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	<title>GNU gettext utilities: 4. Preparing Program Sources</title>

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	<tr><td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_3.html#SEC16" title="Beginning of this chapter or previous chapter"> << </a>]</td>
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	<td valign="middle" align="left">[<a href="gettext_toc.html#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents">Contents</a>]</td>
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	<hr size="2">
	<a name="Sources"></a>
	<a name="SEC17"></a>
	<h1 class="chapter"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC17">4. Preparing Program Sources</a> </h1>


	<p>For the programmer, changes to the C source code fall into three
	categories. First, you have to make the localization functions
	known to all modules needing message translation. Second, you should
	properly trigger the operation of GNU <code>gettext</code> when the program
	initializes, usually from the <code>main</code> function. Last, you should
	identify, adjust and mark all constant strings in your program
	needing translation.
	</p>


	<a name="Importing"></a>
	<a name="SEC18"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC18">4.1 Importing the <code>gettext</code> declaration</a> </h2>

	<p>Presuming that your set of programs, or package, has been adjusted
	so all needed GNU <code>gettext</code> files are available, and your
	‘<tt>Makefile</tt>’ files are adjusted (see section <a href="gettext_13.html#SEC229">The Maintainer's View</a>), each C module
	having translated C strings should contain the line:
	</p>
	<a name="IDX114"></a>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">#include <libintl.h>
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Similarly, each C module containing <code>printf()</code>/<code>fprintf()</code>/...
	calls with a format string that could be a translated C string (even if
	the C string comes from a different C module) should contain the line:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">#include <libintl.h>
	</pre></td></tr></table>


	<a name="Triggering"></a>
	<a name="SEC19"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC19">4.2 Triggering <code>gettext</code> Operations</a> </h2>

	<p>The initialization of locale data should be done with more or less
	the same code in every program, as demonstrated below:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">int
	main (int argc, char *argv[])
	{
	…
	setlocale (LC_ALL, "");
	bindtextdomain (PACKAGE, LOCALEDIR);
	textdomain (PACKAGE);
	…
	}
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p><var>PACKAGE</var> and <var>LOCALEDIR</var> should be provided either by
	‘<tt>config.h</tt>’ or by the Makefile. For now consult the <code>gettext</code>
	or <code>hello</code> sources for more information.
	</p>
	<a name="IDX115"></a>
	<a name="IDX116"></a>
	<p>The use of <code>LC_ALL</code> might not be appropriate for you.
	<code>LC_ALL</code> includes all locale categories and especially
	<code>LC_CTYPE</code>. This latter category is responsible for determining
	character classes with the <code>isalnum</code> etc. functions from
	‘<tt>ctype.h</tt>’ which could especially for programs, which process some
	kind of input language, be wrong. For example this would mean that a
	source code using the ç (c-cedilla character) is runnable in
	France but not in the U.S.
	</p>
	<p>Some systems also have problems with parsing numbers using the
	<code>scanf</code> functions if an other but the <code>LC_ALL</code> locale category is
	used. The standards say that additional formats but the one known in the
	<code>"C"</code> locale might be recognized. But some systems seem to reject
	numbers in the <code>"C"</code> locale format. In some situation, it might
	also be a problem with the notation itself which makes it impossible to
	recognize whether the number is in the <code>"C"</code> locale or the local
	format. This can happen if thousands separator characters are used.
	Some locales define this character according to the national
	conventions to <code>'.'</code> which is the same character used in the
	<code>"C"</code> locale to denote the decimal point.
	</p>
	<p>So it is sometimes necessary to replace the <code>LC_ALL</code> line in the
	code above by a sequence of <code>setlocale</code> lines
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">{
	…
	setlocale (LC_CTYPE, "");
	setlocale (LC_MESSAGES, "");
	…
	}
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<a name="IDX117"></a>
	<a name="IDX118"></a>
	<a name="IDX119"></a>
	<a name="IDX120"></a>
	<a name="IDX121"></a>
	<a name="IDX122"></a>
	<a name="IDX123"></a>
	<p>On all POSIX conformant systems the locale categories <code>LC_CTYPE</code>,
	<code>LC_MESSAGES</code>, <code>LC_COLLATE</code>, <code>LC_MONETARY</code>,
	<code>LC_NUMERIC</code>, and <code>LC_TIME</code> are available. On some systems
	which are only ISO C compliant, <code>LC_MESSAGES</code> is missing, but
	a substitute for it is defined in GNU gettext's <code><libintl.h></code> and
	in GNU gnulib's <code><locale.h></code>.
	</p>
	<p>Note that changing the <code>LC_CTYPE</code> also affects the functions
	declared in the <code><ctype.h></code> standard header and some functions
	declared in the <code><string.h></code> and <code><stdlib.h></code> standard headers.
	If this is not
	desirable in your application (for example in a compiler's parser),
	you can use a set of substitute functions which hardwire the C locale,
	such as found in the modules ‘<samp>c-ctype</samp>’, ‘<samp>c-strcase</samp>’,
	‘<samp>c-strcasestr</samp>’, ‘<samp>c-strtod</samp>’, ‘<samp>c-strtold</samp>’ in the GNU gnulib
	source distribution.
	</p>
	<p>It is also possible to switch the locale forth and back between the
	environment dependent locale and the C locale, but this approach is
	normally avoided because a <code>setlocale</code> call is expensive,
	because it is tedious to determine the places where a locale switch
	is needed in a large program's source, and because switching a locale
	is not multithread-safe.
	</p>

	<a name="Preparing-Strings"></a>
	<a name="SEC20"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC20">4.3 Preparing Translatable Strings</a> </h2>

	<p>Before strings can be marked for translations, they sometimes need to
	be adjusted. Usually preparing a string for translation is done right
	before marking it, during the marking phase which is described in the
	next sections. What you have to keep in mind while doing that is the
	following.
	</p>
	<ul>
	<li>
	Decent English style.

	</li><li>
	Entire sentences.

	</li><li>
	Split at paragraphs.

	</li><li>
	Use format strings instead of string concatenation.

	</li><li>
	Use placeholders in format strings instead of embedded URLs.

	</li><li>
	Avoid unusual markup and unusual control characters.
	</li></ul>

	<p>Let's look at some examples of these guidelines.
	</p>
	<a name="SEC21"></a>
	<h3 class="subheading"> Decent English style </h3>

	<p>Translatable strings should be in good English style. If slang language
	with abbreviations and shortcuts is used, often translators will not
	understand the message and will produce very inappropriate translations.
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">"%s: is parameter\n"
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>This is nearly untranslatable: Is the displayed item <em>a</em> parameter or
	<em>the</em> parameter?
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">"No match"
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The ambiguity in this message makes it unintelligible: Is the program
	attempting to set something on fire? Does it mean "The given object does
	not match the template"? Does it mean "The template does not fit for any
	of the objects"?
	</p>
	<a name="IDX124"></a>
	<p>In both cases, adding more words to the message will help both the
	translator and the English speaking user.
	</p>
	<a name="SEC22"></a>
	<h3 class="subheading"> Entire sentences </h3>

	<p>Translatable strings should be entire sentences. It is often not possible
	to translate single verbs or adjectives in a substitutable way.
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">printf ("File %s is %s protected", filename, rw ? "write" : "read");
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Most translators will not look at the source and will thus only see the
	string <code>"File %s is %s protected"</code>, which is unintelligible. Change
	this to
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">printf (rw ? "File %s is write protected" : "File %s is read protected",
	filename);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>This way the translator will not only understand the message, she will
	also be able to find the appropriate grammatical construction. A French
	translator for example translates "write protected" like "protected
	against writing".
	</p>
	<p>Entire sentences are also important because in many languages, the
	declination of some word in a sentence depends on the gender or the
	number (singular/plural) of another part of the sentence. There are
	usually more interdependencies between words than in English. The
	consequence is that asking a translator to translate two half-sentences
	and then combining these two half-sentences through dumb string concatenation
	will not work, for many languages, even though it would work for English.
	That's why translators need to handle entire sentences.
	</p>
	<p>Often sentences don't fit into a single line. If a sentence is output
	using two subsequent <code>printf</code> statements, like this
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">printf ("Locale charset \"%s\" is different from\n", lcharset);
	printf ("input file charset \"%s\".\n", fcharset);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>the translator would have to translate two half sentences, but nothing
	in the POT file would tell her that the two half sentences belong together.
	It is necessary to merge the two <code>printf</code> statements so that the
	translator can handle the entire sentence at once and decide at which
	place to insert a line break in the translation (if at all):
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">printf ("Locale charset \"%s\" is different from\n\
	input file charset \"%s\".\n", lcharset, fcharset);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>You may now ask: how about two or more adjacent sentences? Like in this case:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">puts ("Apollo 13 scenario: Stack overflow handling failed.");
	puts ("On the next stack overflow we will crash!!!");
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Should these two statements merged into a single one? I would recommend to
	merge them if the two sentences are related to each other, because then it
	makes it easier for the translator to understand and translate both. On
	the other hand, if one of the two messages is a stereotypic one, occurring
	in other places as well, you will do a favour to the translator by not
	merging the two. (Identical messages occurring in several places are
	combined by xgettext, so the translator has to handle them once only.)
	</p>
	<a name="SEC23"></a>
	<h3 class="subheading"> Split at paragraphs </h3>

	<p>Translatable strings should be limited to one paragraph; don't let a
	single message be longer than ten lines. The reason is that when the
	translatable string changes, the translator is faced with the task of
	updating the entire translated string. Maybe only a single word will
	have changed in the English string, but the translator doesn't see that
	(with the current translation tools), therefore she has to proofread
	the entire message.
	</p>
	<a name="IDX125"></a>
	<p>Many GNU programs have a ‘<samp>--help</samp>’ output that extends over several
	screen pages. It is a courtesy towards the translators to split such a
	message into several ones of five to ten lines each. While doing that,
	you can also attempt to split the documented options into groups,
	such as the input options, the output options, and the informative
	output options. This will help every user to find the option he is
	looking for.
	</p>
	<a name="SEC24"></a>
	<h3 class="subheading"> No string concatenation </h3>

	<p>Hardcoded string concatenation is sometimes used to construct English
	strings:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">strcpy (s, "Replace ");
	strcat (s, object1);
	strcat (s, " with ");
	strcat (s, object2);
	strcat (s, "?");
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>In order to present to the translator only entire sentences, and also
	because in some languages the translator might want to swap the order
	of <code>object1</code> and <code>object2</code>, it is necessary to change this
	to use a format string:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">sprintf (s, "Replace %s with %s?", object1, object2);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<a name="IDX126"></a>
	<p>A similar case is compile time concatenation of strings. The ISO C 99
	include file <code><inttypes.h></code> contains a macro <code>PRId64</code> that
	can be used as a formatting directive for outputting an ‘<samp>int64_t</samp>’
	integer through <code>printf</code>. It expands to a constant string, usually
	"d" or "ld" or "lld" or something like this, depending on the platform.
	Assume you have code like
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">printf ("The amount is %0" PRId64 "\n", number);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The <code>gettext</code> tools and library have special support for these
	<code><inttypes.h></code> macros. You can therefore simply write
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">printf (gettext ("The amount is %0" PRId64 "\n"), number);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The PO file will contain the string "The amount is %0<PRId64>\n".
	The translators will provide a translation containing "%0<PRId64>"
	as well, and at runtime the <code>gettext</code> function's result will
	contain the appropriate constant string, "d" or "ld" or "lld".
	</p>
	<p>This works only for the predefined <code><inttypes.h></code> macros. If
	you have defined your own similar macros, let's say ‘<samp>MYPRId64</samp>’,
	that are not known to <code>xgettext</code>, the solution for this problem
	is to change the code like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">char buf1[100];
	sprintf (buf1, "%0" MYPRId64, number);
	printf (gettext ("The amount is %s\n"), buf1);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>This means, you put the platform dependent code in one statement, and the
	internationalization code in a different statement. Note that a buffer length
	of 100 is safe, because all available hardware integer types are limited to
	128 bits, and to print a 128 bit integer one needs at most 54 characters,
	regardless whether in decimal, octal or hexadecimal.
	</p>
	<a name="IDX127"></a>
	<a name="IDX128"></a>
	<p>All this applies to other programming languages as well. For example, in
	Java and C#, string concatenation is very frequently used, because it is a
	compiler built-in operator. Like in C, in Java, you would change
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">System.out.println("Replace "+object1+" with "+object2+"?");
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>into a statement involving a format string:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">System.out.println(
	MessageFormat.format("Replace {0} with {1}?",
	new Object[] { object1, object2 }));
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Similarly, in C#, you would change
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">Console.WriteLine("Replace "+object1+" with "+object2+"?");
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>into a statement involving a format string:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">Console.WriteLine(
	String.Format("Replace {0} with {1}?", object1, object2));
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<a name="SEC25"></a>
	<h3 class="subheading"> No embedded URLs </h3>

	<p>It is good to not embed URLs in translatable strings, for several reasons:
	</p><ul>
	<li>
	It avoids possible mistakes during copy and paste.
	</li><li>
	Translators cannot translate the URLs or, by mistake, use the URLs from
	other packages that are present in their compendium.
	</li><li>
	When the URLs change, translators don't need to revisit the translation
	of the string.
	</li></ul>

	<p>The same holds for email addresses.
	</p>
	<p>So, you would change
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">fputs (_("GNU GPL version 3 <https://gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html>\n"),
	stream);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>to
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">fprintf (stream, _("GNU GPL version 3 <%s>\n"),
	"https://gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html");
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<a name="SEC26"></a>
	<h3 class="subheading"> No unusual markup </h3>

	<p>Unusual markup or control characters should not be used in translatable
	strings. Translators will likely not understand the particular meaning
	of the markup or control characters.
	</p>
	<p>For example, if you have a convention that ‘<samp>\|</samp>’ delimits the
	left-hand and right-hand part of some GUI elements, translators will
	often not understand it without specific comments. It might be
	better to have the translator translate the left-hand and right-hand
	part separately.
	</p>
	<p>Another example is the ‘<samp>argp</samp>’ convention to use a single ‘<samp>\v</samp>’
	(vertical tab) control character to delimit two sections inside a
	string. This is flawed. Some translators may convert it to a simple
	newline, some to blank lines. With some PO file editors it may not be
	easy to even enter a vertical tab control character. So, you cannot
	be sure that the translation will contain a ‘<samp>\v</samp>’ character, at the
	corresponding position. The solution is, again, to let the translator
	translate two separate strings and combine at run-time the two translated
	strings with the ‘<samp>\v</samp>’ required by the convention.
	</p>
	<p>HTML markup, however, is common enough that it's probably ok to use in
	translatable strings. But please bear in mind that the GNU gettext tools
	don't verify that the translations are well-formed HTML.
	</p>

	<a name="Mark-Keywords"></a>
	<a name="SEC27"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC21">4.4 How Marks Appear in Sources</a> </h2>

	<p>All strings requiring translation should be marked in the C sources. Marking
	is done in such a way that each translatable string appears to be
	the sole argument of some function or preprocessor macro. There are
	only a few such possible functions or macros meant for translation,
	and their names are said to be marking keywords. The marking is
	attached to strings themselves, rather than to what we do with them.
	This approach has more uses. A blatant example is an error message
	produced by formatting. The format string needs translation, as
	well as some strings inserted through some ‘<samp>%s</samp>’ specification
	in the format, while the result from <code>sprintf</code> may have so many
	different instances that it is impractical to list them all in some
	‘<samp>error_string_out()</samp>’ routine, say.
	</p>
	<p>This marking operation has two goals. The first goal of marking
	is for triggering the retrieval of the translation, at run time.
	The keyword is possibly resolved into a routine able to dynamically
	return the proper translation, as far as possible or wanted, for the
	argument string. Most localizable strings are found in executable
	positions, that is, attached to variables or given as parameters to
	functions. But this is not universal usage, and some translatable
	strings appear in structured initializations. See section <a href="#SEC30">Special Cases of Translatable Strings</a>.
	</p>
	<p>The second goal of the marking operation is to help <code>xgettext</code>
	at properly extracting all translatable strings when it scans a set
	of program sources and produces PO file templates.
	</p>
	<p>The canonical keyword for marking translatable strings is
	‘<samp>gettext</samp>’, it gave its name to the whole GNU <code>gettext</code>
	package. For packages making only light use of the ‘<samp>gettext</samp>’
	keyword, macro or function, it is easily used <em>as is</em>. However,
	for packages using the <code>gettext</code> interface more heavily, it
	is usually more convenient to give the main keyword a shorter, less
	obtrusive name. Indeed, the keyword might appear on a lot of strings
	all over the package, and programmers usually do not want nor need
	their program sources to remind them forcefully, all the time, that they
	are internationalized. Further, a long keyword has the disadvantage
	of using more horizontal space, forcing more indentation work on
	sources for those trying to keep them within 79 or 80 columns.
	</p>
	<a name="IDX129"></a>
	<p>Many packages use ‘<samp>_</samp>’ (a simple underline) as a keyword,
	and write ‘<samp>_("Translatable string")</samp>’ instead of ‘<samp>gettext
	("Translatable string")</samp>’. Further, the coding rule, from GNU standards,
	wanting that there is a space between the keyword and the opening
	parenthesis is relaxed, in practice, for this particular usage.
	So, the textual overhead per translatable string is reduced to
	only three characters: the underline and the two parentheses.
	However, even if GNU <code>gettext</code> uses this convention internally,
	it does not offer it officially. The real, genuine keyword is truly
	‘<samp>gettext</samp>’ indeed. It is fairly easy for those wanting to use
	‘<samp>_</samp>’ instead of ‘<samp>gettext</samp>’ to declare:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">#include <libintl.h>
	#define _(String) gettext (String)
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>instead of merely using ‘<samp>#include <libintl.h></samp>’.
	</p>
	<p>The marking keywords ‘<samp>gettext</samp>’ and ‘<samp>_</samp>’ take the translatable
	string as sole argument. It is also possible to define marking functions
	that take it at another argument position. It is even possible to make
	the marked argument position depend on the total number of arguments of
	the function call; this is useful in C++. All this is achieved using
	<code>xgettext</code>'s ‘<samp>--keyword</samp>’ option. How to pass such an option
	to <code>xgettext</code>, assuming that <code>gettextize</code> is used, is described
	in <a href="gettext_13.html#SEC236">‘<tt>Makevars</tt>’ in ‘<tt>po/</tt>’</a> and <a href="gettext_13.html#SEC251">AM_XGETTEXT_OPTION in ‘<tt>po.m4</tt>’</a>.
	</p>
	<p>Note also that long strings can be split across lines, into multiple
	adjacent string tokens. Automatic string concatenation is performed
	at compile time according to ISO C and ISO C++; <code>xgettext</code> also
	supports this syntax.
	</p>
	<p>Later on, the maintenance is relatively easy. If, as a programmer,
	you add or modify a string, you will have to ask yourself if the
	new or altered string requires translation, and include it within
	‘<samp>_()</samp>’ if you think it should be translated. For example, ‘<samp>"%s"</samp>’
	is an example of string <em>not</em> requiring translation. But
	‘<samp>"%s: %d"</samp>’ <em>does</em> require translation, because in French, unlike
	in English, it's customary to put a space before a colon.
	</p>

	<a name="Marking"></a>
	<a name="SEC28"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC22">4.5 Marking Translatable Strings</a> </h2>

	<p>In PO mode, one set of features is meant more for the programmer than
	for the translator, and allows him to interactively mark which strings,
	in a set of program sources, are translatable, and which are not.
	Even if it is a fairly easy job for a programmer to find and mark
	such strings by other means, using any editor of his choice, PO mode
	makes this work more comfortable. Further, this gives translators
	who feel a little like programmers, or programmers who feel a little
	like translators, a tool letting them work at marking translatable
	strings in the program sources, while simultaneously producing a set of
	translation in some language, for the package being internationalized.
	</p>
	<a name="IDX130"></a>
	<p>The set of program sources, targeted by the PO mode commands describe
	here, should have an Emacs tags table constructed for your project,
	prior to using these PO file commands. This is easy to do. In any
	shell window, change the directory to the root of your project, then
	execute a command resembling:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">etags src/.[hc] lib/.[hc]
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>presuming here you want to process all ‘<tt>.h</tt>’ and ‘<tt>.c</tt>’ files
	from the ‘<tt>src/</tt>’ and ‘<tt>lib/</tt>’ directories. This command will
	explore all said files and create a ‘<tt>TAGS</tt>’ file in your root
	directory, somewhat summarizing the contents using a special file
	format Emacs can understand.
	</p>
	<a name="IDX131"></a>
	<p>For packages following the GNU coding standards, there is
	a make goal <code>tags</code> or <code>TAGS</code> which constructs the tag files in
	all directories and for all files containing source code.
	</p>
	<p>Once your ‘<tt>TAGS</tt>’ file is ready, the following commands assist
	the programmer at marking translatable strings in his set of sources.
	But these commands are necessarily driven from within a PO file
	window, and it is likely that you do not even have such a PO file yet.
	This is not a problem at all, as you may safely open a new, empty PO
	file, mainly for using these commands. This empty PO file will slowly
	fill in while you mark strings as translatable in your program sources.
	</p>
	<dl compact="compact">
	<dt> <kbd>,</kbd></dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX132"></a>
	<p>Search through program sources for a string which looks like a
	candidate for translation (<code>po-tags-search</code>).
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> <kbd>M-,</kbd></dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX133"></a>
	<p>Mark the last string found with ‘<samp>_()</samp>’ (<code>po-mark-translatable</code>).
	</p>
	</dd>
	<dt> <kbd>M-.</kbd></dt>
	<dd><a name="IDX134"></a>
	<p>Mark the last string found with a keyword taken from a set of possible
	keywords. This command with a prefix allows some management of these
	keywords (<code>po-select-mark-and-mark</code>).
	</p>
	</dd>
	</dl>

	<a name="IDX135"></a>
	<p>The <kbd>,</kbd> (<code>po-tags-search</code>) command searches for the next
	occurrence of a string which looks like a possible candidate for
	translation, and displays the program source in another Emacs window,
	positioned in such a way that the string is near the top of this other
	window. If the string is too big to fit whole in this window, it is
	positioned so only its end is shown. In any case, the cursor
	is left in the PO file window. If the shown string would be better
	presented differently in different native languages, you may mark it
	using <kbd>M-,</kbd> or <kbd>M-.</kbd>. Otherwise, you might rather ignore it
	and skip to the next string by merely repeating the <kbd>,</kbd> command.
	</p>
	<p>A string is a good candidate for translation if it contains a sequence
	of three or more letters. A string containing at most two letters in
	a row will be considered as a candidate if it has more letters than
	non-letters. The command disregards strings containing no letters,
	or isolated letters only. It also disregards strings within comments,
	or strings already marked with some keyword PO mode knows (see below).
	</p>
	<p>If you have never told Emacs about some ‘<tt>TAGS</tt>’ file to use, the
	command will request that you specify one from the minibuffer, the
	first time you use the command. You may later change your ‘<tt>TAGS</tt>’
	file by using the regular Emacs command <kbd>M-x visit-tags-table</kbd>,
	which will ask you to name the precise ‘<tt>TAGS</tt>’ file you want
	to use. See <a href="../emacs/Tags.html#Tags">(emacs)Tags</a> section `Tag Tables' in <cite>The Emacs Editor</cite>.
	</p>
	<p>Each time you use the <kbd>,</kbd> command, the search resumes from where it was
	left by the previous search, and goes through all program sources,
	obeying the ‘<tt>TAGS</tt>’ file, until all sources have been processed.
	However, by giving a prefix argument to the command (<kbd>C-u
	,</kbd>), you may request that the search be restarted all over again
	from the first program source; but in this case, strings that you
	recently marked as translatable will be automatically skipped.
	</p>
	<p>Using this <kbd>,</kbd> command does not prevent using of other regular
	Emacs tags commands. For example, regular <code>tags-search</code> or
	<code>tags-query-replace</code> commands may be used without disrupting the
	independent <kbd>,</kbd> search sequence. However, as implemented, the
	<em>initial</em> <kbd>,</kbd> command (or the <kbd>,</kbd> command is used with a
	prefix) might also reinitialize the regular Emacs tags searching to the
	first tags file, this reinitialization might be considered spurious.
	</p>
	<a name="IDX136"></a>
	<a name="IDX137"></a>
	<p>The <kbd>M-,</kbd> (<code>po-mark-translatable</code>) command will mark the
	recently found string with the ‘<samp>_</samp>’ keyword. The <kbd>M-.</kbd>
	(<code>po-select-mark-and-mark</code>) command will request that you type
	one keyword from the minibuffer and use that keyword for marking
	the string. Both commands will automatically create a new PO file
	untranslated entry for the string being marked, and make it the
	current entry (making it easy for you to immediately proceed to its
	translation, if you feel like doing it right away). It is possible
	that the modifications made to the program source by <kbd>M-,</kbd> or
	<kbd>M-.</kbd> render some source line longer than 80 columns, forcing you
	to break and re-indent this line differently. You may use the <kbd>O</kbd>
	command from PO mode, or any other window changing command from
	Emacs, to break out into the program source window, and do any
	needed adjustments. You will have to use some regular Emacs command
	to return the cursor to the PO file window, if you want command
	<kbd>,</kbd> for the next string, say.
	</p>
	<p>The <kbd>M-.</kbd> command has a few built-in speedups, so you do not
	have to explicitly type all keywords all the time. The first such
	speedup is that you are presented with a <em>preferred</em> keyword,
	which you may accept by merely typing <kbd><RET></kbd> at the prompt.
	The second speedup is that you may type any non-ambiguous prefix of the
	keyword you really mean, and the command will complete it automatically
	for you. This also means that PO mode has to <em>know</em> all
	your possible keywords, and that it will not accept mistyped keywords.
	</p>
	<p>If you reply <kbd>?</kbd> to the keyword request, the command gives a
	list of all known keywords, from which you may choose. When the
	command is prefixed by an argument (<kbd>C-u M-.</kbd>), it inhibits
	updating any program source or PO file buffer, and does some simple
	keyword management instead. In this case, the command asks for a
	keyword, written in full, which becomes a new allowed keyword for
	later <kbd>M-.</kbd> commands. Moreover, this new keyword automatically
	becomes the <em>preferred</em> keyword for later commands. By typing
	an already known keyword in response to <kbd>C-u M-.</kbd>, one merely
	changes the <em>preferred</em> keyword and does nothing more.
	</p>
	<p>All keywords known for <kbd>M-.</kbd> are recognized by the <kbd>,</kbd> command
	when scanning for strings, and strings already marked by any of those
	known keywords are automatically skipped. If many PO files are opened
	simultaneously, each one has its own independent set of known keywords.
	There is no provision in PO mode, currently, for deleting a known
	keyword, you have to quit the file (maybe using <kbd>q</kbd>) and reopen
	it afresh. When a PO file is newly brought up in an Emacs window, only
	‘<samp>gettext</samp>’ and ‘<samp>_</samp>’ are known as keywords, and ‘<samp>gettext</samp>’
	is preferred for the <kbd>M-.</kbd> command. In fact, this is not useful to
	prefer ‘<samp>_</samp>’, as this one is already built in the <kbd>M-,</kbd> command.
	</p>

	<a name="c_002dformat-Flag"></a>
	<a name="SEC29"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC23">4.6 Special Comments preceding Keywords</a> </h2>


	<p>In C programs strings are often used within calls of functions from the
	<code>printf</code> family. The special thing about these format strings is
	that they can contain format specifiers introduced with <kbd>%</kbd>. Assume
	we have the code
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">printf (gettext ("String `%s' has %d characters\n"), s, strlen (s));
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>A possible German translation for the above string might be:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">"%d Zeichen lang ist die Zeichenkette `%s'"
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>A C programmer, even if he cannot speak German, will recognize that
	there is something wrong here. The order of the two format specifiers
	is changed but of course the arguments in the <code>printf</code> don't have.
	This will most probably lead to problems because now the length of the
	string is regarded as the address.
	</p>
	<p>To prevent errors at runtime caused by translations, the <code>msgfmt</code>
	tool can check statically whether the arguments in the original and the
	translation string match in type and number. If this is not the case
	and the ‘<samp>-c</samp>’ option has been passed to <code>msgfmt</code>, <code>msgfmt</code>
	will give an error and refuse to produce a MO file. Thus consistent
	use of ‘<samp>msgfmt -c</samp>’ will catch the error, so that it cannot cause
	problems at runtime.
	</p>
	<p>If the word order in the above German translation would be correct one
	would have to write
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">"%2$d Zeichen lang ist die Zeichenkette `%1$s'"
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The routines in <code>msgfmt</code> know about this special notation.
	</p>
	<p>Because not all strings in a program will be format strings, it is not
	useful for <code>msgfmt</code> to test all the strings in the ‘<tt>.po</tt>’ file.
	This might cause problems because the string might contain what looks
	like a format specifier, but the string is not used in <code>printf</code>.
	</p>
	<p>Therefore <code>xgettext</code> adds a special tag to those messages it
	thinks might be a format string. There is no absolute rule for this,
	only a heuristic. In the ‘<tt>.po</tt>’ file the entry is marked using the
	<code>c-format</code> flag in the <code>#,</code> comment line (see section <a href="gettext_3.html#SEC16">The Format of PO Files</a>).
	</p>
	<a name="IDX138"></a>
	<a name="IDX139"></a>
	<p>The careful reader now might say that this again can cause problems.
	The heuristic might guess it wrong. This is true and therefore
	<code>xgettext</code> knows about a special kind of comment which lets
	the programmer take over the decision. If in the same line as or
	the immediately preceding line to the <code>gettext</code> keyword
	the <code>xgettext</code> program finds a comment containing the words
	<code>xgettext:c-format</code>, it will mark the string in any case with
	the <code>c-format</code> flag. This kind of comment should be used when
	<code>xgettext</code> does not recognize the string as a format string but
	it really is one and it should be tested. Please note that when the
	comment is in the same line as the <code>gettext</code> keyword, it must be
	before the string to be translated.
	</p>
	<p>This situation happens quite often. The <code>printf</code> function is often
	called with strings which do not contain a format specifier. Of course
	one would normally use <code>fputs</code> but it does happen. In this case
	<code>xgettext</code> does not recognize this as a format string but what
	happens if the translation introduces a valid format specifier? The
	<code>printf</code> function will try to access one of the parameters but none
	exists because the original code does not pass any parameters.
	</p>
	<p><code>xgettext</code> of course could make a wrong decision the other way
	round, i.e. a string marked as a format string actually is not a format
	string. In this case the <code>msgfmt</code> might give too many warnings and
	would prevent translating the ‘<tt>.po</tt>’ file. The method to prevent
	this wrong decision is similar to the one used above, only the comment
	to use must contain the string <code>xgettext:no-c-format</code>.
	</p>
	<p>If a string is marked with <code>c-format</code> and this is not correct the
	user can find out who is responsible for the decision. See
	<a href="gettext_5.html#SEC35">Invoking the <code>xgettext</code> Program</a> to see how the <code>--debug</code> option can be
	used for solving this problem.
	</p>

	<a name="Special-cases"></a>
	<a name="SEC30"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC24">4.7 Special Cases of Translatable Strings</a> </h2>

	<p>The attentive reader might now point out that it is not always possible
	to mark translatable string with <code>gettext</code> or something like this.
	Consider the following case:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">{
	static const char *messages[] = {
	"some very meaningful message",
	"and another one"
	};
	const char *string;
	…
	string
	= index > 1 ? "a default message" : messages[index];

	fputs (string);
	…
	}
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>While it is no problem to mark the string <code>"a default message"</code> it
	is not possible to mark the string initializers for <code>messages</code>.
	What is to be done? We have to fulfill two tasks. First we have to mark the
	strings so that the <code>xgettext</code> program (see section <a href="gettext_5.html#SEC35">Invoking the <code>xgettext</code> Program</a>)
	can find them, and second we have to translate the string at runtime
	before printing them.
	</p>
	<p>The first task can be fulfilled by creating a new keyword, which names a
	no-op. For the second we have to mark all access points to a string
	from the array. So one solution can look like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">#define gettext_noop(String) String

	{
	static const char *messages[] = {
	gettext_noop ("some very meaningful message"),
	gettext_noop ("and another one")
	};
	const char *string;
	…
	string
	= index > 1 ? gettext ("a default message") : gettext (messages[index]);

	fputs (string);
	…
	}
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Please convince yourself that the string which is written by
	<code>fputs</code> is translated in any case. How to get <code>xgettext</code> know
	the additional keyword <code>gettext_noop</code> is explained in <a href="gettext_5.html#SEC35">Invoking the <code>xgettext</code> Program</a>.
	</p>
	<p>The above is of course not the only solution. You could also come along
	with the following one:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">#define gettext_noop(String) String

	{
	static const char *messages[] = {
	gettext_noop ("some very meaningful message"),
	gettext_noop ("and another one")
	};
	const char *string;
	…
	string
	= index > 1 ? gettext_noop ("a default message") : messages[index];

	fputs (gettext (string));
	…
	}
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>But this has a drawback. The programmer has to take care that
	he uses <code>gettext_noop</code> for the string <code>"a default message"</code>.
	A use of <code>gettext</code> could have in rare cases unpredictable results.
	</p>
	<p>One advantage is that you need not make control flow analysis to make
	sure the output is really translated in any case. But this analysis is
	generally not very difficult. If it should be in any situation you can
	use this second method in this situation.
	</p>

	<a name="Bug-Report-Address"></a>
	<a name="SEC31"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC25">4.8 Letting Users Report Translation Bugs</a> </h2>

	<p>Code sometimes has bugs, but translations sometimes have bugs too. The
	users need to be able to report them. Reporting translation bugs to the
	programmer or maintainer of a package is not very useful, since the
	maintainer must never change a translation, except on behalf of the
	translator. Hence the translation bugs must be reported to the
	translators.
	</p>
	<p>Here is a way to organize this so that the maintainer does not need to
	forward translation bug reports, nor even keep a list of the addresses of
	the translators or their translation teams.
	</p>
	<p>Every program has a place where is shows the bug report address. For
	GNU programs, it is the code which handles the “–help” option,
	typically in a function called “usage”. In this place, instruct the
	translator to add her own bug reporting address. For example, if that
	code has a statement
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">printf (_("Report bugs to <%s>.\n"), PACKAGE_BUGREPORT);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>you can add some translator instructions like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">/* TRANSLATORS: The placeholder indicates the bug-reporting address
	for this package. Please add _another line_ saying
	"Report translation bugs to <...>\n" with the address for translation
	bugs (typically your translation team's web or email address). */
	printf (_("Report bugs to <%s>.\n"), PACKAGE_BUGREPORT);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>These will be extracted by ‘<samp>xgettext</samp>’, leading to a .pot file that
	contains this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">#. TRANSLATORS: The placeholder indicates the bug-reporting address
	#. for this package. Please add _another line_ saying
	#. "Report translation bugs to <...>\n" with the address for translation
	#. bugs (typically your translation team's web or email address).
	#: src/hello.c:178
	#, c-format
	msgid "Report bugs to <%s>.\n"
	msgstr ""
	</pre></td></tr></table>


	<a name="Names"></a>
	<a name="SEC32"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC26">4.9 Marking Proper Names for Translation</a> </h2>

	<p>Should names of persons, cities, locations etc. be marked for translation
	or not? People who only know languages that can be written with Latin
	letters (English, Spanish, French, German, etc.) are tempted to say “no”,
	because names usually do not change when transported between these languages.
	However, in general when translating from one script to another, names
	are translated too, usually phonetically or by transliteration. For
	example, Russian or Greek names are converted to the Latin alphabet when
	being translated to English, and English or French names are converted
	to the Katakana script when being translated to Japanese. This is
	necessary because the speakers of the target language in general cannot
	read the script the name is originally written in.
	</p>
	<p>As a programmer, you should therefore make sure that names are marked
	for translation, with a special comment telling the translators that it
	is a proper name and how to pronounce it. In its simple form, it looks
	like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">printf (_("Written by %s.\n"),
	/* TRANSLATORS: This is a proper name. See the gettext
	manual, section Names. Note this is actually a non-ASCII
	name: The first name is (with Unicode escapes)
	"Fran\u00e7ois" or (with HTML entities) "Fran&ccedil;ois".
	Pronunciation is like "fraa-swa pee-nar". */
	_("Francois Pinard"));
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>The GNU gnulib library offers a module ‘<samp>propername</samp>’
	(<a href="https://www.gnu.org/software/gnulib/MODULES.html#module=propername">https://www.gnu.org/software/gnulib/MODULES.html#module=propername</a>)
	which takes care to automatically append the original name, in parentheses,
	to the translated name. For names that cannot be written in ASCII, it
	also frees the translator from the task of entering the appropriate non-ASCII
	characters if no script change is needed. In this more comfortable form,
	it looks like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">printf (_("Written by %s and %s.\n"),
	proper_name ("Ulrich Drepper"),
	/* TRANSLATORS: This is a proper name. See the gettext
	manual, section Names. Note this is actually a non-ASCII
	name: The first name is (with Unicode escapes)
	"Fran\u00e7ois" or (with HTML entities) "Fran&ccedil;ois".
	Pronunciation is like "fraa-swa pee-nar". */
	proper_name_utf8 ("Francois Pinard", "Fran\303\247ois Pinard"));
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>You can also write the original name directly in Unicode (rather than with
	Unicode escapes or HTML entities) and denote the pronunciation using the
	International Phonetic Alphabet (see
	<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet</a>).
	</p>
	<p>As a translator, you should use some care when translating names, because
	it is frustrating if people see their names mutilated or distorted.
	</p>
	<p>If your language uses the Latin script, all you need to do is to reproduce
	the name as perfectly as you can within the usual character set of your
	language. In this particular case, this means to provide a translation
	containing the c-cedilla character. If your language uses a different
	script and the people speaking it don't usually read Latin words, it means
	transliteration. If the programmer used the simple case, you should still
	give, in parentheses, the original writing of the name – for the sake of
	the people that do read the Latin script. If the programmer used the
	‘<samp>propername</samp>’ module mentioned above, you don't need to give the original
	writing of the name in parentheses, because the program will already do so.
	Here is an example, using Greek as the target script:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">#. This is a proper name. See the gettext
	#. manual, section Names. Note this is actually a non-ASCII
	#. name: The first name is (with Unicode escapes)
	#. "Fran\u00e7ois" or (with HTML entities) "Fran&ccedil;ois".
	#. Pronunciation is like "fraa-swa pee-nar".
	msgid "Francois Pinard"
	msgstr "\phi\rho\alpha\sigma\omicron\alpha \pi\iota\nu\alpha\rho"
	" (Francois Pinard)"
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>Because translation of names is such a sensitive domain, it is a good
	idea to test your translation before submitting it.
	</p>

	<a name="Libraries"></a>
	<a name="SEC33"></a>
	<h2 class="section"> <a href="gettext_toc.html#TOC27">4.10 Preparing Library Sources</a> </h2>

	<p>When you are preparing a library, not a program, for the use of
	<code>gettext</code>, only a few details are different. Here we assume that
	the library has a translation domain and a POT file of its own. (If
	it uses the translation domain and POT file of the main program, then
	the previous sections apply without changes.)
	</p>
	<ol>
	<li>
	The library code doesn't call <code>setlocale (LC_ALL, "")</code>. It's the
	responsibility of the main program to set the locale. The library's
	documentation should mention this fact, so that developers of programs
	using the library are aware of it.

	</li><li>
	The library code doesn't call <code>textdomain (PACKAGE)</code>, because it
	would interfere with the text domain set by the main program.

	</li><li>
	The initialization code for a program was

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample"> setlocale (LC_ALL, "");
	bindtextdomain (PACKAGE, LOCALEDIR);
	textdomain (PACKAGE);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>For a library it is reduced to
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample"> bindtextdomain (PACKAGE, LOCALEDIR);
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>If your library's API doesn't already have an initialization function,
	you need to create one, containing at least the <code>bindtextdomain</code>
	invocation. However, you usually don't need to export and document this
	initialization function: It is sufficient that all entry points of the
	library call the initialization function if it hasn't been called before.
	The typical idiom used to achieve this is a static boolean variable that
	indicates whether the initialization function has been called. Like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">static bool libfoo_initialized;

	static void
	libfoo_initialize (void)
	{
	bindtextdomain (PACKAGE, LOCALEDIR);
	libfoo_initialized = true;
	}

	/* This function is part of the exported API. */
	struct foo *
	create_foo (...)
	{
	/* Must ensure the initialization is performed. */
	if (!libfoo_initialized)
	libfoo_initialize ();
	...
	}

	/* This function is part of the exported API. The argument must be
	non-NULL and have been created through create_foo(). */
	int
	foo_refcount (struct foo *argument)
	{
	/* No need to invoke the initialization function here, because
	create_foo() must already have been called before. */
	...
	}
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	</li><li>
	The usual declaration of the ‘<samp>_</samp>’ macro in each source file was

	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">#include <libintl.h>
	#define _(String) gettext (String)
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>for a program. For a library, which has its own translation domain,
	it reads like this:
	</p>
	<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="smallexample">#include <libintl.h>
	#define _(String) dgettext (PACKAGE, String)
	</pre></td></tr></table>

	<p>In other words, <code>dgettext</code> is used instead of <code>gettext</code>.
	Similarly, the <code>dngettext</code> function should be used in place of the
	<code>ngettext</code> function.
	</p></li></ol>


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