# document

id: 6ef825066d3b6fc1a8882527c46e26b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16797
content:
"Researchers, practitioners and policy-makers are increasingly calling \r\nfor the use of nature-based approaches to protect urban shorelines \r\nfrom coastal hazards (Cunniff and Schwartz, 2015; Bilkovic et  al., \r\n2017). The expectation is that coastal ecosystems can help stabilise \r\nshorelines, protect communities against storm surge and from \r\ntidal-influenced flooding, while providing other co-benefits for people \r\nand ecosystems. However, vegetation along protected coastlines with \r\nhigher frequency, lower intensity coastal hazards (National Research \r\nCouncil, 2014) may be more effective for stabilising shorelines and \r\nreducing risk to coastal communities and properties, and benefits will \r\ndepend on local hydrology of the coastal region. Narayan et al. (2017) \r\nestimate that coastal wetlands alone reduced direct flood damages by "


id: 61bf89bc724e6d93fe4c350c3ba8a159
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14488
content:
"Source reduction strategies include creating permeable areas such \r\nas parks and open spaces, as well as engineered devices such as \r\nraingardens, bioswales and retention ponds that help retain stormwater \r\nrunoff from impervious areas. River restoration can reduce flood \r\npeak flow and provide space for floodwaters to expand. Planting and "


id: f8918c4b7484292d28be05be1f803d6e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41094
content:
"alternatives to traditional stormwater management techniques, where \r\npossible, since these solutions can promote groundwater recharge. \r\nAs green infrastructure is increasingly being used for stormwater \r\nabsorption in cities (McPhillips et al., 2020), rain gardens, wetlands, or \r\nengineered infiltration ponds and bioswales are the NBS most likely to \r\npromote recharge, reduce evapotranspiration and contribute to water \r\nprovisioning."


id: 670ce557c7748e0a1228132175bf49a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15398
content:
"maintaining vegetation along riverbanks, often in the form of parks \r\nor river restoration, maintains structural integrity during flood events. \r\nWetland construction and improved connectivity to floodplains also \r\nreduces flood peaks. Efforts to restore floodplains are important to \r\ncreate space for floodwaters and reduce exposure by moving people out \r\nof the hazard zone. Floodplain restoration also provides access to the \r\nriver that has multiple benefits including recreation, access to water for \r\ndomestic use and other cultural ecosystem services. A key adaptation \r\nstrategy is to reduce streambank erosion (a result of high peak flow) \r\nusing riparian vegetation to stabilise riverbanks during flood events."


id: f080128610aca3e43890917effed032b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39691
content:
"Urban agriculture can serve as a NBS for food security (medium \r\nevidence, medium agreement) across a range of urban contexts \r\n(Lwasa and Dubbeling, 2015; Nogeire-McRae et  al., 2018; Pourias, \r\nAubry and Duchemin, 2016) by contributing to food provisioning as \r\nwell as providing co-benefits including for recreation, place making \r\nand mental health (Petrovic et al., 2019; Soga, Gaston and Yamaura, \r\n2017; Goldstein et al., 2016b)."


id: 836aa81d9e971c3dec669406ad37b43e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20255
content:
"Urban agriculture among poorer communities in lower income areas \r\nis already an important source of food supply for those communities, \r\ncontributing to food security and health (Orsini et al., 2013). However, \r\npotential for expanding open air urban food production may be \r\npractically constrained by land availability (Badami and Ramankutty, \r\n2015; Martellozzo et  al., 2014). This is particularly true in some \r\nlower-income countries where rapid urbanisation is occurring, which \r\ncompounds existing food insecurity (Satterthwaite, McGranahan and \r\nTacoli, 2010; Vermeiren et al., 2013). Land availability and suitability \r\nfor gardens can be further constrained by land use history, including \r\npast industrial uses that can contaminate soils with pollutants such \r\nas lead."


id: 41fa1fa5050a2e23348a6dbc69fd3cee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
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content:
"Climate change may have important impacts on urban food production \r\nand food security. While urban agriculture may provide benefits in \r\nterms of stability of food access in low-income households in some \r\nregions of the Global South where the climate is warmer, the shorter \r\ngrowing seasons in colder climates will reduce the role of outdoor \r\nurban agriculture in year-round food supply and diets. Though urban \r\nagriculture constitutes a small fraction of total food consumption in \r\nsome urban areas, several studies have attempted to estimate the \r\nextent to which urban agriculture could theoretically meet urban \r\ntotal food or vegetable demand (Badami and Ramankutty, 2015; "


id: 4f7c797dc2fb4453466e94ca28abad0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
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content:
"McClintock, 2014; Hara et al., 2018). Maximising the adaptation and \r\nresilience benefits of NBS for food production and security suggests \r\nthe need to embrace the multi-functionality of urban agriculture, \r\nrather than viewing it as solely concerning food production (Barthel, \r\nParker and Ernstson, 2015)."


id: 5c8bdb207615ce775c984e1428ad209a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Interventions in the morphology and built form of cities can contribute \r\nto the reduction of the urban heat island effect and reduce the \r\nconsequences of urban heatwaves. These can include installing air \r\nconditioning, establishing public cooling centres (i.e., for use during \r\nheatwaves), pavement watering (Parison et al., 2020a) and increasing \r\nsurface albedo through 'cool roofs' (i.e., with high-reflectance \r\nmaterials) and walls. Air conditioning can significantly increase the \r\nlocal urban heat island (Salamanca et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2019a) \r\nand the choice of refrigerant has a significant impact on global \r\nwarming potential (McLinden et  al., 2017). The relative efficiency \r\nof cool roofs compared with green roofs is variable, because while \r\nwhite roofs have similar potential to reduce the urban heat island (Li, \r\nBou-Zeid and Oppenheimer, 2014), they can quickly turn grey due to \r\ndust and air pollution, losing their effectiveness (Gunawardena, Wells "


id: 40b7fcefea3487dbcf1eb14051bdde79
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Urban morphology describes the overall status of cities as physical, \r\nenvironmental and cultural entities. Cities interact with surrounding \r\nenvironmental processes, for example, as documented in Section 6.2 \r\nby influencing urban temperature, but also precipitation and through \r\ncoastal and riverine development fluvial and coastal sedimentary \r\nregimes of erosion and deposition that impact on flood risk. Rapid, \r\nincreased urbanisation has contributed to observed flood risks in "


id: a08ddcb113ecd65ec302725961b6073a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"van Hooff et al., 2014; Makantasi and Mavrogianni, 2016; Fosas et al., \r\n2018; Barbosa, Vicente and Santos, 2015; Taylor et al., 2018; Triana, \r\nLamberts and Sassi, 2018; Dodoo and Gustavsson, 2016). However, \r\nit must be noted that the cooling potential of natural ventilation will \r\ndecrease in the future because of increasing outdoor air temperatures \r\n(Gilani and O'Brien, 2020). Increased insulation (including through \r\ngreen solutions) without shading and ventilation can also lead to \r\nadverse impacts through the lowering of nighttime cooling (Reder\r\net  al., 2018). Similarly, air conditioning performance also decreases \r\nwith increasing outdoor temperatures, in addition to being maladaptive \r\nwhere use increases anthropogenic heat emissions into the urban area, \r\nand global greenhouse gas emissions if powered by carbon intensive \r\nenergy systems (Wang et al., 2018c)."


id: 58345d6b4b94fb22287f2068c2fcfff1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
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content:
"Passive cooling is a design-based, widely used strategy to create \r\nnaturally ventilated buildings, making it an important alternative to \r\naddress the urban heat island for residential and commercial buildings \r\n(Al-Obaidi, Ismail and Rahman, 2014). Generally, passive cooling is \r\nachieved by controlling the interactions between the building envelope \r\nand the natural elements. Facade fixes such as overhangs, louvres and \r\ninsulated walls are effective at shading buildings from solar radiation, \r\nwhile complex ones such as texture walls, diode roofs and roof ponds \r\nare effective at minimising heat gains from solar radiation and ambient \r\nheat (Oropeza-Perez and Ostergaard, 2018). Passive cooling is inspired \r\nalso by traditional design forms, for example from Mediterranean, \r\nIslamic and Mughal architecture in the Indian sub-continent (Di Turi \r\nand Ruggiero, 2017; Izadpanahi, Farahani and Nikpey, 2021)."


id: 249affb0c888e16850fa88198dbebec2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
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content:
"Limits on housing and building adaptation include failure of regulatory \r\nsystems so that formal design standards are not followed even \r\nwhen legally required (Arku et al., 2016; Durst and Wegmann, 2017; \r\nPan and Garmston, 2012; Awuah and Hammond, 2014). This can be \r\na result of pressures from clients for cheaper structures, developers "


id: 5c36aa131606cbb5335e95827120d8b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"illegally cutting costs or regulators lacking capacity for enforcement. \r\nTechnological innovation can also be slow to embed itself in building \r\nnorms and standards. Innovation also lies outside the formal sector \r\nand can include artisanal building techniques that may have adaptive \r\nvalue. Examples from Latin America demonstrate how initiatives in \r\ninformal settlement improvement associated with housing policy, \r\nguaranteeing access to land and decent housing, show the opportunity \r\nfor overarching policies encompassing development, poverty reduction, \r\ndisaster-risk reduction, climate-change adaptation and climate-change \r\nmitigation (see Section 12.5.5)."


id: 93b04cafebc39376ed33847dd4816816
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"ICTs play a role in adaptive responses to both short-term shocks and \r\nlong-term trends associated with climate change. Timely access to \r\ninformation (e.g., early warning, temperature and rainfall, agricultural \r\nadvice) through ICTs (e.g., mobile devices, SMS, radio, social media) \r\ncan be crucial to respond and mitigate the impact of emergencies such \r\nas floods and drought, for identifying pest and disease prevalence, \r\nand for informing livelihood options, key in adaptation pathways of \r\nvulnerable communities (Devkota and Phuyal, 2018; Panda et  al., \r\n2019)."


id: b275ae6d5cfd52b8f543cc3cee1e5afa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"In addition to contributing to the robustness and stability of the \r\ncritical infrastructure in the event of disasters, ICTs can strengthen \r\nother attributes of resilient urban systems by enabling learning and \r\ncommunity self-organisation, cross-scale networks and flexibility, \r\nhelping vulnerable stakeholders, in particular, to adjust to change and \r\nuncertainty (Heeks and Ospina, 2015; Heeks and Ospina, 2019). Big \r\ndata is being used to inform responses to humanitarian emergencies \r\n(Pham et al., 2014; Ali et al., 2016), as well as to generate new forms \r\nof citizen engagement and reporting (e.g., community-based maps \r\nof flood-prone areas) that can help to inform coping and adaptive \r\nresponses (Ogie et al., 2019)."


id: da0021eda91682989aa1fb1f4c1ce09a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"The selection and use of ICTs for adaptation needs to be fairly grounded \r\nin the broader socio-cultural, economic, political and institutional \r\ncontext, to ensure that these tools effectively help address existing, \r\nemerging and future adaptive needs. Typically, ICT is inadequate on its \r\nown to make a significant difference (Toya and Skidmore, 2015). The \r\nrole of ICTs in adaptive pathways is influenced by the availability of \r\nlocally relevant information (e.g., weather-based advisory messages, \r\nlocal market prices), the accessibility of information by all members \r\nof the community (e.g., using various text, audio and visual content, \r\nlocal languages, addressing gender-related exclusion, cost and digital \r\ncompetencies) and the applicability of information at the appropriate \r\nscale (local, regional or national), including data quality and verification \r\n(Namukombo, 2016; Haworth et al., 2018)."


id: dbe5591b9876fa607e6101c5760aeb9d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"Information privacy and security, as well as the unintended impacts of \r\nICTs on inequality, spread of misinformation and on widening existing \r\ngaps (e.g., due to poverty, gender and power differentials), can also \r\nconstrain the contribution of ICTs to urban adaptation (Haworth et al., \r\n2018; Coletta and Kitchin, 2017; Leszczynski, 2016) and are among the \r\nkey challenges that need to be addressed in order to fully realise their \r\npotential."


id: b4bd386e48c835b78f116b5dc1a99ab4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"A number of measures are available to adapt existing energy \r\ninfrastructure to climate change. These typically involve changing \r\nengineering design codes and upgrading facilities to cope with new \r\nclimatic conditions, building redundancy and robustness into systems, \r\nand preparation to ensure continued operation following extreme \r\nevents. Adapting low carbon energy infrastructure improves its climate \r\nresilience whilst simultaneously delivering mitigation goals (Kemp, \r\n2017; Feldpausch-Parker et  al., 2018), benefitting all other sectors \r\n(Dawson et al., 2018; Pescaroli and Alexander, 2018; Kong, Simonovic \r\nand Zhang, 2019)."


id: 791f5493518b39be3d5146e566d1b4e7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"ICTs are playing an increasing role in resilience building and enabling \r\nclimate change adaptation. They are enabling access to information \r\nneeded for decision making, facilitating learning and coordination \r\namong stakeholders, and building social capital, as well as helping to \r\nmonitor, visualise and disseminate current and future climate impacts \r\n(Eakin et  al., 2015; Heeks and Ospina, 2019; Haworth et  al., 2018; \r\nImam, Hossain and Saha, 2017). Advocacy and awareness raising \r\nthrough ICTs, such social media applications, can influence behaviours \r\nand attitudes in support of adaptive pathways (Laspidou, 2014)."


id: b4ecd5ee1f7c7f77e9490c2df11185b7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"may be more appropriate to ensure support for vulnerable households \r\nand coordination of action and information (Ghanem, Mander \r\nand Gough, 2016). More generally, it is important for responder \r\norganisations to integrate energy needs in disaster preparedness and \r\nresponse plans. Whilst over the longer term, reducing household and \r\nindustrial demand for energy supply will reduce the need for capital \r\ninvestments and upgrades (Fu et al., 2017)."


id: df5ac2d4b6db4466e4c7a8a7d0f47df7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Hall et al. (2019) identified 4223 GW of global power generation at risk \r\nof flooding. If these assets were protected by 0.5 m flood protection, \r\n~700 GW would be at risk from the 1-in-100 year flood. Many assets \r\ncan be strengthened, relocated or replaced with new equipment built \r\nto higher standards. An example of this is in the UK where a total \r\nof PS172  million is being invested between 2011 and 2023 to raise \r\nflood protection of substations to be resilient to the 1-in-1000 year \r\nflood (ENA, 2015). Electricity cables can be upgraded in anticipation of \r\nreduced efficiency in a warmer climate, although in many locations this \r\nmay be achieved autonomously to meet growth in electricity demand \r\n(Fu et al., 2017)."


id: 24569a2a68de64b36794c20251c77cc8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3582
content:
"Providing a reliable and resilient power supply is crucial to economic \r\nand social development (Fankhauser and Stern, 2016). Furthermore, \r\nthere are co-benefits from the use of low carbon energy systems \r\n(Chapter 8, WGIII AR6). For example, solar-charged street lamps and \r\nhousehold lighting gives reliable nighttime lighting, providing safety, \r\nsecurity and resilience to disruption of network power supplies (Burgess\r\net al., 2017). At larger scales, deploying solar power on building roofs \r\nreduces energy demand for cooling by 12% and lowers the urban heat \r\nisland, and thereby has health benefits (Masson et al., 2014a). In the \r\nUSA, construction of solar panels over 200  million parking spaces \r\nwould generate a quarter of the country's electricity supply (Erickson \r\nand Jennings, 2017)."


id: 9ec393faa686c59388ef33349c7e61be
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25152
content:
"Fuels, including oil, natural gas, hydrogen, biomass and CO2 prior to \r\nsequestration are delivered and distributed by pipeline or transportation \r\nby road, rail and shipping. In addition to engineering improvements, \r\nadaptation measures also include planning and preparation for \r\nservice disruption by changing transport patterns, increasing local \r\nstorage capacities and identifying and prioritising protection of critical \r\ntransport nodes (Wang et al., 2019b; Panahi, Ng and Pang, 2020)."


id: e4c147f07333fdedf618367ebf97d33c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"As presented in Table 6.3, access to energy supply varies considerably. \r\nIn particular, many African countries require substantial energy \r\ninfrastructure to support their economic development. The combination \r\nof smart technologies with solar and other renewable generation \r\nprovides a huge opportunity (Anderson et al., 2017; Kolokotsa, 2017). \r\nHowever, care must be taken in rapidly developing cities, as failure \r\nto ensure energy access during urbanisation can reduce resilience \r\n(Urge-Vorsatz et al., 2018)."


id: 1036fa16100dff560fc6951209d6173e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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vector_id: 40
content:
"Longer term systemic strategies could include a combination of \r\nincreased network redundancy and decentralisation of generation \r\nlocations (Fu et al., 2017), or the use of 'defensive islanding' which \r\ninvolves splitting the network into stable islands to isolate components \r\nsusceptible to failure and subsequently trigger a cascading event \r\n(Panteli et  al., 2016). Smart grids are being increasingly deployed \r\nwithin municipalities to provide more efficient management of supply \r\nand demand and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, however, there \r\nis limited understanding of their performance and reliability during \r\nfloods and other extreme weather events (Vasenev, Montoya and \r\nCeccarelli, 2016; Feldpausch-Parker et al., 2018)."


id: a9e2575a3e9f707c0e9ca975755d0044
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Wright et al. (2012) calculated that strengthening bridges in the USA \r\nwould cost USD 140-250  billion by 2090 (or several billion dollars \r\na year), but costs are reduced by 30% if interventions are made \r\nproactively. Koks et al. (2019) calculate a benefit-cost ratio of greater \r\nthan one for over 60% of the world's roads exposed to flooding. The \r\ngreatest benefits from adaptation of the global road network are in \r\nLMICs where reductions in flood risk are typically between 40% and \r\n80%. Pregnolato et al. (2017) showed that in the city of Newcastle \r\nupon Tyne (UK), two carefully targeted interventions at key locations to "


id: 18b2f44ee17db226a9d18b349bf15271
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"manage surface water flooding reduced the impacts of the 1-in-50 year \r\nevent in 2050 by 32%. In permafrost regions, geo-reinforcement, \r\nfoundation and piles can be strengthened (Trofimenko, Evgenev and \r\nShashina, 2017), whilst passive cooling methods, including high-albedo \r\nsurfacing, sun-sheds and heat drains can cool infrastructure (Dore, Niu \r\nand Brooks, 2016)."


id: 65eb5a3774a699ecd99948e05aca5a94
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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vector_id: 15192
content:
"Adaptation to water scarcity can be through measures to increase \r\nsupply (e.g., water storage, rainwater harvesting, desalination, river \r\nbasin transfers, increased abstraction, reduced pollution of water \r\nsources), or manage demand (e.g., reduce leakage lower consumption, \r\nuse of water efficiency devices, greywater reuse, behaviour change). A \r\ncombination of these measures is usually required (e.g., Ives, Simpson \r\nand Hall, 2018; Dirwai et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2018a). Reliable and \r\nwell-adapted water and sanitation services support economic growth, \r\npublic health, reduce marginalisation and poverty, and can lower \r\nenergy use and improve water quality (Campos and Darch, 2015; \r\nMiller and Hutchins, 2017; Jeppesen et al., 2015; Hamiche, Stambouli \r\nand Flazi, 2016)."


id: d0468e8d41fcab795d0ecee3dbca289b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Hanson and Nicholls (2020) calculate the total global investment costs \r\nfor port adaptation to sea level rise and provision of new areas at \r\nUSD 223-768 billion by 2050. However, adaptation of existing ports \r\nis only 6% of this. Yesudian and Dawson (2021) estimate the cost \r\nof maintaining present levels of flood risk in 2100 for the global air \r\nnetwork will cost up to USD 57 billion (Monioudi et al., 2018; Esteban\r\net al., 2020b)."


id: 5f566cb58ac721abd19cd009e870d7f9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Globally, water sector adaptation costs are estimated to be USD \r\n20  billion yr-1 by 2050 (Fletcher, Lickley and Strzepek, 2019). \r\nGlobally, the budget required by 2030 for water infrastructure (new \r\nand refurbishment) is more than half of the budget required for all \r\ninfrastructure (Koop and van Leeuwen, 2017). For OECD countries, \r\nwater adaptation increases costs by 2%, but this proportion is far \r\nhigher for developing nations (Olmstead, 2014)."


id: 6aedeefc6763ccfbf858ef11130527b9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"A number of adaptation actions are available to reduce the impacts \r\nof floods on water and sanitation infrastructure. Active management \r\nreduces blockages in water infrastructure and protects related \r\nservices such as roads and culverts which are essential to ensure the \r\noperation of onsite sanitation infrastructure (Capone et al., 2020). The \r\nimpact of floods for onsite or sewerage systems can be lowered by \r\nreducing or eliminating excreta from the environment through regular \r\nmaintenance, cleaning and clearing of blockages (O'Donnell and \r\nThorne, 2020; Borges Pedro et al., 2020)."


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created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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vector_id: 9076
content:
"Infrastructure to protect key assets such as water and wastewater \r\ntreatment plants or pumping stations has a high cost but benefits \r\nall connected households and reduces pollution from flood events. In \r\nwell-regulated water sectors, there has been an increasing focus on \r\nsuch investments (Campos and Darch, 2015). Whereas more diffused \r\ncheaper interventions can reduce flood water ingress to domestic \r\ntoilets (Irwin et al., 2018). Luh et al. (2017) found that protected dug \r\nwells were one of the least resilient technologies, whereas piped, \r\ntreated, utility managed surface water systems had higher resilience."


id: eadde8f798551c0efa2c7c9a86a2d5cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38684
content:
"Safe and convenient walking and cycling (and public transport) \r\ninfrastructure in cities reduces carbon emissions and urban heat \r\nisland intensity, but also improve cardiovascular capacity which \r\nreduces heat stress (Schuster et al., 2017). In some regions, warmer \r\nweather may bring opportunities for increased uptake of cycling and \r\nwalking, though precipitation or thermal discomfort caused by high \r\ntemperature and humidity can reduce the use of active travel modes \r\nfor commuting and recreation (Chapman, 2015). Shaded pavements \r\nand lanes, and measures to mitigate the urban heat island can reduce \r\nrisks to disruption of active travel thereby also enhancing mitigation \r\n(Wong et al., 2017)."


id: c7898d743236dc5e76def2ffb88a73aa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32414
content:
"Protecting water sources from pollution is even more important \r\nin a warmer climate that increases the frequency of algal blooms. \r\nIndividual assets such as water intake pipes can be protected using \r\nscreens (Kim et al., 2020a), whereas basin-scale land management is \r\nrequired to reduce nutrient load from runoff (Me et al., 2018), whilst \r\ninjecting water or installing barriers can protect coastal aquifers from \r\nsalinisation (Siegel, 2020)."


id: 67819831d5e1f6d8267b858f7c9e79d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15479
content:
"Full system re-design may enable the greatest resilience but it does \r\nnot usually have a good benefit-cost ratio (Doll, Klug and Enei, 2014). \r\nMoreover, Caparros-Midwood et  al. (2019) show that transport \r\ninfrastructure planners will not always be able to resolve trade-offs \r\nbetween managing climate risks and mitigating greenhouse gases \r\nwithout tackling other sectors. However, infrastructure planners should \r\ncontinually seek opportunities for positive infrastructure lock in where \r\navailable (Urge-Vorsatz et al., 2018)."


id: 52244828562714f414de6c735957bc62
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11723
content:
"More radical structural interventions may be needed in the longer \r\nterm, but would need to be planned and delivered in coordination \r\nwith investments in other sectors, particularly housing (Luthi, Willetts \r\nand Hoffmann, 2020). As an interim measure, sanitation services with \r\na lower reliance on fixed infrastructure, or container-based sanitation "


id: 1207d1c6893d14f6ae7dba8e3631ead2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 361
content:
"hard interventions such as dikes and levees are generally cost effective \r\n(Jongman, 2018; Ward et al., 2017)."


id: e56be13e14d1c1b2173c2f9545146861
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37669
content:
"could be appropriate in many urban areas that are badly affected by \r\nflooding (Mills et al., 2020)."


id: 87c7a980f18b117f9955df4bfe4465a0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21047
content:
"Other actions include use of adaptive planning (Evans, Rowell and \r\nSemazzi, 2020), integration of measures of climate resilience into \r\nwater safety plans (Prats et al., 2017), as well as improved accounting \r\nand management of water resources (Lasage et  al., 2015). Policy \r\nprescriptions on technologies for service delivery and changes in \r\nmanagement models offer potential to reduce risks, particularly in \r\nlow-income settings (Howard et  al., 2016). Where formal sewerage \r\nprovision is lacking, community based adaptation that incorporates \r\nboth the function of the sanitation system and the vulnerability of \r\nusers (e.g., women, children, elderly, ill or disabled) into the design is \r\nessential (Duncker, 2019)."


id: 16913aef9bdb2ceed9f7c5c7d0477953
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1184
content:
"Cities are deploying a broad range of strategies to adapt infrastructure \r\nto flooding, with hard engineering approaches (e.g., dikes and seawalls) \r\nincreasingly complementing soft approaches, including planning and \r\nuse of nature-based solutions, that emphasise natural and social \r\ncapital (Jongman, 2018; Sovacool, 2011). The infrastructure can alter \r\ndownstream risks and lead to increased residual risk by encouraging \r\nmore floodplain construction (Miller, Gabe and Sklarz, 2019; Ludy \r\nand Kondolf, 2012). Physical infrastructure is highly cost effective for \r\nlarge settlements, but not always for small settlements (Tiggeloven\r\net al., 2020) and can be inaccessible to poorer communities (Sayers, \r\nPenning-Rowsell and Horritt, 2018; Van Bavel, Curtis and Soens, 2018). \r\nIt is often inflexible once installed but new designs and adaptive \r\npathways are emerging (Anvarifar et al., 2016; Kapetas and Fenner, \r\n2020)."


id: 756019ffd9a8e9ae68192d482e76c1ce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17877
content:
"More recent developments include sensor arrays to catalogue a river's \r\nreach and how changing hydraulics interact with roadways (Forbes\r\net  al., 2019). Kuala Lumpur's (Malaysia) stormwater management \r\nand road tunnel (SMART) during extreme rain events transitions the \r\nmotorway to a stormwater conduit, an example of multifunctionality \r\nenabling agility (Isah, 2016; Markolf et al., 2019). Smart stormwater \r\ncontrol systems are starting to use real-time control to dynamically \r\nmanage the retention and movement of water during storms, though \r\nuptake at large scales which provide the greatest improvements in \r\nperformance have been limited (Xu et al., 2020b)."


id: 10995f0d38b25cb447a2350f9a7ccc9e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 103
content:
"As urban areas have expanded, so too have the number of vulnerable \r\nassets, and efforts may now emphasise reducing construction in \r\nhigh-risk regions (Paprotny et  al., 2018a). The National Flood and \r\nCoastal Erosion Risk Management Strategy for England, for example, \r\ncalls for reductions in inappropriate developments in floodplains \r\n(Kuklicke and Demeritt, 2016; UK Environment Agency, 2020). Because \r\nclimate change increases the flood risk profile of certain regions, \r\nreconsideration of design criteria has become more common (Ayyub, \r\n2018). New York City now requires the sewer system currently designed \r\nfor hydraulic capacity in 5-year design life should be designed for 50-\r\nyear design life, taking into account climate changes over that period \r\n(NYC, 2019)."


id: 6433a25350f190e716f84bc1fafea15c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14916
content:
"Adaptation strategies are diverse and often involve hybrid physical and \r\nNBS, and increasingly integrated management plans that consider both \r\nflood prevention and designing infrastructure and supporting people \r\nto cope with floods when they occur. Adaptation typically focuses on (i) \r\nincreasing the standard of protection to compensate for the increased \r\nmagnitude of extreme events; (ii) increased maintenance to cope with \r\nincreased frequency of extremes and changes in ambient conditions; (iii) \r\nchanged maintenance regimes from narrower maintenance windows, \r\nfor example as assets are used more frequently (Sayers, Walsh and \r\nDawson, 2015); (iv) land use planning and management to reduce \r\nexposure and manage hydrological flows; and (v) raising awareness, \r\npreparedness and incident management. In high population areas, "


id: b9f504d11559529798a1435d8dad66ec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29940
content:
"initiative sets a goal of 80% of urban land able to absorb or reuse \r\n70% of stormwater through underground storage tanks and tunnels, \r\nand use of pervious pavements, in addition to NBS (Chan et  al., \r\n2018; Muggah, 2019). Similarly, several thousand water-sensitive \r\nurban design interventions have been implemented across the city of \r\nMelbourne (Kuller et al., 2018)."


id: 7f8b8435c681fff5d28e83c1ea9fb04e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19583
content:
"This section builds on 6.3.4 to offer two entry points for assessing \r\nurban adaptation that extend beyond individual infrastructure types \r\nand that demonstrate the interdependent and dynamic natures of \r\nurban systems."


id: dd52f65e40b7e5a2264e9e0e51aa14bf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36203
content:
"Physical coastal management infrastructure has significant benefits in \r\nreducing flood and erosion losses and damage from storms. Physical \r\ninfrastructure includes seawalls, dikes, breakwaters, revetments, \r\ngroynes and tidal barriers. Adapted infrastructure can alter risks in \r\nmorphologically connected areas, and lead to increased residual risk \r\nby encouraging more construction in the coastal zone (Miller, Gabe \r\nand Sklarz, 2019; Ludy and Kondolf, 2012). The infrastructure is \r\nhighly cost effective for large settlements, but not always for small \r\nsettlements (Tiggeloven et al., 2020) and can be inaccessible to poorer \r\ncommunities (Fletcher et al., 2016; Pelling and Garschagen, 2019)."


id: 594a37dffe668307159dab76340c1aef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12949
content:
"Anticipated costs for this vary widely. For example, Hinkel et al. (2014) \r\ncalculate that adaptation costs to maintain current global levels of \r\ncoastal flood protection would be 1.2-9.3% of gross world product \r\nbut protect assets in human settlements of USD 21-210  billion; \r\nTiggeloven et  al. (2020) calculate the cost of adaptation to be USD \r\n176 billion (although this would provide a benefit-cost ratio of 106 \r\nunder RCP8.5); while Nicholls et al. (2019) estimate that global coastal \r\nprotection would cost substantially more, up to USD 18.3 trillion \r\nbetween 2015 and 2100 for RCP8.5 (this includes ranges of unit costs \r\nand maintenance costs which have often been ignored)."


id: 4c8b17b0f9f669e75f499dabb1a0fc42
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10728
content:
"Coastal protection infrastructure such as dikes and sluice gates can \r\ninhibit salinity intrusion through careful management of water levels, \r\nthis can provide co-benefits for flood risk reduction and agricultural \r\nproductivity, but can also have negative impacts on ecosystems \r\n(Renaud et al., 2015). Managed aquifer recharge can be effective if \r\nthe objective is to secure freshwater drinking supply (Hossain, Ludwig \r\nand Leemans, 2018)."


id: 4d37d3b3073ded64aa68cb43790af23e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10865
content:
"Distributive justice calls attention to unequal access to urban services, \r\nland, capital and technology. Related to this, exposure to health, \r\nflooding and drought risks of people living in low-income and informal \r\nsettlements is a growing concern, as is disaster preparedness and the \r\nability to support the needs of vulnerable groups such as the elderly, \r\nchildren and disabled, where data is often lacking (Lilford et al., 2016; \r\nCastro et al., 2017). There are also differences in who benefits from \r\ninfrastructures, as they are inherently political, embedded in social \r\ncontexts, politics and cultural norms (McFarlane and Silver, 2017) and \r\noften tend to benefit those already privileged (Henrique and Tschakert, "


id: 827b8dcd4cebc2e722deff5eaa51f307
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20078
content:
"Where responses to COVID-19 include addressing inequities in social infrastructure, this opens a considerable and potentially society\u0002wide opportunity to reduce social vulnerability to climate change risks (see Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7)."


id: 113a8f365390ee167ee5c6b18e99ceb9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 225
content:
"areas, there is often unequal access to services. For example, an \r\nassessment of sustainable urban mobility plans in Portugal showed \r\nthat some areas have considered equity in their plans and increased \r\naccess for disadvantaged users including the elderly and disabled, but \r\nin other cities this is lacking (Arsenio, Martens and Di Ciommo, 2016). \r\nUnderstanding who has access to what infrastructure can help to \r\nredress the drivers of social vulnerability that are central to just urban \r\nadaptation (Michael, Deshpande and Ziervogel, 2018; Shi et al., 2016)."


id: b09cba4bd1f44d3c6e1c63e5d40dd359
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28304
content:
"2019). As an example, fixing water leaks can depend as much on the \r\npolitics of who is involved and whose knowledge is prioritised as on \r\nthe technical aspects (Anand, 2015)."


id: f42ecb422a89f4259a2a05551aec082a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40331
content:
"The quality and maintenance of infrastructure is often unequal across \r\ncities, benefiting some and increasing vulnerability of others. Some \r\nproperty is seen as dangerous and of lower value if highly exposed to \r\nrisk (Wamsley et al., 2015). Similarly, areas suffering from disinvestment \r\nin infrastructure might have a high risk of flooding (Haddock and \r\nEdwards, 2013). Zoning and land use trade-offs have been seen to \r\nbe unequally skewed in favour of prime real estate and economically \r\nvaluable assets (e.g., protecting factories and refineries from flooding) \r\n(Anguelovski et al., 2016; Carter et al., 2015). Urban planning reforms \r\nare therefore central to building a fairer urban adaptation response \r\n(Parnell, 2016b)."


id: 8d2debd6d1f59958dd77dab17b03358
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22023
content:
"Changing land use and increasing green spaces to reduce climate \r\nrisks and attract investments and job opportunities has increased real \r\nestate values, triggered climate gentrification in some areas (Keenan, \r\nHill and Gumber, 2018) and decreased access to affordable housing \r\nin other areas (Larsen, 2015; Carter et  al., 2015). Displacement \r\nthrough evictions and relocations linked to land use conversion and \r\nresettlement in the name of adaptation has also increased people's \r\nvulnerability (Anguelovski et al., 2016; Henrique and Tschakert, 2019)."


id: e9dc49845f324d332595746f01fd0dc6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38489
content:
"Infrastructure is often not adequately implemented in low-income \r\nurban areas and not equally accessible to all (Meller et al., 2017). For \r\nexample, low-income neighbourhoods often have less green space \r\nand therefore less associated cooling benefits. Even in high-income "


id: da7b378c84505efe92d90cf2f2568e50
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35740
content:
"and Remling, 2018). For example, the case of an area of peri-urban \r\nBangkok experiencing localised flooding due to unregulated private \r\nsector development saw households take both individual (building \r\nflood walls around homes, digging temporary drainage swales in the \r\ncarriageway) and collective action (petitioning authorities, pumping \r\nwater into vacant land). These actions, to a certain extent, merely \r\ndisplaced the flood water to other areas, or created new problems \r\nby damaging the carriageway, creating negative impacts on other \r\nhouseholds and the wider community. However, ultimately, it was the \r\nactions of improperly regulated private sector developers driving the \r\nneed for this autonomous adaptation (Limthongsakul, Nitivattananon \r\nand Arifwidodo, 2017)."


id: 5a317ab360728cbbbd158a7194b29001
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13117
content:
"there is secession from public infrastructure services that has financial \r\nimplications for viability (Romero-Lankao, Gnatz and Sperling, 2016). \r\nIn the case of the 2015-17 Cape Town drought, wealthy households \r\nsecured their water needs through off-grid technologies such as \r\nrainwater tanks and boreholes. Although this resulted in more water \r\nbeing available in the dams, it also led to less revenue being collected \r\nfor municipal water and less ability to cross-subsidise water for poor \r\nhouseholds (Ziervogel, 2019b; Simpson, 2019; Bigger and Millington, \r\n2019). More attention needs to be paid to how shifts in infrastructure \r\nare serving the interests of urban elites, often driven by the state, \r\nand failing to adequately consider the needs of the disadvantaged \r\n(Bulkeley, Castan Broto and Edwards, 2014; Ajibade, 2017; Shi et al., \r\n2016). Equally, more risk-reducing infrastructure is needed across all \r\nurban areas (Reckien et al., 2018a)."


id: 8347ee595beb45d30adaf11ede9e464f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20222
content:
"One of the tensions that emerge when addressing injustice is that \r\nthe global provision of modern infrastructure is increasingly seen as \r\nunfeasible. It is unfeasible, both in terms of the current high emissions \r\nassociated with infrastructure (World Bank, 2017) and the centralised, \r\nhigh standard ideal (Lawhon, Nilsson and Silver, 2018; Coutard and \r\nRutherford, 2015). Decentralisation is increasingly needed, which \r\nthe urban poor already engage in through their use of 'informal' \r\ninfrastructure technologies, given their limited access to infrastructure \r\nnetworks. Transformative adaptation pathways that reduce climate risk \r\nwhilst reducing inequity require an approach that sees infrastructure \r\nas inherently social and political."


id: 3ed8b50caace3bc7b4fd29a92ac6d040
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8245
content:
"As analytical concepts, mitigation and adaptation have helped, over \r\nthe years, to structure thinking and action around climate change. \r\nHowever, since AR5 there has been a growing debate about the \r\nadequacy of a neat separation between adaptation and mitigation \r\n(Castan Broto, 2017)."


id: de60e86d644bbdf721651e97ecd1b81d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36388
content:
"For example, the ideas of climate resilient development and climate \r\ncompatible development help planners to consider the simultaneous \r\nwins that emerge between adaptation, mitigation and development, \r\nrequiring institutional building and partnerships to deliver triple \r\nwin solutions (Stringer et al., 2014; Seo, Jaber and Srinivasan, 2017; \r\nMitchell and Maxwell, 2010). While the evidence base for the actual "


id: d497e9b750336e9d6c8be055721c3ffe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34723
content:
"Table  6.6 represents the contribution of 21 adaptation measures \r\nidentified in this chapter to 17 components of climate resilient \r\ndevelopment (CRD). CRD brings together the aims of climate adaptation, \r\nclimate mitigation, sustainable development and social justice (Singh \r\nand Chudasama, 2021). This provides a first assessment of the viability \r\nof adaptation to cities, settlements and key infrastructure as a part of \r\nglobal transition to sustainability (see also Cross-Chapter Box FEASIB \r\nin Chapter 18)."


id: 97af491e5cf32a922e65365ef86bfa26
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23907
content:
"Two overarching messages and one key consequence for planning \r\narise from Figure  6.4. First, urban adaptation measures can offer a \r\nconsiderable contribution to CRD. Second, this potential is realised by \r\nadaptations that extend predominant physical infrastructure approaches \r\nto also deploy nature-based solutions and social interventions. The \r\nconsequence for planning is support for comprehensive monitoring \r\nand joined-up evaluation across the multiple components of CRD, as \r\nwell as between the sectors that contribute to adaptation."


id: 7378e595928ec6bc6ac1cf2bdc353102
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17568
content:
"Table 6.6 shows that adapting key grey/physical infrastructure (built \r\nform and design, ICT, energy, transport, water and sanitation) is \r\nfundamental to CRD. This provides resilience to a range of hazards, \r\nwith benefits to livelihoods, social capital and health, and provides \r\nbenefits for the adaptation of other, connected infrastructure systems. \r\nChallenges to the contributions of grey/physical infrastructure, where \r\nadaptation through nature-based solutions and social policy offer \r\nalternatives are a lack of flexibility post-deployment constraining \r\nability to flex as climate and vulnerability change; risk transferred to \r\nother people/places, not resolved; negative ecological consequences; \r\nand limited evidence of targeting marginality and inequality."


id: d314efc4cf701cb252a30bde4bda46f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34477
content:
"The significance of a CRD lens for the evaluation of adaptation \r\nstrategy can be seen in approaches to riverine and coastal flooding. \r\nThis viewpoint brings physical (e.g., embankments and defenses), \r\nnature-based (e.g., mangrove stands) and social policy (livelihood \r\nand social protection) options together. The benefits of physical \r\ninfrastructure interventions for strengthening existing livelihoods \r\nand protecting health, for being deployable at scale and supporting \r\nother infrastructures to adapt are recognised and set these against \r\nchallenges including hazard generation and risk transfer, limited \r\nflexibility, ecological harm, carbon costs and an undermining of social \r\ninclusion and accountability. Final evaluations will be determined \r\nby individual contexts, raising the importance of comprehensive \r\nmonitoring of existing urban systems adaptation interventions and \r\ntheir association with ongoing development processes and outcomes \r\n(see Section 6.4)."


id: d610b33c1b84ab0959eb3512201cdcea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34978
content:
"The most consistent limit for all urban systems infrastructure types is \r\nin risk transfer. Current adaptation approaches in cities, settlements \r\nand key infrastructure have a tendency to move risk from one sector \r\nor place to others. With the exception of social infrastructure, the \r\nobserved contribution of adaptation to social transformation is also \r\nlimited. There are consequences for equity and sustainability as the \r\nimpacts of climate change increase, and implications for evaluation \r\nand planning to work across adaptation interventions and connect \r\nwith social and environmental policy and practice."


id: 59283b4e658a7670e42e32b83bde6ccf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12929
content:
"This section assesses the effectiveness of efforts to create enabling \r\nconditions for adaptation. New policy innovations such as National \r\nUrban Policies are emerging to address the multi-level governance \r\ndemands of climate change (UN-Habitat, 2020; Kinyanjui, 2020). \r\nThere is no one-size-fits-all approach to deliver adaptation that will \r\nfit every case, because the local conditions of implementation bear a \r\nstrong influence on adaptation's feasibility and impacts (Archer et al., \r\n2014). Ways to foster adequate enabling conditions for adaptation are \r\nwell-documented (IPCC, 2018 Ch.4). These often include integrated \r\nplanning, multi-agency working and multi-scale and sector action. \r\nExisting techniques can be shared and new innovations taken up \r\n(Maxwell et al., 2018)."


id: 7b622edde82a68a41ce21a4c5ace66e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"2030 supports action at the local level (UN-Habitat, 2016b). Showing \r\nthe economic benefits of adaptation is a strategy for local institutions \r\nto gain support for adaptation action. For example, local governments \r\nin Surat, Indore and Bhubaneswar in India linked adaptation to local \r\ndevelopment needs in experiments that facilitated accessing human \r\nand finance resources, at the local, national and international levels \r\n(Chu, 2016). However, linking adaptation to co-benefits may also \r\ndivide efforts and reduce the effectiveness of adaptation actions. For \r\nexample, urban land use planning and management in Ambo town, \r\nEthiopia, resulted in the implementation of urban greening projects, \r\nbut these projects did not directly address the climate-related disaster \r\nrisks affecting the settlement, including urban flooding, water stress, \r\nwater shortages, increased urban heat, wind and dust storms (Ogato\r\net al., 2017)."


id: ff0e8bb6d478af9e3f9f73ae1487a268
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"Since AR5, there is increasing evidence that successful adaptation to \r\nclimate change is context-specific and responsive to the particular \r\nneeds of urban locations. This section assesses the contributions of key \r\nurban actors, local government, civil society and the local private sector, \r\nin enabling adaptation. Wider influences from national government \r\ncross cut this and are discussed with the role of international agencies, \r\nand finance which is assessed in Section 6.4.5."


id: 489f97b9950fe1d110d6ca24a66085bf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"The literature on the governance of adaptation has grown since the \r\nAR5, though with few cases from cities and settlements in the Middle \r\nEast, North Africa, Central Asia and former USSR countries. Potential \r\nreasons for the continued lack of studies in these areas include the \r\ncentralised character of decision making systems in countries in these \r\nregions and the early stage of adaptation planning in these urban \r\nareas (Clar, 2019; Mitchell and Laycock, 2019; Olazabal et al., 2019a)."


id: 653bb2d17fbbbd70db046e8eff04f5aa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"There are barriers for municipal adaptation plans to deliver effective \r\nadaptation outcomes and implemented actions often diverge from \r\nplans (see Section  6.4.6). For example, a comparison of adaptation \r\nplans and budget expenditures of six metropolitan cities in South \r\nKorea between 2012 and 2016 showed that the implementation of \r\nadaptation programmes diverged substantially from the original plans, \r\nboth in terms of total and sector-specific spending (Lee and Kim, 2018). \r\nOften, a focus on institutional change and reform limits attention \r\nto more practical aspects of adaptation that improve communities' \r\nresilience (Castan Broto and Westman, 2020). Adaptation actions, even \r\nwhere financed effectively, do not always deliver positive outcomes \r\n(high confidence) (Reckien et  al., 2015; Woodruff and Stults, 2016; \r\nUittenbroek, 2016; Aguiar et al., 2018; Reckien et al., 2018a; Olazabal\r\net al., 2019b; Campello Torres et al., 2021) (see also Section 6.4.7)."


id: ad67c8ddc919068f576c3f38f5b46934
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"There are multiple actors, other than local governments, that can deliver \r\nadaptation action, including businesses, not for profit organisations \r\nand trade unions (high confidence) (Giordano et  al., 2020; Eakin\r\net  al., 2021). Empirical evidence since the AR5 highlights the role \r\nof communities, universities, the private sector and transnational \r\nnetworks in adaptation (Hunter et al., 2020; Backstrand et al., 2017). \r\nNon-state actors are particularly important in enabling adaptation \r\nby linking government agencies with low-income and marginalised "


id: e4cd7462903dc6838fc4faf232194e68
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"communities, including those living in informal settlements (Kuyper, \r\nLinner and Schroeder, 2018; Khosla and Bhardwaj, 2019)."


id: c5922b169c83011abc218bca23fc8d3c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"Since AR5, civil society and private actors have emerged as core \r\nknowledge holders and drivers of experimentation, even succeeding \r\nin changing public policy in the process (Klein, Juhola and Landauer, \r\n2017; McKnight and Linnenluecke, 2016; Mees, 2017). Previous \r\nIPCC Assessment Reports noted that civil society actors enable local \r\nrisk awareness, sensitisation and adaptive capacity, and generate \r\nlocally based innovation (e.g., through community based adaptation \r\nprogrammes)."


id: c6e1de8def11349b02134d8baf5fae1c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"There is weak evidence of private sector involvement in urban \r\nadaptation (Pauw, 2015; Heurkens, 2016). The absence of private \r\nsector investment in adaptation is particularly visible in rapidly "


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created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"and Filatova, 2020; Aune, Gesch and Smith, 2020). Private-sector \r\nparticipation in adaptation solutions depend on having mechanisms \r\nto enable transparency and open reporting on the nature of support \r\nand the solutions proposed. For example, businesses adopting \r\n'community-centric' disaster management strategies can assist local \r\nrecovery efforts by protecting employment, provision of emergency \r\nsupplies and participation in reparations (McKnight and Linnenluecke, \r\n2016). Private sector actors engaged in community climate responses \r\ncan play a role in funding and managing programmes that address \r\npublic health and education concerns. The potential of ecopreneurship, \r\nsocial enterprises, cooperatives and other sustainability-oriented \r\nbusiness models (Schaltegger, Hansen and Ludeke-Freund, 2016; \r\nLopes et al., 2020; Battaglia, Gragnani and Annesi, 2020) for urban \r\nadaptation remains under-explored in the literature on urban climate \r\ngovernance."


id: d82360aaca67bde0632753f9bfa7aa8f
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"focus on institutional arrangements that facilitate interaction between \r\ncommunities and civil society, experts, government representatives, \r\nfirms and international organisations. Box  6.5 demonstrates the \r\ndecisive role that community activists can play in building resilience \r\nover long periods."


id: 4bf696a65f31d9834bb0be39308e75c7
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content:
"Institutional fragmentation reduces the capacity to deliver adaptation \r\n(Den Uyl and Russel, 2018) Multi-level governance shows a commitment \r\nto tackling fragmented and complex policy issues through collaboration \r\nbetween national governments and non-state actors, as explained in \r\nthe 2030 Development Agenda, especially SDG17 ('Revitalize the global \r\npartnership for sustainable development'). Multi-level governance \r\nis particularly important to deliver adaptation at the metropolitan \r\nscale, that require coordinating actions across different institutions \r\nin inter-municipal institutions (Lundqvist, 2016). Gaps in knowledge \r\nremain regarding the effectiveness of multi-level governance actions \r\nin different contexts and the extent to which multi-level governance \r\nstrategies transfer the brunt of responsibility for adaptation action to \r\nless-resourced local governments (Hale et al., 2021)."


id: 60d068fac6669d5f5287c68fe74d5f03
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"The private sector also constitutes a key stakeholder group involved in \r\ncollaborative processes to develop adaptation strategies. The inclusion \r\nof private sector actors in deliberative policy-making processes in \r\nurban adaptation can lead to higher procedural legitimacy levels, as \r\nwitnessed in Rotterdam's case (Mees, Driessen and Runhaar, 2014). \r\nRotterdam has created an institutional environment that favours \r\neco-innovation (Huang-Lachmann and Lovett, 2016). The municipal \r\ngovernment works directly with the private sector to enhance \r\nprotection against flooding constructing a marketing strategy around \r\na 'floating city' concept. A 'floating housing' market has expanded, \r\nwith benefits for the local real estate and construction industries and \r\nknowledge-exporting businesses that provide consultation expertise, \r\ndelta technologies and architectural models. Nevertheless, these new \r\ntrends raise new governance challenges to deliver adaptation."


id: ddff111fe95b62aa949a431f5a9b73c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"There are obstacles associated with reconciling private sector interests \r\nwith public priorities and justice agendas in local climate programmes. \r\nThe involvement of the private sector in adaptation actions may lead \r\nto the appropriation of land and natural resources, and to the exclusion \r\nof vulnerable populations (Anguelovski et al., 2016; Rumbach, 2017; \r\nScoppetta, 2016) (see also Section 6.4.4.2). Navigating the inclusion \r\nof businesses in urban planning processes requires local authorities \r\nto engage in ongoing negotiations, to reflect on constantly shifting \r\npower balances and to move delicately between the role of regulator \r\nand facilitator in the process of defining and maintaining long-term \r\nobjectives (Storbjork, Hjerpe and Glaas, 2019b; Storbjork, Hjerpe and \r\nGlaas, 2019a)."


id: f9d88e3ef20ae7e5e50feb8a448a9f90
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"Local authorities are an important enabling actor that can guide \r\nthe private sector and communities to take responsibility for \r\ncreating policy and regulatory environments that encourage private \r\nsector participation aligned with the SDGs' equity and ecological \r\nsustainability principles (high confidence). For example, Frantzeskaki \r\net al. (2014) report a port relocation project in the Netherlands where \r\nsustainability principles drove private sector participation. Klein et al. \r\n(2017) cite examples from two cities--Helsinki and Copenhagen, \r\nwhere local authorities have shifted adaptation responsibilities to \r\nprivate actors through regulation and public problem ownership. In \r\nMombasa, private companies provide green infrastructure to match \r\nlocal government requirements, in what has frequently been cited as \r\nan example of NBS (Kithiia and Dowling, 2010; Kitha and Lyth, 2011)."


id: f251144aac65d60dd7367a5aef74026c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Multi-level governance remains an influential paradigm that \r\nrecognises government institutions' influence at different scales and \r\nthe diversification of actors intervening in public issues from the private \r\nsector and civil society (robust evidence, high agreement). Establishing \r\nlinkages between multiple organisations can help deliver coordinated \r\naction. Multi-level governance includes mechanisms for multiple \r\nactors to engage in local adaptation strategies through collaborative \r\nprocesses of planning, learning, experimentation, capacity building, \r\nconstruction of coalitions and communication channels (Barton, \r\n2013; Jaglin, 2013; Reed et al., 2015; Restemeyer, van den Brink and \r\nWoltjer, 2017; Melica et  al., 2018). Many of these studies directly "


id: d64fc8204ff1309cc2a950580ea40cab
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content:
"In Bengaluru, India, communities have traditionally managed a network of water tanks of immense ecological importance. However, \r\nin the last half-century, urban development has increasingly threatened this blue network (Unnikrishnan and Nagendra, 2015). Today's \r\nBengaluru depends on long-distance water transfers that create political conflict and a dense network of private boreholes that are \r\ndepleting the city's water resources. The restoration of the existing community managed water tanks network offers a more sustainable \r\nand socially just alternative for managing water resources."


id: 842169a68a34cc5ba532a8ebf3b99efc
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"sectors (Bellinson and Chu, 2019; Busch, Bendlin and Fenton, 2018; \r\nFunfgeld, 2015; Busch, 2015; Papin, 2019; Rashidi and Patt, 2018). \r\nHowever, participation in TMNs is biased toward cities in the Global \r\nNorth (Bansard, Pattberg and Widerberg, 2017; Haupt and Coppola, \r\n2019). A recent comparative study of 337 cities found out that cities \r\nthat participation in TNMs are more likely to take adaptation action \r\nand that being part of multiple networks leads to higher levels of \r\nadaptation planning (Heikkinen et al., 2020)."


id: 84f80a5a02ac84de443930ce85d0fe42
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"The main barriers to urban climate adaptation, and strategies to \r\naddress them, relate to institutional change (high confidence) (see \r\nTable 6.7). Institutions include legislative and policy frameworks and \r\nguidelines intended to direct the action of government, civil society and \r\nprivate sector organisations and extend into informal and customary \r\npractices that shape individual behaviour. Many of the barriers that \r\ninhibit institutions acting in ways that can support action for inclusive \r\nand sustainable adaptation have historical roots, grounded in complex \r\npolitical and social relations and can be reinforcing (Table  6.7). \r\nOvercoming these barriers requires coordinating the activities of \r\nmultiple actors who can facilitate institutional and political change \r\n(Eisenack et al., 2014)."


id: 20a2bcf4b57af9535f235cefdf4e0e73
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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"A range of TMNs also support and encourage cities and settlements \r\nto plan and implement adaptation actions. ICLEI-Local Governments \r\nfor Sustainability has developed protocols and implemented projects \r\nfor member cities. The C40 Climate Leadership Group has facilitated \r\nthe coordination of both local governments and business actors at a \r\nglobal scale (Gordon, 2020). Policy coordination has been central to \r\nthe signatories of the Covenant of Mayors (Domorenok et al., 2020). \r\nSuch networks can encourage the sharing of information about \r\nappropriate practices between urban areas; contribute to goal setting; \r\nsupport experimentation and development of new policy instruments; \r\nenhance stakeholder engagement; institutionalise climate agendas; \r\nand encourage policy integration across governance levels and "


id: 3914f32f26b505c7b57922cc64b89048
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content:
"Institutional change is needed to open new options for inclusive and \r\nsustainable adaptation and to integrate adaptation and mitigation \r\n(robust evidence, high agreement) (see also Section 6.3.5). "


id: a188aa06d6ebb56e5bf2e32c96ef4a50
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"that enable adaptation action (Carlson and McCormick, 2015). In urban \r\nareas in Africa, research on internal networks has also investigated \r\nhow informal arrangements shape action possibilities (Satterthwaite\r\net al., 2020). For example, in Zimbabwe, informal, traditional and civil \r\nsociety institutions are core arenas for issue discussion because of lower \r\npublic sector capacities (Mubaya and Mafongoya, 2017). In Durban, \r\nSouth Africa, local governments rely considerably on shadow systems \r\nand informal spaces of information and knowledge exchange across \r\ntheir operations to introduce and sustain new ideas (Leck and Roberts, \r\n2015). In the metropolitan area of Styria, Austria, informal cooperation \r\nhas supported the development of rural-urban partnerships for the \r\nformulation of common goals (Oedl-Wieser et al., 2020). In Arkansas, \r\nUSA, informal governance structures support planning to manage \r\nwildfires (Miller, Vos and Lindquist, 2017)."


id: f770dc8c57413f09b98ac12c0fe817e
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content:
"Input-driven institutional change creates incentives to deliver adaptation \r\naction. An input view focuses on the intrinsic capacities of a given \r\norganisation. Input indicators are often referred to as political capital \r\n(Rosenzweig and Solecki, 2018; Diederichs and Roberts, 2016), existing \r\nor endogenous resources (Moloney and Funfgeld, 2015; Wamsler \r\nand Brink, 2014), or local drivers for adaptation (Dilling et al., 2017). \r\nReResearch conducted across two municipalities in Western Cape, \r\nSouth Africa, showed the importance of a dedicated environmental \r\nchampion, access to a knowledge base, the availability of resources, \r\npolitical stability and the presence of dense social networks (Pasquini\r\net  al., 2015). Research from Sao Paulo, Brazil, showed how intrinsic \r\npolitical capacities and contextual factors, such as the political ideology \r\nof elected officials, shaped opportunities for embedding adaptation into \r\nongoing urban agendas (Di Giulio et al., 2018)."


id: 11498bc85512e3f4f676b9c6596b9cd7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Networks, interactions and actor coalitions shape options for institutional \r\nchange. Aylett (2015) noted the importance of internal networks between \r\nmunicipal departments, including informal communication channels, \r\ncultivating personal contacts and trust between the person or team \r\nresponsible for climate planning and staff within other local government \r\nagencies. Internal networks can facilitate the commitment of local \r\nelected officials (Hughes, 2015), support higher municipal expenditures \r\nper capita and foster perceptions that climate adaptation is needed (Shi, \r\nChu and Debats, 2015). Collective decision-making can integrate multiple \r\ntypes of information with moral concerns and provide key rationales "


id: 11ecab86f171969951d28d9251568a4a
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content:
"Uggla, 2015). Some Asian cities also report high output effectiveness, \r\nwhere they are more likely to indicate senior local government officials' \r\nperformance management contracts, the budgeting procedures of \r\nlocal government agencies and the procedures that local government \r\nagencies use for budgeting infrastructure spending (Aylett, 2015). \r\nDespite this evidence, there is a gap in understanding the general \r\ntrends of planning and institutional change in Africa, Asia, East Europe \r\nand the Middle East."


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"Institutional change processes are complex, contested and sporadic \r\n(Patterson, de Voogt and Sapiains, 2019). Such processes are often \r\ninhibited by unclear planning mandates, conflicting development \r\npriorities, lack of leadership and resource and capacity shortfalls \r\n(Anguelovski et  al. 2014). There is no one size fits all approach to \r\ninstitutional change, which works in situ, and benefits from clearly \r\ndefined plans and an incremental approach to revising new elements \r\nand addressing gaps or failures (Beunen et al., 2017). A longitudinal \r\nview of institutional change allows for assessing actors and dynamics \r\ninvolved in integrating adaptation into the sectoral agendas or \r\ngovernance arrangements mentioned above (Patterson and Huitema, \r\n2019)."


id: 716b561bb8add13355fb39dac191b2c8
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"insufficient political will (that is lack of prioritisation of the issue and \r\ninadequate allocation of resources including staffing and finance) and \r\nlack of inclusive, coordinated leadership, it can be difficult to overcome \r\ninaction, generating a policy action gap."


id: a87e2d5b6a69714554f7392e4ccd2bd1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Multiple actors contribute to deliver climate change adaptation (Chan\r\net al., 2015a; Backstrand et al., 2017). There are also multiple scales \r\nof action, from the provision of local services to large infrastructures \r\nof national or even international significance. Figure 6.5 provides an \r\ninsight into the challenges that shape the policy action gap and a \r\nrange of strategies that can help bridge policy action gaps. Effective \r\nadaptation governance will depend on the compound impact of the \r\nactions of multiple agents operating at different scales (medium \r\nconfidence, medium agreement) (Di Giulio et  al., 2019; Hale et  al., \r\n2021; Zwierzchowska et al., 2019)."


id: e9da027722f478f446b47a57ee161d97
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Two forms of mainstreaming are usually found in urban policy: \r\nincorporating climate adaptation into different sectors or incorporating \r\nclimate adaptation in holistic sustainability or resilience plans, linking \r\nclimate adaptation objectives with other social and development \r\nobjectives (Reckien et  al., 2019; Fainstein, 2018). The integration \r\nof climate adaptation in local policies in cities and settlements has \r\noften been seen as maintaining business-as-usual and not always "


id: 2d2d3ab15a2da0448ac0e0d7bf215b72
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"in three cities across the Czech Republic, stakeholder participation \r\nexercises were used to prioritise climate change risks, provide impetus \r\nand opportunity for knowledge co-production, and support adaptation \r\nplanning (Krkoska Lorencova et  al., 2018). In municipalities in \r\nMalaysia, stakeholders and citizens are active in the adaptation policy \r\ncycle (Palermo and Hernandez, 2020). In Quebec, Canada, citizens \r\ncollaborated with the municipal authority to bring together climate \r\nscience and 'ordinary' urban management and design solutions \r\n(Cloutier et  al., 2015). Service co-production enables integrating \r\nmultiple actors in the management and delivery of public services \r\n(Pestoff and Brandsen, 2013; Pestoff, Brandsen and Verschuere, 2013). \r\nCivil society-driven, co-productive approaches can pioneer new forms \r\nof institutional relations and practices filling gaps where the public \r\nsector is absent or retreating (Frantzeskaki et al., 2016)."


id: e784e50bb21f2bcad483f36bafb07a26
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content:
"McGranahan and Mitlin, 2016; Chowdhury, Jahan and Rahman, \r\n2017; Moretto and Ranzato, 2017; Nastiti et al., 2017). Co-production \r\ninvolves the active involvement of citizens and citizens' organisation \r\nin iterative public service planning and delivery, and has become \r\nincreasingly central in climate change responses alongside other \r\nbottom-up, community-led strategies (Bremer et al., 2019; Vasconcelos, \r\nSantos and Pacheco, 2013)."


id: 6decf83d317e0746b38f8d2e1fdc69e3
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content:
"Co-production builds on public participation that brings together \r\ndiverse sets of citizen interests, values and ideas to inform change and \r\nsolve problems relating to a collective adaptation challenge (Archer\r\net al., 2014; Bisaro, Roggero and Villamayor-Tomas, 2018; Sarzynski, \r\n2015), and is increasingly important in environmental policy more \r\nwidely (McGranahan, 2015; Moretto and Ranzato, 2017). For example, "


id: 39194b9ceffbd5da60adfa93f1472138
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"example, fisherwomen in the western coast of India rely on a complex \r\narrangement of relationships around categories of class, caste and \r\ngender that shapes their possibilities to draw political resources \r\nto maintain their livelihoods and, hence, influence the dynamics of \r\ntransformation (Thara, 2016). Intersectionality is central to build \r\nresilience across communities, rather than in particular areas (Khosla \r\nand Masaud, 2010; Reckien et  al., 2017). Including intersectionality \r\ndeliberately in partnerships with communities can empower socially \r\nexcluded groups and highlight justice issues while aligning agendas \r\nwith local development priorities (Castan Broto et al., 2015a). Despite \r\nthe high confidence on the growing importance of intersectionality \r\nconcerns in the delivery of just environmental policies, there is limited \r\nevidence of its explicit inclusion in adaptation policies."


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content:
"A co-production approach to climate change governance addresses \r\nthe increasing public interest on climate change (Davies, Broto and \r\nHugel, 2021). Youth movements such as Forum for Future have joined \r\nforces with other environmental and Indigenous organisations to lobby \r\ngovernments and institutions to action (Kenis, 2021; Fisher and Nasrin, \r\n2021; Davies and Hugel, 2021; Hayward, 2021). These movements have \r\nbuilt momentum moving local governments and other institutions to \r\ndeclare a climate emergency and have supported the creation of new \r\nforums where climate change can be addressed collectively, such as \r\ncitizens' assemblies. In the UK, for example, initial scepticism has led to \r\nthe proliferation of citizen-centric Climate Assemblies at the local level \r\n(Sandover, Moseley and Devine-Wright, 2021)."


id: 4489b240b83a0ab315a67c7771bfb5d9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Women are under-represented internationally in governance \r\nstructures (Prihatini, 2019; Gonzalez-Eiras and Sanz, 2018; \r\nRashkova and Zankina, 2017; Koyuncu and Sumbas). This \r\nsituation is reflected in urban authorities where participation \r\nby those who identify as women is low (Williams, Devika and \r\nAandahl, 2015; Kivoi, 2014). Das (2014) reports deep-rooted \r\neconomic inequalities are barriers for women's participation \r\nin Indore, India, and that women's collective empowerment \r\ncould increase their bargaining power within households \r\nas well as in the community and state. Kivoi (2014) draws a \r\nsimilar conclusion presenting experiences from Kenya. The big \r\nquestion is how to make women more visible in the urban \r\ngovernance process?"


id: 80b36f9984e5eef2e7f69b7c110b2987
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"What are the barriers women face and how do we increase \r\ntheir participation so that urban governance become more \r\ninclusive? Escalante and Valdivia (2015) show the participatory \r\ntools that can be used at different stages of planning for \r\nwomen's empowerment using bottom-up planning models. \r\nUsing these tools makes planning processes more inclusive. \r\nAraujo and Tejedo-Romero (2016) show from Spanish local \r\ncouncils that women's political representation in municipalities \r\nhas a positive influence on the level of transparency, increasing \r\ninformation transparency and reducing information asymmetry. \r\nIn Myanmar, Minoletti (2014) increased levels of women's \r\nparticipation in urban authorities helped to improve the quality \r\nof governance such as reducing corruption and conflicts, and \r\nimproving service delivery."


id: 620523a3ba03ae0da0f98649bf472ca4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14517
content:
"Inclusive and sustainable adaptation can address the causes of \r\nsystemic vulnerability (medium evidence, high agreement). This points \r\nto the fundamental requirements of adaptation action in line with the \r\nUniversal Declaration of Human Rights. Climate justice theories draw \r\non the environmental justice movement experiences at the local level \r\n(Bickerstaff, 2012; Bickerstaff, Walker and Bulkeley, 2013; Perez et al., \r\n2015; Hall, Hards and Bulkeley, 2013). Slogans such as 'leave no one \r\nbehind' embedded in international policy for cities and settlements \r\nrecognise the connection between systems of oppression and exclusion \r\nthat reproduce and perpetuate urban inequality and the delivery of \r\nurban services and security (Kabeer, 2016; Stuart and Woodroffe, 2016)."


id: 66cb43651c8ae62d252b6bf750a282b2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15352
content:
"Intersectional strategies of action seek to consider the multiple forms \r\nof structural oppression experienced at the local level (Grunenfelder \r\nand Schurr, 2015) and, in the context of adaptation, explain how they \r\nproduce or exacerbate vulnerabilities. For example, intersectionality \r\nties with the idea of how multiple deprivations shape access to \r\nservices (from sanitation to health and education) and the exposition \r\nto environmental risks (Sicotte, 2014; Lau and Scales, 2016; Van Aelst \r\nand Holvoet, 2016; Lievanos and Horne, 2017; Raza, 2017; Yon and \r\nNadimpalli, 2017; European Environment Agency, 2020) (see Box 6.6 \r\non the participation of women in local decision making bodies). For "


id: 5981be179a03aaab562a834330ae5459
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"People traditionally excluded from climate change governance, such \r\nas children, are also more likely to have their needs and priorities \r\nconsidered in urban planning for adaptation where there are national \r\nadvocacy bodies, for example, Commissions for Future, or Children's \r\ncommissions (Nordstrom and Wales, 2019; Watts et  al., 2019; \r\nHayward, 2021). An emphasis on procedural justice in decision-making \r\nhas potential to produce transformational outcomes where these are \r\ndefined as significantly reducing inequality (Holland, 2017). In this light, \r\nemerging evidence suggests transformative adaptation is more likely "


id: 83f955df02f6085af70e7cbdceb39a9c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20372
content:
"To respond to urban injustices, attention needs to be paid to both the \r\nlocal level and to broader system-wide governance issues (that are \r\nunpacked further in Section 6.4). At the local level, it is important to \r\nunderstand who is most vulnerable to climate risk, which is likely to be \r\nrelated to class, race, gender, ability and age (Wilby and Keenan, 2012; \r\nRanganathan and Bratman, 2019; Thomas, Cretney and Hayward, \r\n2019). Factors such as age and levels of ability, as well as those \r\npursuing outdoor livelihoods, have a direct link to higher vulnerability \r\nto heat stress (Conry et al., 2015). In least-developed countries, less \r\nthan 60% of the urban population have access to piped water which \r\nimpacts on health and well-being, and emphasises the importance of \r\nalternative resources for these households (World Health Organization, \r\nNations and Fund, 2017)."


id: ec796600cd462998b7f1ca95ff9e3b74
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"The amount invested in urban adaptation is limited. The Cities Climate \r\nFinance Leadership Alliance tracked USD 3.7  billion of investments \r\nin adaptation projects in 2017-2018, of which only 3-5% had an \r\nurban component (Richmond et  al., 2021). Cities and settlements \r\nfrequently face barriers of inadequate financing for climate adaptation \r\nand mitigation (Cook and Chu, 2018). Finance barriers interact \r\nwith economic barriers and socioeconomic conflicts and need to be \r\nconsidered within an integrated perspective (Hinkel et al., 2018)."


id: d3345c2be5731fcd02fa0f4a681092ff
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34504
content:
"Many early leaders in climate adaptation are, therefore, perhaps \r\nunsurprisingly, political capitals or financial centres in the Global North \r\nwith much larger resource envelopes and well-developed fiscal and \r\nfinancing capacities (Westerhoff, Keskitalo and Juhola, 2011; Shi, Chu \r\nand Debats, 2015)."


id: 9f4463ead236e0e2be25b3f98eb34b5a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"The funding required to deliver climate change adaptation will depend \r\non choices made about climate mitigation (IPCC, 2018). Still, the cost \r\nof adapting to a global temperature increase of 1.5degC will be a fraction \r\nof the cost of adapting to a global temperature increase exceeding 3o\r\nC \r\n(IPCC, 2019a; IPCC, 2019b; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018). It will also \r\ndepend on selected adaptation options, as they have different capital \r\nrequirements, operating costs and returns on investment (See 6.3). \r\nFinally, costs depend on financing sources and mechanisms selected."


id: 520d507a91041d6349a59e6b8242b00f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Broadly, there are two options for adaptation investment: funding, \r\ndirect expenditure in preparation for or response to climate change \r\nimpacts, and financing, the deployment of market-based instruments \r\nto attract third-party resources to an adaptation action (Keenan, \r\n2018; Banhalmi-Zakar et al., 2016). Using funding can be a lower-cost \r\nstrategy, as there is no third party expecting a return on investment. \r\nHowever, using financing can expand the total resources available for \r\nadaptation (White and Wahba, 2019)."


id: b370e9bcd132759bfa9c05564819e33a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Table 6.9 |  Components of urban transformative capacity with broader relevance for multiple forms of adaptation (Wolfram, 2016)."


id: 26371b64c39d0ca7562e649761b2ce28
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"investors and lenders do not seem ready to provide adaptation finance \r\non significantly easier or cheaper terms than conventional finance \r\n(White and Wahba, 2019). However, a variety of means for financing \r\nclimate change adaptation in urban areas exist (Table 6.10)."


id: 74e41e7fdfde05a47fb939ca8b0f1400
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"The choice of funding and financing mechanism is often based on \r\nimplicit economic world views (Keenan, Chu and Peterson, 2019) \r\nor on the technical support available to sub-national governments, \r\nsuch as preparing municipal bonds or contracting for public-private \r\npartnerships (Bisaro and Hinkel, 2018). The urban finance literature has \r\nlong called for critical interrogation of these choices, as adaptation \r\nfinance has profound justice implications (Khan et al., 2020). However, \r\nthe literature on adaptation investments is limited (Harman, Taylor and \r\nLane, 2015; Keenan, Chu and Peterson, 2019). The use of municipal \r\ndebt such as green bonds, for example, intensify the financial and \r\nenvironmental risks borne primarily by the poor, the working class or \r\npeople discriminated against because of race, sexual orientation or \r\nability (Bigger and Millington, 2019)."


id: 9d027f478503440bea493c0693decaf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Cities and settlements in higher-income countries typically have \r\naccess to funding that could be used to enhance resilience and build \r\nadaptive capacity; this includes both the private resources of individual \r\nhouseholds and firms (which varies significantly within and among \r\ncities) and public budgets of different government tiers (see Table 6.10)."


id: bf4f86c024344183fe1a547d7a32449e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Depending on fiscal devolution levels within a country, public \r\nrevenues may be collected and managed primarily at the national, \r\nstate, metropolitan or local level. In federal countries, sub-national \r\ngovernments collect an average of 49.4% of public revenues, \r\ncompared with only 20.7% in unitary countries (OECD/UCLG, 2019). \r\nFor example, sub-national revenues represent over a quarter of total \r\npublic revenues in Belgium, Canada and Denmark, but less than 5% in \r\nGreece, Ireland and New Zealand (OECD/UCLG, 2019). The share of the \r\nnational revenue transferred to sub-national governments also varies \r\nsignificantly among countries: grants and subsidies account for over "


id: 550e8d5ba320fb3e80532b841a3c6f58
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12237
content:
"The climate imperative has not yet fundamentally changed urban \r\ninfrastructure investment (White and Wahba, 2019). Mobilising \r\nadaptation investment in urban areas continues to depend on \r\nstrengthening public finance capacities (particularly evaluating and \r\nintegrating climate risk into economic decisions) and meeting private \r\ninvestors and lenders' expectations. Climate change creates new \r\ninvestment risks and physical risks (Martimort and Straub, 2016), \r\nand highlights the limitations of current models to account for risk \r\nand uncertainty when pricing investments (Keenan, 2018). Private "


id: 57d570efc3ecb35441a56813a46a2d2b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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vector_id: 12716
content:
"Table 6.10 |  Finance instruments to deliver adaptation in urban areas. Source: adapted from Richmond et al. (2021) and UN-Habitat (2016b)"


id: 20d3e195651ca39da704b2bd860cf683
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content:
"that resources for resilience must be allocated by higher levels of \r\ngovernment (Hughes, 2015), which also perceive opportunity costs to \r\nadaptation investments. Funding from non-state actors is, therefore, \r\nproving important. For example, in the USA, private foundations and \r\nnon-profit organisations account for 17% and 16%, respectively, of \r\nadaptation support in urban areas (Carmin, Nadkarni and Rhie, 2012). \r\nHowever, tapping into these funding sources raises complex questions \r\nabout accountability and ownership of urban adaptation (Chu, Schenk \r\nand Patterson, 2018). Land reclamation may foster real estate markets \r\nand mobilise finance for adaptation, as shown in Germany, the \r\nNetherlands and the Maldives (Bisaro et al., 2019)."


id: cd4f1f56f373881c480af7074d8e5f3
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33462
content:
"three-quarters of sub-national government revenue in Malta, but less \r\nthan a quarter of sub-national revenue in Iceland (OECD/UCLG, 2019). \r\nA local government's capacity to collect revenues is further mediated \r\nby incomes within a city (which dictates the prospective tax base) and \r\nthe capacity of civil servants to administer taxes, fees and charges. \r\nThe result is that metropolitan and local governments' budgets vary \r\ndramatically, across and within countries. For example, per capita \r\nmunicipal budgets vary from USD 1114 in Saskatoon and USD 2682 in \r\nPeterborough (Canada), USD 2635 in Leipzig and USD 3638 in Freiburg \r\n(Germany), to USD 4907 in Bristol and USD 5612 in Aberdeen (UK) \r\n(Loffler, 2016)."


id: 2e63878160c5ec27fc89a4d9c2477947
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"City governments need to anticipate climate shocks and stresses, and \r\ndesign their operating models and investment plans accordingly to \r\nensure financial resilience (Clarvis et al, 2015). Climate risks threaten \r\nfiscal models, for example, a drought may disrupt water revenues by \r\nreducing total water consumption and incentivising households and \r\nfirms to invest in independent water storage or supply infrastructure \r\n(Simpson et al., 2019). Storm surges and sea level rise may threaten "


id: 2c3e3287675b1adfc82c3f23da023636
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Revenue streams are often insufficient relative to the scale of \r\nadaptation requirements. For example, Kano, Nigeria, is a large \r\nurban area that urgently needs investment in human development \r\nand climate resilience but where a fragmented local government has \r\nlittle capacity to finance their climate plans (Mohammed, Hassan and \r\nBadamasi, 2019). Many local governments are unable to mobilise \r\nfunds for adaptation as they face competing priorities, meaning "


id: e22476dcbcb25bd734ad8272d77f2b7a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"National governments typically determine the fiscal transfers that \r\nsub-national governments receive and the taxes, fees and charges \r\nthey permit to collect (see for example CBO, 2016). Local governments \r\nmay strengthen their own source revenue collection and management \r\ncapacities to better exploit these funding streams and improve their \r\nbalance sheets, but their total budget will be limited to these funding \r\nsources (Ahmad et  al., 2019). The amount of local public funding \r\navailable for urban adaptation depends on the relationships across \r\ndifferent government levels."


id: 2a00ad05456595fdd1e83afb09e6a59a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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vector_id: 4609
content:
"sunk investments in revenue-generating infrastructures such as toll \r\nroads or electricity generation and transmission systems. ."


id: 894dbf106c873b89d23793b853d8e76c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Common sources of adaptation finance might include donor \r\nagencies including the Green Climate Fund, sovereign funds (e.g., the \r\nBangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund) and private finance from \r\ncommercial banks, investment companies, pension funds and insurance \r\ncompanies (Floater et al., 2017). These capital sources have different \r\nrisk-return expectations and investment horizons, so they will suit \r\ndifferent types and stages of projects. Many sub-national governments \r\nin the Global North have access to well-developed domestic, if not \r\nglobal, capital markets to raise and steer finance for urban investment \r\n(Banhalmi-Zakar et al., 2016)."


id: ef760616361956f9cbef9ac832335aee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39504
content:
"Similarly, mobilising private finance for urban adaptation projects \r\ndemands robust institutional, fiscal and regulatory frameworks, which \r\nare typically national authorities' responsibility. For local governments \r\nto access private finance for adaptation may require national (or in \r\nfederal countries, state) governments to reform policies and rules \r\ngoverning municipal borrowing, public-private partnerships, land \r\nvalue capture instruments and other financing mechanisms (Ware \r\nand Banhalmi-Zakar, 2017). Such fiscal reforms tap into fundamental \r\npolitical and policy issues, such as local governments' autonomy or the \r\ntariff-setting powers of national ministries (Gorelick, 2018; White and \r\nWahba, 2019)."


id: 9960e662171ee92f48e21a295251552e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24208
content:
"Access to private finance can support infrastructure development \r\nthrough private provisioning, public-private partnerships (PPP) and \r\npublic debt arrangements (high confidence) (see also Section 6.4.1.2). \r\nPrivate provisioning attracts coastal adaptation investment when \r\nreturns are high (e.g., when there is a real estate market associated \r\nwith it) (Bisaro and Hinkel, 2018). Public-private partnerships attract \r\ninvestments from dredging and construction companies that involve \r\na large share of operational costs (Bisaro and Hinkel, 2018). Public \r\ndebt instruments appear less successful in supporting investment \r\nin adaptation infrastructure. Real estate firms focus on adaptation \r\nactions if they perceive climate change impacts such as flooding may \r\nimpact their activity, mostly focusing on adaptation action as a means \r\nto gain competitive advantage (Teicher, 2018)."


id: e5206630babd741205d2c335afaba1f4
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"There have been numerous attempts to innovate in climate finance, \r\nfor example, mobilising community and cooperative forms of finance, \r\nor crowdfunding, which have already proven effective in the context \r\nof mitigation (De Broeck, 2018). A well-studied instrument in urban "


id: 7a8ef856ea1197ea3e9a4a97012f39e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"In Africa, new investment in institutions can support other enabling conditions for climate-resilient urban development (Robins, 2018). \r\nWhile several studies reveal the net economic benefit of climate-resilient, low-carbon African cities (Global Commission on Economy and \r\nClimate, 2017), structural impediments remain to the mobilisation of investment for the types of public good infrastructure that would \r\nunlock this benefit (Dodman et al., 2017)."


id: 26681816e3505f8a0d336ae90bba1320
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content:
"Data on private finance in African cities are inadequate (OECD, 2017), but all of Africa secured just 3.5% (USD 46 billion) of global foreign \r\ndirect investment (FDI), despite a 10.9% increase in 2018 (UNCTAD, 2019). Mining and the extraction and processing of fossil fuels \r\naccounted for almost a third of greenfield FDI in Africa in 2018 (UNCTAD, 2019). The FDI secured by cities has tended to serve an urban \r\nelite and has been used to build shopping malls, housing settlements and airlines (Watson, 2015). It is also unevenly distributed across \r\nthe continent and within cities. Five countries; Egypt, South Africa, Congo, Morocco and Ethiopia, accounted for more than half the total \r\nFDI in 2018 (UNCTAD, 2019), leaving large parts of Africa's growing cities described by financiers as 'high risk' and their citizens deemed \r\n'unbankable' (UCLG, 2016)."


id: 4a3034f742c64f5d633a5e5ddf4acf07
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Private financiers have begun entering public-private partnerships with African cities, often supported by bilateral agreements between \r\nthe respective countries, including the growing number of Asian and Middle-Eastern countries contributing to infrastructure in African \r\ncities (Cirolia and Rode, 2019). In the absence of enforceable spatial plans and strong urban governance, the risk remains that individual \r\ninvestment projects that are completed will aggregate to create urban systems that are at risk from climate change through the locking\u0002in of inequality, urban sprawl, flooding and greenhouse gas emissions (Dodman et al., 2017; Wachsmuth, Cohen and Angelo, 2016). \r\nThese risks will constitute a future burden for asset owners, financiers and insurers, and cause a progressive hemorrhaging of economic \r\nopportunities in Africa's urban centres (UCLG, 2016)."


id: 72e0c40ac5847eec1e483183a7678da4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Securing climate finance for urban development is contingent upon robust multi-level governance arrangements (Tait and Euston-Brown, \r\n2017; OECD/UN-Habitat, 2018). Such investments are needed for cities that do not yet have the balance sheets or rate-paying citizens \r\nrequired to enter financial markets on favourable terms. Similarly, Central Banks have a crucial role in managing the transition risks \r\nwithin cities and limiting the systemic impact of stranded urban assets due to technology shifts or sea level rise (Safarzynska and van \r\nden Bergh, 2017)."


id: 3439f5c9c1586396f746715549f400e
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vector_id: 6424
content:
"New energy, water and sanitation technologies alter the public good nature of urban services and offer novel opportunities for private \r\nsector financiers and blended finance. Still, financial sector innovation remains necessary if technological innovation is to be scaled \r\n(Cities Climate Finance Leadership Alliance, 2015; European Environment Agency, 2020). UNEP has cited anecdotal evidence of a \r\n'quiet revolution' toward a more developmental and sustainable global finance sector, in part due to global environmental, social and \r\ngovernance requirements, and industry initiatives within the financial and insurance sectors (UNEP, 2015). Scope remains to strengthen \r\nDevelopment Finance Institutions programmes, such as the World Bank's City Creditworthiness Programme and the activities of China's \r\nExIm Bank, with a bespoke urban climate dimension."


id: d480b746bf4e62e249e4d286eb4bb29c
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34706
content:
"environments is land-value capture. Land-value capture refers to \r\ncommunities' ability to capture the benefit of increased land values \r\nthat result from public investment or other government actions \r\n(German and Bernstein, 2020). There is considerable potential to \r\nmobilise land-value capture for adaptation (limited evidence, medium \r\nagreement), but its potential remains unexplored (Dunning and \r\nLord, 2020). While there are numerous examples of the mobilisation "


id: 8a54c7c3d4926b39317d0d62707999f6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21511
content:
"of land-value capture to finance sustainable development action (Li \r\nand Love, 2019; Wang, Samsura and van der Krabben, 2019), there \r\nis limited evidence of its use in climate adaptation (see Case Study \r\n6.2). These innovations are particularly important in contexts where \r\nresources are very constrained, such as in the financing of adaptation \r\nin African cities (See Box 6.7)."


id: b30f07155a7755a404a23b0b268c31e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28745
content:
"Olazabal et al., 2019b). There is also limited evaluation of new social \r\ninnovations of the last two decades, including participatory budgeting, \r\nsocial financing, crowdfunding and low-cost urban infrastructure \r\nthat can be enabling conditions for transformative urban adaptation \r\n(Dahiya and Das, 2020; Caprotti et al., 2017)."


id: ece05801bcfd327712f3084cc6c629aa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39044
content:
"On the one hand, there is a need to guarantee that planned adaptation \r\nactions are efficient, just and equitable (Olazabal et al., 2019b), including \r\nbeing able to disaggregate, for example by gendered impacts. On the \r\nother hand, there is a need to observe if and how environmental, social \r\nand economic vulnerability and climatic risk conditions evolve with time. \r\nSurveillance, monitoring and evaluation facilitate adaptation decision \r\nmaking by linking three aspects (Berrang-Ford et al., 2019): (1) changing \r\nvulnerabilities and risks, (2) established adaptation goals and targets, \r\nand (3) adaptation efforts put in place. The process will help evaluate \r\nwhether current adaptation efforts are sufficient or adequate, thus \r\nenabling the learning process that adaptation action requires (Haasnoot, \r\nvan't Klooster and Van Alphen, 2018; Klostermann et al., 2018)."


id: 878093545b91fed36ae1b1c2ff01397f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Expanding the resource envelope available for adaptation investment \r\nis often beyond the authority or competency of city governments. \r\nSovereign and state governments have critical roles to play in \r\nproviding funding or securing finance for adaptation investments. Such \r\na role is particularly important where the impacts of climate change \r\nare distributed inequitably across a country, so that the costs borne by \r\na city may exceed local budgets."


id: c5c235335dec1a8a83762225316e41c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32100
content:
"Monitoring and evaluation of government-led urban adaptation in major \r\ncities around the globe is largely missing (Araos et al., 2017; Olazabal\r\net al., 2019a). This reveals: (1) a lack of awareness by local adaptation \r\nmanagers about the critical importance of monitoring and evaluation \r\nsystems in adaptation decision making, (2) inadequacy, irrelevancy \r\nor underuse of available monitoring and evaluation resources, or (3) \r\na lack of knowledge, capacity and resources to make monitoring and \r\nevaluation work in practice at city scale."


id: 456c44a031a2d2a30ee3cd122b50f8df
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Olazabal et al. (2019b) argue that six components are at least required \r\nto make monitoring and evaluation operational for urban adaptation \r\nplanning: (1) the definition of a context-specific tailored system \r\nadapted to existing local institutions, (2) the definition of a responsible \r\nparty (public authority, department, group or organisation) that will \r\nbe in charge of monitoring and evaluation system management, (3) \r\nthe definition and assignation of the appropriate budget over time, \r\n(4) the identification of monitoring objectives and indicators, (5) \r\nthe definition of a method and process to evaluate outcomes of the \r\nmonitoring process and finally, (6) the reporting process (how and who \r\nthe outputs will be reported to). Klostermann et al. (2018) emphasise \r\nthe importance of learning through iterative cycles of selection of \r\nmonitoring objectives, procedures, data collection and evaluation, and "


id: df0bb746fff53c54bda2e6c16c53e377
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Urban adaptation plans can focus attention on the needs of \r\nmarginalised or vulnerable communities including the elderly, children \r\nand the disabled (Dahiya and Das, 2020; Yang, Lee and Juhola, 2021). \r\nHowever, monitoring and evaluation (M&E) frameworks for adaptation \r\nare far from being fully developed and operationalised both in theory \r\nand in practice for cities, settlements and infrastructures. See also \r\nSection  17.5 for an assessment of monitoring and evaluation in \r\nclimate adaptation. Despite significant experience on the application \r\nin other sectors (e.g., health, water, industry or business) or with other \r\nclimate change objectives (e.g., emissions reduction), the assessment \r\nof adaptation efforts has been to date under-theorised in current urban \r\nadaptation literature (Berrang-Ford et  al., 2019; Leiter et  al., 2019; "


id: 1533e853b48bc66a0d7d890cd2ef1a03
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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vector_id: 944
content:
"as sustainable development and social justice need to be assessed \r\n(Long and Rice, 2019), urban adaptation monitoring and evaluation \r\ncan inform national and international processes that enable a global \r\nstocktake of adaptation."


id: dd0adbc4749f4cd119715058759a969a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
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vector_id: 36152
content:
"inputs to adaptation policy and planning processes (see also discussion \r\nof evaluation and learning in Section 17.5.1.7). Yet practical exemplary \r\napproaches are still missing."


id: 797f3c708daa41dc95bfdd190bb587ea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18578
content:
"Growing awareness of the interlocking of drivers of urban change and \r\nvulnerability has motivated an interest in transformational approaches \r\nto adaptation action in cities, settlements and infrastructure. While \r\nthe idea of transformation has been adopted across the field, there \r\nis no consensus about what an urban transformation that addresses \r\nadaptation means. There is no one single transformative solution or \r\napproach relevant in every case (Chu, Schenk and Patterson, 2018; \r\nShi, 2019; Goh, 2019). What constitutes 'urgent' and 'far-reaching' \r\ntransformation depends on the local community's expectations and \r\nideas (Choko et al., 2019)."


id: 5f4d06f86884ee63fbdb4112151675d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"divides (see Burke and Heynen, 2014; Whyte, 2017; Victor, 2015; \r\nLovbrand et  al., 2015; Kelly, 2019).The incorporation of Indigenous \r\nknowledge in urban decision making requires a constructive dialogue \r\nwith scientists and urban planners."


id: c6af20dc6345640ee47634fa4534ad5b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"The integration of multiple forms of knowledge leads to social learning \r\n(medium evidence, high agreement). Indigenous knowledge and local \r\nknowledge can provide essential insights into community needs and \r\nexperiences of housing and urban infrastructure to inform climate \r\nadaptation, including improper waste disposal, inadequate drainage \r\nand poor sanitation, but there is significant variation in community \r\nknowledge networks (Roy et al., 2018b; Douglas et al, 2018; Waters \r\nand Adger, 2017). It is important to identify and address barriers to \r\nthe incorporation of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge, such \r\nas the dominance of scientific knowledge, oppression and/or racism, \r\nand fragmentation of knowledge including gender and generational "


id: 1bf5505f670375263f9da21c651f3495
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2099
content:
"Case Study 6.1: Urbanisation and Climate Change in the \r\nHimalayas: Increased Water Insecurity for the Poor"


id: a94d7d3c4f5ed3c23dcc54851a72ef2c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"One of the major challenges of urbanisation in the Himalayas is \r\nsprawling small towns with populations of under 100,000 (see \r\nFigure 6.6). These towns are expected to become major urban centres "


id: 65b84389b053e8d173205bfd9568ec9d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"carrying capacities of the towns. The residents must cope with water \r\nscarcity as the demand for water increases in peak seasons and water \r\ndistribution through the public water supply systems becomes highly \r\ninequitable (Raina, Gurung and Suwal, 2018). The usual challenges of \r\nutilities being inefficient also applies in these areas, though it becomes \r\nmuch more critical as the sources of water are limited and the local \r\ngeology limits the ability to access groundwater. All these processes are \r\nresulting in increased water insecurity for the poor and marginalised \r\nin urban towns of Hindu Kush (Prakash and Molden, 2020). To cope \r\nwith the scarcity situation, people are adapting through various means \r\nsuch as rationing of intra-household water access and groundwater \r\nextraction to access water supply (Virk et al., 2019; Bharti et al., 2019; \r\nSharma et al., 2019). This is due to lack of long-term strategies and \r\noptions provided by utilities."


id: e8d19d293c8c73f972f3bd4c11a0cfe1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Engagement with 100RC allowed Semarang's resilience programmes to \r\nappear on 100RC's 'marketplace' of municipal projects, allowing them \r\nto be connected with bi-/multi-lateral donor resources, while continuing \r\nto align projects with goals articulated within the Mid-Term Regional \r\nDevelopment Plan. The 100RC marketplace is a resilience platform that \r\nshowcases particular initiatives of 100RC network cities to potential \r\nresilience partners, thereby attracting investment and donor support \r\nto Semarang's resilience programmes. Examples include the Water \r\nas Leverage (WaL) project that has been working to conserve urban \r\nwater resources in the face of climate change since 2018 (Handayani\r\net  al., 2020a; Laeni et  al., 2021) and the Transboundary Flood Risk \r\nManagement through Governance and Innovative Information \r\nTechnology Program (TRANSFORM) that has been helping Semarang \r\ntackle flood risks beyond city boundaries through reforestation and "


id: ca3d11c2b0a0ce152fc3d0238d6bca51
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
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vector_id: 32921
content:
"changing climate, the old cities of Xi'xian suffers urban heat island, \r\ndrying and water scarcity, heavy rains and waterlogging, thunderstorms \r\nand so on, which bring adverse effects to transportation, construction, \r\ncultural relics tourism resources and other industries (Ma, Yan and \r\nZeyu, 2021). SC status requires innovation to reduce flood risk through \r\ndesign to absorb, store and purify rainfall and storm water in an \r\necologically friendly way that reduces dangerous and polluted runoff. \r\nWhen required, the stored water is released and added to the urban \r\nwater supply (MoHURD, 2014). As a CRC, the aim is to adapt to climate \r\nrisk and environmental change by integrating climate resilience into \r\nurban renewal and revitalisation."


id: b0e37e68f4fbee92117163414e70b969
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28350
content:
"Such institutional and financial support have allowed Xi'xian to \r\nimplement a Pilot Construction Plan and Three-year Action Plan for \r\nAdapting to Climate Change. In 2020, Xixian formed an urban ecology \r\nsystem including 21 m2\r\n of green space per capita. The old cities' \r\nunderground drainage pipe network has been replaced by sponge \r\ndesigns such as green corridors, grass ditches, water storage gardens \r\nand recessed green spaces. The 10 waterlogging prone points in Xi'xian \r\nNew Area have been eliminated and the green area has alleviated urban \r\nheat, with average temperature about 1degC lower than the neighbouring \r\ndensely populated mega-cities of Xi'an and Xianyang. Groundwater in \r\nthe New Area has also risen by 3.43 m compared with 2015."


id: 3fc8c3432e80c6c8e8cbd19362b5eaa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8416
content:
"Case Study 6.3: Institutional Innovation to Improve Urban \r\nResilience: Xi'xian New Area in China"


id: 579f38a37765250182536e7a06cdbf7c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
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content:
"Located in Northwest China and the Silk Road Economic Belt, Xi'Xian \r\ncovers a total of 882 km2\r\n of the border zone of two cities of Xi'an \r\nand Xianyang, Shaanxi province. Xi\"xian accommodates a registered \r\npopulation of 1.06 million, with a planned area of 272 km2\r\n reserved \r\nfor urban development. As a new engine for promoting the West \r\nDevelopment Strategy and people-centred urbanisation in the \r\nnorthwest China, Xi'xian has paved the way for China's ecological city \r\nagenda since January 2014."


id: c3b250b5f398274c24b9c88679fa1027
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31706
content:
"At the end of 2020, Xi'xian New Area has built 2.4  million m2\r\n of \r\nmodern garden cities, more than 50 km of sponge roads, 1.4 million \r\nm2\r\n of resilient park green space and established a green coverage of \r\nmore than 50% of the urban space. The target of becoming a green \r\ncity in which everyone can 'see green in 100 meters, step into garden \r\nevery 300 meter' has been realised (Ma et al., 2021). The urban parks \r\nand green spaces play a role in regulating local microclimate and \r\nalso improve the urban environmental amenities for residents. In a \r\ncomprehensive performance assessment for the Climate Resilient \r\nCities facilitated by the Climate Change Department of the Ministry of \r\nEcology and Environment (MEE), the Xi'xian ranked number 9 among \r\nall of the 28 pilot cities."


id: 19abce685192c144d48086508dd24239
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1715
content:
"Xi'xian aimed to build a 'modern garden city' when it was selected \r\nas national demonstration sites for Sponge City (SC) during 2015-\r\n2018 and Climate Resilient City (CRC) during 2017-2020. Under the "


id: c3e117ac6e9e4a2ffb8129707aa12101
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31740
content:
"This case study illustrates multi-hazard risk and reviews the formation \r\nof a multi-stakeholder adaptation governance regime as one response \r\nto this."


id: 70da25b2b0cb74078f1422d4cdc2c8d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17116
content:
"with a strong and holistic sustainable development vision, the Tetuan \r\nReborn initiative, to improve the socioeconomic status and health of \r\ncommunity members while building capacity for disaster resilience \r\nthrough various initiatives. The long-term outcome of this initiative is \r\nto support efforts toward self-empowerment within neighbourhoods \r\nby identifying and designing viable solutions to hurricane-related \r\nand economic development challenges specific to the local context, \r\nincluding constructing a primary health care clinic, a public health \r\npromoter programme, pursuing farms rehabilitation, and promoting \r\nagritourism, agrotherapy and education (Holladay et al., 2019)."


id: ba6a376a1c71cd84b06aa59564cb422d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30016
content:
"Case Study 6.5: Climate-Resilient Pathways in Informal \r\nSettlements in Cities in Sub-Saharan Africa"


id: 3ad4812c820dc8a1eb7626fd2c7c8bc6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
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vector_id: 7548
content:
"Data that is generated and owned by residents of informal settlements \r\nprovides a basis for making the risks facing these neighbourhoods \r\nmore visible to city planners, and for enabling collaboration between \r\na range of urban stakeholders (Dobson, 2017). In Freetown, this \r\nprocess has been led by the Federation of the Urban and Rural Poor \r\n(FEDURP) and the Centre for Dialogue on Human Settlement and \r\nPoverty Alleviation (CODOHSAPA). The FEDURP belongs to the global \r\nSlum Dwellers International network, committed to empowering \r\npoor residents in urban spaces, and has a presence in several other \r\nAfrican cities (Macarthy et al., 2017). With the support of CODOHSAPA, \r\nFEDURP coordinates community development committees (CDC) and \r\ncommunity disaster management committees (CDMC) in nearly all \r\nthe informal settlements in the city. Both CODOHSAPA and FEDURP "


id: fcd892cc3f5b228d0ac239d8b8f3a3d2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Despite their diversity and differences across the continent \r\n(Kovacic et  al., 2019), informal settlements are frequently located \r\nin hazard-prone areas, with residents living in precarious housing \r\nconditions on marginal lands (Badmos et  al., 2020; Kironde, 2016), \r\nlacking essential services and risk-reducing infrastructure, and often \r\ndeveloping outside the legal systems intended to record land tenure \r\nand ownership (Satterthwaite et  al., 2020; Adelekan et  al., 2015). "


id: b0c1703ffee213c9b49555398663108e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28327
content:
"Ministry of Environment to formalise this new exterior boundary, \r\nwhich has led to the authorities dropping their threats of evictions."


id: 629ce9bfa63d0d2f00ceef1d428b2e1b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14638
content:
"This Cross-Working Group Box on Cities and Climate Change responds to the critical role of urbanisation as a megatrend impacting \r\nclimate adaptation and mitigation. Issues associated with cities and urbanisation are covered in substantial depth within all three \r\nWorking Groups (including WGI Box TS.14, WGII Chapter 6 'Cities, settlements and key infrastructure'; WGII regional chapters; WGII \r\nCross-Chapter Paper 'Cities and settlements by the sea'; WGIII Chapter 8 'Urban systems and other settlements'). This Box highlights \r\nkey findings from Working Groups II and III and substantial gaps in literature where more research is urgently needed relating to policy \r\naction in cities. It describes methods of addressing mitigation and adaptation in an integrated way across sectors and cities to advance \r\nsustainable development and equity outcomes; and assesses the governance and finance solutions required to support climate resilient \r\nresponses."


id: 30fda7b9729752b9c0446bd0e561cf28
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5867
content:
"The interdependencies between infrastructure, services and networks driven by urban production and consumption mean that urban \r\nsystems are now global; remittance flows and investments reach into rural places shaping natural resource use far from the city and \r\nbring risk to the city when these places are impacted by climate change. This urbanisation megatrend (Kourtit, Nijkamp and Scholten, \r\n2015) amplifies and shapes the potential impacts of climate events. It provides the economic and institutional framework for integrating \r\nthe aims and approaches that can deliver mitigation, adaptation and sustainable development (medium evidence, high agreement) \r\n(Zscheischler et al., 2018; Dawson et al., 2018; Tsavdaroglou et al., 2018). For cities facing flood damage, wide-ranging impacts have \r\nbeen recorded on other urban areas (Simpson et al., 2021; Carter et al., 2021) as production and trade is disrupted (Shughrue et al., 2020). "


id: af0a4730d086f6a7187973e59a5bf1f9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28040
content:
"In the absence of integrated mitigation and adaptation across and between infrastructure systems and local places, impacts that bring \r\nurban economies to a standstill can extend into supply chains or across energy networks causing power outages."


id: ed516180ec25cdc0641d5d9f912f55d6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39126
content:
"Urban settlements are drivers of climate change, generating about 70% of global CO2-eq emissions (high confidence) (WGI Box TS.14; \r\nWGIII 8 ES; WGII 6.1, WGII 6.2). This global impact feeds back to cities through the exposure of infrastructure, people and business to \r\nthe impacts of climate-related hazards. Especially in the larger cities, this climate feedback is exacerbated by local choices in urban \r\ndesign, land use, building design and human behaviour (Viguie et al., 2020) that shape local environmental conditions. Local and global \r\nconditions influence the nature of hazards in urban centres: urban form can add up to 2degC to warming, concretisation of open space can \r\nincrease runoff and building height and orientation influences wind direction and strength (WGII 6.3)."


id: 5c92f54224b5d2e2698521b3d4088af
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13547
content:
"The benefits of actions taken to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and climate stressors diminish with delayed action, indicating \r\nthe necessity for rapid responses. Delaying the same actions for increasing the resilience of infrastructure from 2020 to 2030 is estimated \r\nto have a median cost of at least USD 1 trillion (Hallegatte et al., 2019), while also missing the carbon emissions reductions required in \r\nthe narrowing window of opportunity to limit global warming to 1.5degC (WGI). In contrast, taking integrated actions toward mitigation, \r\nadaptation and sustainable development will provide multiple benefits for the health and well-being of urban inhabitants and avoid \r\nstranded assets (WGII 6.3, WGII 17; WGIII 5; WGIII 8.2; Cross-Chapter Box FEASIB in Chapter 18)."


id: 2fa1c2e183c8515af392cb46978f771c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5642
content:
"The Policy-Action Gap: Urban Low-Carbon and Climate Resilient Development\r\nCities are critical places to realise actions on both adaptation and mitigation simultaneously, with potential co-benefits that extend far \r\nbeyond cities (medium evidence, high agreement) (Grafakos et al., 2020; Gopfert, Wamsler and Lang, 2019). Given rapid changes in the \r\nbuilt environment, transforming the use of materials and the land intensiveness of urban development including in many parts of the \r\nGlobal South in the next decades will be critical, as well as mainstreaming low-carbon development principles in new urban development \r\nin all regions. Much of this development will be self-built and 'informal', and new modes of governance and planning will be required \r\nto engage with this. Integrating mitigation and adaptation now rather than later, through reshaping patterns of urban development and \r\nassociated decision making processes, is a prerequisite for attaining resilient and zero carbon cities."


id: 6a79d1a4fcad6d771e249f2418d40da9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16013
content:
"While more cities have developed plans for climate adaptation and mitigation since AR5, many remain to be implemented (limited \r\nevidence, high agreement) (Araos et al., 2017; Olazabal and De Gopegui, 2021; Aguiar et al., 2018). A review of local climate mitigation \r\nand adaptation plans across 885 urban areas of the European Union suggests mitigation plans are more common than adaptation plans, \r\nand that city size, national legislation and international networks can influence the development of local climate plans with an estimated \r\n80% of cities with above 500,000 inhabitants having a mitigation and/or an adaptation plan (Reckien et al., 2018b)."


id: 3be08d79ab59353dfdca0a7f4cca9603
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7728
content:
"Key gaps in knowledge include urban enabling environment; how smaller settlements, low-income communities living in slums and \r\ninformal settlements, but also those in rental housing spread across the city, and actions to reduce supply chain risk can be supported to \r\naccelerate equitable and sustainable adaptation in the face of financial and governance constraints (Birkmann et al., 2016; Shi et al., \r\n2016; Dulal, 2019; Rosenzweig et al., 2018b)."


id: 11722faee6c892b30af23e8988ec05fd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 269
content:
"The diversity of cities' experiences of climate mitigation and adaptation strategies brings an advantage for those city government and \r\nother actors willing to 'learn together' (limited evidence, high agreement) (Bellinson and Chu, 2019; Haupt and Coppola, 2019). While \r\ncontexts are varied, policy options are often similar enough for the sharing of experiments and policy champions. Sharing expertise can "


id: a482c83e883faa637b177bc90371f612
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26156
content:
"build on existing regional and global networks, many of which have already placed knowledge, learning and capacity building at the \r\ncentre of their agendas. Learning from innovative forms of governance and financial investment, and strengthening co-production of \r\npolicy through inclusive access to knowledge and resources, can help address mismatches in local capacities, strengthen wider Sustainable \r\nDevelopment Goals and COVID-19 Recovery agendas (limited evidence, medium agreement). Perceptions of risk can greatly influence \r\nthe reallocation of capital and shift financial resources (Battiston et al., 2021). Coupling mitigation and adaptation in an integrated \r\napproach offers opportunities to enhance efficiency, increases the coherence of urban climate action, generates cost savings and provides \r\nopportunities to reinvest the savings into new climate action projects to make all urban areas and regions more resilient."


id: 92f4aca527825ee24951a00d720fd646
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23069
content:
"FAQ 6.1 | Why and how are cities, settlements and different types of infrastructure especially vulnerable to the \r\nimpacts of climate change?"


id: 3e66fda138cb1ec16c4f7a4c4c52e2b5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8160
content:
"Cities, settlements and infrastructure become vulnerable when investment decisions fail to take the risks of climate change fully into account. \r\nSuch failures can result from a lack of understanding, competing priorities, a lack of finance or access to appropriate technology. Around the \r\nworld, smaller cities and poorer populations are often most vulnerable and suffer the most over time, while large cities can register the greatest \r\nlosses to individual events."


id: 593b2e1d2b577c29571db08c1c52b132
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12942
content:
"The world is urban. Billions of people live in towns and cities. Hardly anyone, even in remote rural locations, is \r\nseparated from the flows of trade that connect the world and are held together by networks of transport and \r\ncommunication infrastructure systems. Connected networks once broken can cascade out, multiplying impacts \r\nacross urban and rural areas. When major manufacturing centres or regionally important ports are impacted, global \r\ntrade suffers. For example, flooding in Bangkok in 2011 led to a global shortage in semiconductors and a slowdown \r\nin global computer manufacturing."


id: aac50eec821eea59fde88e4c4e7acb89
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27269
content:
"Despite cities generating wealth, additional vulnerability to climate change is being created in urban areas \r\nevery day. Demographic change, social and economic pressures, and governance failures that drive inequality \r\nand marginality mean that increasing numbers of people who live in towns and cities are exposed to flooding, \r\ntemperature extremes and water or food insecurity. This leads to an adaptation gap, where rich neighbourhoods \r\ncan afford strategies to reduce vulnerability while poorer communities are unable to do the same. Although this \r\nwould be so even without a changing climate, climate change increases the variability and extremes of weather, \r\nexposing more people, businesses and buildings to floods and other events. The combination of rising vulnerability \r\nand increasing exposure translates to a growth in the number of people and properties at risk from climate change \r\nin cities worldwide."


id: f655cac7d92967ee7e42048308466ec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40707
content:
"Around the world, vulnerability is rising but differs considerably between and within urban areas. Settlements of \r\nup to 1 million people are the most rapidly expanding and also among the most vulnerable. These settlements \r\noften have limited community level organisation and might not have a dedicated local government. Coping with \r\nrapid population growth under conditions of climate change and constrained capacity is a major challenge. For \r\nlarge cities, multiple local governments and well-organised community-based organisations interact with large \r\nbusinesses and national political parties in a complicated cocktail of interests that can interfere with planning and \r\naction to reduce vulnerability."


id: b2715f38080a1269f4d1bab86421ad2c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"For the poorest living in urban slums, informal settlements or renting across the city, lack of secure tenure and \r\ninadequate access to basic services compound vulnerability. But even the wealthy in large cities are not fully protected \r\nfrom climate change-related shocks. Just like breaks in infrastructure between towns and rural settlements, big city \r\ninfrastructure can be broken by even local landslides, floods or temperature events, with consequences cascading \r\nacross the city. Electricity blackouts are the most common and can affect water pumping, traffic regulation and \r\nstreetlights, as well as hospitals, schools and homes. Still, it is the urban poor and marginalised who experience the \r\ngreatest exposure, most vulnerability and least capacity to cope."


id: b1e077167baade38a1687f39b18a4ab7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Rounds of exposure and impact can reduce the capacity of survivors to cope with future events. As a result, the \r\nalready vulnerable and exposed become more vulnerable over time, increasing urban inequalities. But this need \r\nnot be the case. Focussing on vulnerability reduction is not easy, it requires joined-up action across social and \r\neconomic development sectors, together with critical infrastructure planning. It often also means partnering local \r\ngovernment with informal and community-based actors. But there is considerable experience globally on what \r\nworks and how to deliver reduced vulnerability for the urban poor and for cities as a whole. The challenge is to scale \r\nup this experience and accelerate its application to keep pace with climate change and address the adaptation gap."


id: e41db494d0917d5ef3b39075aeb9ef8f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37434
content:
"FAQ 6.2 | What are the key climate risks faced by cities, settlements and vulnerable populations today, and how \r\nwill these risks change in a mid-century (2050) 2degC warmer world?"


id: 79d3bdd2d40945919806f64147207c3a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18637
content:
"Climate change will interact with the changing physical environment in cities and settlements to create or exacerbate a range of risks. Rising \r\ntemperatures and heatwaves will cause human illness and morbidity, as well as infrastructure degradation and failures, while heavy rainfall \r\nand sea level rise will worsen flooding. Low-income groups and other vulnerable populations will be affected most severely because of where \r\nthey live and their limited ability to cope with these stresses."


id: 55f96be4672e505e7aa7521351af1c4b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12400
content:
"Cities and settlements are constantly changing. Their populations grow and shrink, economic activities expand \r\nor decline, and political priorities shift. The risks that cities and their residents face are influenced by both urban \r\nchange and climate change. The seriousness of these risks into the 21st Century will be shaped by the interactions \r\nbetween drivers of change including population growth, economic development and land use change."


id: 32ee9d939e53b27b3900eed44e6df4ec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6225
content:
"In a warming world, increasing air temperature makes the urban heat island effect in cities worse. One key risk \r\nis heatwaves in cities that are likely to affect half of the future global urban population, with negative impacts on \r\nhuman health and economic productivity. Heat and built infrastructure such as streets and houses interact with \r\neach other and magnify risks in cities. For instance, higher urban temperatures can cause infrastructure to overheat \r\nand fail, as well as increase the concentration of harmful air pollutants such as ozone."


id: 272aadc652c3711eb0f27fc351404591
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"The density of roads and buildings in urban areas increases the area of impermeable surfaces, which interact with \r\nmore frequent heavy precipitation events to increase the risk of urban flooding. This risk of flooding is greater \r\nfor coastal settlements due to sea level rise and storm surges from tropical cyclones. Coastal inundation in the \r\nMiami-Dade region in Florida, USA, is estimated to have caused over USD 465  million in lost real estate value \r\nbetween 2005 and 2016, and it is likely that coastal flood risks in the region beyond 2050 will increase without \r\nadaptation to climate change."


id: 184d876edd1ffb6aacca7439f2f155d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Within cities, different groups of people can face different risks. Many low-income residents live in informal \r\nsettlements alongside coasts or rivers, which greatly heightens exposure and vulnerability to climate-driven hazards. \r\nIn urban areas in Ghana, for example, risks from urban flooding can compound health risks, and have resulted in \r\noutbreaks of malaria, typhoid and cholera. Those outbreaks have been shown to disproportionately affect poorer \r\ncommunities."


id: b93b8b52693028b007ed4ff1a45dcbd8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29794
content:
"Severe risks in cities and settlements also arise from reduced water availability. As urban areas grow, the amount \r\nof water required to meet basic needs of people and industries increases. When increased demand is combined \r\nwith water scarcity from lower rainfall due to climate change, water resource management becomes a critical \r\nissue. Low-income groups already face major challenges in accessing water, and the situation is likely to worsen \r\ndue to growing conflicts over scarce resources, increasing water prices and diminishing infrastructure provisions in \r\never-expanding informal settlements."


id: 3e1df72627acb6c144d18e35d938b550
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8100
content:
"These key risks already differ greatly between cities, and between different groups of people in the same city. By \r\n2050, these discrepancies are likely to be even more apparent. Cities with limited financial resources, regulatory \r\nauthority and technical capacities are less equipped to respond to climate change. People who already have fewer \r\nresources and constrained opportunities face higher levels of risk because of their vulnerability. As a result of this, \r\nkey risks vary not only over time as climate change is felt more strongly, but also over space, between cities exposed \r\nto different hazards and with different abilities to adapt, and between social groups, meaning between people \r\nwho are more or less affected and able to cope."


id: 749d89330d0faafe961a17ca950b80f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17751
content:
"FAQ 6.3 | What adaptation actions in human settlements can contribute to reducing climate risks and building \r\nresilience across building, neighbourhood, city and global scales?"


id: 5429942f682c43d774b71bf520546c3d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12085
content:
"Settlements bring together many activities, so climate action will be most effective if it is integrated and collaborative. This requires (i) embedding \r\ninformation on climate change risks into decisions; (ii) building capacity of communities and institutions; (iii) using both nature-based and \r\ntraditional engineering approaches; (iv) working in partnership with diverse local planning and community organisations; and (v) sharing best \r\npractice with other settlements."


id: dfc8f122fab5a38143b6202a02f1ad06
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36616
content:
"Settlements bring together people, buildings, economic activities and infrastructure services, and thus integrated, \r\ncross-sector, adaptation actions offer the best way to build resilience to climate change impacts. For example, actions \r\nto manage flood risk include installing flood proofing measures within and outside properties, improving capacity \r\nof urban drainage along roads, incorporating nature-based solutions (NbS) within the urban areas, constructing \r\nflood defences and managing land upstream of settlements to reduce runoff."


id: fa13796110c6e22492ee563686b8a0d8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41364
content:
"Adaptation actions will be more effective if they are implemented in partnership with local communities, national \r\ngovernments, research institutions, and the private and third sector. Climate action should not be considered as an \r\nadditional or side action to other activities. Rather, climate action should be mainstreamed into existing processes, \r\nincluding those that contribute to the UN Sustainable Development Goals (2015) and New Urban Agenda adopted \r\nat the UN Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III) in 2016. Cities are already \r\ncoming together through international networks to share good practice about adaptation actions, speeding up the \r\ndissemination of knowledge."


id: 46dbeb6c0f998c357f40a8a4aa77ade4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9669
content:
"Although even the largest city covers only a small area of the planet, all settlements are part of larger catchments \r\nfrom which people, water, food, energy, materials and other resources support them. Actions within cities should \r\nbe mindful of wider impacts and avoid displacing issues elsewhere."


id: 476a5b8945adfac5acda65a178537e21
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9776
content:
"FAQ 6.4 | How can actions that reduce climate risks in cities and settlements also help to reduce urban poverty, \r\nenhance economic performance and contribute to climate mitigation?"


id: 9b2c89eb5300140611fe080a2c594c62
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24549
content:
"If carefully planned, adaptation actions can reduce exposure to climate risk and reduce urban poverty, advance sustainable development and \r\nmitigate greenhouse gas emissions. When adaptation responses are equitable, and if a range of voices are heard in the planning process, the \r\nneeds of the disadvantaged are more likely to be addressed and wider societal benefits can be maximised."


id: 548c5c1913ec7efdbb9181c3b81e830
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12154
content:
"Carefully planned nature-based solutions (NbS), such as public green space, improved urban drainage systems and \r\nstorm water management, can deliver both health and development benefits. When these adaptation actions \r\nsucceed, water, waste and sanitation can be improved to better manage climate risk and provide households and \r\ncities with better services. Many nature-based solutions entail bringing back plants and trees into cities, which also \r\nhelps to reduce the concentration of heat-trapping GHGs in the atmosphere."


id: 88d9c0bbf2677e93e272ae1610677cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21240
content:
"When care is taken to ensure that adaptation responses are equitable, and that a range of voices are heard in \r\nplanning, the needs of the disadvantaged are more likely to be addressed. For example, a study that looked \r\nat transport plans across 40 cities in Portugal saw that some urban communities have prioritised the needs of \r\ndisadvantaged users such as the elderly and disabled, while at the same time reducing urban transport emissions \r\nand enhancing public well-being and equity of transport. On the other hand, in some cities, there is evidence of \r\nemerging trade-offs associated with climate adaptation actions where sea walls and temporary flood barriers were \r\nerected in economically valuable areas and not is less well-off areas. Going forward, it is important to ensure that \r\nvulnerable groups' needs are carefully considered, both in terms of climate and other risks, as this has not been \r\nsufficiently done in the past."


id: 72dfda7e334c8fa223124fcbc5b0787d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17459
content:
"FAQ 6.5 | What policy tools, governance strategies and financing arrangements can enable more inclusive and \r\neffective climate adaptation in cities and settlements?"


id: d102a438cbbff3afa9d1654c23ce1a97
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34121
content:
"Inclusive and effective climate adaptation requires efforts at all levels of governance, including the public sector, the private sector, the third \r\nsector, communities and intermediaries such as universities or think tanks. Inclusive and effective adaptation requires action fit for the diverse \r\nconditions in which it is needed. Collaborative dialogues can help to map both adaptation opportunities and potential negative impacts."


id: 22726082364bfa0c7d5d19fe222e3440
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3281
content:
"There is no one-size-fits-all approach to ensure that climate adaptation efforts have positive results and include the \r\nconcerns of everyone affected. Cities and local communities are diverse, and thus they have diverse perspectives on \r\nwhat responses to prioritise. Moreover, adaptation efforts may impact people's lives in very different ways. Policy \r\ntools, strategies and financial arrangements for adaptation can include all society sectors and address socioeconomic \r\ninequalities. Planning and decision making must respond to marginalised voices and future generations (including \r\nchildren and youth)."


id: d92513823c389899215a616991c5aeb9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35498
content:
"Local and regional governments play an essential role in delivering planning and institutional action suited to local \r\nconditions in cities and settlements. Potential strategies can span multiple sectors and scales, ranging from land \r\nuse management, building codes, critical infrastructure designs and community development actions, to different \r\nlegal, financial, participatory decision making and robust monitoring and evaluation arrangements. NGOs or third \r\nsector organisations can also play a coordinating role by building dialogues across governments, the private sectors \r\nand communities through effective communication and social learning. Local action tends to falter without the \r\nsupport of national governments as they are often facilitators of resources and finance. They can create institutional \r\nframeworks that facilitate (rather than impede) local action. National governments also play a crucial role in the \r\ndevelopment of large-scale infrastructures."


id: 231b0f292ad3ebacb88393e7aa6138cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3369
content:
"Private actors can also drive adaptation action. The evaluation of private-led infrastructure and housing projects \r\nsuggests that the prioritisation of profit, however, may have a detrimental impact on the overall resilience of a \r\nplace. New institutional models such as public-private partnerships respond to the shortcomings of both the public \r\nand private sectors. Still, the evidence of them facilitating the inclusion of multiple actors is mixed."


id: b8e4f7596e4f569314edd27adc387058
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29734
content:
"The private sector can mobilise finance. However, the forms of finance available for adaptation are limited and \r\ndirected to huge projects that do not always address local adaptation needs. Private actors tend to join adaptation \r\nprojects when there is an expectation of large profits, such as in interventions that increase real estate value. \r\nPrivate-led adaptation can lead to 'gentrification' whereby low-income populations are relocated from urban \r\ncentres and safer settlements. Models that enable the collaboration between public, private and civil society sectors \r\nhave greater potential to mobilise adaptation finance in inclusive ways."


id: b2eee8406b103f0e93c2ab7add086429
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28717
content:
"Forms of collaborative planning and decision making can create dialogues for a sustainable future in cities, \r\nsettlements and infrastructure systems. Adaptation action needs multiple approaches. For example, adaptation \r\nneeds both actions that depend on dialogues between multiple actors (e.g., urban planning and zoning) and action \r\nthat follows strong determination and leadership (e.g., declarations of emergency and target commitments). \r\nThere are adaptation actions that depend on place-based conditions (e.g., flood defences) and those that require \r\nconsidering interactions across scales (e.g., regulatory frameworks). The growth of adaptation capacities, fostering \r\ndialogues, empowered communities, multi-scalar assessments and foresight within current institutions can support \r\neffective and inclusive adaptation action that is also sustained in the long term."


id: 2b5311a00eb77da98ec75bf170a69b73
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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vector_id: 4872
content:
"Lead Authors: Helen Adams (United Kingdom), Paulina Aldunce (Chile), Kathryn Bowen (Australia), \r\nDiarmid Campbell-Lendrum (United Kingdom), Susan Clayton (USA), Kristie L. Ebi (USA), Jeremy \r\nHess (USA), Cunrui Huang (China), Qiyong Liu (China), Glenn McGregor (United Kingdom/\r\nNew Zealand), Jan Semenza (Sweden), Maria Cristina Tirado (USA/Spain)"


id: 15b36f8ad1029d39649e4bacf41f2a48
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1032
content:
"Pramod Kumar Singh (India), Yona Sipos (USA/Canada), Peter Smith (United Kingdom), Marco \r\nSpringmann (Germany), Jeff Stanaway (USA), Stavana E. Strutz (USA), Dhar Subash (Denmark/\r\nIndia), Janet Swim (USA), Philip Thornton (United Kingdom), Christopher Trisos (South Africa), \r\nDiana Urge-Vorsatz (Hungary), Maarten van Aalst (Netherlands), Jose Luis Vivero Pol (Italy), Olivia \r\nWarrick (New Zealand), Nick Watts (Australia), Alistair Woodward (New Zealand), David Wrathall \r\n(USA), Zinta Zommers (Latvia)"


id: 1b5de9fd7af0a4260fffe946da8aa45a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1993
content:
"Cisse, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, \r\nQ. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities. \r\nIn: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment \r\nReport of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Portner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, \r\nK. Mintenbeck, A. Alegria, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Loschke, V. Moller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University \r\nPress, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1041-1170, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.009."


id: 715767289a8f822ec087a51b51429113
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17200
content:
"adaptation is only 0.5% of dispersed multi-lateral climate finance \r\nprojects (high confidence). This level of investment is insufficient to \r\nprotect population health and health systems from most climate\u0002sensitive health risks (very high confidence) {7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3}."


id: bdd924926f8502aba9327d1f00f36bd3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30660
content:
"Climate-related illnesses, premature deaths, malnutrition in all its \r\nforms, and threats to mental health and well-being are increasing \r\n(very high confidence1\r\n). Climate hazards are a growing driver of \r\ninvoluntary migration and displacement (high confidence) and are \r\na contributing factor to violent conflict (high confidence). These \r\nimpacts are often inter-connected, are unevenly distributed across and \r\nwithin societies, and will continue to be experienced inequitably due \r\nto differences in exposure and vulnerability (very high confidence). \r\nCascading and compounding risks affecting health due to extreme \r\nweather events have been observed in all inhabited regions, and risks \r\nare expected to increase with further warming (very high confidence) \r\n{7.1.3, 7.1.4; Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7; 7.2.1, 7.2.2, 7.2.3, \r\n7.2.4, 7.3.1, 7.3.2, 7.3.3, 7.4.1, 7.4.4; Cross-Chapter Box  HEALTH in \r\nChapter 7; Cross-Chapter Box ILLNESS in Chapter 2}."


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created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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vector_id: 39562
content:
"With proactive, timely and effective adaptation, many risks \r\nfor human health and well-being could be reduced and some \r\npotentially avoided (very high confidence). A significant adaptation \r\ngap exists for human health and well-being and for responses to disaster \r\nrisks (very high confidence). Nationally Determined Contributions \r\n(NDCs) to the Paris Agreement from low- and middle-income countries \r\nidentify health as a priority concern. National planning on health and \r\nclimate change is advancing, but the comprehensiveness of strategies \r\nand plans need to be strengthened, and implementing action on \r\nkey health and climate change priorities remains challenging (high \r\nconfidence). Multi-sectoral collaboration on health and climate change \r\npolicy is evident, with uneven progress, and financial support for health "


id: cacc00808bc8084e7481ee20a5d28da
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33020
content:
"warm-season heat-related mortality in temperate regions is linked \r\nto observed anthropogenic climate change (medium confidence) but \r\ngreater evidence is required for tropical regions. For some heatwave \r\nevents over the last two decades, associated health impacts can be at \r\nleast partially attributed to observed climate change (high confidence). \r\nExtreme heat has negative impacts on mental health, well-being, \r\nlife satisfaction, happiness, cognitive performance and aggression \r\n(medium confidence) {7.2.4.1, 7.2.4.5}."


id: ca868835aaacc60e9d51ae49381f6d6b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32973
content:
"{7.4.6; Cross-Chapter Box  COVID in Chapter 7; Cross-Chapter \r\nBox HEALTH in Chapter 7; Cross-Chapter Box GENDER in Chapter 18; \r\nCross-Chapter Box INDIG in Chapter 18; Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE \r\nin Chapter 7}."


id: df16cd0b335b2ebf7fdbf02b1abd83b7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36501
content:
"Climate variability and change contribute to food insecurity, \r\nwhich can lead to malnutrition, including undernutrition, \r\noverweight and obesity, and to disease susceptibility in low- and \r\nmiddle-income countries (high confidence). Populations exposed \r\nto extreme weather and climate events may consume inadequate or \r\ninsufficient food, leading to malnutrition and increasing the risk of \r\ndisease (high confidence). Children and pregnant women experience \r\ndisproportionately greater adverse nutrition and health impacts (high \r\nconfidence). Climatic influences on nutrition are strongly mediated by \r\nsocioeconomic factors (very high confidence) {7.2.4.4, 7.3.1}."


id: ab2a2ebde1b96f15a7bede497068508a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27341
content:
"Several chronic, non-communicable respiratory diseases are \r\nclimate-sensitive based on their exposure pathways (e.g., \r\nheat, cold, dust, small particulates, ozone, fire smoke and \r\nallergens) (high confidence), although climate change is not the \r\ndominant driver in all cases. Worldwide, rates of adverse health \r\nimpacts associated with small particulate matter (PM) exposure have \r\ndecreased steadily due to decreasing primary emissions (very high \r\nconfidence), while rates of adverse health impacts from ozone air \r\npollution exposure have increased (very high confidence). Exposure to \r\nwildland fires and associated smoke has increased in several regions \r\n(very high confidence). Spring pollen season start dates in northern \r\nmid-latitudes are occurring earlier due to climate change, increasing \r\nthe risks of allergic respiratory diseases (high confidence) {7.2.3.2}."


id: 5c35a70b0b2fe9cb7dff25d4cf216c4f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13477
content:
"Climate hazards have affected armed conflict within countries \r\n(medium confidence), but the influence of climate is small \r\ncompared to socioeconomic, political and cultural factors (high \r\nconfidence). Climate increases conflict risk by undermining food \r\nand water security, income and livelihoods in situations where there \r\nare large populations, weather-sensitive economic activities, weak \r\ninstitutions and high levels of poverty and inequality (high confidence).\r\nIn urban areas, food and water insecurity and inequitable access to \r\nservices has been associated with civil unrest where there are weak \r\ninstitutions (medium confidence). Climate hazards are associated \r\nwith increased violence against women, girls and vulnerable \r\ngroups, and the experience of armed conflict is gendered (medium \r\nconfidence). Adaptation and mitigation projects implemented without \r\nconsideration of local social dynamics have exacerbated non-violent \r\nconflict (medium confidence) {7.2.7}."


id: 12227f3559ca548ee3647a1d396504e0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 378
content:
"Heat is a growing health risk due to burgeoning urbanisation, \r\nan increase in high temperature extremes and demographic \r\nchanges in countries with aging populations (very high confidence). \r\nPotential hours of work lost due to heat has increased significantly \r\nover the past two decades (high confidence). Some regions are already \r\nexperiencing heat stress conditions at or approaching the upper limits \r\nof labour productivity (high confidence). A significant proportion of "


id: 9166ac8824e34cf067ca864373eb44fb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22791
content:
"Climate change is expected to have adverse impacts on \r\nwell-being and to further threaten mental health (very high \r\nconfidence). Children and adolescents, particularly girls, elderly people, \r\nand people with existing mental, physical and medical challenges are \r\nparticularly at risk. Mental health impacts are expected to arise from \r\nexposure to high temperatures, extreme weather events, displacement, \r\nmalnutrition, conflict, climate-related economic and social losses, and \r\nanxiety and distress associated with worry about climate change (very \r\nhigh confidence) {7.3.1.11}."


id: 629dcfd3005d9e99932acc031b10c7d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14640
content:
"A significant increase in ill health and premature deaths from \r\nclimate-sensitive diseases and conditions is projected due to \r\nclimate change (high confidence). An excess of 250,000 deaths \r\nyr-1 by 2050 attributable to climate change is projected due to heat, \r\nundernutrition, malaria and diarrhoeal disease, with more than half of \r\nthis excess mortality projected for Africa (compared to a 1961-1991 \r\nbaseline period for a mid-range emissions scenario) (high confidence). \r\nRisks for heat-related morbidity and mortality, ozone-related mortality, \r\nmalaria, diseases carried by Aedes sp. mosquitoes, Lyme disease and \r\nWest Nile fever, as well as the temperatures at which risk transitions \r\noccur (i.e. from moderate to high to very high), are contingent on \r\nfuture development pathways (high confidence) {7.3.1}."


id: e4477692ac8e51f99c5a2282cb138be8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37460
content:
"Climate change is projected to significantly increase population \r\nexposure to heatwaves (very high confidence) and heat-related \r\nmorbidity and mortality (high confidence). Models suggest exposure \r\nincreases 16  times under Representative Concentration Pathway \r\n(RCP)4.5 and 36  times under RCP8.5, with the impact of warming \r\namplified under development pathways that do not foster sustainable \r\ndevelopment. Globally, the impact of projected climate change on \r\ntemperature-related mortality is expected to be a net increase under \r\nRCP4.5 to RCP8.5, even with adaptation (high confidence). Heat \r\nrelated cardiovascular disease mortality is projected to increase by the \r\nend of this century (high confidence). Strong geographical differences \r\nin heat-related mortality are projected to emerge later this century, \r\nmainly driven by population growth and aging in regions with tropical \r\nand subtropical climates (very high confidence) {7.3.1}."


id: 9ce92782c53971cccca15f59a59ece6e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24842
content:
"Climate change may increase susceptibility to violent conflict, \r\nprimarily intra-state conflicts, by strengthening climate-sensitive \r\ndrivers of conflict (medium confidence). Future violent conflict risk \r\nis highly mediated by socioeconomic development trajectories (high \r\nconfidence) and so trajectories that prioritise economic growth, \r\npolitical rights and sustainability are associated with lower conflict risk \r\n(medium confidence). Future climate change may exceed adaptation \r\nlimits and generate new causal pathways not observed under current \r\nclimate variability (medium confidence). Economic shocks are not \r\nincluded in many models of conflict risks currently used, and some \r\nprojections do not incorporate known socioeconomic predictors of \r\nconflict (medium confidence). As such, future increases in conflict\u0002related deaths with climate change have been estimated, but results \r\nare inconclusive (medium confidence)."


id: dbcbcc83a17bd41de08a1d251f33150e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35956
content:
"The burdens of several climate-sensitive food-borne, waterborne, \r\nand vector-borne diseases (VBDs) are projected to increase under \r\nclimate change, assuming no additional adaptation (very high \r\nconfidence). The distribution and intensity of transmission of malaria is \r\nexpected to decrease in some areas and increase in others, with increases \r\nprojected mainly along the current edges of its geographic distribution \r\nin endemic areas of sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and South America (high \r\nconfidence). Dengue risk will increase, with a larger spatio-temporal \r\ndistribution in Asia, Europe and sub-Saharan Africa under RCP6.0 and \r\nRCP8.5, potentially putting another 2.25  billion people at risk (high \r\nconfidence). Higher incidence rates are projected for Lyme disease in \r\nthe Northern Hemisphere (high confidence) and for transmission of \r\nSchistosoma mansoni in eastern Africa (high confidence) {7.3.1; Cross\u0002Chapter Box ILLNESS in Chapter 2}."


id: d53db1299b3b359b51700a2b01ddc22e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34841
content:
"Since AR5, the value of cross-sectoral collaboration to advance \r\nsustainable development has been more widely recognised, \r\nbut despite acknowledgement of the importance of health \r\nadaptation as a key component, action has been slow (high \r\nconfidence). Building climate-resilient health systems will require \r\nmulti-sectoral, multi-system and collaborative efforts at all governance \r\nscales (very high confidence) (Sections 7.4.1, 7.4.2). Globally, health \r\nsystems are poorly resourced in general, and their capacity to \r\nrespond to climate change is weak, with mental health support being \r\nparticularly inadequate (very high confidence). The health sectors of \r\nsome countries have focused on implementing incremental changes to \r\npolicies and measures to fill the adaptation gap (very high confidence). "


id: ccadf7195e05618172bf2d57fb4022cd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33335
content:
"Increasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and \r\nclimate change are projected to increase diet-related risk \r\nfactors and related non-communicable diseasess globally \r\nand increase undernutrition, stunting and related childhood \r\nmortality particularly in Africa and Asia, with outcomes \r\ndepending on the extent of mitigation and adaptation (high \r\nconfidence). These projected changes are expected to slow progress \r\ntowards eradication of child undernutrition and malnutrition (high \r\nconfidence). Higher atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide \r\nreduce the nutritional quality of wheat, rice and other major crops, \r\npotentially affecting millions of people at a doubling of carbon dioxide \r\n(very high confidence) {7.3.1}."


id: b3c4d14456d60c4ad39a07694a62a835
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28870
content:
"pursued simultaneously with recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic \r\n(high confidence). The COVID-19 pandemic has aggravated climate \r\nrisks, demonstrated the global and local vulnerability to cascading \r\nshocks and illustrated the importance of integrated solutions that \r\ntackle ecosystem degradation and structural vulnerabilities in human \r\nsocieties (high confidence) {Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7}."


id: 62719dfa7bfb77930d8d1c347af0cf74
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14599
content:
"As the likelihood of dangerous risks to human health continue to \r\nincrease, there is greater need for transformational changes to health \r\nand other systems (very high confidence). This highlights an urgent \r\nand immediate need to address the wider interactions between \r\nenvironmental change, socioeconomic development and human health \r\nand well-being (high confidence) {7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3}."


id: 6faf0297aded8ad41a8bdb9baf0aa9b4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16904
content:
"Transitioning towards equitable, low-carbon societies has \r\nmultiple benefits for health and well-being (very high confidence). \r\nBenefits for health and well-being can be gained from wide-spread, \r\nequitable access to affordable renewable energy (high confidence); \r\nactive transport (e.g., walking and cycling) (high confidence); green \r\nbuildings and nature-based solutions, such as green and blue urban \r\ninfrastructure (high confidence); and by transitioning to a low-carbon, \r\nwell-being-oriented and equity-oriented economy consistent with the \r\naims of the SDGs (high confidence). Plant-rich diets consistent with \r\ninternational recommendations for healthy diets could contribute to \r\nlower GHG emissions while also generating health co-benefits, such \r\nas reducing ill health related to over-consumption of animal-based \r\nproducts (high confidence) {7.4.2; Cross-Chapter Box  HEALTH in \r\nChapter 7; 7.4.4}."


id: 8471f82bf0b318254f2ffcc5fdbfe5d0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20446
content:
"Targeted investments in health and other systems, including \r\nmulti-sectoral, integrated approaches to protect against key \r\nhealth risks can effectively increase resilience (high confidence). \r\nIncreased investment in strengthening general health systems, along \r\nwith targeted investments to enhance protection against specific \r\nclimate-sensitive exposures (e.g., hazard early warning and response \r\nsystems, and integrated vector control programmes for VBDs) will \r\nincrease resilience if implemented to at least keep pace with climate \r\nchange (high confidence)."


id: 22d09ca1bda5142d5558e730c306191b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3333
content:
"The COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated the value of \r\ncoordinated and multi-sectoral planning, social protection \r\nsystems, safety nets and other capacities in societies to cope \r\nwith a range of shocks and stresses (high confidence). The \r\npandemic has posed a severe shock to many socioeconomic systems, \r\nresulting in substantial changes in vulnerability and exposure of \r\npeople to climate risks (high confidence). The pandemic emphasises \r\nthe inter-connected and compound nature of risks, vulnerabilities, and \r\nresponses to emergencies that are simultaneously local and global\r\n(high confidence). Pathways to climate resilient development can be "


id: e0f9b032e2c497f7430b950ce7af1f18
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36847
content:
"All three post-AR5 IPCC Special Reports considered some of the \r\nresearch that is assessed here in greater detail. The 2018 report on \r\n1.5degC (SR1.5) included a review of climate change and health literature \r\npublished since AR5 and called for further efforts for protecting health "


id: 4299f3b51451d98d2b03b8c1f6f7c54d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8912
content:
"2016). In a global survey of over 1  million people taken between \r\n2004 and 2008 via the Gallup World Poll, annual income and access \r\nto food were strong predictors of subjective well-being and a healthy \r\nenvironment. In particular, access to clean water was important even \r\nwhen household income was controlled (Diener and Tay, 2015). Access \r\nto green spaces was also closely associated with well-being (high \r\nconfidence) (Lovell et al., 2018; Yuan et al., 2018)."


id: 21641e8dd1581f999571a28a8a390d92
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3084
content:
"Since AR5, more comprehensive frameworks for framing and studying \r\nglobal health issues, including planetary health, 'One Health' and eco\u0002health, have gained traction. These frameworks share an ecological \r\nperspective, emphasise the role of complex systems and highlight the \r\nneed for inter-disciplinary approaches related to human health research \r\nand practice (Lerner and Berg, 2015; Zinsstag et al., 2018; Whitmee \r\net  al., 2015; Steffen et  al., 2015). These frameworks increasingly \r\nshape the evidence related to climate change health impacts and \r\nresponse options, highlight the dynamics of complex systems in risk \r\nmanagement and direct risk management efforts in new directions."


id: 5a81472aba37250e9735bfe146aa57fe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13177
content:
"Assessing the links between human health, well-being and climate \r\nchange is a new task for AR6, reflecting a broad perspective on health \r\nthat increasingly acknowledges the importance of well-being and its \r\ninteractions with individual and population health. The World Health \r\nOrganization (WHO) defines health as 'a state of complete physical, \r\nmental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or \r\ninfirmity' (WHO, 1946). Although this chapter assesses physical health, \r\nmental health and general well-being separately, they are inter\u0002connected; any type of health problem can reduce overall well-being \r\nand vice versa. For example, a child receiving inadequate nutrition may \r\nnot be sick but is experiencing a clear threat to well-being that has \r\nimplications for future physical and mental health."


id: 4b63c589f5780e28cb895cbfef2a9c0d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10513
content:
"Since AR5, there has been a steady increase in standardised, globally \r\nscoped, data-driven health impact assessments, such as the ongoing \r\nGlobal Burden of Disease study (James et al., 2018) that now includes \r\nscenario-based projections (Foreman et al., 2018), that make linkages \r\nwith other global priorities, including the SDGs (Fullman et al., 2017). \r\nAttention has turned from prioritising specific diseases like HIV/\r\nAIDS, malaria and tuberculosis, to strengthening health systems \r\nand providing universal health coverage (Chang et  al., 2019), with \r\nan ongoing emphasis on the social determinants of health. Several \r\nclimate-sensitive health outcomes are now tracked in the annual \r\nLancet Countdown reports (Watts et al., 2015; Watts et al., 2017; Watts \r\net al., 2018b; Watts et al., 2019; Watts et al., 2021). The Global Burden \r\nof Disease study is beginning to examine climate-sensitive disease "


id: ff6c29a19bf38664d55909f3a16d877f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42338
content:
"Subjective well-being is consistently associated with personal indicators \r\nsuch as higher income, greater economic productivity, better physical \r\nhealth (Diener and Tay, 2015; Delhey and Dragolov, 2016; De Neve \r\net al., 2013) and environmental health, and it is reflected in societal \r\nindicators such as social cohesion and equality (Delhey and Dragolov, "


id: 7874fa059866d9b449ad71ba2964e52b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18395
content:
"specific assessments of climate-related risks for health, displacement \r\nand conflict are found in each of the regional chapters of this report in \r\naddition to the general assessment that appears in this chapter."


id: 5c8e832776421ec2e0e8981d8813e4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13545
content:
"burdens, incorporate temperature as a risk factor (Murray et al., 2020) \r\nand project future cause-specific disease burdens in a warming world \r\n(Burkart et  al., 2021). Although not assessed in this chapter, there \r\nare numerous ongoing assessments of climate change impacts on \r\nhealth and well-being being undertaken by national and local health \r\nauthorities that continue to generate insights into climate-related \r\nhealth impacts and suggest response options relevant for decision \r\nmakers."


id: 1e7598277c46208be5226a509896eb11
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2562
content:
"Vulnerability to climate change varies across time and location, \r\nacross communities, and among individuals within communities; it \r\nreflects variations and changes in macro-scale non-climatic factors \r\n(such as changes in population, economic development, education, \r\ninfrastructure, behaviour, technology and ecosystems) and individual\u0002or household-specific characteristics, such as age, socioeconomic \r\nstatus, access to livelihood assets, pre-existing health conditions and \r\nability (US Global Change Research Program, 2016; Chapter 1)."


id: 962999b852a5984d81875d78b4d98ca9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23613
content:
"While the knowledge base regarding global health has increased, a \r\ncomprehensive framework is not in place that fully integrates health, \r\nwell-being and environmental impacts from climate change allowing \r\nfor the cumulative assessment of their impact. Moreover, significant \r\ncracks in the foundation of global health governance that affect \r\npreparedness and adaptive capacity for climate change, among other \r\nthreats, have been identified (Phelan et al., 2020; Defor and Oheneba\u0002Dornyo, 2020; Ostergard et al., 2020; Shaffie, 2021). While attention \r\nto climate change and health has increased and there is evidence of \r\nincreasing adaptation activity in the health sector (Watts et al., 2019), \r\nthere is also continued evidence of substantial adaptation gaps (UNEP, \r\n2018; UNEP, 2021) including gaps in humanitarian response capacity \r\nfor climate-related disasters (Watts et  al., 2021) that appear to be \r\nwidening as adverse climate change impacts on health and well-being \r\naccrue."


id: 2554d6415af2218e00280b6faeb9c628
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3755
content:
"Many direct and indirect effects of climate change pose multiple \r\nthreats to human health and well-being and can occur simultaneously, \r\nresulting in compounding or cascading impacts for vulnerable \r\npopulations. For example, many of the long-term impacts of climate \r\nchange on NCDs and injury described in Sections  7.2 and 7.3 are \r\nassociated with future increases in air temperature and levels of air \r\npollution; in many regions, and especially in large urban centres in Asia \r\nand Africa, these particular hazards are already causing substantial \r\nincreases in morbidity and mortality due to respiratory illnesses (Tong \r\net  al., 2016). Climate change can therefore be expected to magnify \r\nsuch health risks over the long term."


id: 31553e7ed217a042206cf3afd0ecae7c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5928
content:
"The exposure to hazards of populations, infrastructure, ecosystem \r\ncapital, socioeconomic systems and cultural assets critical to health \r\nand well-being varies considerably across and within regions (high \r\nconfidence). Exposure is also projected to vary across and within \r\nregions over time, depending on future GHG emissions pathways, \r\ndevelopment trajectories and differential vulnerability, particularly for \r\nexposure to extreme events and conditions, such as floods and droughts \r\n(Figures 7.1a, 7.1b) (Winsemius et al. 2018). For this reason, region\u0002"


id: 32527853f3eba44f19c2215a5ac6f46b
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6113
content:
"Projected exposure of poor people to floods and droughts in selected regions\r\nby 2050 under a high emissions scenario (RCP8.5)"


id: fba0030ab205428fe1328d0bb36ae0b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41640
content:
"needs associated with pregnancy or breastfeeding. Women and girls \r\nare more likely to die in extreme weather events (Garcia and Sheehan, \r\n2016; Yang et al., 2019). Women are also expected to face a greater \r\nmental health burden in a changing climate (Manning and Clayton, \r\n2018). Further, climatic extremes and water scarcity are associated \r\nwith increases in violence against girls and women (Anwar et al., 2019; \r\nOpondo et al., 2016; Le Masson et al., 2016; Udas et al., 2019)."


id: f34b7fb23d8c3a88947f939fabf9105c
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Rural and urban populations are often exposed to different types of \r\nclimate-related health risks. For example, because of the UHI effect \r\nand high concentrations of air pollution from motor vehicles and \r\nindustrial activity, people who live in urban areas may have higher \r\nrates of extreme heat stress and respiratory illnesses than their rural \r\ncounterparts (Hondula et al., 2014; Heaviside et al., 2016; Macintyre \r\net  al., 2018; Schinasi et  al., 2018). Conversely, rural populations, \r\nespecially those dependent on resource-based livelihoods, may have \r\na greater exposure to climate impacts on food production or natural \r\nhazard events, which have subsequent effects on household nutrition \r\nand food security (Springmann et al., 2016a; see also Chapters 5 and \r\n6 of this report)."


id: 6c1d9996f49cdb2b3f0ec5c9c4c8d9c1
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"The indigenous population worldwide is estimated at 476 million people spread across all geographic regions of the world (FAO et al., \r\n2021). Indigenous Peoples globally represent a large heterogeneity of people in terms of living conditions and social determinants of \r\nhealth. There is no simple definition of who is indigenous. In this text, we refer to Indigenous Peoples as people self-identified and \r\norganised as indigenous, according to the principles of the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA), an international non\u0002governmental organisation (NGO) with observer status at the United Nations (UN). Indigenous Peoples are described as 'distinct social \r\nand cultural groups that share collective ancestral ties to the lands and natural resources where they live, occupy or from which they have \r\nbeen displaced' (World Bank, 2021). A common experience among Indigenous Peoples are historical traumas related to overseas and/or \r\nsettler/industrial colonisation."


id: 3c7666f8884f7c2412ee980942993822
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Studies on climate change as it affects the health of Indigenous Peoples generally focus on non-displaced indigenous groups; that \r\nis, Indigenous Peoples maintaining culturally important elements of a land-based traditional lifestyle. Here we use an eco-medicine \r\nperspective in which the impacts of climate change on health are divided into primary, secondary and tertiary effects, as discussed below \r\n(Butler and Harley, 2010). Many analyses of indigenous health in relation to climate change use the One Health concept (Mackenzie and \r\nJeggo, 2019; see Section 7.1.5)."


id: 1c49787e61ddc43cb6da0bf4a8d7dab7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"In Arctic and sub-Arctic areas, higher temperatures with increased numbers of freeze-thaw cycles during the winter means increased \r\noccurrences of transport-related accidents in indigenous communities due to weaker ice on travel routes that cross lakes, rivers and the \r\nsea, along with changes in the snow cover and increased risk of avalanches (Durkalec et al., 2015; Jaakkola et al., 2018). Impeded access \r\nto healthcare during extreme weather conditions is a primary health risk for Indigenous Peoples living in remote areas (Amstislavski et al., \r\n2013; Hall and Crosby, 2020; Mamo, 2020)."


id: 7eb21701786eebf8a992b677aca97a25
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"Pastoralists in many regions may experience changes in livestock behaviour due to climate change, leading to increased mobility-related \r\nhealth hazards (Jaakkola et al., 2018; Mamo, 2020). Indigenous Peoples living in low-lying coastal areas and small island states face long\u0002term risk of flooding and the stresses of resettlement (Maldonado et al., 2021; McMichael and Powell, 2021)."


id: 3f210b9c7b170c24000baaa551337ee0
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"Secondary effects relate to ecosystem changes, for example, the increased risk of the acute spread of air-, soil-, vector-, food-, and \r\nwaterborne infectious diseases (Hueffer et  al., 2019). Higher proportions of climate-related infectious diseases are reported among \r\nindigenous groups compared to their non-indigenous neighbours, with examples from Torres Strait, Australia, showing a greater proportion \r\nof tuberculosis, dengue, Ross River virus, melioidosis, and non-tuberculous mycobacterial infections (Hall et al., 2021) and in the Republic \r\nof Sakha, Russia, high levels of zoonoses (Huber et al., 2020a). Increasing levels of livestock and canine diseases are also reported (Mamo, \r\n2020; Bogdanova et al., 2021; Hillier et al., 2021). Another secondary health effect is an increase in human-animal conflicts, for example "


id: 340bcb69edee6ab6a70aef98012d04a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Gender inequities amplify the tertiary health effects of climate change (Williams, 2018; Garnier et al., 2020). In an Inuit community, for \r\ninstance, women reported a higher level of mental stress related to climate change than men (Harper et al., 2015). Adverse pregnancy \r\noutcomes and altered developmental trajectories have also been associated with climate change (Hall et al., 2021). Indigenous Batwa \r\nwomen in Uganda reported experiencing more severe circumstances of food insecurity during pregnancy due to drought and unpredictable \r\nseasons negatively impacting agricultural practices (de Leon-Martinez et al., 2020). More studies with a gender perspective on climate \r\nchange as a determinant of Indigenous Peoples' health are needed, along with the perspectives of indigenous children and youth, \r\ndisplaced individuals and communities in urban settings (Kowalczewski and Klein, 2018)."


id: bbbd2938adf87e77d7c2c83c1c0c6ac0
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"Because cultural continuity is a recognised health factor (Lemelin et al., 2010; de Leon-Martinez et al., 2020; Middleton et al., 2020b), \r\ndisplaced Indigenous Peoples may suffer from climate change by worrying about impacts on non-displaced relatives and family and \r\nfrom traditional food staples turning into expensive commodified products. This is a knowledge gap with lasting implications not only \r\non physical environments (Guo et al., 2018). Social connections and knowledge pathways are disrupted, leading to a decreased ability to \r\nshare locally harvested and cultivated foods (King and Furgal, 2014; Neufeld et al., 2020)."


id: 6129e89f6db449124d0c9a02be13844
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"Tertiary effects of climate change on Indigenous Peoples' health are primarily described in smaller case studies and not designed in a \r\nway allowing for systematic international comparisons, which represents an important and significant gap in our understanding of these \r\noften-complex associations and impacts (Middleton et al., 2020b)."


id: 1bd93b80875672d6a8069000353c6b6b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"Future Risks for Indigenous People's Health and Well-Being in a Changing Climate\r\nFuture risks for Indigenous Peoples' health and well-being in a changing climate will result foremost from exacerbations of observed \r\nimpacts. Primary and secondary health risks are expected to increase as the frequency and/or severity of climate hazards grow in many \r\nregions. As one example, melting permafrost in the Siberian Arctic is projected to lead to more outbreaks of anthrax (Bogdanova et al., \r\n2021). Tertiary health threats are expected to persist even with strong global initiatives to mitigate greenhouse gases (GHGs) (Butler and \r\nHarley, 2010). Climate change is expected to compound non-climatic processes that lead to social exclusion and land dispossession that \r\nunderlay health inequalities experienced by Indigenous Peoples (Huber et al., 2020a)."


id: 8a5f1258146fbdc93f17ec8bb1428de8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Indigenous organisations worldwide stress the importance of applying a rights-based approach in responding to climate change (Mamo, \r\n2020). Although Indigenous Peoples are often identified as being vulnerable to climate change, this framing does not always reflect the \r\ndiverse responses and adaptations of Indigenous Peoples to these ongoing challenges (Nursey-Bray et al., 2020). An emerging body of "


id: 4aaab1d4a05a7aa04ee583e35c0e2275
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"research is focusing on the strength and resilience of indigenous communities globally as they adapt to these complex changes (Whyte, \r\n2018; FAO et al., 2021)."


id: 7e56d86f773fd80533c3a98d664e415d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"During droughts and water shortages, for example, indigenous pastoralists may face additional challenges if water supply assistance \r\nprovides only for human needs and neglects water requirements of livestock (Mamo, 2020). Indigenous knowledge on how to adapt to \r\ndrought through storing and sharing strategies, for example, is valuable (Fatehpanah et al., 2020; Mamo, 2020)."


id: 9fdb5c7f5248b4b40478cd1f0937aca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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content:
"Indigenous Peoples have been adapting to changes in their environments since time immemorial by developing new practices and \r\ntechniques (FAO et al, 2021). Their beliefs, value systems and principles include core elements and common values such as reciprocity, \r\nsolidarity, co-responsibility and community that are expressed in the dynamism of their knowledge systems (Lewis et al., 2020; Schramm \r\net al., 2020b). The relevance of these knowledge systems, which are holistic and tied to relationships between all living things, cannot be \r\nignored at this critical time (Garnier et al., 2020)."


id: f7b6225e13c664e16caa7638635e58e5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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"The health and equity impacts of climate change for Indigenous Peoples make mitigation efforts critical (Jones et al., 2020), including \r\npolicies and actions that consider the effects of colonisation. Colonisation constrains the design and diversity of potential climate \r\nand health responses through its historic and ongoing suppression of Indigenous knowledge systems that are critical in supporting \r\ncommunity-led actions to reduce future risks (Billiot et al., 2019; Reid et al., 2019; Nursey-Bray et al., 2020)."


id: d03a4d828c3b56143d25b241ff012dba
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:53
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Widening our understanding of gardening in the face of climate change and colonialism can support health and healing for Indigenous \r\nand non-Indigenous Peoples. Gardening as a means of indigenous food sovereignty has long been utilised by a variety of indigenous \r\ngroups within Canada and elsewhere to address circumstances of chronic food insecurity and support health and wellness (Johnson\u0002Jennings et al., 2020; Timler and Sandy, 2020). The concept of gardening as both a Euro-Western agricultural practice and indigenous \r\npractice encourages an increased reverence and connection with the land and wider engagement with the natural world (Whyte, 2018). \r\nMuch of this is because Indigenous knowledge and land management practices encompass processes that are known to be synergistic"


id: 72edb3bdbab1912e724f328ae6c608e
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content:
"and sustainable (Ottenhoff, 2021). Indigenous worldviews offer a different perspective on social resilience to environmental change, one \r\nthat is based on moral relationships of responsibility that connect humans to animals, plants and habitats (Grey and Patel, 2015). These \r\nresponsible practices not only ensure ecosystems are maintained for future generations; they centre the moral qualities necessary to carry \r\nout the responsibilities of consent, reciprocity and trust. Moral qualities of responsibility are the foundation for relying on each other \r\nwhen facing environmental challenges (Whyte, 2018; Miltenburg et al., 2021)."


id: ae636060ad2580eef9a978a6f5373
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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"Sami are the Indigenous Peoples of northernmost Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula of Russia, whose livelihoods have been traditionally \r\nsustained by reindeer herding, hunting, fishing and small-scale farming (Nilsson et al., 2011). Climate change is threatening core conditions \r\nfor reindeer herding, with Sami pastoralists describing the situation as 'facing the limit of resilience' (Furberg et al., 2011). Sami pastoralists \r\nstress that an ability to continue reindeer herding is a prerequisite for their mental and spiritual health (Jaakkola et al., 2018)."


id: 867c9c6f6564735c0982f061fed9671b
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"In a pilot project for climate adaptation of reindeer herding run by the Swedish Sami Parliament, reindeer herding management plans (in \r\nSwedish, renbruksplaner) were used as a tool to develop strategies for climate adaptation (Walkepaa, 2019). Four Sami reindeer herding \r\ncooperatives participated in the pilot study. They all agreed that climate change means that grazing patterns need to change. Traditionally, \r\nmountain reindeer graze in the Scandinavian mountains close to Norway in summer and in the coastal areas close to the Gulf of Bothnia \r\nin winter, representing a total migration route of up to 400 kilometres one-way. Rising temperatures are causing spring to occur earlier \r\nin the coastal winter grazing land before the calving areas in the summer land are suitable for grazing and free from snow. When the \r\nsnow cover disappears, the herds are dispersed, so it is important to migrate while snow is still present (Walkepaa, 2019). Migration "


id: 2b2be013e7655babbb6867f31cd89b87
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"routes are being destabilised by weaker ice cover on water and by hazardous weather events. Competing land use due to infrastructure, \r\nextractive industries, tourism, and energy production makes it difficult to find alternative grazing land. Supplementary feeding and \r\nincreased use of trucks to transport reindeer is one result. Herds that are dispersed due to bad snow conditions have an increased \r\nexposure to predators (Walkepaa, 2019; Uboni et al., 2020). By working strategically to secure adequate winter grazing and reduce \r\nfragmentation of grazing areas more generally represents win-win strategies for achieving decreased mental stress levels while reducing \r\nherders' consumption of fossil fuels (Walkepaa, 2019)."


id: 78402ecb3ef545356212fe3fd36f6b16
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"in poor and vulnerable communities, including when women and girls \r\nneed to undertake additional duties as laborers and caregivers (FAO \r\net al., 2018)."


id: 6fe9804557c019ea6eed815539c6d4d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"Stresses and shocks associated with climate change are drivers of food \r\ninsecurity, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and Latin America \r\n(Betts et  al., 2018). The most vulnerable groups include smallholder \r\nfarmers, pastoralists, agricultural laborers, poorer households, refugees, \r\nindigenous groups, women, children, the elderly and those who are \r\nsocioeconomically marginalised (FAO et al., 2018; IPCC, 2019b) (high \r\nconfidence). Men, women, children, the elderly and the chronically \r\nill have different nutritional needs and these vulnerabilities may be \r\namplified by gendered norms and differential access to resources, \r\ninformation and power (IPCC, 2019b). Extreme climate events have \r\nimmediate and long-term impacts on food insecurity and malnutrition "


id: 615b164bc6ec1299ca52a740d1024d6d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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"Water and sanitation systems are particularly vulnerable to extreme \r\nweather events, and damage to such systems can lead to contamination \r\nof drinking water and subsequent adverse health impacts (Howard \r\net al., 2016; Khan et al., 2015; Sherpa et al., 2014). In areas with only \r\nvery simple traditional excreta disposal facilities (e.g., latrines) and \r\ntraditional sources of water (e.g., unprotected wells), the repeated "


id: b3aa0fbe1a9402c36e446d4a977f2c32
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"occurrence of floods and other extreme events can negatively affect \r\nwater quality at household and community levels and increase the \r\nburden of food- and waterborne diseases (Cisse et  al., 2016; Khan \r\net al., 2015; Kostyla et al., 2015).\r\n7.2. Observed Impacts of Climate Change on \r\nHealth, Well-Being, Migration and Conflict\r\n7.2.1 Observed Impacts on Health and Well-Being"


id: 974be2cc6831a11daa964a2eed0a888c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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"Figure 7.3 provides a visual guide to this chapter. Section 7.1 has briefly \r\nsummarised major global frameworks and highlights groups that exhibit \r\nheightened vulnerability and exposure to the climatic risks assessed in \r\nthis chapter. Section 7.2 assesses observed impacts on health and well\u0002being, migration and conflicts that have emerged from interactions of \r\nclimate and weather-related hazards, exposure to such hazards and \r\nvulnerability of communities and systems, while Section 7.3 assesses \r\nprojected future risks. Section  7.4 assesses adaptation responses to \r\nclimate risks, opportunities for transformative change, co-benefits \r\nand how solutions for reducing climate impacts on health, well-being, \r\nmigration and conflicts may form part of the wider CRDPs."


id: 4b01d2430158291eeb3100ad57469998
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"Figure 7.4 |  Interactions between hazard, exposure and vulnerability that generate impacts on health systems and outcomes, with selected examples.\r\nWBD: waterborne disease, VBD: Vector-borne disease, and FBD: Food-borne disease."


id: 34929bf21489614a75f7b541e74df0ee
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"The global magnitude of climate-sensitive diseases was estimated in 2019 to be 39,503,684 deaths (69.9% of total annual deaths) and \r\n1,530,630,442 DALYs (Vos et al., 2020). Of these, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) comprised the largest proportion of climate-sensitive \r\ndiseases (32.8% of deaths and 15.5% DALYs). The next largest category consists of respiratory diseases - with chronic respiratory disease \r\ncontributing to 7% of deaths and 4.1% of DALYs and respiratory infection and tuberculosis contributing to 6.5% of deaths and 6% of \r\nDALYs. The observed trend of climate-sensitive disease deaths since 1990 is marked by increasing cardiovascular mortality and decreasing \r\nmortality from respiratory infections, enteric diseases and other infectious diseases (Vos et al., 2020). Figure Box 7.2.1 illustrates specific \r\nglobal trends between 1990 and 2017 of selected health outcomes estimated by GBDs (Ahmad Kiadaliri et al. 2018)."


id: 3bcc2007b1156a95f5610d61a01aa09f
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"Table Box 7.2.1 |  Global burden of climate-sensitive health risks assessed in this chapter (in order of assessment) (Vos et al., 2020) and synthesis of major observed \r\nand projected impacts in most affected regions. Blue represents an increase in positive health impacts, green represents an increase in negative health impacts and yellow \r\nrepresents an increase in both positive and negative impacts, but not necessarily in equal proportions. The confidence level refers to both the attributed observed and \r\nprojected changes to climate change. No assessment means the evidence is insufficient for assessment."


id: d2dc119453754dad9670c86cd3f46789
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"(a) Mental health data were not available (n.a.) due to lack of information in GBD 2019 related to annual deaths and the most affected regions."


id: b5c8d0d4a7b3831268500814d54fa35e
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"Changes in temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity have \r\nbeen implicated as drivers of West Nile fever in southeastern Europe \r\n(medium confidence). The average temperature and precipitation prior \r\nto the exceptional 2018 West Nile outbreak in Europe was above the \r\n1981-2010 period average, which may have contributed to an early \r\nupsurge of the vector population (Marini et al., 2020; Haussig et al., \r\n2018; Semenza and Paz, 2021). In 2019 and 2020, West Nile fever was \r\nfirst detected in birds and subsequently in humans in Germany and the \r\nNetherlands (Ziegler et al., 2020; Vlaskamp et al., 2020)."


id: 64e2c559976513c9f1a16afed2920848
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content:
"Changing climatic patterns are facilitating the spread of CHIKV, Zika, \r\nJapanese encephalitis and Rift Valley Fever in Asia, Latin America, \r\nNorth America and Europe (high confidence). Climate change may "


id: 127f87f8b2a634bf34b8122b35936eff
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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"(medium confidence). In Canada, there has been a geographic range \r\nexpansion of the black-legged tick I. scapularis, the main vector of \r\nBorrelia burgdorferi, the agent of Lyme disease. Vector surveillance of I. \r\nscapularis has identified strong correlation between temperatures and \r\nthe emergence of tick populations, their range and recent geographic \r\nspread, with recent climate warming coinciding with a rapid increase \r\nin human Lyme disease cases (Clow et al., 2017; Cheng et al., 2017; \r\nGasmi et al., 2017; Ebi et al., 2017). Ixodes ricinus, the primary vector \r\nin Europe for both Lyme borreliosis and tick-borne encephalitis is \r\nsensitive to humidity and temperature (Daniel et  al., 2018; Estrada\u0002Pena and Fernandez-Ruiz, 2020) (high confidence). There has been an \r\nobserved range expansion to higher latitudes in Sweden and to higher \r\nelevations in Austria and the Czech Republic."


id: 9a49968cf76233708911abb21393f11f
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"Rodent-borne disease outbreaks have been linked to weather and \r\nclimate conditions in a small number of studies published since AR5, \r\nbut more research is needed in this area. In Kenya, a positive association \r\nexists between precipitation patterns and Theileria-infected rodents, \r\nbut for Anaplasma, Theileria and Hepatozoon, the association between \r\nrainfall and pathogen varies according to rural land use types (Young \r\net al., 2017). Weather variability plays a significant role in transmission \r\nrates of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) (Hansen et al., \r\n2015; Xiang et al., 2018; Liang et al., 2018; Fei et al., 2015; Xiao et al., \r\n2014; Vratnica et al., 2017; Roda Gracia et al., 2015; Monchatre-Leroy \r\net al., 2017; Bai et al., 2019). In Chongqing, HFRS incidence has been \r\npositively associated with rodent density and rainfall (Bai et al., 2015)."


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"Impacts of floods include outbreaks of WBDs, with such events \r\ndisproportionately affecting the young, elderly and immunocompromised \r\n(Suk et al., 2020; Guzman Herrador et al., 2015; Levy et al., 2016; Lo \r\nIacono et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2019a). Water shortage and drought \r\nhave been found associated with diarrhoeal disease peaks (Epstein \r\net al., 2020b; Subiros et al., 2019; Boithias et al., 2016), while some \r\nreviews found insufficient evidence of the effects of drought on \r\ndiarrhoea (Levy et al, 2016 ; Asmall et al., 2021; Epstein et al., 2020b; \r\nSubiros et al., 2019; Boithias et al., 2016; Ramesh et al., 2016)."


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vector_id: 25640
content:
"Important waterborne diseases (WBDs) include diarrhoeal \r\ndiseases (such as cholera, shigella, cryptosporidiosis and typhoid), \r\nschistosomiasis, leptospirosis, hepatitis A and E and poliomyelitis (Cisse, \r\n2019; Houemenou et al., 2021; Hassan et al., 2021; Archer et al., 2020; \r\nMbereko et al., 2020; Fan et al., 2021). The number of cases of WBDs \r\nis considerable, and even in high-income countries WBDs continue \r\nto be a concern (Cisse et al., 2018; Kirtman et al., 2014; Levy et al., \r\n2018; Murphy et al., 2014; Brubacher et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2021). \r\nNevertheless, diarrhoea mortality has declined substantially since \r\n1990, although there are variations by country, and the global burden \r\nof WBDs has decreased in line with vaccination coverage of some \r\nWBDs (such as polio and cholera), poverty reduction and improved \r\nsanitation and hygiene (Jacob and Kazaura, 2021; Mutono et al., 2020; \r\nLee et al., 2019; Semenza and Paz, 2021; Jacob and Kazaura, 2021; \r\nMutono et al., 2020)."


id: 9014f6c8f3d83c61a0675407dafd3899
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22557
content:
"Heavy rainfall and higher than normal temperatures are associated \r\nwith increased cholera risk in affected regions (very high confidence).\r\nCholera is an acute diarrhoeal disease typically caused by the \r\nbacterium Vibrio cholerae that can result in severe morbidity and \r\nmortality. Maximum and minimum temperatures and precipitation \r\nhave been negatively associated with cholera cases. Cholera outbreaks \r\nhave occurred in several regions after natural disasters, including \r\ncholera incidence increasing three-fold in El Nino-sensitive regions of \r\nAfrica (Mpandeli et al., 2018; Amegah et al., 2016; Escobar et al., 2015; \r\nJutla et al., 2017; Asadgol et al., 2019; Moore et al., 2018; Moore et al., \r\n2017; Camacho et al., 2018; IPCC, 2019a; Cross-Chapter Box ILLNESS \r\nin Chapter 2; Box 3.3)."


id: df975a6473aa50c048cdbf52efe3e0d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36585
content:
"Heavy rainfall, warmer weather and drought are linked to increased \r\nrisks for other GI infections (high confidence). As temperature \r\nincreases, bacterial causes of GI infection also appear to increase, \r\nand this association is variably influenced by humidity and rainfall \r\n(Ghazani et al., 2018; Levy, 2016). In New York it has been found that \r\nevery 1degC increase in temperature was correlated with a 0.70-0.96% \r\nincrease in daily hospitalisation for GI infections (Lin et al., 2016). In \r\nthe Philippines, leptospirosis and typhoid fever showed an increase \r\nin incidence following heavy rainfall and flooding events (Matsushita \r\net al., 2018)."


id: 6b8fa0b49cfbae3a1398d5ebfa322911
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16224
content:
"Drinking water containing pathogenic microorganisms is the main \r\ndriver of the burden of WBDs (Murphy et al., 2014; Lee et al., 2021; \r\nChen et al., 2021b; Musacchio et al., 2021). WBD outbreaks, particularly \r\nintestinal diseases, are attributable to a combination of the presence \r\nof particular pathogens (bacteria, protozoa, viruses or parasites) and \r\nthe characteristics of drinking water systems in a given location (Bless \r\net al., 2016; Ligon and Bartram, 2016; Mutono et al., 2021; Ferreira \r\net al., 2021)."


id: eb88abd254d68bf74270d0e3d18d1d00
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38800
content:
"The causal linkages between climate variability and change and incidence of WBDs follow multiple direct and indirect pathways, often as \r\npart of a cascading series of risks (Semenza, 2020). For example, extreme precipitation can result in a cascading hazard or disease event \r\nwith implications of greater magnitude than the initial hazard, especially if there are pre-existing vulnerabilities in critical infrastructure \r\nand human populations (Semenza and Paz, 2021). Intense or prolonged precipitation can flush pathogens in the environment from \r\npastures and fields to groundwater, rivers and lakes, consequently infiltrating water treatment and distribution systems (Howard et al., \r\n2016; Khan et al., 2015; Sherpa et al., 2014; Cisse et al., 2016; Kostyla et al., 2015; Chapter 4). Table Box 7.3.1 shows the variety and \r\ncomplexity of pathways between climate hazard and WBD outcomes (Semenza, 2020)."


id: e6fd0eb77cc560b46a9ed084e32e08c9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37925
content:
"emergence of antimicrobial resistance (Lake, 2018; Yeni and Alpas, \r\n2017). The burden of FBDs is also linked to malnutrition as reduced \r\nimmunity increases susceptibility to various food-borne pathogens and \r\ntoxins (FAO, 2020)."


id: 21d6479b59e9a53f3bef8bf2487800e5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3172
content:
"FBDs refer to any illness resulting from ingesting food that is spoiled \r\nor contaminated by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, parasites, toxins, \r\npesticides and/or medicines (WHO, 2018b). FBD risks are present \r\nthroughout the food chain, from production to consumption, and most \r\noften arise due to contamination at source and from improper food \r\nhandling, preparation and/or storage (Smith and Fazil, 2019; Semenza \r\nand Paz, 2021). As with WBDs, FBD outbreaks can follow multiple \r\ncausal pathways as climatic risk factors interact with food production \r\nand distribution systems, urbanisation and population growth, \r\nresource and energy scarcity, decreasing agricultural productivity, \r\nprice volatility, modification of diet trends, new technologies and the "


id: 862aee44c4bff8d45cdbe105bd0408ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20756
content:
"A strong association exists between increases in FBDs and high air and \r\nwater temperatures and longer summer seasons (very high confidence).\r\nThe risks occur through complex transmission pathways throughout \r\nthe food chain and the wide range of food-borne pathogens (Cisse, \r\n2019; Hellberg and Chu, 2016; Lake and Barker, 2018; Park et  al., \r\n2018b; Smith and Fazil, 2019). The food-borne pathogens of most \r\nconcern are those having low infective doses, a significant persistence \r\nin the environment and high stress tolerance to temperature change "


id: e63ef70b4b62e492cb95719636e083a1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37810
content:
"(e.g., enteric viruses, Campylobacter spp., Shiga toxin-producing E. \r\ncoli strains, Mycobacterium avium, tuberculosis complexes, parasitic \r\nprotozoa and Salmonella) (Lake, 2018; Lake, 2017; Lake and Barker, \r\n2018; Smith and Fazil, 2019; European Food Safety Authority 2020; \r\nSemenza and Paz, 2021). Priority risks include marine biotoxins, \r\nmycotoxins, salmonellosis, vibriosis, transfer of contaminants due to \r\nextreme precipitation, floods, increased use of chemicals in the food \r\nchain (plant protection products, fertilizers, veterinary drugs) and \r\npotential residues in food (European Food Safety Authority 2020; \r\nWorld Health Organization 2018b)."


id: e10f94741a905e53e216100146397fc9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36858
content:
"range of possible non-climate as well as climate factors. For example, \r\nchronic diseases (e.g., lung disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary \r\ndisease (COPD) and asthma), other comorbidities, a weak immune \r\nsystem, age, gender, community, passive smoking, air pollution and \r\nchildhood immunisation may confound the climate pneumonia \r\nrelationship (Miyayo et al., 2021)."


id: 3518d14f0ac0a5daf5d537ebd2b65af5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6584
content:
"In temperate regions, the incidence of pneumonia is higher in winter \r\nmonths, but the exact causes of this seasonality remain debated \r\n(Mirsaeidi et al., 2016). With regards to temperature, various J-shaped, \r\nU-shaped or V-shaped temperature-pneumonia relationships \r\nhave been reported in the literature (Huang et al., 2018; Kim et al., \r\n2016; Liu et al., 2014; Qiu et al., 2016; Sohn et al., 2019) with such \r\nrelationships dependent on location. Humidity also appears important \r\nbut, like temperature, its effect is not consistent across studies - low \r\ntemperatures and low humidity (Davis et al., 2016), high temperatures \r\nand high humidity (Lam et al., 2020) and low temperatures and high \r\nhumidity (Miyayo et al., 2021) have all been found to be associated \r\nwith an increased incidence of pneumonia."


id: 726c772835eb7be2bfeff712870f6c0f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17368
content:
"There is a strong association observed between the increase in average \r\nambient temperature and increases in Salmonella infections (high \r\nconfidence). Most types of Salmonella infections lead to salmonellosis, \r\nwhile some other types (Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi) \r\ncan lead to typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever. The transmission to \r\nhumans of the non-typhoidal Salmonella infection, one of the most \r\nwidespread FBDs, usually occurs through eating foods contaminated \r\nwith animal faeces. Studies conducted in Australia (Milazzo et  al., \r\n2016), New Zealand (Lal et al., 2016), the UK (Lake, 2017), South Korea \r\n(Park et al., 2018a; Park et al., 2018c; Park et al., 2018a), Singapore (Aik \r\net al., 2018) and Hong Kong, SAR of China (Wang et al., 2018a; Wang \r\net  al., 2018b), have shown that Salmonella outbreaks are strongly \r\nassociated with temperature increases."


id: 8e56ed006869def5bac619ce7441f8ad
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22231
content:
"Day-to-day variations in temperature also appear important. \r\nFor Australia, increases in emergency room visits for childhood \r\npneumonia are associated with sharp temperature drops (Xu et al., \r\n2014). Large inter-daily changes in temperature are important for \r\nrespiratory disease incidence in Guangzhou, China (Lin et al., 2013) \r\nand Shanghai (Lei et al., 2021) while rapidly changing and extreme \r\ntemperatures during pregnancy have been linked to childhood \r\npneumonia (Miao et al., 2017; Zeng et al., 2017; Zheng et al., 2021). \r\nIn tropical and subtropical areas of Africa and Asia, pneumonia \r\nincidence has been reported to be higher during the rainy season, \r\npointing to a positive association between pneumonia patterns and \r\ntemperature and precipitation (Chowdhury et  al., 2018a; Lim and \r\nSiow, 2018; Paynter et al., 2010)."


id: 89a7ebcba2d1a31c24fed41af015c4bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21393
content:
"Significant associations exist between FBDs due to Campylobacter, \r\nprecipitation and temperature (medium confidence). The timing of \r\nheat-associated Campylobacteriosis events varies across countries, \r\nwith infection rates in the UK appearing to decline immediately \r\nafter periods of high rainfall (Djennad et al., 2019; Lake et al., 2019; \r\nRosenberg et  al., 2018; Yun et  al., 2016; Weisent et  al., 2014). This \r\nsuggests the association with climate may be indirect and due to \r\nweather conditions that encourage outdoor food preparation and \r\nrecreational activities (Lake, 2017; Semenza and Paz, 2021)."


id: 4a60895535fb2adadfb749bdea7b6f6c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10324
content:
"Outbreaks of human and animal Cryptococcus have been reported as \r\nbeing associated with a combination of climatic factors and shifts in \r\nhost and vector populations (Chang and Chen, 2015; Rickerts, 2019). The \r\nprevalence of childhood cryptosporidiosis, which is the second leading \r\ncause of moderate to severe diarrhoea among infants in the tropics \r\nand subtropics, shows associations with population density and rainfall, \r\nwith contamination due to Cryptosporidium spp. being 2.61  times \r\nhigher during and after heavy rain (Lal et al., 2019; Young et al., 2015; \r\nKhalil et al., 2018). Studies from Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Tanzania, Kenya \r\nand Zambia show a higher prevalence of Cryptosporidium during high \r\nrainfall seasons, with some peaks observed before, at the onset or at \r\nthe end of the rainy season (Squire and Ryan, 2017)."


id: 550acc7567031465302762c6a7ea63d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12234
content:
"Climatic risk factors for respiratory tract infections (RTIs) due to \r\nmultiple pathogens (bacteria, viruses and fungi) include temperature \r\nand humidity extremes, dust storms, extreme precipitation events and \r\nincreased climate variability. Amongst a range of RTIs, pneumonia and \r\ninfluenza represent a significant disease burden (Ferreira-Coimbra \r\net al., 2020; Lafond et al., 2021; McAllister et al., 2019; Wang et al., \r\n2020c). The drivers of pneumonia incidence are complex and include a "


id: c5647950d5887861b0a155e665733b36
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32037
content:
"influenza season and others across the USA (Liu et al., 2020a; Zhao \r\net  al., 2018a). For the eastern Mediterranean, such rapid weather \r\nchanges are associated with the 'Cyprus Low', with the timing and \r\nmagnitude of seasonal influenza related to the interannual frequency \r\nof this particular weather regime (Hochman et al., 2021). Potentially, \r\nlarge-scale modes of climatic variability such as ENSO and the Indian \r\nOcean Dipole, which strongly moderate the frequency of weather \r\nregimes in some parts of the world, could affect influenza pandemic \r\ndynamics. However, studies conducted to date report inconsistent \r\nresults. Some point to an increased (decreased) severity of seasonal "


id: 6055821d4955481abe7ba7484a923f6c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14253
content:
"influenza during El Nino (La Nina) (Oluwole, 2015; Oluwole, 2017), \r\nwhile others find influenza to be more severe and frequent when \r\ncoinciding with La Nina events (Chun et  al., 2019; Flahault et  al., \r\n2016; Shaman and Lipsitch, 2013). This raises the possibly of non\u0002stationary associations between large-scale modes of climatic \r\nvariability and influenza dynamics (Onozuka and Hagihara, 2015) \r\nas found for other diseases (Kreppel et  al., 2014), something that \r\nmight be expected given El Nino's time-varying impact on global \r\nprecipitation and temperature fields and associated impacts on \r\nhealth outcomes (McGregor and Ebi, 2018)."


id: 9368bd6b972ab3590066e919634273cd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23140
content:
"The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes COVID-19, emerged in late 2019, halfway through the \r\npreparation of the IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report. This Cross-Chapter Box assesses how the massive shock of the pandemic and \r\nresponse measures interact with climate-related impacts and risks as well as its significant implications for risk management and climate \r\nresilient development."


id: a804fff3c6d282cceb1f9e458e00be8d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26771
content:
"Human-to-human transmission is the prominent driver in the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, rather than climatic drivers (high \r\nconfidence). There is emerging literature on the environmental determinants of COVID-19 transmission, incidence and mortality rates, \r\nwith initial evidence suggesting that temperature, humidity and air pollution contribute to these patterns (Brunekreef et al., 2021; Xiong \r\net al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020b; AR6 WGI CCB 6.1: Implications of COVID-19 restrictions for emissions, air quality and climate). Climate \r\nchange is altering environmental factors like temperature and seasonality that affect COVID-19 transmission (Choi et al., 2021)."


id: 3da858e7d7b22f42162b06effb021efa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8015
content:
"The impact of COVID-19 containment measures resulted in a temporary reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and reduced air \r\npollution (high confidence) (IPCC WGI TS; Arias et al., 2021; AR6 WGI CCB 6.1: Implications of COVID-19 restrictions for emissions, air \r\nquality and climate). However, global and regional climate responses to the radiative effect were undetectable above internal climate \r\nvariability due to the temporary nature of emission reductions. They therefore do not result in detectable changes in impacts or risks due \r\nto changes in climate hazards (Arias et al 2021; AR6 WGI CCB 6.1: Implications of COVID-19 restrictions for emissions, air quality and \r\nclimate; Naik et al., 2021)."


id: 36f7448289730396dd72fa87ee239f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6895
content:
"Improved contingency and recovery planning, including disease mitigation measures, were crucial in responding to the pandemic in \r\nsimilar ways to those seen in the aftermath of climate-related disasters (Guo et al., 2020; Ebrahim et al., 2020; Baidya et al., 2020; \r\nShultz et al., 2020; Mukherjee et al., 2020). The pandemic highlighted the lack of global and country-specific capacity to respond to an \r\nunexpected and unplanned event and the need to implement more flexible detection and response systems (Ebi et al., 2021b)."


id: 399194d58e5d0c7c46de6b6cb50cf9de
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7340
content:
"The experience of COVID-19 demonstrates that many warnings about the risks of the emergence of zoonotic transmission ('delay is \r\ncostly', 'adapt early' and 'prevention pays') did not result in sufficient political attention, funding and pandemic prevention. In some \r\ncountries, there has been an increased awareness of the risks and the real or perceived trade-offs associated with risk management (e.g., \r\neconomy compared with health and impacts compared with adaptation). Building trust and participatory processes and establishing "


id: 41a870a1bfc1c77e39ec9c6287f91d96
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8740
content:
"stronger relationships with communities and other civic institutions may enable a recalibration of how the government responds to crises \r\nand society-government relationships more generally (Amat et al., 2020; Deslatte, 2020)."


id: 1bc387518891c296be3efc9f5993cade
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2069
content:
"There is a considerable evidence base of specific actions that have co-benefits for reducing pandemic and climate change risks while \r\nenhancing social justice and biodiversity conservation (high confidence). The pandemic highlighted aspects of risk management that have \r\nlong been recognised but are often not reflected in national and international climate policy: the value of addressing structural vulnerability \r\nrather than taking specific measures to control single hazards and drivers of risk and the importance of decision-making capacities and \r\ntransparency, the rule of law, accountability and addressing inequities (or social exclusion) (reviewed by Pelling et al. (2021); see also \r\nFigure COVID.1)."


id: aa1ea32312b83cf2a1481aa3321777e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27156
content:
"In summary, the emerging literature suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic has aggravated climate-related health risks, demonstrated the \r\nglobal and local vulnerability to cascading shocks and illustrated the importance of integrated solutions that tackle ecosystem degradation \r\nand structural vulnerabilities in human societies. This highlights the potential and urgency of interventions that reduce pandemic and \r\nclimate change risks while enhancing compound resilience, social justice and biodiversity conservation (see Figure COVID.1)."


id: 4abe09835708ea73190242f26a049911
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10389
content:
"populations, such as firefighters, are clearer (Navarro et al., 2019) and \r\ncould increase with additional exposure driven by climate change."


id: fb9361e857dd1e4b40016b70208e0ddb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41630
content:
"Other climate-related mechanisms that may increase CVD risk include \r\nreductions in physical activity related to hot weather (Obradovich et al., \r\n2017), sleep disturbance (Obradovich et  al., 2017) and dehydration \r\n(Lim et al., 2015; Frumkin and Haines, 2019). There is little literature \r\non how changes in winter weather may affect these risks. Saline \r\nintrusion of groundwater related to sea level rise (Taylor et al., 2012) \r\nmay increase the salt intake of affected populations, a risk factor for \r\nhypertension that has been observed to increase blood pressure in \r\nexposed populations (Talukder et al., 2017; Al Nahian et al., 2018)."


id: f7833ba98ab877d0fcaa6583ca6d7fad
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40921
content:
"Water shortage and drought are associated with skin diseases \r\n(Schachtel et  al., 2021; Lundgren, 2018; Andersen and Davis, 2017; \r\nKaffenberger et  al., 2017; Andersen and Davis, 2017), trachoma \r\n(Ramesh et  al., 2016) and violence (Epstein et  al., 2020a); more \r\nresearch is warranted in these areas for future assessment."


id: a1258226065beea12b713f5a2549797
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25575
content:
"NCDs are those that are not directly transmitted from one person to \r\nanother person; they impose the largest disease burden globally. NCDs \r\nconstitute approximately 80% of the burden of disease in high-income \r\ncountries; the NCD burden is lower in low- and middle-income countries \r\nbut are expected to rise (Bollyky et al., 2017). NCDs constitute a large \r\ngroup of diseases driven principally by environmental, lifestyle and \r\nother factors; those identified as being climate sensitive include non\u0002infectious respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer \r\nand endocrine diseases including diabetes. Additionally, there are \r\npotential interactions between multiple climate-sensitive NCDs and \r\nfood security, nutrition and mental health. The literature on climate \r\nchange and NCDs continues to develop. More recently, scientists have \r\nidentified key gaps in the calculation of the global burden of disease \r\ndue to environmental health factors (Shaffer et al., 2019)."


id: 35c6a9a25500e630a927ace58c44a1c9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6713
content:
"Lung diseases, including asthma, COPD and lung cancer, comprise the \r\nlargest subsets of non-communicable pulmonary disease (Ferkol and \r\nSchraufnagel, 2014). Overall, the global burden of non-communicable \r\nlung disease including all chronic lung disease and lung cancer is \r\nsubstantial, being responsible for 10.6% of deaths and 5.9% of DALYs \r\nglobally in 2019 (Vos et al., 2020)."


id: d9757c6dee3ceaaae09e2e5f04dffee8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35555
content:
"Several non-communicable respiratory diseases are climate sensitive \r\nbased on their exposure pathways (very high confidence). Multiple \r\nexposure pathways contribute to non-communicable respiratory \r\ndisease (Deng et al., 2020), some of which are climate-related (Rice \r\net al., 2014), including mobilisation and transport of dust (Schweitzer \r\net al., 2018); changes in concentrations of air pollutants such as small \r\nparticulates (PM2.5) and ozone formed by photochemical reactions \r\nsensitive to temperature (Hansel et  al., 2016); increased wildland \r\nfires and related smoke exposure (Johnston et al., 2002; Reid et al., \r\n2016); increased exposure to ambient heat driving reduced lung \r\nfunction and exacerbations of chronic lung disease (Collaco et  al., \r\n2018; Jehn et al., 2013; McCormack et al., 2016; Witt et al., 2015) and \r\nmodification of aeroallergen production and duration of exposure \r\n(Ziska et al., 2019)."


id: ef873fff2b2baa4b50f7936106d5f324
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39517
content:
"CVDs are a group of disorders of the heart and blood vessels that \r\ninclude coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral \r\narterial disease, rheumatic heart disease, congenital heart disease, deep \r\nvein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. CVDs are the leading cause \r\nof death globally and over three quarters of the world's CVD deaths \r\nnow occur in low- and middle-income countries (Roth et al., 2020)."


id: 5fc9084751c3f942d55065ae68c583f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14152
content:
"Climate change affects the risk of CVD through high temperatures \r\nand extreme heat (assessed in Section  7.2.4.1) and through other \r\nmechanisms (medium confidence), though the degree to which non\u0002temperature risks may increase remains unclear. For example, exposure \r\nto air pollutants including PM, ozone (via its precursors), black carbon, \r\noxides of nitrogen, oxides of sulphur, hydrocarbons and metals can invoke \r\npro-inflammatory and prothrombotic states, endothelial dysfunction \r\nand hypertensive responses (Giorgini et al., 2017; Stewart et al., 2017). \r\nWinter peaks in CVD events, associated with greater concentrations of \r\nair pollutants, have been reported in a range of countries and climates \r\n(Claeys et  al., 2017; Stewart et  al., 2017); however, the association \r\nbetween air pollution, weather and CVD events is complex and seems \r\nto differ between cold and warm months, particularly for gaseous \r\npollutants such as ozone (Shi et al., 2020)."


id: 1f6eb2f420f78f7c520a5b4b70ba0ea2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2735
content:
"Burdens of allergic disease, particularly allergic rhinitis and allergic \r\nasthma may be changing in response to climate change (medium \r\nconfidence) (D'Amato et al., 2020; Eguiluz-Gracia et al., 2020; Deng \r\net al., 2020; Demain, 2018). This is supported by evidence showing an \r\nincrease in the length of the North American pollen season attributable \r\nto climate change (Ziska et al., 2019), an association between timing \r\nof spring onset and higher asthma hospitalisations presumed to be due \r\nto higher pollen exposure (Sapkota et al., 2020) and other evidence \r\nlinking aeroallergen exposure with a worsening burden of allergic \r\ndisease (Demain, 2018; Poole et al., 2019)."


id: 37c3625da641f9b014fc73d863e66f00
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7017
content:
"Climate change is likely to increase the risk of several malignancies \r\n(high confidence), though the degree to which risks may increase \r\nremains unclear. Cancers, also known as malignant neoplasms, \r\ninclude a heterogeneous collection of diseases with various causal \r\npathways, many with environmental influences. Malignant neoplasms \r\nimpose a substantial burden of disease globally and are responsible \r\nfor slightly more than 10  million deaths and 251  million DALYs "


id: c6bfdcfd0dcfd523199910b274ace6b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32270
content:
"Climate change is projected to increase the number and severity of \r\nwildfires (Liu et  al., 2015b; Youssouf et  al., 2014) and the evidence \r\nfor wildfire smoke-related CVD morbidity and mortality is suggestive \r\nof increased CVD morbidity and mortality risk (Chen et  al., 2021a) \r\nincluding significant increases in certain cardiovascular outcomes (e.g., \r\ncardiac arrests) (Dennekamp et al., 2015). CVD risks to highly exposed "


id: 73b69f04240ddd678da1a81b5c2d11d6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17606
content:
"range of factors including disruption of transport, weakened health \r\nsystems including drug supply chains, loss of power and evacuations \r\nof populations (Ryan et  al., 2015a). Evacuations also pose specific \r\nhealth risks to older adults (especially those who are frail, medically \r\nincapacitated or residing in nursing or assisted living facilities) and \r\nmay be complicated by the need for concurrent transfer of medical \r\nrecords, medications and medical equipment (Becquart et  al., 2018; \r\nQuast and Feng, 2019; US Global Change Research Program, 2016). \r\nEmergency room visits after Hurricane Sandy rose among individuals \r\nwith type-2 diabetes (Velez-Valle et al., 2016)."


id: 729fab6a6432f12db006d2017a78acfc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17406
content:
"globally in 2019 (Vos et al., 2020). Climatic hazards affect exposure \r\npathways for several different chemical hazards associated with \r\ncarcinogenesis (Portier et  al., 2010). Most relevant literature has \r\nfocused on elaborating potential pathways and producing qualitative \r\nor quantitative estimates of effect, though there is limited literature \r\non current and projected impacts."


id: 9df244cce7fb3df6bf72ca271684579f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25023
content:
"Under a variety of methods, estimates of the world's population \r\nexposed to extreme heat indicate very large and growing numbers \r\nand an increase since pre-industrial times. For example, Li et al. (2020) \r\nestimate that globally, 1.28  billion people each year experience \r\nheatwave conditions similar to that of the lethal Chicago 1995 event, \r\ncompared with 0.99  billion people that would be similarly exposed \r\nunder a pre-industrial climate. Further, for the 150 most populated \r\ncities of the world, a 500% increase in the exposure to extreme heat \r\nevents occurred over the 1980-2017 period (Li et al., 2021), while for \r\nthe 1986-2005 period, the total exposure to dangerous heat in Africa's \r\n173 largest cities was 4.2 billion person-days yr-1 (Rohat et al., 2019a). \r\nGlobally the present exposure to heatwave events is estimated to be \r\n14.8 billion person-days yr-1, with the greatest cumulative exposures \r\nmeasured in person-days occurring across southern Asia (7.19 billion), "


id: b50c7cd9b122bde66a32438e092d5e9f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29087
content:
"People with chronic illnesses are at particular risk during and after \r\nextreme weather events due to treatment interruptions and lack of \r\naccess to medication (medium confidence). The impacts of extreme \r\nweather events on the health of chronically ill people are due to a "


id: 5ccd311a2b835ff5bd5ab1b26df7e8c5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13591
content:
"sub-Saharan Africa (1.43 billion), and north Africa and the Middle East \r\n(1.33 billion) (Jones et al., 2018)."


id: a0a6c5a4b236bd1ed25623ecb21c482
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25473
content:
"Under extreme heat conditions, increases in hospitalisations have \r\nbeen observed for fluid disorders, renal failure, urinary tract infections, \r\nsepticaemia, general heat stroke as well as unintentional injuries (Borg \r\net  al., 2017; Phung et  al., 2017; Goggins and Chan, 2017; Hayashida \r\net  al., 2019; Hopp et  al., 2018; Ito et  al., 2018; Kampe et  al., 2016; \r\nMcTavish et al., 2018; Ponjoan et al., 2017; van Loenhout et al., 2018). \r\nHospitalisations and mortality due to respiratory disorders also occur \r\nduring heat events with the interactive role of air quality being important \r\nfor some locations but not others (Krug et al., 2019; Pascal et al., 2021; \r\nPatel et al., 2019). Increased levels of heat-related hospitalisation also \r\nmanifest in elevated levels of emergency service calls (Cheng et al., 2016; \r\nGuo, 2017; Papadakis et al., 2018; Williams et al., 2020)."


id: a49687c53610b63b4131cdde77f7fddb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26170
content:
"Rapid changes and variability in temperatures are observed to increase \r\nheat-related health and mortality risks, the outcomes varying across \r\ntemperate and tropical regions (Guo et al., 2016; Cheng et al., 2019; Kim \r\net al., 2019a; Tian et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2018b; Zhao et al., 2019)."


id: 584c3e78535b11e34b5dfe90bb39611e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12791
content:
"Heat- and cold-related health outcomes vary by location (Dialesandro \r\net al., 2021; Hu et al., 2019; Phung et al., 2016), suggesting outcomes \r\nare highly moderated by socioeconomic, occupational and other \r\nnon-climatic determinants of individual health and socioeconomic \r\nvulnerability (Astrom et  al., 2020; McGregor et  al., 2017; McGregor \r\net al., 2017; Schuster et al., 2017; Benmarhnia et al., 2015; Watts et al., \r\n2019) (high confidence). For example, access to air conditioning is an \r\nimportant determinant of heat-related health outcomes for some \r\nlocations (Guirguis et al., 2018; Ostro et al., 2010). Although there is a \r\npaucity of global level studies of the effectiveness of air conditioning for \r\nreducing heat-related mortality, a recent assessment indicates increases \r\nin air conditioning explains only part of the observed reduction in heat\u0002related excess deaths, amounting to 16.7% in Canada, 20.0% in Japan, \r\n14.3% in Spain and 16.7% in the US (Sera et al., 2020)."


id: 9abe2f3832f4a314e5613b947073ee9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24465
content:
"Significant effects of heat exposure are evident in sport and work \r\nsettings with exertional heat illness leading to death and injury \r\n(Adams and Jardine, 2020). Although most studies of heat-related \r\nsports injuries refer to high-income countries, these point to an \r\nincreasing number of heat injuries with widening participation in \r\nsport and an increasing frequency of extreme heat events. The highest \r\nrates of exertional heat illness are reported for endurance type events \r\n(running, cycling and adventure races), American football and athletics \r\n(Gamage et  al., 2020; Grundstein et  al., 2017; Kerr et  al., 2020; \r\nMcMahon et al., 2021; Yeargin et al., 2019). The health, safety and \r\nproductivity consequences of working in extreme heat are widespread \r\n(Ma et al., 2019; Morabito et al., 2021; Kjellstrom et al., 2019; Orlov "


id: 61d537538a7c863530764f66bbf842e1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14495
content:
"Temperature interacts with heat-sensitive physiological mechanisms \r\nvia multiple pathways to affect health. In the worst cases, these lead \r\nto organ failure and death (Mora et  al., 2017a; Mora et  al., 2017b). \r\nExcess deaths during extreme heat events occur predominantly in older \r\nindividuals and are overwhelmingly cardiovascular in origin (very high \r\nconfidence). A higher occurrence of CVD mortality in association with \r\nprolonged period of low temperatures has been well documented \r\nglobally (Giorgini et al., 2017; Stewart et al., 2017); however, there is \r\ngrowing evidence that cardiovascular deaths are more related to heat \r\nevents than cold spells (Chen et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2015a; Bunker et al., "


id: 600d9825172edfd32853f9a688b60ecd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14205
content:
"(median: 1.67/100,000; interquartile range: 1.08-2.34/100,000). \r\nRegions with a high attributed percentage (> 50%) include southern \r\nand western Asia (Iran and Kuwait), Southeast Asia (Philippines and \r\nThailand) and several countries in Central and South America. Those \r\nwith lower values (< 35%) include Western Europe (the Netherlands, \r\nGermany and Switzerland), eastern Europe (Moldova, the Czech \r\nRepublic and Romania), southern Europe (Greece, Italy, Portugal \r\nand Spain), North America (USA) and eastern Asia (China, Japan and \r\nSouth Korea) (Vicedo-Cabrera et  al., 2021). Due to data restrictions, \r\nsome of the poorest and most susceptible regions to climate change \r\nand increases in heat exposure, such as west and east Africa (Asefi\u0002Najafabady et al., 2018; Sylla et al., 2018) and south Asia, could not be \r\nincluded in the analysis (Mitchell, 2021)."


id: 46e7dd18bcce1787f70d50cab37538d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9677
content:
"There is clear evidence of climate sensitivity for multiple injuries from \r\nfloods, fires and storms, but there is a need for additional evidence \r\nregarding the current injury burden attributable to climate change. It is \r\nas likely as not that climate change has increased the current burden \r\nof disease from injuries related to extreme weather, particularly in low\u0002income settings (low confidence). Approximately 120  million people \r\nare exposed to coastal flooding annually (Nicholls et al., 2007), causing \r\nan estimated 12,000 deaths (Shultz et al., 2005), and there is significant \r\nconcern for worsening flooding associated with climate change (Shultz \r\net al., 2018a; Shultz et al., 2018b; Woodward and Samet, 2018) but \r\nvery limited quantification of attributable burden. A range of adverse \r\nhealth outcomes has been identified in a study of fires in sub-zero \r\ntemperatures that are thought to be increasing in frequency due to \r\nclimate change (Metallinou and Log, 2017)."


id: dc93060dd58450073057950ee6653557
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36070
content:
"Maternal and neonatal disorders accounted for 3.7% of total global \r\ndeaths and 7.8% of global DALYs in 2019 (Vos et al., 2020). Children \r\nand pregnant women have potentially higher rates of vulnerability \r\nand/or exposure to climatic hazards, extreme weather events and \r\nundernutrition (Garcia and Sheehan, 2016; Sorensen et  al., 2018; \r\nChersich et  al., 2018). Available evidence suggests that heat is \r\nassociated with higher rates of pre-term birth (Wang et  al., 2020), \r\nlow birthweight, stillbirth, neonatal stress (Cil and Cameron, 2017; \r\nKuehn and McCormick, 2017) and adverse child health (Kuehn and \r\nMcCormick, 2017). Extreme weather events are associated with \r\nreduced access to prenatal care, unattended deliveries (Abdullah \r\net al., 2019) and decreased paediatric healthcare access (Haque et al., \r\n2019)."


id: 32f4198fc5b89d378e4bc0a80813f9b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6229
content:
"Climate change can affect the four aspects of food security: food \r\nproduction and availability, stability of food supplies, access to food \r\nand food utilisation (IPCC, 2019b). Access to sufficient food does not \r\nguarantee nutrition security. Extreme weather and climate events \r\ncan result in inadequate or insufficient food consumption, increasing \r\nsusceptibility to infectious diseases (Rodriguez-Llanes et al., 2016; Gari \r\net al., 2017; Kumar et al., 2016; Lazzaroni and Wagner, 2016) but also \r\nto being overweight or obese and increasing susceptibility to non\u0002communicable diseases in low- and middle-income countries (FAO, \r\n2018; Swinburn et al., 2019)."


id: 35c6cbcfff72fc13f8b532db5410e82f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6714
content:
"Nearly half of all deaths in children under five years of age are \r\nattributable to undernutrition, putting children at greater risk of dying \r\nfrom common infections. Undernutrition in the first 1,000 days of a \r\nchild's life can lead to stunted growth, which can result in impaired \r\ncognitive ability and reduced future school and work performance \r\nand the associated costs of stunting in terms of lost economic growth \r\ncan be of the order of 10% of GDP yr-1 in Africa (UNICEF/WHO/WBG, \r\n2019)."


id: 1c92cac0ba0181236b70c411770e0d27
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2205
content:
"At the same time, diseases associated with high-calorie, unhealthy diets \r\nare increasing globally, with 38.3 million overweight children under \r\nfive years of age (Global Nutrition Report, 2018), 2.1 billion overweight \r\nor obese adults and the global prevalence of diabetes almost doubling \r\nin the past 30 years (Swinburn et al., 2019). Unbalanced diets, such \r\nas diets low in fruits and vegetables and high in red and processed \r\nmeat, are the number one risk factor for mortality globally and in most \r\nregions (Gakidou et al., 2018; Afshin et al., 2019)."


id: 1c7cc9804b6bd7a1e920169b8b22b87c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2200
content:
"Socioeconomic factors that mediate the influence of climate change on \r\nnutrition include cultural and societal norms; governance, institutions, \r\npolicies and fragility; human capital and potential; and social position \r\nand access to healthcare, education and food aid (Rozenberg, 2017; \r\nAlkerwi et  al. 2015; Tirado, 2017; FAO et  al., 2018; Global Nutrition \r\nReport 2020). Extreme events may affect access to adequate diets, \r\nleading to malnutrition and increasing the risk of disease (Beveridge \r\net  al., 2019; Rodriguez-Llanes et  al., 2016; Gari et  al., 2017; Kumar \r\net al., 2016; Lazzaroni and Wagner, 2016; Thiede and Gray, 2020)."


id: 17c1bf52cbfc8cb52822f26b0ba9c612
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1388
content:
"sleep problems, with conditions ranging from being mild in nature to \r\nthose that require hospitalisation (Berry et al., 2010; Cianconi et al., \r\n2020; Clayton et al., 2017; Ruszkiewicz et al., 2019; Bromet et al., 2017; \r\nLowe, 2019). The line between mental health and more general well\u0002being is permeable, but in this section we refer to diagnosable mental \r\ndisorders--conditions that disrupt or impair normal functioning \r\nthrough impacts on mood, thinking or behaviour."


id: d999de75dfb4cdab7d5641fe4040165c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35583
content:
"Chapter 5 (Sections  5.4.3, 5.5.2.3, 5.8.1, 5.8.2, 5.8.3, 5.9.1, 5.11.1, \r\n5.11.3, 5.12.3) discusses the possible impacts of climate change on \r\nfood safety, including exposure to toxigenic fungi, PCBs and other \r\nPOPs, mercury and harmful algal blooms."


id: 8cd197d33499008adb9dd3619641ffcc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21959
content:
"Climate change may affect animal health management practices, \r\npotentially leading to an increased use of pesticides or veterinary drugs \r\n(such as preventive antimicrobials) that could result in increased levels \r\nof residues in foods (high agreement, medium/low evidence) (Beyene \r\net  al., 2015; FAO and WHO, 2018; European Food Safety Authority, \r\n2020; MacFadden et al., 2018)."


id: 64bc8686da58b06bf4d595af1424a8c6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15003
content:
"Figure 7.6 |  Climate change impacts on mental health and key adaptation responses.\r\nPTSD: Post traumatic stress disorder."


id: 86d14d233634b7a21de5da8c95e1c607
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20884
content:
"increase in depression, substance abuse or suicide in some Indigenous \r\nPeoples (Canu et al., 2017; Cunsolo Willox et al., 2013; Middleton et al., \r\n2020b; Jaakkola et al., 2018)."


id: 8c6daf134348abfcff4b874f0eba4f48
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21893
content:
"Wildfires have observed negative impacts on mental health (high \r\nconfidence). This is due to the trauma of the immediate experience \r\nand/or subsequent displacement and evacuation (Dodd et  al., 2018; \r\nBrown et al., 2019; Psarros et al., 2017; Silveira et al., 2021b). Sub\u0002clinical outcomes, such as increases in anxiety, sleeplessness or \r\nsubstance abuse are reported in response to wildfires and extreme \r\nweather events, with impacts being pronounced among those who \r\nexperience greater losses or are more directly exposed to the event; \r\nthis may include first responders."


id: 52279e41b149f30d79cde48ebf3f5a0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11726
content:
"Meyer, 2020). The diversity of potential migration and displacement \r\noutcomes reflects (a) the variable nature of climate hazards in terms \r\nof the rate of onset, intensity, duration, spatial extent and severity of \r\ndamage caused to housing, infrastructure and livelihoods and (b) the \r\nwide range of social, economic, cultural, political and other non-climatic \r\nfactors that influence exposure, vulnerability, adaptation options \r\nand the contexts in which migration decisions are made (Neumann \r\nand Hermans, 2015; McLeman, 2017; Barnett and McMichael, 2018; \r\nCattaneo et al., 2019; Hoffmann et al., 2020) (high confidence)."


id: 6a5de2e54cb93029aac23e8965b6694f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15994
content:
"a negative effect of extreme cold on well-being (Yoo et  al., 2021); \r\nincreasing winter temperatures associated with climate change could \r\nserve to compensate for the impact of increased summer temperatures. \r\nHowever, the effect of high temperatures is typically found to be \r\nstronger than the effect of low temperatures, and in some cases no \r\ndetrimental impacts of cold weather are found (Almendra et al., 2019; \r\nMullins and White, 2019)."


id: f5cb6070a84f6e5b7ec0de101f97a34
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40603
content:
"Climate change also threatens well-being defined in terms of \r\ncapabilities or the capacity to fulfil one's potential and fully participate \r\nin society. Heat can limit labour capacity; one study estimated that \r\n45  billion hours of labour productivity were lost in 2018 compared \r\nto 2000 due to high temperatures (Watts et  al., 2019). Both heat \r\nand air pollution also impair human capabilities through a negative \r\neffect on cognitive performance (Taylor et al., 2016b) and even impair \r\nskills acquisition, reducing the ability to learn (Park et  al., 2021) \r\nand affecting marginalised groups more strongly (Park et al., 2020), \r\nalthough findings are inconsistent and depend in part on the nature of \r\nthe task (low confidence)."


id: e92ea3401c4010e5b6f23fbb8c819dba
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38376
content:
"Systematic reviews have found an association between higher \r\nambient levels of fine airborne particles with cognitive impairment \r\nin the elderly and with behavioural problems (related to impulsivity \r\nand attention problems) in children (Power et al., 2016; Yorifuji et al., \r\n2017; Younan et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2018b) (medium confidence). \r\nMalnutrition has also been associated with reduced educational \r\nachievement and long-term decrements in cognitive function \r\n(Acharya et al., 2019; Asmare et al., 2018; Na et al., 2020; Kim et al., \r\n2017; Talhaoui et al., 2019)."


id: 44e3393480d0c5f2704f8cb0a15ac98a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9351
content:
"Consistent with peer-reviewed scholarship and with the United \r\nNations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Cancun \r\nAdaptation Framework section 14(f) and the Paris Agreement, this \r\nChapter assesses the impacts of climate change on four types of \r\nmigration: (a) adaptive migration (i.e., where migration is an outcome \r\nof individual or household choice), (b) involuntary migration and \r\ndisplacement (i.e., where people have few or no options except to \r\nmove), (c) organised relocation of populations from sites highly exposed \r\nto climatic hazards and (d) immobility (i.e., an inability or unwillingness \r\nto move from areas of high exposure for cultural, economic or social \r\nreasons) (Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7)."


id: e5654fe2a3095c4f7aa19446d363ddc1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37660
content:
"Climate-related migration and displacement outcomes display high \r\nvariability in terms of migrant success, often reflecting pre-existing \r\nsocioeconomic conditions and household wealth (high confidence).\r\nThe decision to migrate or remain in place when confronted by \r\nclimatic hazards is strongly influenced by the range and accessibility \r\nof alternative, in situ (i.e., non-migration) adaptation options that may \r\nbe less costly or disruptive (Cattaneo et al., 2019). Migration decisions \r\n(whether climate-related or not) are typically made at the individual or \r\nhousehold level and are influenced by a household's perceptions of risk, \r\nsocial networks, wealth, age structure, health and livelihood choices \r\n(Koubi et al., 2016b; Gemenne and Blocher, 2017). Households with \r\ngreater financial resources and higher levels of educational attainment \r\nhave greater capacity to adapt in situ (Cattaneo and Massetti, 2019; "


id: 7a4dc12dc2f9d7063abe1f5138cb34cd
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content:
"A general theme across studies from all regions is that climate-related \r\nmigration outcomes are diverse (high confidence) and may be manifest \r\nas decreases or increases in migration flows, and may lead to changes \r\nin the timing or duration of migration and to changes in migration \r\nsource locations and destinations. Multi-country studies of climatic \r\nimpacts on migration patterns in Africa have found that migration \r\nexhibits weak, inconsistent associations with variations in temperature \r\nand precipitation and that migration responses differ significantly \r\nbetween countries and between rural and urban areas (Gray and Wise, \r\n2016; Mueller et al., 2020). Multi-directional findings such as these are \r\nalso common in single-country studies from multiple regions (Call et al., \r\n2017; Nawrotzki et al., 2017; Cattaneo et al., 2019; Kaczan and Orgill\u0002"


id: 8a57100809886be33411ba719227f7ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"Ocello et  al., 2015) but are also better able to migrate and with \r\ngreater agency once such a decision is made (Kubik and Maurel, 2016; \r\nKoubi et al., 2016b; Riosmena et al., 2018; Adams and Kay, 2019). By \r\ncontrast, poor households with limited physical, social and financial \r\nresources have less capacity to adapt in situ and are often limited in \r\ntheir migration options (Nawrotzki and DeWaard, 2018; Suckall et al., "


id: 2d97549921e2c68e4cc7be6706b43f0f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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"2017; Zickgraf et al., 2016). Thus, when poorer households do migrate \r\nafter an extreme climate event, it is often in reaction to lost income or \r\nlivelihood and occurs with low voluntarity (Mallick et al., 2017; Bhatta \r\net al., 2015) and may perpetuate or amplify migrants' socioeconomic \r\nprecarity and/or their exposure to environmental hazards (Natarajan \r\net al., 2019; see also Section 8.3.1)."


id: ac3c0e9ea6686c3f421e51a6d314611b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"Migration is a universal strategy that individuals and households undertake to improve well-being and livelihoods in response to \r\neconomic uncertainty, political instability and environmental change (high confidence). Migration, displacement and immobility that \r\noccur in response to climate hazards are assessed in general in Chapter 7, with specific sectoral and regional dimensions of climate\u0002related migration assessed in sectoral and regional Chapters 5 to 15 (Table MIGRATE.1 in Chapter 7) and involuntary immobility and \r\ndisplacement being identified as representative key risks in Chapter 16 (Sections  16.2.3.8, 16.5.2.3.8). Since AR5 there has been a \r\nconsiderable expansion in research on climate-migration linkages, with five key messages from the present assessment report warranting \r\nemphasis."


id: f43e907378f333a42223c53739c14ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"Specific climate events and conditions may cause migration to increase, decrease or flow in new directions (high confidence), and the \r\nmore agency migrants have (i.e., the degree of voluntarity and freedom of movement), the greater the potential benefits for sending and \r\nreceiving areas (high agreement, medium evidence) (Sections 5.5.3.5, 7.2.6, 8.2.1.3; Box 12.2). Conversely, displacement or low-agency \r\nmigration is associated with poor outcomes in terms of health, well-being and socioeconomic security for migrants and returns fewer \r\nbenefits to sending or receiving communities (high agreement, medium evidence) (Sections 4.3.7, 4.5.7; Box 8.1; Sections 9.7.2, 10.3; \r\nBox 14.7)."


id: 8c8b3e9ef51c5765c68d0767da9da401
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content:
"Most climate-related migration and displacement observed currently takes place within countries (high confidence) (Sections 4.3.7, \r\n4.5.7, 5.12.2, 7.2.6). The climate hazards most commonly associated with displacement are tropical cyclones and flooding in most \r\nregions, with droughts being an important driver in sub-Saharan Africa, parts of south Asia and South America (high confidence) \r\n(Sections  7.2.6.1, 9.7.2, 10.4.6.3, 11.4.1, 12.5.8.4, 13.8.1.3, 14.4.7.3). Currently, observed international migration associated with \r\nclimatic hazards is considerably smaller relative to internal migration and is most often observed as flowing between states that are \r\ncontiguous and have labour-migration agreements and/or longstanding cultural ties (high agreement, robust evidence) (Sections 4.3.7, \r\n4.5.7, 5.12.2, 7.2.6)."


id: b0cca0c8f023e5054ee027630d2f3ae9
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"In many regions, the frequency and/or severity of floods, extreme storms and droughts is projected to increase in coming decades, \r\nespecially under high-emissions scenarios (WGI AR6 Chapter 12 (Ranasinghe et al. 2021)), raising future risk of displacement in the most \r\nexposed areas (high confidence) (Section 7.3.2.1). The additional impacts of climate change anticipated to generate future migration and \r\ndisplacement include mean sea level rise that increases flooding and saltwater contamination of soil and/or groundwater in low-lying \r\ncoastal areas and small islands (high confidence) (Section 7.3.2.1; Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3) and more frequent extreme heat "


id: a65cc4a3c669149e49d1bee7ff518a8c
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content:
"events that threaten the habitability of urban centres in the tropics and arid/semiarid regions (medium confidence), although the causal \r\nlinks between heat and migration are less clear (Section 7.3.2.1)."


id: ce4856ad8cd71a31bb11969827d7a21d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"There is growing evidence about the future prospects of immobile populations: groups and individuals that are unable or unwilling to \r\nmove away from areas highly exposed to climatic hazards (high confidence) (Sections 4.6.9, 7.2.6.2; Box 8.1; Box 10.2). Involuntarily \r\nimmobile populations may be anticipated to require government interventions to continue living in exposed locations or to relocate \r\nelsewhere (high agreement, medium evidence) (Box 8.1). Managed retreat and organised relocations of people from hazardous areas \r\nin recent years have proven to be politically and emotionally charged, socially disruptive and costly (high confidence) (Section 7.4.5.4)."


id: 6977bbab9fcdbc9095676bb9c43f7c66
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content:
"Figure MIGRATE.1 |  General interactions between climatic and non-climatic processes, adaptation, potential migration outcomes and implications \r\nfor future risk. Adapted from McLeman et al. (2021)."


id: 89c75f40a53b35dc36b326f08aa6c495
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content:
"Table MIGRATE.1 |  Typology of climate-related migration and examples in sectoral and regional chapters of AR6."


id: 7763c1c2b7eff08a566474a9b9d861e8
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"Policy implications\r\nFuture migration and displacement patterns in a changing climate will depend not only on the physical impacts of climate change, but \r\nalso on future policies and planning at all scales of governance (high confidence) (4.6.9, 5.14.1, 5.14.1.2, 7.3.2, 7.4.4, 8.2.1.3; Box 8.1; \r\nCCP6.3.2). Policy interventions can remove barriers to and expand the alternatives for safe, orderly and regular migration that allows \r\nvulnerable people to adapt to climate change (high confidence) (Section 7.2.6). With adequate policy support, migration in the context "


id: 2a409d2ae02a86219e653685c2ed444a
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"data collection period (high confidence), with displacement events \r\noccurring most often in East, Southeast and south Asia; sub-Saharan \r\nAfrica; the USA; and the Caribbean region (Figure  7.7). Relative \r\nto their absolute population size, small island states experience a \r\ndisproportionate risk of climate-related population displacements \r\n(Desai et al., 2021) (high confidence)."


id: c0683f1c2ad13f323b52f2dd00c9967b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"asylum claims in Europe correspond minimally with climatic hazards \r\nin source countries (Schutte et al., 2021), with choices in baseline data, \r\ntimeframes for analysis and methodological approaches potentially \r\nexplaining the inconsistent results across studies (Boas et al., 2019). \r\nMedia reports and other studies in recent years suggest that climate \r\nchange has driven large numbers of migrants to the US from Central \r\nAmerica and to Europe from the Middle East and Africa, but empirical \r\nstudies were not identified for this assessment."


id: 217bd193f05c44df72e549c9a4fd8c53
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"Figure 7.7 |  Average number of people displaced annually by selected weather-related events from 2010 to 2020 by region. See text for important notes \r\negarding data collection and trends. Source statistics provided by the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (https://www.internal-displacement.org/)."


id: d6bc6f020fd8b9269e161dbf9ba922bc
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"extended period after the event; one study of Mexican data found this \r\nlag to be up to 36 months (Nawrotzki et al., 2017). The most common \r\nresponse to drought is an increase in short-distance, rural-urban \r\nmigration (medium confidence), with examples being documented \r\nin Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Pakistan, sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America \r\nand Brazil (Neumann and Hermans, 2015; Gautier et al., 2016; Gautier \r\net al., 2016; Mastrorillo et al., 2016; Baez et al., 2017; Call et al., 2017; \r\nNawrotzki et al., 2017; Jessoe et al., 2018; Carrico and Donato, 2019; \r\nHermans and Garbe, 2019)."


id: fdfaf9aab2567e98b881f14c854a3cf7
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content:
"areas (Ouattara and Strobl, 2014; Curtis et al., 2015; DeWaard et al., \r\n2016; Fussell et al., 2018)."


id: 509395f02b5ce2f55ef5b3b8934020cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Few assessable studies were identified that examine links between \r\nwildfires and migration. Wildfire events are often associated with \r\nurgent evacuations and temporary relocations, which place significant \r\nstress on receiving communities (Spearing and Faust., 2020), but \r\nresearch in the USA suggests fires have only a modest influence on \r\nfuture migration patterns in exposed areas (Winkler and Rouleau., \r\n2021). More research, particularly in other regions, is needed."


id: 88b6930c1067d4af97d20547aa1a71a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"Immobility in the context of climatic risks can reflect vulnerability and \r\nlack of agency (an inability to migrate), but can also be a deliberate \r\nchoice (high confidence). Research since AR5 shows that immobility \r\nis best described as a continuum from people who are financially or \r\nphysically unable to move away from hazards (involuntary immobility) \r\nto people who choose not to move (voluntary immobility) because \r\nof strong attachments to place, culture and people (Nawrotzki and \r\nDeWaard, 2018; Adams, 2016; Farbotko and McMichael, 2019; Zickgraf, \r\n2019; Neef et al., 2018; Suckall et al., 2017; Ayeb-Karlsson et al., 2018; \r\nZickgraf, 2018; Mallick and Schanze, 2020). Involuntary immobility is \r\nassociated with individuals and households with low adaptive capacity \r\nand high exposure to hazard, and can exacerbate inequality and future "


id: 62e7dfa3f021756840d82a20051b5444
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"Displacements due to droughts, extreme heat and associated impacts on \r\nfood and water security are most frequent in east Africa and, to a lesser \r\nextent, south Asia and west and southern Africa (IDMC, 2020). Since \r\ndroughts unfold progressively and typically do not cause permanent \r\ndamage to housing or livelihood assets, there is greater opportunity for \r\ngovernment and non-governmental organisation (NGO) interventions \r\nand greater use of in situ adaptation options (Koubi et  al., 2016b; \r\nKoubi et al., 2016a; Cattaneo et al., 2019). Drought-related population \r\nmovements are most common in dryland rural areas of low-income \r\ncountries and occur after a threshold is crossed and in situ adaptation \r\noptions are exhausted (Gautier et al., 2016; Wiederkehr et al., 2018; \r\nMcLeman, 2017). Observed population movements may occur for an "


id: e81793f2f588d086a91f3099be7cf65c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"Migration decision-making and outcomes--in both general terms and in response to climatic risks--are strongly mediated by gender, \r\nsocial context, power dynamics and human capital (Bhagat, 2017; Singh and Basu, 2020; Rao et al., 2019a; Ravera et al., 2016). Women \r\ntend to suffer disproportionately from the negative impacts of extreme climate events for reasons ranging from caregiving responsibilities \r\nto lack of control over household resources to cultural norms for attire (Belay et al., 2017; Jost et al., 2016). In many cultures, migrants \r\nare most often able-bodied, young men (Call et al., 2017; Heaney and Winter, 2016). Women wait longer to migrate because of higher \r\nsocial costs and risks (Evertsen and Van Der Geest, 2019) and barriers such as social structures, cultural practices, lack of education and \r\nreproductive roles (Belay et al., 2017; Afriyie et al., 2018; Evertsen and Van Der Geest, 2019)."


id: af94b95cc92b244c681df4ff35311018
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content:
"issues; behavioural disorders; substance abuse; and violence (Farhat et al., \r\n2018; Wickramage et  al., 2018) (high confidence). Linkages between \r\nclimate migration and the spread of infectious disease are bidirectional; \r\nmigrants may be exposed to diseases at the destination to which they \r\nhave lower immunity than the host community; in other cases, migrants \r\ncould introduce diseases to the receiving community (McMichael, 2015). \r\nThus, receiving areas may have to pay greater attention to building \r\nmigrant sensitive health systems and services (Hunter and Simon, 2017). \r\nThe risk of migration leading to disease transmission is exacerbated by \r\nweak governance and lack of policy to support public health measures \r\nand access to medicines (Pottie et al., 2015)."


id: b60327e5c799134b581be2b2a3e3a238
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content:
"vulnerability to climate change (Sheller, 2018), including through \r\nimpacts on health (Schwerdtle et  al., 2018). Voluntary immobility \r\nrepresents an assertion of the importance of culture, livelihoods and \r\npeople to well-being, and is of particular relevance for Indigenous \r\nPeoples (Suliman et al., 2019)."


id: 7a57aa4cf47d7364e6d2add39e8b277a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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vector_id: 18722
content:
"Planned relocations by governments of settlements and populations \r\nexposed to climatic hazards are not presently commonplace, \r\nalthough the need is expected to grow in coming decades (Hino \r\net al 2017). Examples include relocations of coastal settlements \r\nexposed to storm and erosion hazards as well as smaller numbers \r\nof cases of flood-prone settlements in river valleys; these examples \r\nsuggest that organised relocations are expensive, contentious, create \r\nmultiple challenges for governments and generate short- and longer\u0002term disruptions for the people involved (high agreement, medium \r\nevidence) (Ajibade et al., 2020; Henrique and Tschakert, 2020; Desai \r\net al., 2021)."


id: 6de2f5be9f08f747a31bdaff82c5725b
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"Examples of relocations of small indigenous communities in coastal \r\nAlaska and villages in the Solomon Islands and Fiji suggest that \r\nrelocated people experience significant financial and emotional distress \r\nas cultural and spiritual bonds to place and livelihoods are disrupted \r\n(Albert et al., 2018; Neef et al., 2018; McMichael and Katonivualiku, \r\n2020; McMichael and Katonivualiku, 2020; McMichael et  al., 2021; \r\nPiggott-McKellar et  al., 2019; Bertana, 2020). Voluntary relocation \r\nprogrammes offered by US state governments in communities damaged \r\nby Hurricane Sandy in 2012 have been subject to multiple studies, and \r\nthese show longer-term economic outcomes, social connections and \r\nmental well-being vary for a range of reasons unrelated to the impacts \r\nof the hazard event itself (Bukvic and Owen, 2017; Binder et al., 2019; \r\nKoslov and Merdjanoff, 2021)."


id: b0d3ebba1654f71df9e2136802508955
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content:
"stresses the underlying economic, social and political drivers of \r\nconflict. For example, research on conflict in the Lake Chad region \r\nhas demonstrated that the lake drying was only one of many factors \r\nincluding lack of development and infrastructure (Okpara et al., 2016; \r\nNagarajan et al., 2018; Tayimlong, 2020). Fewer studies examine the \r\nrelationship between flooding (excess water) and violence and often \r\nrely on migration as the causal factor (see below). However, some \r\nstudies have shown an association between flooding and civil unrest \r\n(Ide et al., 2020; Section 4.3.6; Section 12.5.3; Box 9.4)."


id: cf7f7e6736ff3e649ebaafaa79d9d459
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content:
"Variation in availability of water has been associated with international \r\npolitical tension and intra-national collective violence (low agreement, \r\nmedium evidence). Drought conditions have been associated with \r\nviolence due to impacts on income from agriculture and water and \r\nfood security, with studies focusing predominantly on sub-Saharan \r\nAfrica and the Middle East (Ide and Frohlich, 2015; De Juan, 2015; Von \r\nUexkull et al., 2016; Waha et al., 2017; Abbott et al., 2017; D'Odorico \r\net al., 2018). A small set of published studies has argued inconclusively \r\nover the role of drought in causing the Syrian civil war (Gleick, 2014; \r\nKelley et al., 2015; Selby et al., 2017; 16.2.3.9). In general, research "


id: ca425e32ad1748a915cfb8769a84713a
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"Climate-related internal migration has been associated with the \r\nexperience of violence by migrants, the prolongation of conflicts in migrant \r\nreceiving areas and civil unrest in urban areas (medium agreement, low \r\nevidence). Research points to the potential for conflict to serve as an \r\nintervening factor between climate and migration. However, the nature \r\nof the relationship is diverse and context specific. For example, displaced \r\npeople and migrants may be associated with heightened social tensions "


id: c56af0b4aac8e261929ef89808dc51be
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"exposed to increase risk of harassment and sexual assault as scarcity \r\nand gender-based roles cause them to walk longer distances to fetch \r\nwater and fuel (Le Masson et al., 2019). Within the household, violent \r\nbacklash or heightened tensions may arise from changing gender \r\nnorms as men migrate to find work in post-disaster settings (Stork \r\net al., 2015) and men's use of negative coping mechanisms, such as \r\nalcoholism, when unable to meet norms of providing for the household \r\n(Anwar et  al., 2019; Stork et  al., 2015). Rates of intimate partner \r\nviolence have been found to increase with higher temperatures (Sanz\u0002Barbero et al., 2018)."


id: 9c3cf8758c2ed71b837cd046cd1fcbb5
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content:
"in receiving areas through mechanisms such as ecological degradation, \r\nreduced access to services and a disturbed demographic balance in the \r\nhost area (Ruegger and Bohnet, 2020). Ghimire et al. (2015) observed \r\nthat an influx of flood-displaced people prolonged conflict by causing a \r\nlack of access to services for some of the host population and feelings of \r\ngrievance. Further, migration from drought-stricken areas to local urban \r\ncentres has been used to suggest a climate trigger for the Syrian conflict \r\n(e.g., Ash and Obradovich (2020)). However, this link has been strongly \r\ncontested by research that contextualises the drought in wider political \r\neconomic approaches and existing migration patterns (De Chatel, 2014; \r\nFrohlich, 2016; Selby, 2019; 16.2.3.9)."


id: 598899d04a61ccee0729b9eb329ce241
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"Extreme weather and climate impacts are associated with increased \r\nviolence against women, girls and vulnerable groups (high agreement, \r\nmedium evidence). During and after extreme weather events, women, \r\ngirls and LGBTQI people are at increased risk of domestic violence, \r\nharassment, sexual violence and trafficking (Le Masson et al., 2019; \r\nNguyen, 2019;Myrttinen et al., 2015; Chindarkar, 2012). For example, \r\nearly marriage is used as a coping strategy for managing the effects \r\nof extreme weather events (Ahmed et  al., 2019) and women are "


id: 33aff7b53b8cbdbe22b3d8b7f470107c
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"to 7.3.1.11 assess the available studies on future projections for risks \r\nassociated with specific climate-sensitive diseases and conditions \r\npreviously described in Section 7.2.1. In the case of diabetes, cancer, \r\ninjuries, mosquito-borne diseases other than dengue and malaria, \r\nrodent-borne diseases and most mental illnesses, insufficient literature \r\nwas found to allow for assessment. Adaptation pathways and options \r\nfor managing such risks are detailed in Section 7.4."


id: a945d884180d36ddf85ef37e89cd4040
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content:
"Climate change is expected to significantly increase the health risks \r\nresulting from a range of climate-sensitive diseases and conditions, \r\nwith the scale of impacts depending on emissions and adaptation \r\npathways in coming decades (very high confidence). Sections 7.3.1.2 "


id: bc019ced593c8a577c2a552e3224f1b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30312
content:
"Scenario narratives Limited adaptation: Failure to proactively adapt; low investment in health systems.\r\nIncomplete adaptation: Incomplete adaptation planning; moderate investment in health systems.\r\nProactive adaptation: Proactive adaptive management; higher investment in health systems"


id: bfc5cc3ff3742ca6452d818ee7b477f9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31022
content:
"* Mortality projections \r\ninclude demographic \r\ntrends but do not \r\ninclude future efforts \r\nto improve air quality \r\nthat reduce ozone \r\nconcentrations."


id: b171c320ecc72645991841704e462f7b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28440
content:
"Historical average \r\ntemperature increase\r\nin 2011-2020 was\r\n1.09degC (dashed line)\r\nrange 0.95-1.20degC"


id: 4241ea35b87f7bd833cad53f722fdc2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8856
content:
"confidence, from very high (four dots) to low (one dot). The diagrams \r\nfor the proactive and incomplete adaptation scenarios are truncated at \r\nthe nearest whole degC within the range of temperature change in 2100 \r\nunder three SSP scenarios used in panel (a) of SPM.3."


id: 4f4f82de0f77b1aab96299b27ffd6a45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11238
content:
"This section considers the broad impacts of projected changes in heat\u0002and cold-related exposure and related outcomes including mortality \r\nand work productivity. Several of the most common heat- and cold\u0002related specific health outcomes (e.g., CVD) are assessed individually \r\nin later sections of this chapter."


id: 473d1a3d353d9704acc0e63c01f7948e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9735
content:
"Compared to research that estimates the temperature only impacts of \r\nclimate change on heat-related mortality (see below), the number of \r\nstudies that explicitly model mortality responses considering various \r\ncombinations of SSPs and RCPs is small and mostly restricted to the \r\ncountry or regional level. These studies point to increases in heat\u0002"


id: c33cf05cda4ff53a2f1e07fef88acc61
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31623
content:
"related mortality especially amongst the elderly across a range of SSPs, \r\nwith the greatest increases under SSP5 and RCP8.5 (Rail et al., 2019; \r\nYang et al., 2021)."


id: 56e70edeb8ec44f1d34040c8cc7d3e81
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12538
content:
"Moshammer, 2020). However, strong regional contrasts in heat- and \r\ncold-related mortality trends are likely under a RCP8.5 scenario, with \r\ncountries in the Global North experiencing minimal to moderate \r\ndecreases in cold-related mortality while warm climate countries in the \r\nGlobal South are projected to experience increases in heat-attributable \r\ndeaths by the end of the century (Gasparrini et al., 2017; Burkart et al., \r\n2021). Projections of the magnitude of change in the temperature\u0002related burden of disease do, however, demonstrate great variability, \r\ndue to the application of a wide range of climate change, adaptation \r\nand demographic scenarios (Cheng et al., 2019)."


id: d31ab5e313854a4a02326f81ea4c7d30
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34482
content:
"Estimates of heat-related mortality based solely on changes in \r\ntemperature point to elevated levels of global and regional level \r\nmortality compared to the present, with the magnitude of this \r\nincreasing from RCP4.5 through to RCP8.5 (high confidence) \r\n(Ahmadalipour and Moradkhani, 2018; Cheng et al., 2019; Kendrovski \r\net al., 2017; Lee et al., 2020; Limaye et al., 2018; Morefield et al., 2018). \r\nFurther support comes from the projection that heat-related health \r\nimpacts for a 2degC increase in global temperatures will be greater than \r\nthose for 1.5degC warming (very high confidence) (Dosio et al., 2018; \r\nMitchell et  al., 2018; King and Karoly, 2017; Vicedo-Cabrera et  al., \r\n2018a)."


id: 14d0e62d48e2227c27f18035c1dbfbb5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 889
content:
"The effect of climate change on productivity is projected to reduce \r\nGDP at a range of geographical scales (high confidence) (Borg et al., \r\n2021; Oppermann et  al., 2021; Orlov et  al., 2020). For example, \r\nmeasuring economic costs using occupational health and safety \r\nrecommendations, it was estimated that RCP8.5 would result in a \r\n2.4% reduction in global GDP compared to a 0.5% reduction under \r\nRCP2.6 (Orlov et al., 2020). For the USA, it was estimated that the \r\ntotal hours of labour supplied declined ~0.11% (+-0.004%) per degree \r\nCelsius increase in global mean surface temperature for low-risk \r\nworkers and 0.53% (+-0.01%) per degree Celsius increase for high\u0002risk workers exposed to outdoor temperatures (Hsiang et al., 2017). \r\nFurther, a systematic review of the literature indicates that extreme \r\nheat exacts a substantial economic burden on health systems, which \r\nbears implications for future heat-attributable healthcare costs \r\n(Wondmagegn et al., 2019)."


id: 256f941e04deb51e5fd17542171c52b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3772
content:
"The distribution and abundance of disease vectors, and the transmission \r\nof the infections that they carry, are influenced both by changes in \r\nclimate and by trends such as human population growth and migration, \r\nurbanisation, land use change, biodiversity loss and public health \r\nmeasures. Each of these may increase or decrease risk, interact with \r\nclimate effects and may contribute to the emergence of infectious \r\ndisease, although there are few studies assessing future risk of \r\nemergence (Gibb et al., 2020). Unless stated otherwise, the assessments \r\nbelow are specifically for the effects of climate change on individual \r\ndiseases, assuming other determinants remain constant."


id: bda78ec79d4a6ca5ad0f40f947cc865e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30625
content:
"There is a high likelihood that climate change will contribute to increased \r\ndistributional range and vectorial capacity of malaria vectors in parts \r\nof sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and South America (high confidence).\r\nIn Nigeria, the range and abundance of Anopheles mosquitoes are \r\nprojected to increase under both lower (RCP2.6) and especially under \r\nhigher emissions scenarios (RCP8.5) due to increasing and fluctuating \r\ntemperature, longer tropical rainfall seasons and rapid land use \r\nchanges (Akpan et al., 2018). Similarly, vegetation acclimation due to \r\nelevated atmospheric CO2 under climate change will likely increase the "


id: d6fe8b7225a36e2b1cc7114eb19781f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35127
content:
"Since AR5, there has been an increase in the understanding of the extent \r\nto which a warming world is likely to affect cold- or winter-related \r\nhealth impacts. Future increases in heat-related deaths are expected \r\nto outweigh those related to cold (high confidence) (Aboubakri et al., \r\n2020; Achebak et al., 2020; Burkart et al., 2021; Huber et al., 2020b; \r\nMartinez et al., 2018; Rodrigues et al., 2020; Vardoulakis et al., 2014; \r\nWeinberger et al., 2017; Weinberger et al., 2018a; Weitensfelder and "


id: 4f6265aec52b99a0259e51f08e8bea54
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11254
content:
"abundance of Anopheles vectors in Kenya (Le et al., 2019). Distribution \r\nof Anopheles may decrease in parts of India and Southeast Asia, but \r\nthere is an expected increase in vectorial capacity in China (Khormi and \r\nKumar, 2016). In South America, climate change is projected to expand \r\nthe distributions of malaria vectors to 35-46% of the continent by 2070, \r\nparticularly species of the Albitarsis complex (Laporta et al., 2015)."


id: 1a2c02d08d2b788146ea86b60357f9f2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1796
content:
"rates (Bouma et al., 2016; M'Bra et al., 2018; Nkumama et al., 2017; \r\nRyan et  al., 2015b; Tompkins and Caporaso, 2016a). The projected \r\neffect of climate change varies markedly by region, with projections \r\nfor west Africa tending to indicate a shortening of transmission \r\nseasons and neutral or small net reductions in overall risk, whereas \r\nstudies consistently project increases in southern and eastern Africa, \r\nwith potentially an additional 76  million people at risk of endemic \r\nexposure (10-12 months yr-1) by the 2080s (Nkumama et al., 2017; \r\nRyan et al., 2015b; Semakula et al., 2017; Zaitchik, 2019; Leedale et al., \r\n2016; Murdock et al., 2016; Yamana et al., 2016; Ryan et al., 2020). In \r\nsub-Saharan Africa, malaria case incidence associated with dams in \r\nmalaria-endemic regions will likely be exacerbated by climate change, \r\nwith significantly higher rates projected under RCP8.5 in comparison "


id: 3d4441c3641875f3cd11f6bd0f8851fd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7959
content:
"Malaria infections have significant potential to increase in parts \r\nof sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, with risk varying according to the \r\nwarming scenario (medium confidence). In Africa, where most \r\nmalaria is due to the more deadly Plasmodium falciparum parasite, \r\nclimate change is likely to increase the overall transmission risk due \r\nto the likely expansion of vector distribution and increase in biting "


id: c2985241a967b06cce3e9c8c5abead11
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31523
content:
"There are insufficient studies for assessment of projected effects of \r\nclimate change on other arboviral diseases, such as chikungunya \r\nand Zika. Zika virus transmits under different temperature optimums \r\nthan does dengue, suggesting environmental suitability for Zika \r\ntransmission could expand with future warming (low confidence)\r\n(Tesla et al., 2018)."


id: 57f677c4988eac49093816f24a3ec34b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12735
content:
"to lower-emission scenarios (Kibret et al., 2016). Incidence of malaria \r\nin Madagascar is projected to increase under RCP4.5 through RCP8.5 \r\n(Rakotoarison et al., 2018). Distribution of P. vivax and P. falciparum\r\nmalaria in China is likely to increase under RCPs higher than 2.6, \r\nespecially RCP8.5 (Hundessa et al., 2018). In India, projected scenarios \r\nfor the 2030s under RCP4.5 indicate changes in the spatial distribution \r\nof malaria, with new foci and potential outbreaks in the Himalayan \r\nregion, southern and eastern states, and an overall increase in months \r\nsuitable for transmission overall, with some other areas experiencing a \r\nreduction in transmission months (Sarkar et al., 2019)."


id: 9667b096f4217b2f54b4e9f28b4b98c6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23664
content:
"Climate change is projected to increase the incidence of Lyme \r\ndisease and tick-borne encephalitis in the Northern Hemisphere (high \r\nconfidence) (Figure  7.9). The basic reproduction number (R0) of I. \r\nscapularis in at least some regions of Canada is projected to increase \r\nunder all RCP scenarios (McPherson et al., 2017). In the USA, a 2degC \r\nwarming could increase the number of Lyme disease cases by over \r\n20% over the coming decades and lead to an earlier onset and longer \r\nlength of the annual Lyme disease season (Dumic and Severnini, 2018; \r\nMonaghan et al., 2015)."


id: f0d4b32f3a69081807ba0573deb48630
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39734
content:
"cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis could rise by approximately 16% due \r\nto more severe precipitation events (Brubacher et  al., 2020; Chhetri \r\net al., 2019)."


id: cbf69b895808c01056072b0d9f328fee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33210
content:
"described above, distribution and transmission of schistosomiasis will \r\nalso be affected positively or negatively by changes in the availability \r\nof freshwater bodies, which were not included in these models."


id: 4a1085e75d16bea1ccd71c55f391ad7f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10272
content:
"The prevalence of Salmonella infections is expected to rise as higher \r\ntemperatures enable more rapid replication (medium confidence). \r\nResearch from Canada finds a very strong association of salmonellosis \r\nand other FBDs with higher temperatures, suggesting that climate \r\nchange could increase food safety risks ranging from increased public \r\nhealth burden to emergent risks not currently seen in the food chain \r\n(Smith and Fazil, 2019). In Europe, the average annual number of \r\ntemperature-related cases of salmonellosis under high emissions \r\nscenarios could increase by up to 50% more than would be expected on \r\nthe basis of on population change alone by 2100 (Lake, 2017; European \r\nEnvironment Agency, 2017). Warming trends in the southern USA may \r\nlead to increased rates of Salmonella infections (Akil et al., 2014)."


id: 63481b4f78de1776cfbaf812b815f10e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14762
content:
"Global air pollution-related mortality attributable directly to climate \r\nchange--the human health climate penalty associated with climate\u0002induced changes in air quality--is likely to increase and partially \r\ncounteract any decreases in air pollution-related mortality achieved \r\nthrough ambitious emission reduction scenarios or stabilisation of \r\nglobal temperature change at 2degC (medium confidence). Demographic \r\ntrends in aging and more vulnerable population are likely to be \r\nimportant determinants of future air quality--a human health climate \r\npenalty (high confidence)."


id: d86c8218b78532c86ea3a302bfe28b0e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35375
content:
"Climate change is expected to increase future health risks associated \r\nwith a range of other WBDs and parasites, with effects varying by \r\nregion (medium confidence). WBDs attributable to protozoan parasites \r\nincluding Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis (intestinalis) \r\nare expected to increase in Africa due to increasing temperatures \r\nand drought (Ahmed et al., 2018; Efstratiou et al., 2017). Recent data \r\nsuggest a poleward expansion of Vibrios to areas with no previous \r\nincidence, particularly in mid- to high-latitude regions in areas where \r\nrapid warming is taking place (Baker-Austin et al., 2017). The number \r\nof Vibrio-induced diarrhoea cases yr-1 increased in past decades in the \r\nBaltic Sea region, and the projected risk of vibriosis will increase in \r\nnorthern areas, where waters are expected to become warmer and \r\nmore saline due to reduced precipitation and have higher chlorophyll \r\nconcentrations (Escobar et al., 2015; Semenza et al., 2017)."


id: 9bb9b14303ddde336d0f8918706462af
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24657
content:
"There is a rich literature on global and regional level projections of \r\nair quality-related health effects arising from changes in emissions. "


id: 7b831d9fd251e880b9202ee89754dd74
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18935
content:
"quality-related mortality levels. An aging population along with an \r\nincrease in the number of vulnerable people may work to offset the \r\ndecrease in deaths associated with a low emission pathway (RCP4.5) \r\nand possibly dominate the net increase in deaths under a business as \r\nusual pathway (RCP8.5) (Chen et al., 2020; Doherty et al., 2017; Hong \r\net al., 2019; Schucht et al., 2015)."


id: e8acf27fb4bdafd13c10cba97646b018
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38282
content:
"For central and southern Europe, climate change alone could result \r\nin an 11% increase in ozone-associated mortality by 2050. However, \r\nprojected declines in ozone precursor emissions could reduce the \r\nEU-wide climate change effect on ozone-related mortality by up to \r\n30%; the reduction was projected to be approximately 24% if aging \r\nand an increasingly susceptible population were accounted for in \r\nprojections to 2050 (Orru et al., 2019). For the USA in 2069, the impact \r\nof climate change alone on annual PM2.5- and ozone-related deaths \r\nwas estimated to be 13,000 and 3,000 deaths, respectively, with heat\u0002driven adaptation of air conditioning accounting for 645 and 315 \r\nof the PM2.5- and ozone-related annual excess deaths, respectively \r\n(Abel et al., 2018). An aging population is a determinant of future air "


id: af6d23b4faf303cafcbfd821be0f3419
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28094
content:
"Climate change is expected to increase heat-related CVD mortality \r\nby the end of the 21st century, particularly under higher emission \r\nscenarios (high confidence). Most modelling studies conducted since \r\nAR5 project higher rates of heat-related CVD mortality throughout \r\nthe remainder of this century (Huang and et al., 2018; Li et al., 2015; \r\nLi et  al., 2018; Limaye et  al., 2018; Zhang et  al., 2018a; Silveira \r\net  al., 2021a; Yang et  al., 2021). CVD mortality in Beijing, China, "


id: b1cc73ba1a8295c8275e7af5a5c0c394
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28499
content:
"Climate change is projected to exacerbate malnutrition (high \r\nconfidence). Moderate and severe stunting in children less than five \r\nyears of age was projected for 2030 across 44  countries to be an \r\nadditional 570,000 cases under a prosperity and low climate change \r\nscenario (RCP2.6) to one million cases under a poverty and high climate \r\nchange scenario (RCP8.5), with the highest effects in rural areas \r\n(Lloyd, 2018). Future DALYs lost due to protein-energy undernutrition \r\nand micronutrient deficiencies without climate change have been \r\nprojected to increase between 2010 and 2050 by over 30 million; with \r\nclimate change (RCP8.5), DALYs were projected to increase by nearly \r\n10%, with the largest increases in Africa and Asia (Sulser et al., 2021)."


id: e4b846fad4f7432cf35bf19e2f4f6842
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37522
content:
"The projected risks of hunger and childhood underweight vary under \r\nthe five SSPs, with population growth, improvement in the equality of \r\nfood distribution and income-related increases in food consumption \r\ninfluencing future risks (Ishida et al., 2014; Hasegawa et al., 2015). A \r\nreview of 57 studies projecting global food security to 2050 under the \r\nSSPs concluded that global food demand was expected to increase by \r\n35-56% between 2010 and 2050 (van Dijk et al., 2021). In the same \r\nreview, estimates of the change in population at risk of hunger by \r\n2050 range between -91 to +8% if climate change is not considered \r\nand between -91 to +30% if climate change is considered, with the \r\ninclusion of climate change not leading to statistically significant \r\ndifferences in projections (van Dijk et al., 2021)."


id: afdcc6b9f591291935b6af97d128127a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28178
content:
"Climate change could impact CVD through other pathways, including \r\nexposure to fine dust. For example, adult mortality attributable to fine \r\ndust exposure in the American southwest could increase by 750 deaths \r\nyr-1 (a 130% increase over baseline) by the end of the century under \r\nRCP8.5 (Achakulwisut et al., 2018)."


id: b5bd6f237ef09726d62bc6b16964d1f3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29201
content:
"Additional research is needed on future impacts of climate change \r\non maternal, foetal and neonatal health. Maternal heat exposure is a \r\nrisk factor for several adverse maternal, foetal and neonatal outcomes \r\n(Kuehn and McCormick, 2017), including foetal growth (Sun et  al., \r\n2019) and congenital anomalies (Haghighi et  al., 2021). There is \r\nvery limited research on this subject, an exception being Zhang et al. \r\n(2020), which projected a 34% increase in congenital health disease \r\nrisk in the USA in 2025 and 2035 based on increased maternal extreme \r\nheat exposure."


id: 9ea8a2590b4aeb88cf13b1415d0b4223
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25140
content:
"Diets reliant on marine fisheries and fish also face complex climate\u0002driven challenges (Hollowed et  al., 2013). Rapidly warming oceans \r\n(Cheng et al., 2020) limit the size of many fish and hamper their ability \r\nto relocate or adapt; many commonly consumed fish, like sardines, \r\npilchards and herring, could face extinction due to these pressures \r\n(Avaria-Llautureo et  al., 2021). Other fisheries models project end\u0002of-century pollock and Pacific cod fisheries decreasing by > 70% and \r\n> 35% under RCP8.5 (Holsman et al., 2020). Climate-driven increases "


id: cd3e07f128831617c10217d307efe104
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33449
content:
"in marine mercury concentrations (Booth and Zeller, 2005) and harmful \r\nalgal blooms (Jardine et  al., 2020) could impact dietary quality and \r\nhuman health."


id: b78aa46a2679d9f37b6705ef8c8122e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29500
content:
"Mycotoxins and aflatoxins may become more prevalent due to climate \r\nchange (medium agreement, low evidence). Models of aflatoxin \r\noccurrence in maize under climate change scenarios of +2degC and \r\n+5degC in Europe over the next 100  years project that aflatoxin B1 \r\nmay become a major food safety issue in maize, especially in Eastern \r\nEurope, the Balkan Peninsula and the Mediterranean regions (Battilani, \r\n2016). The occurrence of toxin-producing fungal phytopathogens has \r\nthe potential to increase and expand from tropical and subtropical \r\nregions into regions where such contamination does not currently \r\noccur (Battilani, 2016)."


id: 1f44e7793d10f69a7e2cafca8689034c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2708
content:
"Global crop and economic models project higher cereal prices of up \r\nto 29% by 2050 under RCP6.0, resulting in an additional 183 million \r\npeople in low-income households at risk of hunger (Hasegawa et al., \r\n2018). Climate impacts on human health disrupt agricultural labour, \r\nfood supply chain workers and ultimately regional food availability \r\nand affordability. A recent meta-analysis focused on sub-Saharan \r\nAfrica and Southeast Asia combined metrics of heat stress and labour \r\nto project that a 3degC increase in global mean temperature, without \r\nadaptation or mechanisation, could reduce agricultural labour capacity \r\nby 30-50%, leading to 5% higher crop prices and a global welfare loss \r\nof USD 136 billion (de Lima et al., 2021)."


id: 649f1d02f3c3336d4fb6b689e0c034e0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14983
content:
"Climate change may alter regional and local exposures to anthropogenic \r\nchemical contaminants (medium agreement, low evidence). Changes \r\nin future occurrences of wildfires could lead to a 14% increase in \r\nglobal emissions of mercury by 2050, depending on the scenarios used \r\n(Kumar et al., 2018a). Mercury exposure via consumption of fish may \r\nbe affected by warming waters. Warming trends in the Gulf of Maine \r\ncould increase the methyl mercury levels in resident tuna by 30% \r\nbetween 2015 and 2030 (Schartup et al., 2019). An observed annual \r\n3.5% increase in mercury levels was attributed to fish having higher \r\nmetabolism in warmer waters, leading them to consume more prey. \r\nThe combined impacts of climate change and the presence of arsenic in \r\npaddy fields are projected to potentially double the toxic heavy metal \r\ncontent of rice in some regions, potentially leading to a 39% reduction \r\nin overall production by 2100 under some models (Muehe et al., 2019)."


id: ed6671f4507ef069d0876ff7303eeb42
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39134
content:
"The combined effect of CO2 and rising temperatures because of climate \r\nchange could result in a 2.4-4.3% penalty on expected gains by mid\u0002century in nutritional content because of technology change, market \r\nresponses and the fertilisation effects of CO2 on yield (Beach et al., \r\n2019). These penalties are expected to slow progress in achieving \r\nreductions in global nutrient deficiencies, disproportionately affecting \r\ncountries with high levels of such deficiencies."


id: d48ef02e1c1c5861c7e2057568c67121
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34719
content:
"7.3.1.10 Projected Impacts on Harmful Algal Blooms, \r\nMycotoxins, Aflatoxins and Chemical Contaminants"


id: d24332b4b0cb2564279532300aff8b4b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34347
content:
"Harmful algal blooms are projected to increase globally, thus \r\nincreasing the risk of seafood contamination with marine toxins (high \r\nconfidence) (European Food Safety Authority et al., 2020; Gobler et al., \r\n2017; Barange et al., 2018; IPCC, 2019b; Wells et al., 2020). Climate \r\nchange impacts on oceans could generate increased risks of ciguatera \r\npoisoning in some regions (medium confidence). Studies suggest \r\nthat rising sea surface temperatures could increase rates of ciguatera \r\npoisoning in Spain (Botana, 2016) and other parts of Europe (European \r\nFood Safety Authority et al., 2020)."


id: 9115ebd9822fc3ef336916f70ffc6071
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22729
content:
"fewer very cold days in the winter; however, research is inconsistent. \r\nAny positive effect associated with reduced low-temperature days is \r\nprojected to be outweighed by the negative effects of increased high \r\ntemperatures (Cianconi et al., 2020)."


id: cc4a53d4f89f43b3a2487e5fea09f44f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33261
content:
"As outlined in 7.2, the most common drivers of observed climate\u0002related migration and displacement are extreme storms (particularly \r\ntropical cyclones), floods and droughts (high confidence). The future \r\nfrequency and/or severity of such events due to anthropogenic climate \r\nchange are expected to vary by region according to future GHG \r\nemission pathways (Naik et al 2021; Regional Chapters, this report), \r\nwith there being an increased potential for compound effects of \r\nsuccessive or multiple hazards (e.g., tropical storms accompanied by \r\nextreme heat events (Matthews et al., 2019)). Table 7.2 summarises \r\nanticipated changes in future migration and displacement risks due to \r\nsudden-onset climate events by region (and by sub-regions for Africa \r\nand Asia, where climatic risks vary within the region)."


id: 154dc5d8789dfbd9a98e872a5763cfd9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Sea level rise is not presently a significant driver of migration in \r\ncomparison with hazards assessed in Section 7.2.6, but it has been \r\nattributed as a factor necessitating the near-term resettlement of small \r\ncoastal settlements in Alaska, Louisiana, Fiji, Tuvalu and the Carteret \r\nIslands of Papua New Guinea (Marino and Lazrus, 2015; Connell, 2016; \r\nHamilton et al., 2016; Nichols, 2019). In coastal Louisiana, communities "


id: e66150154a402be75abc23cb5eec9f10
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37839
content:
"Table 7.2 |  Projected changes in sudden-onset climate events associated with migration and displacement by region."


id: ba5fea851ba5230d6b76487f9318484
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"studies assessed in Section 7.2 observe existing associations between \r\nextreme heat, its impacts on agricultural livelihoods and changes in \r\nrural-to-urban migration flows in parts of south Asia and sub-Saharan \r\nAfrica. A study conducted in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines \r\nsuggests that an increased risk of heat stress would likely influence \r\nmigration intentions of significant numbers of people (Zander et al., \r\n2019)."


id: 8050cc669c91a8dbde15df0962f7b5bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"countries. Hoffmann et al. (2020) used meta-regression-based analyses \r\nto project that future environmental influences on migration are likely\r\nto be greatest in low- and middle-income countries in Latin America \r\nand the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and most of \r\ncontinental Asia."


id: 5117d525d6956b70a6edc8e18385fa3c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11548
content:
"Box 7.5 | Uncertainties in projections of future demographic patterns at global, regional and \r\nnational scales"


id: b8b57fad928893d94d7c548a0c9c0e86
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29703
content:
"is one of the less peaceful regions in the world due to intra-state \r\ncommunal conflict, international military conflict and political tension \r\n(Wischnath and Buhaug, 2014; Huda, 2021), and many of the factors \r\nthat drive conflict risk (e.g. large populations with high levels of \r\ninequality) are present (Nordqvist and Krampe, 2018). Despite these \r\nrisks, studies in this region also support the case for environmental \r\npeacebuilding and resource sharing, as it relates to transboundary \r\nwater sharing (Berndtsson and Tussupova, 2020; Huda and Ali, 2018; \r\nSection 4.3.6; Section 7.4.5.2)."


id: f43353b0140d4ab1c3d4bdfea728f8e7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40333
content:
"Future violent conflict risk is highly mediated by socioeconomic \r\ndevelopment trajectories (high confidence). Development trajectories \r\nthat prioritise economic growth, political rights and sustainability are \r\nassociated with lower conflict risk (medium confidence, low evidence).\r\nHegre et al. (2016) forecast future conflict under the SSPs and found \r\nthat SSP1, which prioritises sustainable development, is associated \r\nwith lower risks of conflict. Using data from sub-Saharan Africa, \r\nWitmer et  al. (2017) forecast conflict along the SSPs and find that \r\nany increases in conflict that may be associated with climate change \r\ncould be offset by increases in political rights. Strong predictors of \r\nfuture conflict are a recent history of conflict, large populations and \r\nlow levels of socioeconomic development (Hegre and Sambanis, 2006; \r\nBlattman and Miguel, 2010)."


id: 1e4b52610eba91938c8f38db9b3e43f9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2525
content:
"Migration can contribute to or work against adaptation goals and \r\nprogress, depending on the circumstances under which it occurs. \r\nPolicies that support safe and orderly movements of people, protect \r\nmigrant rights, and facilitate flows of financial and other resources \r\nbetween sending and receiving communities are consistent with "


id: 7341c272285dac0a01b981911a01b515
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17531
content:
"Asia represents a key region where the peace, vulnerability and \r\ndevelopment nexus has been analysed. In central, south and Southeast \r\nAsia, there are large numbers of people exposed to changing climate \r\n(Busby et al., 2018; Vinke et al., 2017; Reyer et al., 2017). South Asia "


id: b475d70bc40260f92361c99bbc3bafe8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28990
content:
"growing number of lessons learned and best practices), and the co\u0002benefits of mitigation policies and technologies (high confidence)."


id: 95b9def8663a1f6d2ff841b8cb6f6de8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23532
content:
"Effectively preparing for and managing the health risks of climate \r\nchange requires considering the multiple interacting sectors that \r\naffect population health and the effective functioning of health \r\nsystems (high confidence). Given the wide range of causal pathways \r\nthrough which climate change affects environmental and social \r\nsystems resulting in health impacts, a systems-based approach can \r\npromote identifying, implementing and evaluating solutions that \r\nsupport population health and health systems in the short and \r\nlonger term (high agreement, medium evidence). Such an approach \r\nprovides insights into policies and programmes that promote health \r\nand well-being via multiple sectors (e.g., water and food safety and \r\nsecurity) and can ensure that health policies do not have adverse \r\nconsequences in other sectors (WHO, 2015b; Ebi and Otmani del \r\nBarrio, 2017; Wright et al., 2021)."


id: 12307a1263b07571c0eec45b04df9586
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 393
content:
"As documented across this chapter, there is a large adaptation deficit \r\nfor health and well-being, with climate change causing avoidable \r\ninjuries, illnesses, disabilities, diseases and deaths (high confidence).\r\nImplementation of health adaptation has been incremental because \r\nof significant constraints, primarily relating to financial and human \r\nresources and because of limited research funding on adaptation \r\n(Berrang-Ford et  al., 2021). Current global investments in health \r\nadaptation are insufficient to protect the health of populations and \r\ncommunities (high confidence) from most climate-sensitive risks, with \r\nlarge variability across and within countries and regions (UNEP, 2018). \r\nClimate change adaptation in health is < 1% of international climate \r\nfinance despite health being a priority sector in 54% of NDCs featuring \r\nadaptation (UNEP, 2018)."


id: 9d6842b525e65116adea2c137af82cc0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24929
content:
"As climate change progresses and the likelihood of dangerous risks \r\nto human health continue to increase, there will be greater pressure \r\nfor more transformational changes to health systems to reduce future \r\nvulnerabilities and limit further dangerous climate change (Ebi et al., \r\n2021a). Transformational resilience would need parallel investments \r\nin social and health protections, including achieving the SDGs, \r\ncoupled with investments in mitigation (Ebi and Hess, 2020). Further, \r\ninvestments in mitigating GHG emissions will not only reduce risks \r\nassociated with dangerous climate change but will improve population \r\nhealth and well-being through several salutary pathways."


id: 7db070c34170c28764625a102907eadc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19288
content:
"Effective health risk management incorporates the magnitude and \r\npattern of future climate risks as well as potential changes in factors \r\nthat determine vulnerability and exposure to climate hazards, such as \r\ndeterminants of healthcare access, demographic shifts, urbanisation \r\npatterns and changes in ecosystems (very high confidence). Climate \r\nchange is associated with shocks and stresses that can affect the capacity \r\nand resilience of health systems and healthcare facilities (WHO, 2020a). \r\nFigure 7.12 illustrates some possible extents to which the capacity of \r\nhealth systems could be reduced when exposed to a stress or shock, \r\nand possible pathways forward, from collapse to transformation. The \r\nsubsequent sections of this chapter assess adaptation and mitigation \r\noptions to  facilitate building the resilience of health systems and \r\nhealthcare facilities to recover better than before or to transform."


id: fc1eea01fa4ef14bd17f17d36159a796
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41722
content:
"This chapter section identifies and assesses specific elements in \r\nadapting to the risks identified in 7.2 and 7.3 and the opportunities for \r\nfostering sustainability and pursuing CRDPs."


id: ad249ded075f94b5739e9ee4b671ac8b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"The solution space is the space within which opportunities and \r\nconstraints determine why, how, when and who adapts to climate \r\nchange (Chapter 1). There is increased understanding of exposure \r\nand vulnerabilities to climate variability and change, the capacities to \r\nmanage the health risks, the effectiveness of adaptation (including a "


id: 214bad8024043300c1af27707ab78c4c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"Figure 7.11 |  Context within which adaptation responses to climatic risks to health are implemented in the frame of interactions between health and \r\nmultiple other sectors."


id: 8e5bd759d2566e2d3f2cdce987f3d559
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"than half considered climate change impacts and adaptation needs \r\n(Berry et al., 2018). Because the health risks of climate change often \r\nvary within a country, sub-national assessments and plans are needed \r\nto help local authorities protect and promote population health in a \r\nchanging climate (Aracena et al., 2021; Basel et al., 2020; Schramm \r\net al., 2020a)."


id: 7a716b4ea14b1ddcfcf5776f69c7e9fb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Analysis of the NDCs to the Paris Agreement to determine how health \r\nwas incorporated, including impacts, adaptation and co-benefits, \r\nconcluded that most low- and middle-income countries referred to health \r\nin their NDC (Dasandi et  al., 2021). Figure  7.13 shows the degree of \r\nhealth engagement; this engagement is based on indicators measuring \r\nthe specificity and detail of health references within a country's NDC. \r\nMany vulnerable countries had high engagement of the health sector \r\nin the country NDC. However, this analysis did not determine whether \r\nthe ambition expressed was sufficient to address the health adaptation \r\nneeds."


id: 111b8daa8ab547ad1506a215cf6f0638
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"Peer-reviewed publications of health adaptation to climate change in \r\nlow- and middle-income countries have typically focused on flooding, \r\nrainfall, drought and extreme heat through improving community \r\nresilience, DRR and policy, governance and finance (Berrang-Ford \r\net al., 2021; Scheelbeek et al., 2021). Health outcomes of successful "


id: 906e84b5238caff4e8ac50d570d9a8ac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"The fundamentals of many policies and programmes in a changing \r\nclimate will remain the same: implementing infectious disease control \r\nprogrammes, preventing heat-related mortality and morbidity and \r\nreducing the burden of other climate-related health endpoints, but \r\nactivities will need to explicitly account for climate change to continue \r\nto protect health. Even with such attention to climate change, there \r\nare limits to the feasibility and effectiveness of health adaptation \r\noptions for extreme heat, controlling emerging infectious diseases and \r\ncontrolling cascading risk pathways."


id: bf3fc2fad5e56f2963a0a7da78eb3309
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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content:
"adaptation have included reductions in infectious disease incidence, \r\nimproved access to water and sanitation and improved food security. \r\nFigure 7.14 shows a Sankey diagram of climate hazards, adaptation \r\nresponses and health outcomes. The figure highlights the range of \r\nhealth adaptation responses that are discussed in more detail earlier \r\nin this chapter and demonstrates the potential health benefit of \r\nadaptation efforts that affect a broad range of health determinants."


id: 1f79c960dd211d3c3826ab5033a1672b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Questions of the feasibility and effectiveness of health adaptation \r\noptions differ from those in other sectors because public health is a \r\nsocietal enterprise that cuts across many different spheres of society. \r\nConsequently, there are dependencies that lie outside the jurisdiction \r\nof the health sector. All the health risks of a changing climate currently \r\ncause adverse outcomes, with policies and programmes implemented \r\nin at least some health programmes in some places. Policies and \r\nprogrammes are continuously modified to increase effectiveness; \r\nthis will need to accelerate in a changing climate. Improvements are \r\nneeded as more is understood about disease aetiology, changing \r\nsocioeconomic and environmental conditions, obstacles to uptake and \r\nother factors."


id: 129d1b11d53119d045e128fa7d07fcab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 478
content:
"As discussed in Sections  1.4.2 and 1.5, an adaptation option is \r\nfeasible when it is capable of being implemented by one or more \r\nrelevant actors. In the health sector, WHO, the United Nations \r\nChildren's Fund (UNICEF) and other organisations provide technical \r\nexpertise to ministries of health, who then provide national to local \r\nhealthcare and public health services. Generally, the question is \r\nless of overall feasibility, given the range of potential adaptation \r\noptions that have yet to be fully explored and implemented, but \r\nmore of readiness to buy into the adaptation efforts required \r\nfrom health and other sectors. In specific contexts, feasibility also \r\ndepends on governance capacity, financial capacity, public opinion \r\nand the distribution of political and economic power (Chapter 17). \r\nIn other words, adaptation to climate change is broadly feasible \r\nwith adequate investment and engagement, although this has yet "


id: fe1e5bfcc470fc1e0d0bc9ce122ad9e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Policies and programmes for climate-sensitive health outcomes are \r\nonly beginning to incorporate the challenges and opportunities of \r\nclimate change, although this is critical for increasing resilience. "


id: 4c6ca79a84cbb861a16bd1470e386af4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10706
content:
"to materialise, and in specific contexts feasibility is contingent and \r\ntime-varying, and needs to be assessed at national to sub-national \r\nscales. For example, a scoping review in the Pacific region noted the \r\nfollowing areas where further and significant investment and support \r\nare needed to increase feasibility of climate and health action: (a) \r\nhealth workforce capacity development, (b) enhanced surveillance \r\nand monitoring systems and (c) research to address priorities and \r\ntheir subsequent translation into practice and policy (Bowen et al., \r\n2021). Vulnerability, adaptation and capacity assessments include \r\nconsideration of the feasibility and effectiveness of priority health \r\nadaptation options and can help decision makers identify strategies \r\nfor enhancing adaptation feasibility in specific contexts."


id: e1f381852faa0e32826fbbe3424e3ab0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37037
content:
"Integrated vector control approaches are crucial to effectively manage \r\nthe geographic spread, distribution and transmission of VBDs associated \r\nwith climate change (high confidence). Some of the projected risks of \r\nclimate change on VBDs can be offset through enhanced commitment \r\nto existing approaches to integrated case management and integrated \r\nvector control management (Cisse et al., 2018; Confalonieri et al., 2017; \r\nSemenza and Paz, 2021). Important components include enhanced \r\ndisease surveillance and early warning and response systems that can \r\nidentify potential outbreaks at sub-seasonal to decadal time scales "


id: 4162a7a100fcbc22b389c8504f0d52cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8689
content:
"Adaptations options for heat refer to strategies implemented at short \r\ntime scales such as air conditioning and HAPs, including heat warning \r\nsystems and longer-term solutions such as urban design and planning \r\nand NbS (Table 7.4)."


id: 5d439662fdbe9d18578be6457e322ac7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13685
content:
"managing exposure to heat in outdoor workers include improved \r\nbasic protection (including shade and planned rest breaks), heat\u0002appropriate personal protective equipment, work scheduling for \r\ncooler times of the day, heat acclimation, improved aerobic fitness, \r\naccess to sufficient cold drinking water and on-site cooling facilities \r\nand mechanisation of work (Morabito et  al., 2021; Morris et  al., \r\n2020; Varghese et al., 2020; Williams et al., 2020)."


id: 410f6eeb9b993b0d53fb62eb3a1febf2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8630
content:
"benefits for air quality-related health outcomes. Improvements in \r\nair quality could be achieved by the deliberate adoption of a range \r\nof adaptation options to complement mitigation measures such \r\nas decarbonisation (e.g., renewable energy, fuel switching, energy \r\nefficiency gains and carbon capture storage and utilisation) and \r\nnegative emissions technologies (e.g., bioenergy carbon capture and \r\nstorage, soil carbon sequestration, afforestation and reforestation \r\nand wetland construction and restoration)."


id: 2c35bc3fed2c4a4f20bb22ed50ca6dc0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5039
content:
"Most adaptation options were developed in high- and middle-income \r\ncountries and typically require significant financial resources for their \r\nplanning and implementation. Studies are needed of the benefits of \r\nindigenous and non-Western approaches to managing and adapting \r\nto extreme heat risk. Recently published reviews of approaches \r\nto heat adaptation outline the nature and limitations of a range of \r\ncooling strategies with optimal solutions for a number of settings \r\nrecommended (Jay et al., 2021; Turek-Hankins et al., 2021)."


id: ee7ccaa0b462aa5f36f3e2b74c1e304b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39333
content:
"Adaptation options for air pollution include implementing ozone \r\nprecursor emission control programmes; developing mass transit/\r\nefficient public transport systems in large cities; encouraging car\u0002pooling, cycling and walking (active transport); traffic congestion \r\ncharges; low emission zones in cities; integrated urban planning \r\nimplementing NbS such as green infrastructure for pollutant \r\ninterception and removal; managing wildfire risk regionally and \r\nacross jurisdictional boundaries; developing air quality warning \r\nsystems; altering activity on high pollution days; effective air \r\npollution risk communication and education; wearing protective \r\nequipment such as face masks; avoiding solid fuels for cooking and \r\nindoor heating; ventilating and isolating cooking areas; and using \r\nportable air cleaners fitted with high-efficiency particulate air filters \r\n(Abhijith et al., 2017; Carlsten et al., 2020; Cromar et al., 2020; Ding "


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vector_id: 3711
content:
"As noted in Section  7.3.1.6, air pollution projections indicate \r\nambitious emission reduction scenarios or stabilisation of global \r\ntemperature change at 2degC or below would yield substantial co\u0002"


id: 892b631fd605d5519de8645fae7b6912
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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vector_id: 21300
content:
"et al., 2021; Holman et al., 2015; Jennings et al., 2021; Kelly et al., \r\n2021; Kumar et  al., 2019; Masselot et  al., 2019; Ng et  al., 2021; \r\nRiley, 2021; Voordeckers et  al., 2021; Xu et  al., 2017; Table  7.5). \r\nWhile the range of air pollution adaptation options is potentially \r\nextensive, barriers may need to be overcome to achieve successful \r\nimplementation, including financial, institutional, political (i.e. inter\u0002and intra-governmental) and social barriers (Barnes et  al., 2014; \r\nEkstrom and Bedsworth, 2018; Fogg-Rogers et al., 2021; Schumacher \r\nand Shandas, 2019)."


id: f777a1e7eca88b5b0ae11f43830d82fe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40912
content:
"and early warning systems (high agreement), risk sharing, transfer, \r\nand risk reduction schemes such as index-based weather insurance \r\n(medium confidence) (Mbow et  al., 2019; Swinburn et  al., 2019; \r\nUNICEF/WHO/WBG, 2019; FAO et  al., 2021; Macdiarmid and \r\nWhybrow, 2019; Liverpool-Tasie et al., 2021). Common enablers across \r\nadaptation actions that enhance the effectiveness and feasibility of \r\nthe adaptation include: education, women's and girls' empowerment \r\n(high confidence), rights-based governance and peacebuilding social \r\ncohesion initiatives such as the framework of the Humanitarian \r\nDevelopment and Peace Nexus (medium confidence)."


id: 906666d4fe770da58547b1a2cc086d45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22606
content:
"Nutrition-sensitive and integrated agroecological farming systems \r\noffer opportunities to increase dietary diversity at household levels \r\nwhile building local resilience to climate-related food insecurity \r\n(high confidence) (Bezner Kerr et  al., 2021; IPES-Food, 2020; Altieri \r\net  al., 2015) especially when gender equity, racial equity and \r\nsocial justice are integrated (Bezner Kerr et  al., 2021). Adaptation \r\nresponses include a combination of healthy, culturally appropriate \r\nand sustainable food systems and diets; soil and water conservation; "


id: 6be0793643f85a2116f0dc87de996a70
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16282
content:
"Adaptation to reduce the risk of malnutrition requires multi-sectoral, \r\nintegrated approaches (very high confidence). Adaptation actions \r\ninclude access to healthy, affordable diverse diets from sustainable \r\nfood systems (high confidence); a combination of access to health--\r\nincluding maternal, child and reproductive health-- and nutrition \r\nservices, water and sanitation (high confidence); access to nutrition\u0002sensitive and shock-responsive social protection (high confidence); "


id: c7dfb1fc6a5cbcf3d39e4465457f3103
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32472
content:
"Table 7.6 |  Feasibility and effectiveness assessments of multi-sectoral adaptation for food security and nutrition."


id: f12ac3c854f66dc2e20b55f9980d78a6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39812
content:
"nutrient diversity and density, processing, storage, and distribution that \r\nconserves nutrition; equitable access and consumption of available, \r\naffordable, appropriate, and healthy foods; and waste management \r\nthat supports nutrient recovery (Harder et al., 2021; Boon and Anuga, \r\n2020; FAO et  al., 2021; Pozza and Field, 2020; Ritchie et  al., 2018). \r\nTraditional, indigenous and small-scale agroecology and regional food \r\nsystems provide context-specific adaptations that promote food and \r\nnutrition security as well as principles of food sovereignty and food \r\nsystems resilience (HLPE, 2020; Bezner Kerr et  al., 2021; IPES-Food, \r\n2020; IPES-Food, 2018)."


id: 4c76bbc79f50152c9c9b8ac6c66ad817
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10711
content:
"social protection schemes and safety nets; access to health services; \r\nnutrition-sensitive risk reduction; community-based development; \r\nwomen's empowerment; nutrition-smart investments; increased policy \r\ncoherence; and institutional and cross-sectoral collaboration (high \r\nagreement, medium evidence) (FAO et al., 2018; Mbow et al., 2019; \r\nPozza and Field, 2020; FAO et al., 2021; Table 7.7). Nutrition security can \r\nbe enhanced through consideration of nutrient flows in food systems \r\n(Harder et  al., 2021).This 'circular nutrient economy' perspective \r\nhighlights the potential for adaptations throughout the food supply \r\nchain, including sustainable production practices that promote "


id: a62fce8031fdd9ec4014e0f65d470e53
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26459
content:
"especially among girls, by promoting education, and by reducing child \r\npregnancy and fertility rates (Bukvic and Owen, 2017). Adaptive social \r\nprotection is most effective when it combines climate risk assessment \r\nwith DRR and wider socioeconomic development objectives (Davies \r\net al., 2013)."


id: 7ed047b2ebb70229e691da433664f913
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19464
content:
"Transformative approaches towards healthier, more sustainable, \r\nplant-based diets require integrated strategies, policies and \r\nmeasures, including economic incentives for the agroecological \r\nproduction and equitable access to and consumption of more \r\nfruits, vegetables and pulses; inclusion of sustainability criteria in \r\ndietary guidelines, labelling and public education programmes; and \r\npromoting collaboration, good governance and policy coherence \r\n(Glover, 2019)."


id: 7b4e84d51632abf6f3e3d564313e8406
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18896
content:
"Adaptation options for reducing mental health risks associated with \r\nextreme weather include preventive and post-event responses (high \r\nconfidence) (Brown et  al., 2017; Cohen, 2019; James et  al., 2020; \r\nTable 7.8). Responses include improving funding and access to mental \r\nhealthcare, which is under-resourced (WHO, 2019a); surveillance \r\nand monitoring of psychosocial impacts of extreme weather events; \r\ncommunity-level planning for mental health as part of climate\u0002resilience planning (Clayton et  al., 2017); and mental health and \r\npsychological first aid training for care providers and first responders \r\n(Hayes et al., 2018; O'Donnell et al., 2021; Hayes et al., 2018; Taylor, \r\n2020; Morgan et  al., 2018; Sijbrandij et  al., 2020). Legislation can \r\nensure access to services as well as establish a regulatory framework \r\n(Ayano, 2018). Advanced disaster risk planning reduces post-event \r\nmental health challenges. One example is from China, where pre\u0002"


id: c4b8091ea258d558c4e4391ae87069e3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31921
content:
"Adaptive social protection programmes and mechanisms that can \r\nsupport food insecure households and individuals include cash transfers \r\nor public work programmes, land reforms, and extension of credit and \r\ninsurance services that reduce food insecurity and malnutrition during \r\ntimes of environmental stress (Carter and Janzen, 2018; Johnson \r\net  al., 2013; Alderman, 2016). For example, children from families \r\nparticipating in Ethiopia's Productive Safety Net Program experienced \r\nimproved nutritional outcomes, partly due to better household food \r\nconsumption patterns and reduced child labour (Porter and Goyal, \r\n2016). School feeding programmes improve nutritional outcomes, "


id: a36529fdeb9d24915a5444a71cb98824
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25953
content:
"planning of temporary shelters resulted in significantly lower rates \r\nof anxiety, depression and PTSD in the aftermath of flooding among \r\ndisplaced people who accessed them (Zhong et  al., 2020). Key \r\nelements of successful initiatives include coordinated planning and \r\naction between key regional agencies and governments with a focus \r\non improving accountability and removing barriers to implementation \r\nand subsequent access to programmes (Ali et  al., 2020). As an \r\nexample, following the 2019/2020 Australian bushfires, the federal \r\ngovernment allocated funds to support mental health through \r\nfree counselling for those affected, increased access to telehealth, \r\nextended hours for mental health services and programmes designed \r\nspecifically for youth (Newnham et al., 2020)."


id: 2b65979fda7d192bace9395d5dcc5fc5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Early warning systems have been established for other climate\u0002sensitive health outcomes, such as respiratory diseases associated \r\nwith air pollution (Shih et  al., 2019; Li and Zhu, 2018; Yang and \r\nWang, 2017). Early warning systems for non-heat extreme weather \r\nand climate events, such as storms and floods, are designed to \r\nprotect human health and well-being; disaster risk management \r\norganisations and institutions typically communicate these warnings \r\nthrough their networks. Research is ongoing to extend the time \r\nperiod for warnings."


id: c92041149f1eae6712dd7c4d313267eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32707
content:
"ongoing data collection and periodically considering new information \r\n(Kruk et  al., 2015). MEL determines whether adaptation options \r\nachieved their goals and whether resources were used effectively and \r\nefficiently (Boyer et al., 2020). One of the challenges for MEL in the \r\ncontext of adaptation is that climate risks vary as a function of time, \r\nlocation, socioeconomic development, demographics and activities in \r\nother sectors (Ebi et al., 2018a). MEL indicators in the health sector \r\nneed to account for factors related to governance, implementation \r\nand learning as well as for exposures, impacts and programmatic \r\nactivities, all of which are context dependent and are often outside \r\nthe health sector (Boyer et al., 2020; Ebi et al., 2018a; Fox et al., 2019)."


id: 28226eb12a2b2dbf260a5df89076e9f7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4259
content:
"Indicators should capture measures of processes that drive adaptation \r\nreadiness, including leadership, institutional learning and inter\u0002sectoral collaboration (Boyer et  al., 2020; Ford and King, 2015) as \r\nwell as outcome measures such as the presence of programming \r\nknown to reduce risks (Ebi et  al., 2018a). Additionally, indicators \r\nrelated to scaling up of effective interventions and relying on the \r\nimplementation of science frameworks are important (Damschroder \r\net al., 2009; Theobald et al., 2018, 2020; Ebi et al., 2018a; Fox et al., \r\n2019). Measuring impacts attributable to climate change could be \r\naddressed with a combination of indicators related to overall health \r\nsystem performance and population vulnerability (Ebi et al., 2017; Ebi \r\net al., 2018a)."


id: 52148fdced001111eaff8e05267a73d9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11713
content:
"Monitoring, evaluation and learning (MEL) can assess the ability of \r\nnations and communities to prepare for and adequately respond to the \r\nhealth risks of climate change over time (high confidence) (Boyer et al., \r\n2020). MEL describes a process that includes baseline assessment, \r\nprioritising actions and activities, identifying key indicators to track, "


id: 275e9dbc9d3bdf91482a0d7eecaf5cbc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4104
content:
"Multi-sectoral collaborations aimed at strengthening the health sector \r\ncan generate multiple co-benefits in other sectors (high agreement, \r\nmedium evidence). Solutions for the health and well-being risks \r\ndescribed in 7.2 and 7.3 often have their origins in sectors that include \r\nwater, sanitation, agriculture, food systems, social protection systems, \r\nenergy and key components of urban systems such as housing and \r\nemployment (WHO, 2015a; Bowen et  al., 2014b; Machalaba et  al., \r\n2015; Confalonieri et al., 2015; Bowen et al., 2014a; Semenza, 2021). \r\nClimate resilient development pursued in these other sectors, and \r\nin cooperation with the health sector, simultaneously increases the \r\npotential for adaptation and climate resilience in terms of health and \r\nwell-being (high confidence) (Ahmad et al., 2017; Watts et al., 2018b; \r\nLevy and Patz, 2015; WHO, 2018a; Chiabai et al., 2018a; Dudley et al., \r\n2015; Zinsstag et al., 2018; Sherpa et al., 2014)."


id: 9928b2f3f7b2c85543bc1318867d3abe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24158
content:
"Adaptation decisions and responses to climate change can be \r\ninfluenced by perceptions of risks, which are shaped by individuals' \r\ncharacteristics, knowledge and experience (medium agreement, \r\nmedium evidence). Institutional and governmental responses are \r\ncritical for adapting to climate-related risks in health and other \r\nsectors, but individual responses also are relevant, such as choosing "


id: 49e88d9b6a267598c5bfdb0468fd4c22
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10241
content:
"In addition to perceptions of risk, the likelihood that an individual will \r\nimplement behavioural adaptations or support relevant public policy is \r\naffected by subjective assessments of the response options (Bamberg \r\net  al., 2017; van Valkengoed and Steg, 2019; Akompab et  al., 2013; \r\nCarman and Zint, 2020; Hornsey et al., 2016; Brenkert-Smith et al., 2015)."


id: c8eccf2d56b3f6709c6417efa42f26a9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32671
content:
"Distinct from efficacy beliefs, subjective resilience is a more general \r\noptimism or belief about one's ability (Jones, 2019; Khanian et  al., \r\n2019). Subjective resilience (Clare et al., 2017) can influence preferred \r\nresponses to climate change via assessment of one's ability to engage \r\nin specific response options. Identities can influence assessment of \r\nsubjective resilience. Place attachment, having a strong emotional \r\nconnection to a particular location, is weakly associated with disaster \r\npreparation (Brugger et  al., 2015). In some cases, place attachment \r\nmay inhibit adaptive responses, either by reducing perceptions of risk \r\nor by making people reluctant to leave an area that is threatened \r\n(De Dominicis et  al., 2015; van Valkengoed and Steg, 2019). Place \r\nattachment can also contribute to enhanced community resilience \r\n(Khanian et al., 2019; Jones, 2019; Wang et al., 2021)."


id: ff7302b6eaf9b067fcad79763a26d28b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42347
content:
"Adaptive climate-related migration is often closely related to \r\nwage-seeking labour migration (medium confidence). Due to the \r\ncircumstances under which they move, climate-related migrants' "


id: cae32acae9525697adb8bc9e46352918
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33033
content:
"be avoided as much as possible (McNamara, 2015; Farbotko and \r\nMcMichael, 2019; Oakes, 2019; Remling, 2020). A more beneficial \r\npolicy framing in terms of ensuring that future migration contributes to \r\nclimate resilience and sustainable development has been established \r\nsince AR5 within the framework of the Global Compact for Safe, \r\nOrderly and Regular Migration (see Section 7.4.7.7)."


id: a017e1af5a788f608b1eec2ab2eeb5c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25378
content:
"Disruptive and expensive relocations of low-lying coastal settlements in \r\nmany regions would become increasingly necessary in coming decades \r\nunder high levels of warming (high confidence). Organised relocations \r\nrequire long-term innovation, planning and cooperation on the part of \r\ngovernments, institutions, affected populations and civil society (Hauer, "


id: bfe6dd95c76aed4fdd5f3c83d059a9ce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31052
content:
"evidence for the success of EP pathways. For example, a natural \r\nresource sharing agreement on the Kenya-Uganda border was able \r\nto reconcile spatial, logistical and conceptual barriers to addressing \r\nclimate risks in development contexts (Abrahams, 2020). However, \r\nthe long-term impacts of EP approaches on sustaining peace are \r\nyet to be monitored and evaluated (Ide and Tubi, 2020). EP may be \r\nsuccessful depending on the context and the element of peace being \r\nbuilt (Johnson, 2021) or undermine processes when environmental \r\narguments are co-opted for geopolitical purposes (Barquet, 2015) or \r\nto depoliticise conflict (Ide, 2020)."


id: ae378f4318a3b4ea1df7551b72d0ade7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27888
content:
"Formal institutional arrangements for natural resource management \r\ncan contribute to transnational cooperation (high confidence) (see also \r\nChapter 4). Evidence from transboundary water sharing agreements \r\nprovides evidence for cooperation rather than conflict over resources \r\n(Timmerman et  al., 2017; Timmerman, 2020; Dinar et  al., 2015). \r\nTransboundary water agreements and river basin organisations help \r\nbuild robust institutions that facilitate trust and relationship building \r\nthat have benefits in other domains (strong agreement, medium \r\nevidence) (Dombrowsky, 2010; Krampe and Gignoux, 2018; Barquet \r\net al., 2014; Ide and Detges 2018). However, outcomes can be mixed, \r\nand the international and top down nature of these approaches may \r\nlimit their transferability to intra-state conflicts at local levels (Rigi and \r\nWarner, 2020; Ide et al., 2021; Krampe et al., 2021)."


id: 3f76884e961b8b66fd9667a19c74d4fd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8353
content:
"The environment can form the basis for active peacebuilding, and \r\na sustainable natural environment is important for ongoing peace \r\n(high agreement, medium evidence). EP is a framework increasingly \r\nutilised to understand the diverse ways in which the natural \r\nenvironment supports peace and can be utilised in peacebuilding; \r\nkey tenets include preserving the natural environment such that \r\ndegradation does not contribute to violence, protecting natural \r\nresources during conflict and using natural resources to support \r\npost-conflict economic recovery (Kron, 2019). EP frames natural \r\nresources as facilitating peace rather than driving conflict (Dresse \r\net  al., 2019) with emerging literature analysing what this means \r\nin practice (Kovach and Conca, 2016; Krampe, 2017; Ide, 2019; \r\nIde et  al., 2021; Johnson, 2021; Kalilou, 2021). There is emergent "


id: 3ea17b161c3c48f0f88795bafff16188
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8205
content:
"Conflict-sensitive adaptation that focuses on institutional frameworks, \r\nconflict management and governance mechanisms has the potential \r\nto address complex interacting risks and emergencies over the long \r\nterm (medium agreement, limited evidence) (Scheffran et  al., 2012; \r\nMatthew, 2018; Okpara et  al., 2018). However, most adaptation \r\nactivities are planned and implemented under development or climate \r\nfinance funds without systematic integration of conflict sensitivity, "


id: d5178b27eb18cf1a55ebe407bbeedb38
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34812
content:
"These transformations map across all five of the system transitions \r\nidentified in Chapter 18: energy systems; land, ocean, and ecosystems; \r\nurban and infrastructural systems; industrial systems; and societal \r\nsystems."


id: 10c731bf2c99c5e0470c824bae7e4cec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 136
content:
"The WHO Operational Framework for building climate-resilient health \r\nsystems was designed to increase the capacity of health systems \r\nand public health programming to protect health in an unstable and \r\nchanging climate (WHO, 2015b). The guidance defines a climate\u0002resilient health system as one that is capable to anticipate, respond \r\nto, cope with, recover from and adapt to climate-related shocks and \r\nstress, so as to bring sustained improvements in population health \r\ndespite an unstable climate. Full implementation of this framework has \r\nthe potential to achieve transformational adaptation; the fundamental \r\nattributes of health systems would change to anticipate and effectively \r\nmanage the population health and healthcare risks of climate change. \r\nThis includes having the knowledge, capacity, tools and human and \r\nfinancial resources for health systems to extend beyond soft limits to \r\nadaptation."


id: 5bd50f36e45ed7ebdc17b65d7f41066b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13418
content:
"Climate resilient development is a set of trajectories that strengthens \r\nsustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty and reduce \r\ninequalities while promoting fair and equitable reductions of GHG \r\nemissions. Climate resilient development also serves to steer societies \r\ntowards low-carbon, prosperous and ecologically safer futures \r\n(Chapter 1). All pathways to pursue climate resilient development \r\nwill involve balancing complex synergies and trade-offs (very high \r\nconfidence; Chapter 18). Pathways to climate resilient development \r\ncan be pursued simultaneously with recovering from the COVID-19 \r\npandemic (Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7; Ebi et al., 2021)."


id: 75674d80d9d525de0b30de259904272
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17885
content:
"Ten components of the WHO operational framework for building climate resilient health systems,\r\nwith links to the building blocks of health systems."


id: 835a87ed9b70e1d4ac2971225da8b65f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20243
content:
"pattern of climate change. Adapting under SSP3 would be challenging \r\neven under pathways of limited additional climate change."


id: cd105fbc98f5cad983f035ab9299d7ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33418
content:
"Achieving full implementation of the WHO Operational Framework \r\nrequires determination and commitment--with associated funding--\r\nfrom the health community specifically and health-determining sectors \r\nmore generally. Identifying priority areas is an immediate step required \r\nto commence this implementation process, which will vary across \r\ndifferent contexts. Active engagement with Communities of Practice to \r\nshare lessons and experiences would be a useful approach to support \r\nnational and sub-national efforts; examples of this already exist (e.g., the \r\nClimate Change Community of Practice in Canada and the 'weADAPT' \r\ninitiative under the auspices of the Stockholm Environment Institute)."


id: d48b2f085ba9a4bd9c5411f403cad2f8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34717
content:
"Table 7.9 summarises selected characteristics of health systems as they \r\nmight be under SSP1 (a world aiming to sustainable development), \r\nSSP2 (a world continuing current trends) and SSP3 (a world with high \r\nchallenges to adaptation and mitigation), with systems under SSP1 being \r\nmost consistent with climate resilient development. The table highlights \r\nthe importance of investments that promote sustainable and resilient \r\ndevelopment to decrease vulnerability, no matter the magnitude and "


id: 7c1fc397d6cbddd69c2065317714c652
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19046
content:
"Table 7.9 |  Characteristics of future health systems under three SSPs; modified from Sellers and Ebi (2017)."


id: 649c67eb4438f5d688e73bb028e70683
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14980
content:
"enhanced their telehealth services, which has enabled specific groups \r\nto access health services, particularly those in rural and remote settings, \r\nand has allowed continuous care to the community (Monaghesh and \r\nHajizadeh, 2020; Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7)."


id: 359f338a9dd8d6f9280f30c3b94c42d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6688
content:
"The healthcare system is a core component of UHC, supporting \r\nclimate-resilient and environmentally sustainable healthcare facilities \r\n(Corvalan et  al., 2020). Health systems are large carbon polluters \r\nand have the potential to look beyond traditional 'green' initiatives \r\ntowards a more fundamental, longer-term redesign of current \r\nservice models, with health practitioners participating actively in this \r\nprocess (Charlesworth and Jamieson, 2018). In the largest and most \r\ncomprehensive accounting of national healthcare service emissions, \r\nthe UK's National Health Service (NHS) quantified its health services' \r\nemissions and identified that 62% came from the supply chain, 24% \r\nfrom the direct delivery of care, 10% from staff commute and patient \r\nand visitor travel, and 4% from private health and care services \r\ncommissioned by the NHS (Tennison et al., 2021)."


id: 874f4d1f5e3d234cd2420234eb1f1eca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20967
content:
"The COVID-19 pandemic has shown some countries taking positive steps \r\nto achieving UHC. For example, Ireland nationalised healthcare for the \r\nduration of the pandemic and many countries, including Australia, have "


id: fea0b7b5f723da1ce7327ac59014c89a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42182
content:
"and greater implementation of digital health delivery. In 2020, \r\nenhanced collaboration through the Global Action Plan provided \r\nsupport for an equitable recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic in, \r\nfor example, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Pakistan, Tajikistan, \r\nSomalia, South Sudan, Malawi, Nepal and Columbia, highlighting the \r\npotential for multi-sectoral integration of economic, environmental \r\nand social aspects of sustainable development to maintain essential \r\nhealth services and core public health functions during shocks and \r\nstresses (WHO, 2021a)."


id: b497cf33f05f14d343064434af92b524
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29021
content:
"The health sector has considerable opportunity to reduce its own \r\ncarbon footprint and by doing so would contribute to mitigation efforts \r\nand help reduce health burdens associated with GHG emissions (Vidal \r\net  al., 2014; Duane et  al., 2019; Charlesworth and Jamieson, 2019; \r\nCharlesworth et al., 2018; Guetter et al., 2018; Bharara et al., 2018; \r\nFrumkin, 2018) (high confidence). The UK's NHS has committed to \r\nbecoming the world's first net zero national healthcare system. Other \r\nexamples of recent and ongoing initiatives include those undertaken \r\nby the Kaiser Permanente and the Gundersen Clinics in the USA, Health \r\nCare without Harm in the Asia Pacific region, and the Green Hospital \r\nInitiative in New Delhi (Frumkin, 2018; Bharara et al., 2018)."


id: d0c010c98e2a71b8d03cd1def66d0cc8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34077
content:
"Meeting the SDGs also contributes towards reducing involuntary \r\ndisplacement and conflict, as assessed in Sections 7.4.6.6 and 7.4.6.7."


id: 2a4b4c423d065fbeac7ddf5bd39e898c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4661
content:
"7.4.6.5 Adopting Mitigation Policies and Technologies that \r\nHave Significant Health Co-benefits"


id: fd39cec6600c49ba025b6fc079bb31b6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41900
content:
"Substantial co-benefits from climate action can result from investing \r\nin health systems, infrastructure, water and sanitation, clean energy, \r\naffordable healthy diets, low-carbon housing, public transport, \r\nimproved air quality, and social protection. These benefits are in \r\naddition to the avoided health impacts associated with climate change \r\n(see Cross-Chapter Box HEALTH in Chapter 7)."


id: a3649583725071e7f4caa2dd3ac4eb22
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25952
content:
"7.4.6.6 International Policy Frameworks for Migration that \r\nContribute to Climate Resilient Development"


id: 9a4642b541570538164b5ab666dc72f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24386
content:
"Climate-related migration, displacement and immobility in coming \r\ndecades will coincide with global and regional demographic changes \r\nthat will produce a widening distinction between high-income \r\ncountries that have aging, slow-growing (or in some countries, \r\nshrinking) population numbers and low-income countries that have \r\nrapidly growing, youthful populations. Given this dynamic, coordinated \r\nnational and international strategies that integrate migration and \r\ndisplacement considerations with wider adaptation and sustainable \r\ndevelopment policies may contribute to climate resilient development. \r\nSince AR5, the international community has established a number \r\nof agreements and initiatives that, with continued pursuit and \r\nimplementation, would create potential for climate-related migration \r\nto be a positive contribution towards adaptive capacity-building and \r\nsustainable development more broadly (Warner, 2018)."


id: 4b030d362f3e477d13a72591ea91d463
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10439
content:
"For example, clean water, sanitation and hygiene are essential to \r\nhuman health and well-being. Unsafe water and sanitation and a lack \r\nof hygiene caused an estimated 870,000 associated deaths in 2016 \r\n(WHO, 2021c). Only 71% of the global population has access to safely \r\nmanaged drinking water services; only 45% of the global population \r\nhas access to safely managed sanitation services; and 60% has basic \r\nhandwashing facilities in their home. About 25% of healthcare facilities \r\nlack basic water services, exposing workers and patients to higher \r\ninfection risks. More than 80% of countries reported in 2018 that they \r\nlacked sufficient funding to meet national WASH targets. As detailed in \r\nSection 7.2.2.2, Box 7.3, Section 7.3.1.4 and Section 7.4.2.3, the burden \r\nof climate-sensitive WBDs would be reduced if WASH targets were met."


id: 95575d88598f3db45ea4af1f58567cca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23477
content:
"WHO developed a Global Action Plan for Healthy Lives and Well-Being \r\nfor All that brings together multi-lateral health, development and \r\nhumanitarian agencies to support countries in accelerating progress \r\ntowards the health-related SDGs (WHO, 2021c). Themes include \r\nsustainable financing to reduce unmet needs for services, community \r\nand civil society engagement to generate knowledge to inform \r\npolicymaking and health responses, addressing the socioenvironmental \r\ndeterminants of health, ensuring health and humanitarian services are \r\navailable in fragile and vulnerable settings, research and development, "


id: 4a31bfafc75af95c8c324a27831a21d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10295
content:
"Pursuant to the Paris Agreement, a task force was struck by the \r\nWarsaw International Mechanism to make recommendations to the \r\nConference of the Parties to the UNFCCC on how to reduce the risks \r\nof climate-related displacement. Its 2018 report recommended that \r\nparties work towards development of national legislation, cooperate \r\non research, strengthen preparedness, integrate mobility into wider \r\nadaptation plans, work towards safe and orderly migration, and \r\nprovide assistance to people internally displaced for climate-related \r\nreasons. Such recommendations dovetail strongly with the objectives \r\nof the Compacts on Migration and Refugees as well as the Sendai \r\nFramework for DRR and the 2030 SDGs. The SDGs, which include \r\nmultiple goals and targets in which migration plays an explicit role \r\nin fostering development (Nurse, 2019), may be seen as completing \r\nthe international policy arrangements necessary for addressing future \r\nclimate-related migration and displacement."


id: fc8b76c1d9d8ccc9f3becc5c3bd0d55a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41796
content:
"CRDPs to reduce conflict risk rely on a shift in perspective from framings \r\naround resource scarcity and security to sustainable natural resource \r\ngovernance and peace (Brauch et  al., 2016; Barnett, 2018; Dresse \r\net  al., 2018; Day and Caus, 2020). Recognising that conflict results \r\nfrom underlying vulnerabilities, development that reduces vulnerability \r\noffers the best win-win option for building sustainable, climate\u0002resilient peace rather than specific security-focused interventions (high \r\nconfidence). To this end, meeting the SDGs represents an unambiguous \r\npath to reducing conflict risk in a climate-changed world (Singh and \r\nChudasama, 2021). There is growing acceptance in the development \r\ncommunity, despite reservations about the securitisation of climate, \r\nthat instability and conflict exacerbated by climate change has the \r\npotential to undermine development gains (Casado-Asensio et  al., \r\n2020; Day and Caus, 2020)."


id: 5b098b5b862522f47278fb69b8d0ab5f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13267
content:
"Core to achieving climate-resilient peace are new ways of working that \r\ninvolve cross-issue and cross-sectoral collaboration and integration as \r\na default to policy and programming. The Security Council Resolution \r\n1325 Women and peace and security (S/RES/1325 (2000)) and the \r\nSustaining Peace Agenda (A/RES/70/262 (2016)) are notable examples \r\nof this. The 2020 UNEP report on gender and security recommends \r\nintegrated policy frameworks, better financing to strengthen women's "


id: 7fc722ae4fcbbb3e484bfea6ab78e255
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19618
content:
"Investing in universal basic infrastructure, including sanitation, clean drinking water, drainage, electricity, and land-rights, can transform \r\ndevelopment opportunities, increase adaptive capacity, and reduce vulnerability to climate-related risks (high agreement, high evidence).\r\nTransformative approaches that reduce climate-related risks and deliver enhanced social inclusion and development opportunities for \r\nthe urban poor are most likely where local governments act in partnership with local communities and other civil society actors (high \r\nconfidence) (Chapter 6, sections 6.1, 6.3, 6.4)."


id: f9a09ea78b7cb3b0e0e3a032a3134fea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41283
content:
"Rapid urbanisation offers a time-limited opportunity to work at scale towards transformational adaptation and climate resilient \r\ndevelopment (medium evidence, high agreement). Multi-level leadership, institutional capacity and financial resources to support \r\ninclusive adaptation in the context of multiple pressures and inter-connected risks can help ensure that the additional 2.5 billion people \r\nprojected to live in urban areas by 2050 are less exposed to climate-related hazards and contribute less to global warming (high \r\nconfidence) (Chapter 6, sections 6.1, 6.3, 6.4). Integrating low-carbon, inclusive adaptation into infrastructure investment driven by rapid \r\nurban population growth and COVID-19 recovery can accelerate co-benefits (Chapter 6)."


id: 2bae261f11392c6e7ccd87d74294773a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4947
content:
"Urban planning that combines clean, affordable public transportation, shared clean vehicles and accessible active transportation modes \r\ncan improve air quality and contribute to healthy, equitable societies and higher well-being for all. Stimulating active mobility (walking \r\nand bicycling) can bring physical and mental health benefits (high confidence) (Chapter 6; Rojas-Rueda et al., 2016; Avila-Palencia et al., "


id: cd3989d043bae6b6b2590ce274e4c2c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33442
content:
"2018; Gascon et al., 2019; Hamilton et al., 2021). The health gains from active mobility outweigh traffic-related injuries due to a decreased \r\nincidence of chronic diseases (Ahmad et al., 2017; Maizlish et al., 2017; Tainio et al., 2017; Woodcock et al., 2018)."


id: f8bf76a06d52bff16e3e6ee78763c126
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41123
content:
"Urban green and blue spaces contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation and improve physical and mental health and \r\nwell-being (high confidence) (Hansen 2017; EC, 2018; WHO, 2018a; Rojas-Rueda et al. 2019; 13.7.3, WGII; 6. WGII; 8.4 WGIII). Urban \r\ngreen infrastructure including urban gardens, can bring benefits to social cohesion, mental health and well-being and reduce the health \r\nimpacts of heatwaves by decreasing temperatures, thus reducing inequities in exposure to heat stress for low income, marginalised \r\ngroups (Hoffman et al., 2020; Hoffmann et al., 2020; Chapter 5 section 5.12.5; Chapter 6; Chapter 7 section 7.4; Chapter 13 section 13.7). \r\nThe trade-offs of increasing urban green and blue spaces include potential public health risks related to increased vectors or hosts for \r\ninfectious diseases, toxic algal blooms, drowning and aeroallergens (Choi et al., 2021; Stewart-Sinclair et al., 2020; Chapter 6)."


id: 1f2f7a4ff6651b43968fe37ab921e37b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2694
content:
"Figure FAQ7.1.1 |  Pathways from hazards, exposure and vulnerabilities to climate change impacts on health outcomes and health systems.\r\nWBD: waterborne disease, VBD: Vector-borne disease, and FBD: Food-borne disease."


id: 9257c969879a8738384a8954684cce7e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22970
content:
"Chronic changes \r\n(e.g. drought, sea level rise, \r\nsea ice loss, changing climate \r\nnormals)"


id: 398fd99e55e9dc364bfaae5c90a6f8f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7336
content:
"Vicarious exposure(s) \r\n(e.g. observed experiences of others, \r\nmedia depictions of climate change)"


id: db89cd07fc53567f87f064ac44941ed1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35907
content:
"Figure FAQ7.1.2 |  Climate change impacts on mental health and key adaptation responses.\r\nPTSD: Post traumatic stress disorder."


id: 6c765c29fdb3e18519c3a83fa6296a6e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16375
content:
"Climate hazards have affected armed conflict within countries but the observed influence of climate is small relative \r\nto socioeconomic, political and cultural factors. Adverse impacts of climate change threaten to increase poverty \r\nand inequality, undermine progress in meetings Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and place strain on civil \r\ninstitutions--all of which are factors that contribute to the emergence or worsening of civil unrest and conflict. \r\nClimate change impacts on crop productivity and water availability can function as a 'risk multiplier' for conflict in \r\nareas that are already politically and/or socially fragile and, depending on circumstances, could increase the length \r\nor the nature of an existing conflict. Institutional initiatives within or between states to protect the environment \r\nand manage natural resources can serve simultaneously as mechanisms for engaging rival groups and adversaries \r\nto cooperate in policymaking and peacebuilding."


id: b8c8869a74d780871d26fd9d13d14a15
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29715
content:
"FAQ 7.4 | What solutions can effectively reduce climate change risks to health, well-being, forced migration and \r\nconflict?"


id: 8423b298a6cbcb0c98786ee6a728adf7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20408
content:
"adaptation options that support sustainable development. Transformative changes in key sectors including water, \r\nfood, energy, transportation and built environments offer significant co-benefits for health."


id: 1ba48743aedff8fd17aec38c47993944
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2049
content:
"FAQ 7.5 | What are some specific examples of actions taken in other sectors that reduce climate change risks in the \r\nhealth sector?"


id: e1de87f405a13ce043e742d99c517926
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37019
content:
"Contributing Authors: Stavros Afionis (Greece), Liana Anderson (Brazil), Desalegn Ayal \r\n(Ethiopia), Connor Joseph Cavanagh (Norway), Jon Ensor (UK), Harald Heubaum (UK), Md. \r\nMonirul Islam (Bangladesh), Rachel James (UK), Emma li Johansson (Sweden), Murukesan \r\nKrishnapillai (The Federated States of Micronesia), Joanna M. McMillan (Germany/Australia); \r\nNicholas P. Simpson (South Africa), Jamon Van Den Hoek (USA), Emmanuel Raju (Denmark)"


id: 43d363ece12bd1b43154a6a3e6eccbc4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9164
content:
"Chapter Scientists: Ali Jamshed (Germany/Pakistan), Joanna M. McMillan (Germany/Australia), \r\nMarvin Ravan (Germany/Iran)"


id: ece144244b4430bacfd4ac0d15152715
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39045
content:
"Birkmann, J., E. Liwenga, R. Pandey, E. Boyd, R. Djalante, F. Gemenne, W. Leal Filho, P.F. Pinho, L. Stringer, and D.Wrathall, \r\n2022: Poverty, Livelihoods and Sustainable Development. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. \r\nContribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change \r\n[H.-O. Portner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegria, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Loschke, \r\nV. Moller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1171-1274, \r\ndoi:10.1017/9781009325844.010."


id: 9cca1a133a0c55dd6dd1ed052db1cf98
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24823
content:
"FAQ 8.1 | Why are people who are poor and \r\ndisadvantaged especially vulnerable to climate \r\nchange and why do climate change impacts worsen \r\ninequality?  1251"


id: 4c54150f166ef1018c3923a3cb10bb2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10690
content:
"Adverse impacts of climate change, development deficits and \r\ninequality exacerbate each other. Existing vulnerabilities and \r\ninequalities intensify with adverse impacts of climate change \r\n(high confidence1\r\n). These impacts disproportionately affect margin\u0002alised groups, amplifying inequalities and undermining sustainable \r\ndevelopment across all regions (high confidence). Due to their socio\u0002economic conditions and the broader development context, many poor \r\ncommunities, especially in regions with high levels of vulnerability \r\nand inequality, are less resilient to diverse climate impacts (high con\u0002fidence). {8.2.1, 8.2.2, 8.3.2, 8.3.3}"


id: b444793697bb08cf9f299719c27fac68
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28948
content:
"Under all emissions scenarios, climate change reduces capacities \r\nfor adaptive responses and limits choices and opportunities for \r\nsustainable development. Higher levels of global warming lead \r\nto greater constraints on societies. Climate change increases \r\nthe threat of chronic and sudden onset development challenges, \r\nsuch as poverty traps and food insecurity (high confidence).\r\nAdaptation interventions and transformative solutions that prioritise \r\ninclusive and wide-ranging climate resilient development and the \r\nreduction of poverty and inequality are increasingly seen as necessary \r\nto minimise loss and damage from climate change (high confidence). \r\n{8.2.1, 8.2.2, 8.3.1, 8.3.2, 8.3.3}"


id: c6cdc51486d7b0aa0b1cbc401cc99bfa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32283
content:
"Both climate change and vulnerability threaten the achievement \r\nof the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (medium \r\nconfidence). This undermines progress toward various goals such as \r\nno poverty (SDG1), zero hunger (SDG2), gender equality (SDG5) and \r\nreducing inequality (SDG10), among others (medium evidence, high \r\nagreement). Gender inequality and discrimination are among the barriers \r\nto adaptation (high confidence). {8.2.1,8.4.5} Also maladaptation can \r\nlead to additional complex and compounding future risks and threaten \r\nsustainable development (high confidence). {8.4.5.5, 8.2.1.7}"


id: 1fe3a8526950a1a86a839152bf11e5b5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2819
content:
"Under higher emissions scenarios and increasing climate haz\u0002ards, the potential for social tipping points increases (medium \r\nconfidence). Even with moderate climate change3\r\n people in vulner\u0002able regions will experience a further erosion of livelihood security that \r\ncan interact with humanitarian crises, such as displacement and forced \r\nmigration (high confidence) and violent conflict, and lead to social \r\ntipping points (medium confidence). Social tipping points can also be \r\ncoupled with environmental tipping points. {8.3, 8.4.4}"


id: 2006a0b600e6508dfbea29dca571303d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2847
content:
"Vulnerable population groups in most vulnerable regions have \r\nthe most urgent need for adaptation (high confidence). The \r\nmost vulnerable regions are particularly located in East, Central \r\nand West Africa, South Asia, Micronesia and Melanesia and in \r\nCentral America (high confidence). These regions are characterised \r\nby compound challenges of high levels of poverty, a significant number \r\nof people without access to basic services, such as water and sanitation, \r\nand wealth and gender inequalities, as well as governance challenges. \r\nAreas of high human vulnerability are characterised by larger \r\ntransboundary regional clusters (high confidence). Additional support "


id: 2793cd52c03c644e602f28cb3b99798c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4140
content:
"However, the trade-offs over time between nature-based solutions and \r\ntheir dynamics are insufficiently understood. Appropriate governance, in\u0002cluding mainstreaming and policy coherence, supported by adaptation \r\nfinance that targets the poor and marginalised, is essential for adaptation \r\nand climate compatible development (medium confidence). {8.5.2, 8.6.3, \r\n5.14}"


id: 667d48be69b3c5a79a6d2ba39b48139f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15293
content:
"and structures are needed to reduce the existing gaps between future \r\nadaptation needs and current capacities, and to support transitions \r\nfrom vulnerable livelihoods with adequate integration of the \r\nIndigenous knowledge and local knowledge (IKLK) systems. Greater \r\ninvestments are required under higher levels of global warming and \r\nof inequality (Relative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5; RCP8.5 and \r\nSSP4) (high confidence). {8.3, 8.4, Box 8.6}"


id: e2772331fa0dd1ecee552133b5431639
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37141
content:
"The direct and indirect consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic \r\nhave worsened inequalities within societies, thereby increasing \r\nexisting vulnerabilities to climate change and further limiting \r\nthe ability of marginalised communities to adapt (medium \r\nconfidence).The COVID-19 pandemic is expected to increase the adverse \r\nconsequences of climate change since the financial consequences have \r\nled to a shift in priorities and constrain vulnerability reduction (medium \r\nconfidence). Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic is also influencing \r\nthe capacities of governmental institutions in developing nations to \r\nsupport planned adaptation and poverty reduction of most vulnerable \r\npeople/groups, since the crisis also means significant reductions in tax \r\nrevenues (high confidence). {8.3, 8.4, 8.4.5.5}"


id: d9e678090b91180d41488fd0295a9094
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35635
content:
"Those with climate-sensitive livelihoods and precarious liveli\u0002hood conditions are often least able to adapt, afforded limited \r\nadaptation opportunities and have little influence on decision \r\nmaking (high confidence). Enabling environments that sup\u0002port sustainable development are essential for adaptation and \r\nclimate resilient development (high confidence). Enabling and \r\nsupportive environments for adaptation share common governance \r\ncharacteristics, including multiple actors and assets, multiple centres \r\nof power at different levels and an effective vertical and horizontal \r\nintegration between levels (high confidence). Enabling conditions can \r\nsupport livelihood strategies that do not undermine human well-being \r\n(medium confidence). {8.5.1, 8.5.2, 8.6.3, 5.13}"


id: 6bd654ea289d972163647114396663
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16271
content:
"There is increasing evidence that nature-based solutions (e.g., \r\nurban green infrastructure, ecosystem-based management) can \r\nprovide important livelihood options and reduce poverty while \r\nalso supporting mitigation and adaptation (medium confidence)."


id: f7787af9854552aaf41cbc401fa224df
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40913
content:
"The chapter assesses the newest scientific knowledge on how the \r\nmost vulnerable and marginalised people are experiencing different \r\nclimate-influenced hazards and changes, how these groups prepare for \r\nand adapt to these changes. Hence, it examines how climate change \r\nintersects with broader processes of development. It also considers the \r\nvarious impacts of climate change on the livelihoods of the poorest, \r\nthe capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living. It \r\nexamines the institutional conditions that promote livelihood resilience \r\nin the face of climate change. Quantitative analysis and qualitative data \r\non observed adverse climate change impacts and future projections and \r\ntrends in vulnerability show that societal impacts of climate change \r\ncannot solely be explained by looking at temperature changes or \r\nclimatic hazards alone."


id: 56cba098863240b58a6d85fcc7bb12c9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:54
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12520
content:
"The chapter provides due consideration of how societal impacts \r\nof climate change are emerging as a result of climatic changes, \r\ndevelopment and vulnerability. In this regard, it also explores how \r\npast and present conditions of poverty, inequality and vulnerability \r\ndetermine observed and future societal impacts of climate change, \r\nincluding future adaptive capacities of societies exposed to climate \r\nchange. It highlights new entry points to address climate risks and \r\nadaptation needs through the targeted reduction of poverty, inequity \r\nand vulnerability, linking particularly global quantitative information \r\nwith local livelihood-orientated qualitative information."


