sites. Launches to space are not made from Ben Guerir. A TAL abort could be called for if a main engine were to fail after the shuttle no longer could return to the launch site. The shuttle would continue on a ballistic trajectory across the Atlantic Ocean, landing on a runway approximately 45 minutes after launch. NASA's three TAL landing sites are Morón, Spain; Dakar, Senegal; and Ben Guerir, Morocco.
Norway Andoya Rocket Range
Latitude 69o N Longitude 16o E
Far north of the Arctic Circle, Andøya Rocket Range (ARR) is the world's northernmost permanent launch facility and is responsible for all scientific-related rocket and balloon operations on Norwegian territory.
Pakistan SUPARCO Latitude 40.5o N Longitude 3.5o W
China launched Pakistan's first satellite to orbit in 1990, because Pakistan has no spaceport. However, Pakistan does have a space program.
Russia Kapustin Yar Cosmodrome - Volgograd Station
Latitude 48.4o N Longitude 45.8o E
Russia created the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in 1991 after the collapse of the Soviet Union (USSR). CIS is composed of twelve of the fifteen former Soviet republics, including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Kapustin Yar Cosmodrome was the Soviet Union's first rocket development center. Its first launch was in 1947. During the early years, Kapustin Yar tested captured V2 missiles captured from the germans at the end of World War 2. The site also saw sounding rocket launches in the early years carrying dogs and other animals up to altitudes as high as 300 miles. Kapustin Yar Cosmodrome is known as the Volgograd Station to those who work there. The first orbital launch from Kapustin Yar was Cosmos 1 in 1962. Seventy space launches to orbit were carried out by 1980, mostly small Cosmos science satellites. The USSR switched its space launches to Plesetsk leaving Kapustin Yar to send up only occasional missions, usually for radar calibration. There have been no launches to orbit since 1987. Space launches from Kapustin Yar totaled 83. Today there are some missile testing activities as well as Cosmos suborbital launches. [russian rocket history]
Russia Baikonur Cosmodrome - Tyuratam
Latitude 45.6o N Longitude 63.4o E
On October 4, 1957, the U.S.S.R. became the first nation to loft an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The satellite was named Sputnik 1. It rode atop a rocket called Old Number Seven in a launch from Baikonur Cosmodrome. Missile and rocket launches began in the 1950s in the Baikonur/Tyuratam area of Kazakhstan in central Asia. The launch pad from which Sputnik 1 and Yuri Gagarin were launched was constructed in 1955. In 1957, the launch site was said to be near Tyuratam in Kazakhstan, about 230 miles southwest of Baikonur. However, the Soviet Union government tried to hide the location by reporting its latitude and longitude as the same as that for the town of Baikonur. Baikonur Cosmodrome actually is located at 45.6oN and 63.4oE. Kazakhstan finally renamed the launch site after the closer Tyuratam in 1992. However, the global space community still refers to it as Baikonur Cosmodrome. Baikonur is a large cosmodrome with nine launch complexes encompassing fifteen launch pads. All of Russia's manned space flights and interplanetary probes are launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Baikonur is the only cosmodrome launching Proton, Zenit, Energia and Tsyklon SL-11 space rockets. Launches headed due east would be the most efficient, but are not flown from Baikonur because lower stages of the rockets might fall into China.
Russia Plesetsk Cosmodrome
Latitude 62.8o N Longitude 40.1o E
In 1957, the first of several pads at Plesetsk Cosmodrome for launches of the old R7 or A-class missiles-rockets were constructed in support of the USSR's then-infant intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) program. The pads and ICBM rockets moved to active duty in 1960. For a long time, Plesetsk Cosmodrome was the world's busiest spaceport. However, it eventually was overtaken by Baikonur as launch campaigns were transferred to newer space boosters at Tyuratam. Today, there are launch pads -- for Cosmos, Soyuz/Molniya Tsyklon and Zenit space boosters. Plesetsk Cosmodrome is located in Russia at 2.8oN and 40.1oE, which allows the launch of communications satellites and spy satellites to polar and highly elliptical orbits. Range safety restrictions limit flights from Plesetsk to 62.8o, 67.1o, 73-74o, 82-83o.
Russia Svobodny Cosmodrome
Latitude 51.4o N Longitude 128.3o E
Svobodny is a relatively-new cosmodrome created by President Boris Yeltsin in 1996 and built out of a decommissioned missile site at Svobodny-18 about sixty miles from the Chinese border -- for Start, Rockot and Angara space boosters.
Dakar, Senegal, is one of NASA's space shuttle trans-Atlantic abort landing (TAL) sites. Launches to space are not made from Dakar. A TAL abort could be called for if a main engine were to fail after the shuttle no longer could return to the launch site. The shuttle would continue on a ballistic trajectory across the Atlantic Ocean, landing on a runway approximately 45 minutes after launch. NASA's three TAL landing sites are Morón, Spain; Dakar, Senegal; and Ben Guerir, Morocco.
South Africa South of Cape Town
Latitude 33.56o S Longitude 18.29o E
The Republic of South Africa has considered using Israel's Shavit space booster to send a satellite to orbit. The South Africans have tested the Israeli Jericho 2 intermediate-range ballistic missile which converts to the Shavit space rocket. South Africa could launch a satellite to space, firing it from the nation's southern area near Cape Town into the sky over either the Atlantic or Indian Ocean. However, the South African government has said it has the science and technology to launch a space satellite, but is not interested because of high costs. Pretoria has kept the pot boiling by setting up a committee to keep abreast of space technology and coordinate development.
Spain Morón Air Base, U.S. Air Force, 496th Air Base Squadron
Latitude 40.5o N Longitude 3.5o W
Since 1984, NASA has used Morón Air Base as a space shuttle trans-Atlantic abort landing (TAL) site. Launches to space are not made from Morón. The U.S. Air Force 496th Air Base Squadron is at Morón Air Base. A TAL abort could be called for if a main engine were to fail after the shuttle no longer could return to the launch site. The shuttle would continue on a ballistic trajectory across the Atlantic Ocean, landing on a runway approximately 45 minutes after launch. NASA's three TAL landing sites are Morón, Spain; Dakar, Senegal; and Ben Guerir, Morocco.
United States Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Patrick Air Force Base, Florida
Latitude 28.5o N Longitude 81.0o W
On January 31, 1958, the United States became the second nation to launch an artificial moon to orbit above Earth. The satellite, Explorer 1, rode a Jupiter-C rocket from Cape Canaveral. Today, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station at Patrick Air Force Base, Florida, is part of the U.S. Space Command 45th Space Wing. Cape Canaveral has active Titan, Atlas and Delta launch complexes. It provides facilities for military, NASA and commercial organizations. More than 500 space launches have been made from the Cape, including NASA's many manned missions. The annual launch rate is about 25 to 30 flights because the Cape was built in the1950s. Currently, Titan rockets are launched from pads 40 and 41, Delta from 17A and 17B, and Atlas Centaur from 36A and 36B. Orbital inclinations range up to to 57o. Polar launches from Canaveral are not permitted because they would have to fly over populated areas. The Cape's Eastern Range tracking network extends all the way into the Indian Ocean where it meets the Western Range network. Spaceport Florida Facility is a commercial launch site at Cape Canaveral Air Station operated by the Spaceport Florida Authority (SFA), a state agency. It converted the Navy's old Launch Complex 46 pad for firing small to medium commercial launch vehicles ferrying satellites to equatorial orbit. The Navy originally used the pad for testing the Trident II fleet ballistic missile.
United States Kennedy Space Center, Merrit Island, Florida
Latitude 28.5o N Longitude 81.0o W
NASA calls John F. Kennedy Space Center America's Gateway to the Universe. It is NASA's site for processing, launching and landing space shuttles and their payloads, including components of the International Space Station. It also prepares and launches missions to places beyond Earth. KSC is located on Merrit Island adjacent to the U.S. Air Force launch facilities known as the Cape Canaveral Air Station. Kennedy was built first to support the Apollo lunar landings of the 1960s. After the last Apollo lunar launch in 1972, launch complex 39 supported Skylab space station in 1973-74, then the Apollo-Soyuz Russian-American linkup in space in 1975, and now space shuttles since the late 1970s. Numerous expendable launch vehicles are blasted off from KSC.
United States Vandenberg Air Force Base, Space Command 30th Space Wing, California
Latitude 34.4o N Longitude 120.35o W
Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) is operated by the U.S. Space Command 30th Space Wing on the central Pacific coastline 12 miles north of Lompoc, California, and 150 miles northwest of Los Angeles. Vandenberg is the only military installation in the United States from which unmanned government and commercial satellites are launced into polar orbit. VAFB sends satellites to polar orbits by launching them due south. The base also test fires America's intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) westward toward the Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands. Vandenberg operates the Western Range tracking network, which extends all the way into the Indian Ocean to meet the Eastern Range tracking network. Western Range sites are on the California coast and downrange in the Hawaiian Islands. Vandenberg was to have provided a base for space shuttle launches on high inclination missions, but no shuttles ever have flown from there. Delta rockets take off from space launch complex 2W, Titan from launch complex 4, and Atlas from launch complex 3. Until 1994, Scout rockets were launched from complex 5. Vandenberg's military service dates back to 1941 when it was an Army training facility for armored and infantry troops known as Camp Cooke. California Spaceport is a commercial launch facility at Vandenberg Air Force Base for launching satellites to polar orbit.
United States Wallops Island, Virginia
Latitude 37.8o N Longitude 75.5o W
Wallops Flight Facility, located on the Eastern Shore of Virginia, is one of the oldest launch sites in the world. Wallops launched its first rocket on July 4, 1945. Wallops became America's third space launch site in 1961 with the launch of the Explorer 9 balloon on a solid-fuel Scout rocket. Since then, more than 14,000 rockets have been launched from Wallops. Over the years, the Wallops launch range has grown to six launch pads, assembly facilities and state-of-the-art instrumentation. In addition, mobile launch facilities enable scientists and engineers from Wallops to launch rockets around the world. From 1945–1957, Wallops was known as the Pilotless Aircraft Research Station. From the birth of NASA in 1958, it was known as Wallops Station until 1974. From 1975–1981, the site was called Wallops Flight Center. Since 1982, it has been called Wallops Flight Facility. Today, WFF is a part of Goddard Space Flight Center. Although the facility is still available, the Scout rocket was retired in 1994. Some 19 rockets have reached orbit from Wallops, most recently in 1985. Today, WFF conducts NASA's sounding rocket program using Super Arcas, Black Brant, Taurus-Tomahawk, Taurus-Orion and Terrier-Malemute rockets. About 30 launches are made annually. An orbital attempt was made in 1995, but the commercial Conestoga rocket failed. In addition to sounding rockets, the facility manages NASA`s balloon launch program. It is responsible for NASA`s Small Shuttle Payload Projects including SPARTAN, SPARTAN Lite, the Hitchhiker series including Hitchhiker, Hitchhiker, Jr., Get-Away Specials and Space Experiment Module, and the University Class Explorer Program.
United States Virginia Space Flight Center, Wallops Island, Virginia
Latitude 37.8o N Longitude 75.5o W
Virginia Space Flight Center is a commercial launch facility on the south end of Wallops Island. VSFC has two launch pads at Wallops capable of blasting off small and medium expendable launch vehicles (ELV) that can deliver five tons to low Earth orbit (LEO). Wallops Flight Facility, located on the Eastern Shore of Virginia, is one of the oldest launch sites in the world.
United States Edwards Air Force Base, California
Latitude 35o N Longitude 118o W
Edwards Air Force Base sits on the northwestern Mojave Desert in the 44-sq.mi. Rogers Dry Lakebed 20 miles southeast of Mojave. The base's smooth, concrete-like surface can receive landing U.S. space shuttles when weather conditions at Cape Canaveral are unacceptable. In an historic moment, on April 14, 1981, astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen landed shuttle Columbia on the ancient clay. Columbia was the first orbiting space vehicle ever to leave the Earth under rocket power and return on the wings of an aircraft. While shuttles land there, rockets are not launched from Edwards. Dryden Flight Research Center sits on the edge of Rodgers Dry Lake at the south end of a high speed flight corridor of the Edwards Air Force Base.
United States Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards Air Force Base, California
Latitude 35o N Longitude 118o W
As NASA's flight research leader, Dryden Flight Research Center is innovative in aeronautics and space technology. The newest, fastest, the highest debut in the vast, clear desert skies over Dryden. The center sits on the edge of Rodgers Dry Lake at the south end of a high speed flight corridor of the Edwards Air Force Base. The dry lakebed runways and Edward's main runway are used for shuttle landings when weather conditions at Cape Canaveral are unacceptable. Dryden merged in 1981 with NASA's Ames Research Center, but then became independent again in 1994. Dryden has a restricted airspace for research with high performance aircraft. It is involved in the development of the X-33 and X-34 reusable launchers. The Apollo Lunar Landing Research Vehicle and Lifting Body family of vehicles operated at Dryden in the 1960-70s. While shuttles land there, rockets are not launched from Edwards. As NASA's lead center for flight research, Dryden is innovative in aeronautics and space technology. The newest, fastest, the highest — all have made their debut in the vast, clear desert skies over Dryden.
United States Poker Flat Research Range, Alaska
Latitude 64.9o N Longitude 147.8o W
Poker Flat Research Range (PFRR) is a sounding rocket launch facility 30 miles northeast of Fairbanks used for auroral and middle to upper atmospheric research. Operated by the Geophysical Institute of the University of Alaska, Fairbanks, since 1968 PFRR is the only non-federal, university-owned launch range. The 5,132-acre site is the only high latitude and auroral zone rocket launch facility in the U.S. The name was taken from a Bret Harte short story, The Outcasts of Poker Flat. Poker Creek is nearby. Poker Flat is the world's largest, land-based rocket range. It has a chain of downrange flight monitoring, observing and recovery stations from inland Alaska to Spitzbergen in the Arctic Ocean. More than 1,500 meteorological missiles and 236 major high-altitude sounding rocket experiments have been launched from the range for atmospheric research and studies of the aurora, ozone layer, solar protons, the electric and magnetic fields, and ultraviolet radiation. The Federal Aviation Administration coordinates air space use while permission to land payloads on 26 million acres of land comes from the U.S. Bureau of Land Management and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, as well as the state, local villages and others.
United States Alaska Spaceport, Kodiak Island, Alaska
Latitude 67.5o N Longitude 146o W
Alaska Spaceport is a commercial launch facility on 3,100 acres of Kodiak Island, Alaska, from which satellites can be blasted to polar orbit. The launch site is located on Narrow Cape, of Kodiak Island, Alaska, 41 miles south of the city of Kodiak and 250 miles south of Anchorage. A hilly, almost-treeless island, Kodiak Island is a volcanic peak in the ocean 30 miles off the southern coast of the state of Alaska in the Gulf of Alaska. The Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation (AADC) built the launch complex on the island. The first launch from the Kodiak Island site was an Athena-I rocket boosting the Kodiak Star payload of four satellites in 2001. The Kodiak Island site also provides a backup launch facility for Vandenberg Air Force Base for satellites needing delivery to polar orbit.
United States Mojave Civilian Aerospace Test Center, California
Latitude 35.0o N Longitude 118.2o W
Mojave Civilian Aerospace Test Center at the Mojave, California, airport, is the world's first commercial spaceport and America's first inland and first non-federal spaceport. Philanthropist Paul Allen and aviation legend Burt Rutan launch their private spacecraft, SpaceShipOne, on suborbital flights from Mojave. That privately-developed rocket plane is the world's first commercial manned space vehicle and America's first non-government, privately-funded, piloted spacecraft. Mojave Airport is a civilian aircraft and military jet flight test center and home to exotic aircraft such as Burt Rutan's Voyager airplane that made the first non-stop, unrefueled flight around the world. The airport is 100 miles north of Los Angeles on the western edge of the Mojave Desert. Scaled Composites, XCOR Aerospace, Orbital Science Corp., Interorbital Systems, and at least three other space firms have facilities at the Mojave aerodrome. The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certified Mojave Airport as a port for horizontal launches and glider landings of reusable spacecraft. There will not be vertical launches of rockets. Spacecraft lifting off and landing have to be on the lookout for members of the desert tortoise family, gopherus agassizii, which makes its home in the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts. The tortoise is listed as threatened under California's Endangered Species Act of 1989.
United States White Sands Space Harbor, Las Cruces, New Mexico
Latitude 32.3o N Longitude 106.8o W
White Sands Space Harbor (WSSH) provides NASA with a third space shuttle landing site in the U.S. after Cape Canaveral in Florida and Edwards Air Force Base in California. Also on the Las Cruces grounds, White Sands Test Facility (WSTF) is used by NASA's Johnson Space Center for Shuttle propulsion, power system and materials testing. WSTF is responsible for White Sands Space Harbor (WSSH). Also on the Las Cruces grounds is the White Sands Missile Range (WSMR) operated by the US Army. WSMR was the site of the first major U.S. rocket firings after World War 2 before such activities were moved to the larger range at Cape Canaveral, Florida. WSMR also was the site of the first atomic explosion. White Sands still is a major sounding rocket firing base and a site for ballistic missile defense flight tests.
United States Boeing Sea Launch headquartered at Long Beach, California
Launches from a Pacific Ocean platform near the Christmas Islands on the equator
Latitude 0o N Longitude 154o W
The commercial Boeing Sea Launch rockets blast off from a floating platform in the Pacific Ocean near Kiritimati – Christmas Island – on the equator. Sea Launch operations begin at the ship's home port at Long Beach, California, where a satellite is prepared and loaded onto Sea Launch Commander, the assembly and command ship. Then a Zenit rocket in a horizontal position is transferred to an environmentally controlled hangar on Odyssey, the partially-submersible, self-propelled, launch platform. Odyssey once was a North Sea oil drilling platform. It is 436 ft. long and 220 ft. wide. After sailing to a launch point in the Pacific, a rocket is rolled out onto Odyssey's deck, erected and fueled with kerosene and liquid oxygen. The rockets fired from Sea Launch typically carry telecommunications satellites to space on their way to geostationary orbit. The launch control center is located on the command ship with operations conducted in English and Russian. Rockets have blasted off from Sea Launch regularly since 1999.
United States Southwest Regional Spaceport, Las Cruces, New Mexico
Latitude 32.3o N Longitude 106.8o W
The proposed commercial Southwest Regional Spaceport is near the White Sands Space Harbor at Las Cruces, which NASA uses as one of its three space shuttle landing sites in the United States. The Ansari X-Prize will be be awarded at Las Cruses.
United States California Spaceport, Western Commercial Spaceport, Lompoc, California
Latitude 34.4o N Longitude 120.35o W
California Spaceport, also known as the Western Commercial Spaceport, is a commercial launch facility on Vandenberg Air Force Base at Lompoc, California. The spaceport can launch satellites to polar orbit on Delta 2 and Delta 3 rockets. The climate permits year-round launches to low Earth orbit (LEO), medium Earth orbit (MEO), or sun-Synchronous orbit. The spaceport is operated by Spaceport Systems International (SSI), a subsidiary of ITT Industries, Inc. California Spaceport was the first federally-licensed private "Commercial Space Launch Site Operator" in the United States. Its license was issued by the Office of Commercial Space Transportation in 1996.
The United States sites above are spaceports.
Those below are important NASA centers, but not spaceports.
United States NASA Headquarters
NASA headquarters, in Washington, D.C., manages the space flight centers, research centers, and other installations that compose America's national space agency, NASA.
United States Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas
Johnson Space Center was established in 1961 as NASA's center for design, development and testing of manned spacecraft. Today, it manages the space shuttles and the International Space Station. Its work includes administration, flight crew operations, mission operations, engineering, spaceand life sciences, and information systems. JSC conducts shuttle propulsion, power system and materials testing at the White Sands Test Facility in Mew Mexico. Rockets are not launched from Houston. From the early Gemini, Apollo, and Sky Lab projects to today's space shuttle and International Space Station (ISS) programs, Johnson Space Center leads NASA's human space exploration programs.
United States Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland
Established in 1959, Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland is the only national facility able to develop, fabricate, test, launch and analyze data from its own space science missions. Goddard has developed some 200 satellites for NASA and NOAA, including the Explorers, COBE, Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, Solar Max, ERBS, Spartan and URAS. Hubble Space Telescope science operations are controlled by Goddard's Space Telescope Science Institute at Johns Hopkins University. Goddard directs NASA's Delta rocket launches and NASA's Spaceflight Tracking & Data Network. Rockets are not launched from Greenbelt. The center's mission is to expand knowledge on the Earth and its environment, the solar system, and the universe through observations from space.
United States Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California
Jet Propulsion Laboratory is a government-owned facility operated under contract since 1959 by California Institute of Technology for NASA. JPL has conducted most of NASA's deep space missions, including Voyager, Galileo, Cassini, Mars Surveyor and Mars Pathfinder. It manages NASA's portion of the European-American solar probe Ulysses, the US-French Topex/Poseidon oceanographic satellite, the Spaceborne Imaging Radar and the Wide Field/Planetary Camera in the Hubble Space Telescope. JPL built and operates NASA's worldwide Deep Space Network linking controllers via antennas near Canberra, Australia; Goldstone, California and Madrid, Spain with spacecraft beyond millions of miles from Earth. Rockets are not launched from Pasadena. JPL is NASA's lead center for robotic exploration of the Solar System.
United States Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama
Marshall Space Flight Center was established in 1960 by the team headed by Dr Wernher von Braun, which launched America's first satellite, Explorer 1. Marshall managed NASA's Apollo Saturn launchers and the Skylab space station. Today, MSFC is one of the largest of NASA's ten field centers. Marshall is the principal propulsion development center, responsible for space shuttle main engines, solid boosters and external tank. MSFC is home to NASA's Reusable Launch Vehicle program and it has a key role in the International Space Station, including the pressurized modules and research nodes. Marshall programs include Spacelab, the Spitzer X-ray Telescope in space, the tethered satellite system and inertial upper stage, and Mission to Planet Earth. Rockets are not launched from Huntsville. The center's slogan is bringing people to space; bringing space to people. Marshall is world leader in the use of space for research and development to benefit humanity.
United States Ames Research Center, Moffet Field, California
Founded in 1939 as an aircraft research lab, Ames Research Center became part of NASA in 1958. The lab conducts research in aerodynamics, hypersonic aircraft, human factors, life sciences, Earth environment, space science, solar system exploration and infrared astronomy. Ames manages the faraway probes Pioneer 10 and 11. It was responsible for Galileo's Jupiter atmosphere-entry probe. Ames housed NASA's SETI program. Rockets are not launched from Moffet Field. Ames specializes in research geared towards creating new knowledge and new technologies spanning myriad NASA interests.
United States Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia
Langley Research Center was established in 1917 and became one of the original NASA facilities when the space agency was created in 1958. The U.S. manned space program began at LaRC in 1959 before new facilities were built in Houston in 1962. LaRC was responsible for the highly successful Lunar Orbiters and Viking Mars orbiters and landers. Today, Langley is an advanced aerospace research center. Its fields of study include aerodynamics, materials, structures, flight controls, information systems, acoustics, aeroelasticity, and atmospheric sciences. Nearly half of Langley's work is about space, including technology for advanced space transportation, large space structures and the Earth Observing System in NASA's Mission to Planet Earth. Rockets are not launched from Hampton. Almost a century later, Langley continues to forge new frontiers in aviation and space research for aerospace, atmospheric sciences, and technology commercialization to improve the way the world lives.
United States Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio
NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC) was founded in 1941. Formerly known as the Lewis Research Center, the formal name today is John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field. GRC is NASA's main center for research, technology and development of aircraft propulsion, space propulsion, space power and satellite communications. GRC oversees the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite through its master control station. GRC handles propulsion technology development for NASA's High Speed Research Program. GRC's Microgravity Science Division -- formerly known as the Microgravity Materials Science Laboratory -- specializes in microgravity experiments in combustion and fluid physics as well as measurement and analysis of the microgravity environment. NASA's Atlas and Centaur launch activities are managed by GRC. Rockets are not launched from Cleveland. The center develops critical technologies that address national priorities for safe and reliable aeronautics, aerospace, and space applications.
United States Stennis Space Center, Mississippi
Stennis Space Center was chosen in 1961 to test Apollo moon rocket F1 and J2 engines and Saturn V stages. Today, it is NASA's large propulsion test facility. All space shuttle main engines are tested at Stennis before flight. SSC leads NASA's commercialization of remote sensing technology. Eighteen other federal and state agencies also are on the site, including the Naval Meteorology & Oceanographic Command. Rockets are not launched from Stennis, which is responsible for NASA's rocket propulsion testing and for partnering with industry to develop and implement remote sensing technology.
United States Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, Maryland
Founded in 1942, the Applied Physics Laboratory is an independent non-profit R&D division of Johns Hopkins University. APL develops, constructs and operates satellites. It has built more than sixty satellites. It has also provided scores of instruments for space satellites. It contracts with the US Navy's Space & Naval Warfare Systems Command for DoD programs and other federal projects. Rockets are not launched from Laurel.
United States Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico
Dating back to 1943, Los Alamos National Laboratory is a research facility operated by the University of California for the Department of Energy. LANL conducts research in basic science, nuclear and non-nuclear defense programs, nuclear safeguards and security, biomedical, computational and materials sciences, and environmental cleanup. The first director of Los Alamos was J. Robert Oppenheimer, who helped found the Lab to develop the first atomic weapons. Los Alamos monitors outer space for nuclear explosions.
The Commercial Spaceport Business
Into the mid 1980s, the United States dominated the space launch industry with almost 100 percent of the business. However, the American decision to drop investment in expendable launch vehicle (ELV) technology in favor of space shuttles left the U.S. with a smaller portion of the commercial launch market. From the mid-1980s, the European Space Agency (ESA) gained a major proportion of the world's commercial launch business. Today, the Europeans control about 60 percent of the market and the Americans about 30 percent. Other countries such as China, Japan, India, Brazil, Italy and Israel aim for the rest with low cost launch services. Commercial launches range from $10 million for a low earth orbit (LEO) satellite up to $80 million for high altitude satellites.
Planned commercial spaceports in the United States
Around the world, the business of space is a $100 billion-a-year industry, including a great deal of money spent on rockets to launch satellites for weather forecasting, navigation, television broadcasting and telecommunications including global Internet and cell phone service. The space launch industry grows at the rate of 20 percent a year. As a result, not just governments, but commercial firms want to build launch pads to grab a share of the market.
- Mojave Civilian Aerospace Test Center, Mojave, California
- Southwest Regional Spaceport, Las Cruces, New Mexico
- Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation, Narrow Cape on Kodiak Island
- California Spaceport, Western Commercial Spaceport, Lompoc, California
- Virginia Space Flight Center Wallops Flight Facility, Wallops Island, Virginia
- Spaceport Florida Authority, Cape Canaveral, Florida
Top of this page Global Sites index of countries and sites listed on this page Search STO Rockets Converting ICBMs to Space Rockets STO Cover Questions © 2004 Space Today Online
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| 0.913865 | 9,701 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Hydrofluoric acid is extremely corrosive. Acute exposures are especially hazardous and can result in severe burns or respiratory damage. U. S. manufacturers use hydrofluoric acid to produce fluorocarbons, aluminum and other chemical products. Metal pickling and etching applications are the primary end-uses for hydrofluoric acid in Massachusetts. Hydrofluoric acid use is on the decline in Massachusetts. However, produced as an unintended byproduct, coal-fired power plants are a potential source of public exposure to hydrofluroic acid.
Massachusetts. facilities reported using 640,000 pounds of hydrofluoric acid in 1996. Hydrofluoric acid use in Massachusetts declined slightly, by 5%, between 1990 and 1996.
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| 0.918783 | 147 | 2.84375 | 3 |
EUdict :: English-English dictionary
Results for: 8th letter of English alphabet, eighth letter of the English alphabet Translations: 1 – 30 / 660 English English 8th letter of English alphabet, eighth letter of the English alphabet h (abnormally good) visibility, 22nd letter of the alphabet, 22nd letter of the English alphabet v (about a letter) minuscule, not in the capital form; pertaining to the lower case, not capital, put in small letters, small letters not capitals lowercase (Asquith-Herbert Henry) former prime minister of Great Britain; (Christopher) American author; (Rober) English thespian; (Edwards-Williams) American chemist (researched the relative motion of the Earth) Morley (British trademark) brand name of a ball point pen (comparable to Bic in American English) Biro (English) horse that jibs jibber (French) please respond (request for a reply at the end of a letter) R.S.V.P. (respondez s`il vous plait) (George) English general who orchestrated the return of the Stuart monarch after the death of Oliver Cromwell Monck (Grammar) grammatical unit usually comprised of a subject and verb (generally begins with a capital letter and ends with a punctuation mark); judgment specifying the punishment for a crime (Law), allocate somebody punishment, impose a punishment, penal... sentence (Hindu) mister, title for a gentleman; Indian person who can write in English; Indian person who has some knowledge of English (Offensive Slang), baboo, Hindi courtesy title babu (Informal) beta test, final testing period for new computer software before it is released on the market; beta group, group of users who test a program before general distribution, 2nd letter of Greek alphabet, describing minor form of element, measure... beta (Informal) greatest number amount or extent (from U.S. Southern and Black English) mostest (Nicholas) British author; (Walter) African-American author; (Sir Oswald Ernald) English politician (founded the British Union of Fascists and the Union Movement) Mosley (symbol) Delta, 4th letter of Greek alphabet, 4th letter of the Greek alphabet; triangular section of land at the mouth of a river delta (symbol) gamma, 3rd in position in carbon chain, 3rd letter of Greek alphabet, 3rd nearest to designated atom, measure of contrast of image, third item, third letter of the Greek alphabet, unit of mass gamma (William Topaz) poet renowned as the writer of the worst poetry in the English language (1825 - 1902) McGonagall (Zoology) marine mammal related to the dolphin; (Old English and Fantasy fiction) type of demon or gobblin orc , send a letter, appoint to command, assign to a position or duty, station; publicize, advertise; inform; send electronic mail to a newsgroup (Computers); send by mail; move up and down in a saddle (Equitation); travel quickly, by post horse, denounce ... post 10th letter of English alphabet, J j 10th letter of Hebrew alphabet, Hebrew letter, yodh yod 11th letter of Greek alphabet, junction in skull, letter of the Greek alphabet; consonant "L" (Phonetics), see also:lambdoid lambda 11th letter of the English alphabet, eleventh letter of the English alphabet, K k 11th month of Gregorian calendar, code word for letter "N", eleventh month in the Gregorian calendar November 12th letter of Hebrew alphabet lamed; lamedh 12th letter of the alphabet, 12th letter of the English alphabet l 12th letter of the Greek alphabet; sound represented by this letter, Greek letter mu 13th letter of the English alphabet, em m 13th letter of the Greek alphabet, interj. well? so? (expression of impatience or curiosity); letter N in the Greek alphabet nu 13th letter of the Hebrew alphabet mem 14th letter of English alphabet, 14th letter of the alphabet, amount of substance n
Search time: 0.006 seconds. Next » About Eudict
EUdict (European dictionary) is a collection of online dictionaries for the languages spoken mostly in Europe. These dictionaries are the result of the work of many authors who worked very hard and finally offered their product free of charge on the internet thus making it easier to all of us to communicate with each other. Some of the dictionaries have only a few thousand words, others have more than 250,000. Some of the words may be incorrectly translated or mistyped.
Please help us improve this site by into your language! translating its interface
Total number of language pairs:
Total number of translations (in millions):
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| 0.876672 | 1,006 | 2.671875 | 3 |
As a concept, quantum computing is one of those topics that generates far more debate than actual usage. Not only are there quarrels about the applicability of different types of approaches to quantum computing; there’s still a fair amount of debate over whether quantum computing applications will prove to be all that much faster than conventional computing applications.
Traditional computers encode data binary digits known as bits. Quantum computers uses quantum properties to represent data and perform operations on what are known as qubits. D-Wave Systems, in conjunction with Google, NASA and the Universities Space Research Association, is currently testing the D-Wave Two, a system based on a 512-qubit processor chip.
D-Wave Systems CEO Vern Brownell says the thing that differentiates D-Wave Systems as a commercial entity is that it pursued a quantum annealing approach to quantum computing. Quantum annealing allows D-Wave to leverage traditional silicon processors. In contrast, other approaches to building quantum computing systems have as not been able to make it beyond the lab.
None of this means the D-Wave Two is a guaranteed to be a commercial success, but Brownell says that once the viability of the D-Wave Two is proven, most developers will be exposed to quantum computing as a cloud service they invoke through an API. Right now, quantum computing applications are built using a very low-level language. But given the cost of a D-Wave Two quantum computer, few organizations will be able to afford one. Brownell says he envisions a world where a few cloud service providers or universities with the appropriate financial wherewithal will make quantum computing available as a programmable service.
He concedes that we are still quite a few years from seeing that happen. But one of the primary benefits of living in the programmable age of the cloud is that breakthroughs such as quantum computing systems become more readily accessible to developers. In fact, the strategy that Brownell envisions for making quantum computing accessible to developers is not much different than the strategy IBM is adopting in terms of making the IBM Watson supercomputer available as a service to developers looking to create cognitive computing applications.
Obviously, supercomputers based on quantum theories have not achieved the same level of acceptance as IBM Watson. But going forward, developers should take some comfort knowing that, in the age of the cloud, they might not have to actually buy a supercomputer before they get to play with one.
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| 0.940513 | 491 | 3.3125 | 3 |
National Jewish Health scientists John Kappler, PhD, and Philippa Marrack, PhD, discuss their discovery of the T-cell receptor - the protein found on the surface of T Cells that helps detect specific antigens, or foreign invaders, in the body:
T cell receptor (TCR) is a heterodimer of an α and β chain, each with two Ig-like domains. This combination of the α and β chains and their Ig-like domains are analogous to the immunoglobulin Fab fragment. The TCR complex consists of the TCR, CD3 and two zeta (ξ) chains.
Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) - 4 groups according to T/B/NK cells (click to enlarge the image).
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| 0.894918 | 159 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Location: Microfilm JK 3 P2
Scope: Women won the right to vote in the United States in 1920. The League of Women Voters has been an organization which has promoted voter education and citizenship throughout its existence. It is rigorously non-partisan. It has an issue-oriented agenda which emphasizes international cooperation abroad and humanitarian social reform on the domestic front. Part I: Meetings of the Board of Directors and Executive Committees: Minutes and Related Documents. Part II: Transcripts and Records of National Conventions 1919-1974, and of General Councils 1927-1972. Part III: National Office Subject Files, 1920-1932
How to search the collection: Parts I and II have reel guides. Part III has a reel guide and a subject index.
Papers of the League of Women Voters, 1918-1974. (Microfilm JK 3 P2 pt. 1-3 Guide)
For more information about this subject in our Library Catalog, check out these Subject Categories:
Time Period: 20th Century
Subject keywords: Women's studies
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| 0.893829 | 216 | 2.84375 | 3 |
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