# document

id: 30c744fa1e54b44ba8a53174f9a0bc4c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5840
content:
"Under conventional practices, municipal solid waste is projected to \r\nincrease by about 1.4 Gt between 2016 and 2050, reaching 3.4 Gt \r\nin 2050 (Kaza et al. 2018). Integrated policymaking can increase the \r\nenergy, material, and emissions benefits in the waste management \r\nsector (Hjalmarsson 2015; Fang et al. 2017; Jiang et al. 2017). \r\nOrganisational structure and programme administration poses \r\ndemands for institutional capacity, governance, and cross-sectoral \r\ncoordination for obtaining the maximum benefit (Hjalmarsson \r\n2015; Kalmykova et al. 2016; Conke 2018; Marino et al. 2018; \r\nYang et al. 2018)."


id: 8496eb8e221f46eeb7ddf96d4e2d519f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20472
content:
"Urban food systems, as well as city-regional production and \r\ndistribution of food, factors into supply chains. Reducing food \r\ndemand from urban hinterlands can have a  positive impact on \r\nenergy and water demand for food production (Eigenbrod and \r\nGruda 2015) (see 'food system' in Glossary). Managing food waste \r\nin urban areas through recycling or reduction of food waste at \r\nsource of consumption would require behavioural change (Gu et al. \r\n2019). Urban governments could also support shifts towards more \r\nclimate-friendly diets, including through procurement policies. These \r\nstrategies have created economic opportunities or have enhanced \r\nfood security while reducing the emissions that are associated with \r\nwaste and the transportation of food. Strategies for managing \r\nfood demand in urban areas would depend on the integration of food \r\nsystems in urban planning."


id: aec6affabc4fbc751ae29d3d0f4754e2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27988
content:
"The informal sector plays a  critical role in waste management, \r\nparticularly but not exclusively in developing countries (Linzner \r\nand Lange 2013; Dias 2016). Sharing of costs and benefits, \r\nand  transforming informality of waste recycling activities into \r\nprogrammes, can support distributional effects (Conke 2018; \r\nGrove et al. 2018). Balancing centralised and decentralised waste \r\nmanagement options along low-carbon objectives can address \r\npotential challenges in transforming informality (de Bercegol and \r\nGowda 2019). Overall, the positive impacts of waste management \r\non employment and economic growth can be increased when \r\ninformality is transformed to stimulate employment opportunities for \r\nvalue-added products with an estimated 45 million jobs in the waste \r\nmanagement sector by 2030 (Alzate-Arias et al. 2018; Coalition for \r\nUrban Transitions 2020; Soukiazis and Proenca 2020)."


id: c8b4f4e01333b896192bd73a6ca1555a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32628
content:
"Urban and peri-urban agriculture and forestry is pursued by both \r\ndeveloping and some developed country cities. There is increasing \r\nevidence for economically feasible, socially acceptable, and \r\nenvironmentally supportive urban and peri-urban agricultural \r\nenterprises although these differ between cities (Brown 2015; \r\nEigenbrod and Gruda 2015; Blay-Palmer et al. 2019; De la Sota \r\net al. 2019). The pathways include integrated crop-livestock systems, \r\nurban agroforestry systems, aquaculture-livestock-crop systems, and \r\ncrop systems (Lwasa et al. 2015), while the mitigation potential of \r\nurban and peri-urban agriculture has medium agreement and low \r\nevidence. Strategies for urban food production in cities have also \r\nrelied on recycling nutrients from urban waste and utilisation of \r\nharvested rainwater or wastewater."


id: e4e5b104cb2631ef68321ea96389325f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37557
content:
"Urban-rural linkages, especially through waste, food, and water, are \r\nprominent elements of the urban system, given that cities are open \r\nsystems that depend on their hinterlands for imports and exports \r\n(Pichler et al. 2017), and include resources, products for industrial \r\nproduction or final use (Section 8.1.6). As supply chains are becoming \r\nincreasingly global in nature, so are the resource flows with the \r\nhinterlands of cities. In addition to measures within the jurisdictional \r\nboundaries of cities, cities can influence large upstream emissions \r\nthrough their supply chains, as well as through activities that rely \r\non resources outside city limits. The dual strategy of implementing \r\nlocal actions and taking responsibility for the entire supply chains \r\nof imported and exported goods can reduce GHG emissions outside of \r\na city's administrative boundaries (Figure 8.15)."


id: c11b3e41bfa34506959525cbeb727135
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31276
content:
"Systems for water reallocation between rural areas and urban areas \r\nwill require change by leveraging technological innovations for water \r\ncapture, water purification, and reducing water wastage either by \r\nplugging leakages or changing behaviour in regard to water use \r\n(Eigenbrod and Gruda 2015; Prior et al. 2018). Reducing energy \r\nuse for urban water systems involves reducing energy requirements \r\nfor water supply, purification, distribution, and drainage (Ahmad \r\net al. 2020). Various levels of rainwater harvesting in urban settings \r\nfor supplying end-use water demands or supporting urban food \r\nproduction can reduce municipal water demands, including by up to \r\n20% or more in Cape Town (Fisher-Jeffes et al. 2017)."


id: c43c29d77ca4077790e76c135f50c40b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
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content:
"Waste prevention, minimisation, and management provides the \r\npotential of alleviating resource usage and upstream emissions from \r\nurban settlements (Swilling et al. 2018; Chen et al. 2020a; Harris \r\net al. 2020). Integrated waste management and zero-waste targets \r\ncan allow urban areas to maximise the mitigation potential while \r\nreducing pressures on land use and the environment. This mitigation \r\noption reduces emissions due to (i) avoided emissions upstream in \r\nthe supply chain of materials based on measures for recycling and the \r\nreuse of materials; (ii) avoided emissions due to land-use changes as \r\nwell as emissions that are released into the atmosphere from waste \r\ndisposal; and (ii) avoided primary energy (see Glossary) spending and \r\nemissions. Socio-behavioural change that reduces waste generation, \r\ncombined with technology and infrastructure according to the \r\nwaste hierarchy, can be especially effective. The mitigation potential "


id: a6adac63381abcc3cc9575da193d8912
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
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content:
"There are two broad categories of urban mitigation strategies. \r\nOne is from the perspective of key sectors, including clean energy, \r\nsustainable transport, and construction (Rocha et al. 2017; Alvarez \r\nFernandez 2018; Magueta et al. 2018; Seo et al. 2018; Waheed "


id: 45660abd492cc0a6146d770bd473d6c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
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vector_id: 9429
content:
"across urban sectors is greater than the net sum of individual \r\ninterventions due to the potential of realising synergies when realised \r\nin tandem, such as urban energy infrastructure and renewable \r\nenergy (Sethi et al. 2020). Similarly, system-wide interventions, such \r\nas sustainable urban form, are important for increasing the GHG \r\nabatement potential of interventions based on individual sectoral \r\nprojects (Sethi et al. 2020). Overall, the pursuit of inter-linkages \r\namong urban  interventions is important for accelerating GHG \r\nreductions in urban areas (Sethi et al. 2020); this is also important for \r\nreducing reliance on carbon capture and storage technologies (CCS) \r\nat the global scale (Figures 8.15 and 8.21)."


id: 46c56aa190203a8e87f63e1f912e83fb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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content:
"et al. 2018); the coupling of these sectors can be enabled through \r\nelectrification (Section  8.4.3.1). The other looks at the needs for \r\nemissions through a more systematic or fundamental understanding \r\nof urban design, urban form, and urban spatial planning (Wang et al. \r\n2017; Privitera et al. 2018), and proposes synergistic scenarios for \r\ntheir integration for carbon neutrality (Ravetz et al. 2020)."


id: d946957eb589e5cb60e2a346a3d4d5c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35525
content:
"Single-sector analysis in low-carbon urban planning examines \r\nsolutions in supply, demand, operations, and assets management \r\neither from technological efficiency or from a  system approach. \r\nFor example, the deployment of renewable energy technologies \r\nfor urban mitigation can be evaluated in detail and the transition \r\nto zero-carbon energy in energy systems and EVs in the transport \r\nsector can bring about a broad picture for harvesting substantial low\u0002carbon potentials through urban planning (high agreement, robust \r\nevidence) (Alvarez Fernandez 2018; Tarigan and Sagala 2018)."


id: 907b26354aa1442253330434e6afaa8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22624
content:
"The effects of urban carbon lock-in on land use, energy demand, \r\nand emissions vary depending on national circumstances (Wang \r\net al. 2017; Pan 2020). Systematic consideration of urban spatial \r\nplanning and urban forms, such as polycentric urban regions and \r\nrational urban population density, is essential not only for liveability \r\nbut also for achieving net-zero GHG emissions as it aims to shorten \r\ncommuting distances and is able to make use of NBS for energy and \r\nresilience (high agreement, medium evidence). However, crucial \r\nknowledge gaps remain in this field. There is a shortage of consistent \r\nand comparable GHG emissions data at the city level and a  lack \r\nof in-depth understanding of how urban renewal and design can \r\ncontribute to carbon neutrality (Mi et al. 2019)."


id: 2ea254e126ba879d3847884591d0d79b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"The feasibility of upscaling multiple response options depends on \r\nthe urban context as well as the stage of urban development, with \r\ncertain stages providing additional opportunities over others (Dienst \r\net al. 2015; Maier 2016; Affolderbach and Schulz 2017; Roldan\u0002Fontana et al. 2017; Zhao et al. 2017a; Beygo and Yuzer 2017; Lwasa \r\n2017; Pacheco-Torres et al. 2017; Alhamwi et al. 2018; Kang and Cho \r\n2018; Lin et al. 2018; Collaco et al. 2019) (Figures  8.19 and 8.21, \r\nand Section 8.SM.2)."


id: cce532b4e58626f89621284638558a50
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"An assessment of opportunities suggests that strategies for material \r\nefficiency that cross-cut sectors will have greater impact than those \r\nthat focus one-dimensionally on a  single sector (UNEP IRP 2020). \r\nIn the urban context, this implies using less material by the design \r\nof physical infrastructure based on light-weighting and down-sizing, \r\nmaterial substitution, prolonged use, as well as enhanced recycling, \r\nrecovery, remanufacturing, and reuse of materials and related \r\ncomponents. For example, light-weight design in residential buildings \r\nand passenger vehicles can enable about 20% reductions in lifecycle \r\nmaterial-related GHG emissions (UNEP IRP 2020)."


id: d00379b17b148611a6e301c9c1bb1f59
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"The context of urban areas as the nexus of both sectors (i.e., energy, \r\nand urban form and planning) underlines the role of urban planning \r\nand policies in contributing to reductions in material-related GHG \r\nemissions while enabling housing and mobility services for the benefit \r\nof inhabitants. In addition, combining resource efficiency measures \r\nwith strategic densification can increase the GHG reduction potential \r\nand lower resource impacts. While resource efficiency measures are \r\nestimated to reduce GHG emissions, land use, water consumption, \r\nand metal use impacts from a  lifecycle assessment perspective \r\nby 24-47% over a  baseline, combining resource efficiency with \r\nstrategic densification can increase this range to about 36-54% \r\nover the baseline for a sample of 84 urban settlements worldwide \r\n(Swilling et al. 2018)."


id: f8a0d11599622341385b58b73069e8d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"opportunities (Pan et al. 2015; Gaustad et al. 2018; Sovacool et al. \r\n2020). These include public-private partnerships between consumers \r\nand producers, financial and institutional support, and networking \r\nfor stakeholders like entrepreneurs, so as to increase accessibility and \r\nefficiency of recycling for consumers by providing a clear path from \r\nconsumer waste back to the producers (Pan et al. 2015; Prendeville \r\net al. 2018; Fratini et al. 2019). Box  8.3 discusses the mitigation \r\nbenefits of coordination between local and central government in \r\nthe context of Shanghai's GHG emissions reduction goals."


id: a58abf6ef6a49a38169f02419fbdcc4a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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vector_id: 26358
content:
"IPCC SR1.5 identified multi-level governance (see Glossary for \r\nfull definition) as an enabling condition that facilitates systemic \r\ntransformation consistent with keeping global temperatures below \r\n1.5degC (IPCC 2018a, pp. 18-19). The involvement of governance at \r\nmultiple levels is necessary to enable cities to plan and implement \r\nemissions reductions targets (high confidence) (Seto et al. 2021) \r\n(Boxes  8.3 and 8.4). Further, regional, national, and international \r\nclimate goals are most impactful when local governments are \r\ninvolved alongside higher levels, rendering urban areas key foci of \r\nclimate governance more broadly (high confidence) (Fuhr et al. 2018; \r\nKern 2019; Hsu et al. 2020b)."


id: eed078244176e5ab2b38009586754e47
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
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content:
"Still, there are constraints on urban autonomy that might limit urban \r\nmitigation influence. The capacity of subnational governments to \r\nautonomously pursue emissions reductions on their own depends \r\non different political systems and other aspects of multi-level \r\ngovernance, such as innovation, legitimacy, and institutional fit, \r\nas well as the resources, capacity, and knowledge available to \r\nsubnational technicians and other officials (Widerberg and Pattberg \r\n2015; Valente de Macedo et al. 2016; Green 2017; Roger et al. 2017). \r\nFinancing is considered one of the most crucial facets of urban \r\nclimate change mitigation. It is also considered one of the biggest \r\nbarriers, given the limited financial capacities of local and regional \r\ngovernments (Sections 8.5.4 and 8.5.5)."


id: 672c54511ee13440dbe11f4c640e6cea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"Since AR5, multi-level governance has grown in influence within the \r\nliterature and has been defined as a framework for understanding the \r\ncomplex interaction of the many players involved in GHG generation \r\nand mitigation across geographic scales  - the 'vertical' levels of \r\ngovernance from neighbourhoods to the national and international \r\nlevels, and those 'horizontal' networks of non-state and subnational \r\nactors at various scales (Corfee-Morlot et al. 2009; Seto et al. 2014; \r\nCastan Broto 2017b; Fuhr et al. 2018; Peng and Bai 2018; Kern 2019), \r\nas well as the complex linkages between them (Vedeld et al. 2021). \r\nThis more inclusive understanding of climate governance provides \r\nmultiple pathways through which urban actors can engage in climate \r\npolicy to reduce emissions."


id: 3249e768013832f022b53725c940c064
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"A multi-level, multi-player framework highlights both the \r\nopportunities and constraints on local autonomy to engage in urban \r\nmitigation efforts (Castan Broto 2017b; Fuhr et al. 2018; Vedeld \r\net al. 2021). When multiple actors  - national, regional, and urban \r\npolicymakers, as well as non-state actors and civil society  - work \r\ntogether to exploit the opportunities, it leads to the most impactful \r\nmitigation gains (Melica et al. 2018). This framework also highlights \r\nthe multiple paths and potential synergies available to actors who \r\nwish to pursue mitigation policies despite not having a full slate of \r\nenabling conditions (Castan Broto 2017b; Keller 2017; Fuhr et al. \r\n2018; Hsu et al. 2020b,a; Seto et al. 2021)."


id: dc4b7ae7b2b20cee8cf5111d412acbf3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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content:
"For example, Sections 8.4.3. and 8.4.5 highlight how instigating the \r\nelectrification of urban energy systems requires a 'layered' approach \r\nto policy implementation across different levels of governance (see \r\nSection  8.4.3.1 for specific policy mechanisms associated with \r\nelectrification), with cities playing a  key role in setting standards, \r\nparticularly through mechanisms like building codes (Hsu et al. \r\n2020c; Salvia et al. 2021), as well as through facilitation between \r\nstakeholders (e.g., consumers, government, utilities) to advocate for \r\nzero-emissions targets (Linton et al. 2021; Seto et al. 2021). Local \r\ngovernments can minimise trade-offs associated with electrification \r\ntechnologies by enabling circular economy practices and "


id: 90ef3fffaa6839fee0b0f5f0eb00cbdc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"representatives and NGOs, who pledged to enact the goals of the \r\nParis Agreement through their own spheres of influence (Cities for \r\nClimate 2015). Similar Summits have been held at each subsequent \r\nUNFCCC COP (Hsu et al. 2018). Like transnational climate networks, "


id: 9aeb569a62a8ae222616c3a90cc8f61d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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"these platforms provide key opportunities to local governments to \r\nfurther their own mitigation goals, engage in knowledge transfer \r\nwith other cities and regions, and shape policies at higher levels of \r\nauthority (Cities for Climate 2015; Castan Broto 2017b)."


id: f582035cf7f2dc6159acabb70597958a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"As a growing megacity in the Global South, Shanghai represents the challenge of becoming low carbon despite its economic growth \r\nand population size (Chen et al. 2017). Shanghai was designated as one of the pilot low-carbon cities by the central government. \r\nThe city utilised a coordination mechanism for joining fragmented policymaking across the city's economy, energy, and environment. \r\nThe coordination mechanism was supported by a direct fund that enabled implementation of cross-sector policies beyond a single\u0002sector focus across multiple institutions while increasing capacity for enabling a  low-carbon transition for urban sustainability \r\n(Peng and Bai 2020)."


id: ae00a746542c544146ae5eea3bdde0c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"In Shanghai, coordination between the central and local governments had an instrumental role for encouraging low-carbon policy \r\nexperimentation. Using a nested governance framework, the central government provided target setting and performance evaluation \r\nwhile the local government initiated pilot projects for low-carbon development. The policy practices in Shanghai surpassed the top\u0002down targets and annual reporting of GHG emissions, including carbon labelling standards at the local level, pilot programme for \r\ntransitioning sub-urban areas, and the engagement of public utilities (Peng and Bai 2018)."


id: fd4d813cde3b6dd7bbff8b28c0a7e849
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"New policy measures in Shanghai were built upon a  series of related policies from earlier, ranging from general energy saving \r\nmeasures to air pollution reduction. This provided a  continuum of policy learning for implementing low-carbon policy measures. \r\nAn earlier policy was a green electricity scheme based on the Jade Electricity Program while the need for greater public awareness was \r\none aspect requiring further attention in policy design (Baeumler et al. 2012), supporting policy-learning for policies later on. The key \r\npoint here is that low-carbon policies were built on and learned from earlier policies with similar goals."


id: ba58b7d38949903ab5e3a3c3fbe44e84
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"Trends during 1998 and 2015 indicate that energy intensity decreased from about 130 tonnes per million RMB to about 45 tonnes \r\nper million RMB and carbon intensity decreased from about 0.35 Mt per billion RMB to 0.10 Mt per billion RMB (Peng and Bai 2018). \r\nThese impacts on energy and carbon intensities represent progress, while challenges remain. Among the challenges are the need \r\nfor investment in low-carbon technology and increases in urban carbon sinks (Yang and Li 2018) while cross-sector interaction and \r\ncomplexity are increasing."


id: 5a7107ccf9c48228c8f316b27a30f2d9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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content:
"includes 260 governments pledging goals to keep global temperature \r\nrise below 2degC, is estimated to reduce emissions by 4.2 GtCO2-eq in \r\n2030, compared to a current policy scenario (Kuramochi et al. 2020)."


id: 68861a273953753d48f0fb64c43ab3ce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"Some studies suggest that subnational mitigation actions (Roelfsema \r\n2017; Kuramochi et al. 2020) are in addition to national government \r\nmitigation efforts and can therefore reduce emissions even beyond \r\ncurrent national policies, helping to 'bridge the gap' between emissions \r\ntrajectories consistent with least-cost scenarios for limiting temperature \r\nrise below 1.5degC or 2degC (Blok et al. 2012). In some countries, such as \r\nthe United States, where national climate policies have been curtailed, \r\nthe potential for cities' and regions' emissions reduction pledges to \r\nmake up the country's Nationally Determined Contribution under the \r\nParis Agreement is assessed to be significant (Kuramochi et al. 2020)."


id: 71f45b8dcf1c3f375c466c10464713f6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"These estimates are also often contingent on assumptions that \r\nsubnational actors fulfil their pledges and that these actions do \r\nnot result in rollbacks in climate action (i.e., weakening of national "


id: a7faffeb9165c0cb30a40c202ffcd904
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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content:
"climate legislation) from other actors or rebound in emissions growth \r\nelsewhere, but data tracking or quantifying the likelihood of their \r\nimplementation remains rare (Chan et al. 2018; Hsu et al. 2019; Hale \r\net al. 2020; Kuramochi et al. 2020). Reporting networks may attract \r\nhigh-performing cities, suggesting an artificially high level of cities \r\ninterested in taking climate action or piloting solutions that may not \r\nbe effective elsewhere (van der Heijden 2018). These studies could \r\nalso present a  conservative view of potential mitigation impact \r\nbecause they draw upon publicly reported mitigation actions and \r\ninventory data, excluding subnational actors that may be taking \r\nactions but not reporting them (Kuramochi et al. 2020). The nuances \r\nof likelihood, and the drivers and obstacles of climate action across \r\ndifferent contexts is a key source of uncertainty around subnational \r\nactors' mitigation impacts. "


id: 477b19c48d8e63a56391a433b76a9e62
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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content:
"to reduce their GHG emissions and improve environmental quality \r\nmore generally, independent of national policy; (ii) encouraging \r\nknowledge transfer between member cities and regions; and \r\n(iii) acting as platforms of national and international policy influence \r\n(Castan Broto 2017b; Fuhr et al. 2018)."


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"As of 2019, more than 10,000 cities and regions (Hsu et al. 2020a) have \r\nrecorded participation in a transnational or cooperative climate action \r\nnetwork, which are voluntary membership networks of a  range of \r\nsubnational governments such as cities, as well as regional governments \r\nlike states and provinces (Hsu et al. 2020a). These organisations, often \r\noperating across and between national boundaries, entail some type \r\nof action on climate change. Among the most prominent climate \r\nnetworks are GCoM, ICLEI, and C40, all of which ask their members to \r\nadopt emission reduction commitments, develop climate action plans, \r\nand regularly report on emissions inventories."


id: 474a04b03577b984eb3eaeda3d58504c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9747
content:
"While these networks have proven to be an important resource \r\nin local-level mitigation, their long-term effects and impact at \r\nlarger scales is less certain (Valente de Macedo et al. 2016; Fuhr \r\net al. 2018). Their influence is most effective when multiple levels \r\nof governance are aligned in mitigation policy. Nevertheless, these \r\ngroups have become essential resources to cities and regions with \r\nlimited institutional capacity and support (for more on transnational \r\nclimate networks and transnational governance more broadly, see \r\nSections 13.5 and 14.5)."


id: 7da0fbb4a915c7511c256f26d81f924d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19275
content:
"Municipal and regional networks and agreements have provided \r\na platform for urban actors to engage in international climate policy \r\n(Fraundorfer 2017; Keller 2017; Fuhr et al. 2018; Hsu et al. 2018, \r\n2020b; Westman and Broto 2018; Kern 2019; Seto et al. 2021). Their \r\nimpact comes through (i) providing resources for cities and regions "


id: f98301b2eda53598233157d2e3007807
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41266
content:
"Around the world, net-zero-emissions targets, whether economy-wide or targeting a specific sector (e.g., transport, buildings) or \r\nemissions scope (e.g., direct scope 1, or both scope 1 and 2), have been adopted by at least 826 cities and 103 regions that represent \r\n11% of the global population with 846 million people across six continents (NewClimate Institute and Data-Driven EnviroLab 2020). \r\nIn some countries, the share of such cities and regions has reached a critical mass by representing more than 70% of their total \r\npopulations with or without net-zero-emissions targets at the national level."


id: 8b976b53959b86a511483a7bfc88851b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21730
content:
"In some cases, the scope of these targets extends beyond net-zero emissions from any given sector based on direct emissions (see \r\nGlossary) and encompass downstream emissions from a consumption-based perspective with 195 targets that are found to represent \r\neconomy-wide targets. These commitments range from 'carbon neutrality' (see Glossary) or net-zero GHG emissions targets, which \r\nentail near elimination of cities' own direct or electricity-based emissions but could involve some type of carbon offsetting, to more \r\nstringent net-zero-emissions goals (Data-Driven EnviroLab and NewClimate Institute 2020) (for related definitions, such as 'carbon \r\nneutrality', 'net-zero CO2 emissions', 'net-zero GHG emissions', and 'offset', see Glossary)."


id: bd8b8d7c161c867d30233cc6aa979268
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30607
content:
"Currently, 43% of the urban areas with net-zero-emissions targets have also put into place related action plans while about 24% have \r\nintegrated net-zero-emissions targets into formal policies and legislation (Data-Driven EnviroLab and NewClimate Institute 2020). \r\nMoreover, thousands of urban areas have adopted renewable energy-specific targets for power, heating/cooling and transport and \r\nabout 600 cities are pursuing 100% renewable energy targets (REN21 2019, 2021) with some cities already achieving it."


id: 9812ae104bcc985fcbc0059cf2254ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23967
content:
"The extent of realising and implementing these targets with the collective contribution of urban areas to net-zero-emissions scenarios \r\nwith sufficient timing and pace of emission reductions will require a coordinated integration of sectors, strategies, and innovations \r\n(Swilling et al. 2018; Hsu et al. 2020c; Sethi et al. 2020; UNEP IRP 2020). In turn, the transformation of urban systems can significantly \r\nimpact net-zero-emissions trajectories within mitigation pathways. Institutional capacity, governance, financing, and cross-sector \r\ncoordination is crucial for enabling and accelerating urban actions for rapid decarbonisation."


id: 2a8b78869d688606fd6c7751236881ff
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4711
content:
"cities tend to rely more on intergovernmental transfers in the form \r\nof stimulus packages for economic recovery. Nonetheless, the risk \r\nof high carbon lock-ins is likely to increase in rapidly growing cities \r\nif long-term urban mitigation strategies are not incorporated into \r\nshort-term economic recovery actions (Granoff et al. 2016; Floater \r\net al. 2017; Colenbrander et al. 2018b; CPI and World Bank 2021; \r\nNegreiros et al. 2021). Indeed, large and complex infrastructure \r\nprojects for urban mitigation are often beyond the capacity of both \r\nnational government and local municipality budgets. Additionally, the \r\nCOVID-19 pandemic necessitates large government expenditures for \r\npublic health programme and decimates municipal revenue sources \r\nfor urban infrastructure projects in cities."


id: 87170c0c8a3296b74e047a6b27aaa187
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20928
content:
"To meet the multi-trillion-dollar annual investment needs in urban \r\nareas, cities in partnership with international institutions, national \r\ngovernments, and local stakeholders increasingly play a  pivotal \r\nrole in mobilising global climate finance resources for a  range of \r\nlow-carbon infrastructure projects and related urban land use and \r\nspatial planning programmes across key sectors (high confidence). \r\nIn particular, national governments are expected to set up enabling \r\nconditions for the mobilisation of urban climate finance resource by \r\narticulating various goals and strategies, improving pricing, regulation \r\nand standards, and developing investment vehicles and risk sharing \r\ninstruments (Qureshi 2015; Bielenberg et al. 2016; Granoff et al. 2016; \r\nFloater et al. 2017; Sudmant et al. 2017; Colenbrander et al. 2018b; \r\nZhan and de Jong 2018; Hadfield and Cook 2019; CPI and World \r\nBank 2021; Negreiros et al. 2021)."


id: 40dfcfb40e43e6b1a48b889d62521034
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8600
content:
"Indeed, 75% of the global climate finance for both mitigation and \r\nadaptation in 2017 and 2018 took the form of commercial financing \r\n(e.g.,  balance sheets, commercial-rate loans, equity), while 25% \r\ncame in the form of concessionary financing (e.g.,  grants, below\u0002market-rate loans). However, cities in developing countries are \r\nfacing difficulty making use of commercial financing and gaining \r\naccess to international credit markets. Cities without international \r\ncreditworthiness currently rely on local sources, including \r\ndomestic commercial banks (medium evidence, high agreement) \r\n(Global Commission on the Economy and Climate 2014; CCFLA 2015; \r\nFloater et al. 2017; Buchner et al. 2019)."


id: 8037f96fe849b7e726636b8cb5af5570
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19687
content:
"Cities with creditworthiness have rapidly become issuers of 'green \r\nbonds' eligible for renewable energy, energy efficiency, low-carbon \r\ntransport, sustainable water, waste, and pollution, and other various \r\nclimate mitigation projects across the global regions since 2013. \r\nThe world's green bond market reached USD1 trillion in cumulative \r\nissuance, with issuance of USD280 billion in 2020, during the "


id: 312f6f6855505c818c47fc372f7a45b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5903
content:
"Governments have traditionally financed a  large proportion of \r\ninfrastructure investment. When budget powers remain largely \r\ncentralised, intergovernmental transfers will be needed to fund \r\nlow-carbon infrastructure in cities. During the COVID-19 pandemic, "


id: b67033dc0349770bf05f29f0b88bcde1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29310
content:
"across sectors in different urban contexts (Suzuki et al. 2015; \r\nChapman 2017; Walters and Gaunter 2017; Berrisford et al. 2018). \r\nLand value capture is expected not only for cities to generate \r\nadditional revenue streams but also to prevent low-density urban \r\nexpansion around city-fringe locations. Inversely, land value capture \r\nis supposed to perform well when accompanied by low-carbon urban \r\nform and private real estate investments along with the application \r\nof green building technologies (robust evidence, high agreement) \r\n(Suzuki et al. 2015; Floater et al. 2017; Colenbrander et al. 2018b)."


id: 98fe6ff36f4fc05e3f89019a1c9c5dc9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24134
content:
"COVID-19 pandemic. While green municipal bonds still account \r\nfor a small share of the whole green bond market in 2020, scale is \r\npredicted to grow further in emerging markets over the coming years. \r\nGreen municipal bonds have great potential for cities to expand and \r\ndiversify their investor base. In addition, the process of issuing green \r\nmunicipal bonds is expected to promote cross-sector cooperation \r\nwithin a city by bringing together various agencies responsible for \r\nfinance, climate change, infrastructure, planning and design, and \r\noperation. Indeed, the demand for green bonds presently outstrips \r\nsupply as being constantly over-subscripted (robust evidence, high \r\nagreement) (Global Commission on the Economy and Climate 2014; \r\nSaha and D'Almeida 2017; Amundi and IFC 2021)."


id: 29e622b2dc640385e8d052106c0252bc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4597
content:
"For the implementation of land-based funding, property rights are \r\nessential. However, weak urban-rural governance leads to corruption \r\nin land occupancy and administration, especially in developing \r\ncountries with no land information system or less reliable paper\u0002based land records under a  centralised registration system. The \r\nlack of adequate property rights seriously discourages low-carbon \r\ninfrastructure and real estate investments in growing cities."


id: 9a032a7fb3e9cb1aa6a5e1e8b08d56bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24333
content:
"On the other hand, cities without creditworthiness face difficulty \r\nmaking use of commercial financing and getting access to \r\ninternational credit markets (Global Commission on the Economy \r\nand Climate 2014; CCFLA 2015; Floater et al. 2017). The lack of \r\ncreditworthiness is one of the main problems preventing cities \r\nfrom issuing green municipal bonds in developing countries. As \r\na prerequisite for the application of municipal debt-financing, it is an \r\nessential condition for cities to ensure sufficient own revenues from \r\nlow-carbon urbanisation, or the default risk becomes too high for \r\npotential investors. Indeed, many cities in developed countries and \r\nemerging economies have already accumulated substantial amounts \r\nof debts through bond insurances, and ongoing debt payments \r\nprevent new investments in low-carbon infrastructure projects."


id: d28a396e87b434fdcc11d391f937f673
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34394
content:
"The emerging application of blockchain technology for land registry \r\nand real estate investment is expected to change the governance \r\nframework, administrative feasibility, allocative efficiency, public \r\naccountability, and political acceptability of land-based funding \r\nin cities across developed countries, emerging economies, and \r\ndeveloping countries (Graglia and Mellon 2018; Kshetri and Voas \r\n2018). Particularly, the concept of a transparent, decentralised public \r\nledger is adapted to facilitate value-added property transactions on \r\na  P2P basis without centralised intermediate parties and produce \r\nland-based funding opportunities for low-carbon infrastructure and \r\nreal estate development district-wide and city-wide in unconventional \r\nways (Veuger 2017; Nasarre-Aznar 2018)."


id: 589fdce374ec663fd366f67b564d402
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12837
content:
"National governments and multilateral development banks might \r\nbe able to provide support for debt financing by developing \r\nmunicipal creditworthiness programme and issuing sovereign \r\nbonds or providing national guarantees for investors (Floater et al. \r\n2017). Another problem with green municipal bonds is the lack of \r\naggregation mechanisms to support various small-scale projects in \r\ncities. Asset-backed securities are likely to reduce the default risk for \r\ninvestors through portfolio diversification and create robust pipelines \r\nfor a bundle of small-scale projects (Granoff et al. 2016; Floater et al. \r\n2017; Saha and D'Almeida 2017)."


id: ae8e41eef09faba8d6c081959862e6a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27943
content:
"The consolidation of local transaction records into national or \r\nsupranational registries is likely to support large-scale land \r\nformalisation, but most pilot programmes are not yet at the scale \r\n(Graglia and Mellon 2018). Moreover, the potential application \r\nof blockchain for land-based funding instruments is possibly \r\nassociated with urban form attributes, such as density, compactness, \r\nand land-use mixture, to disincentivise urban expansion and \r\nemissions growth around city-fringe locations (medium confidence) \r\n(Allam and Jones 2019)."


id: aaa4681eccd22c66060aa1287813f638
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27241
content:
"In principle, the upfront capital costs of various low-carbon \r\ninfrastructure projects, including the costs of urban climate finance \r\n(dividend and interest payments), are eventually transferred to users \r\nand other stakeholders in the forms of taxes, charges, fees, and other \r\nrevenue sources. Nevertheless, small cities in developing countries \r\nare likely to have a small revenue base, most of which is committed \r\nto recurring operating costs, associated with weak revenue collection \r\nand management systems. In recent years, there has been scope to \r\napply not only user-based but also land-based funding instruments \r\nfor the recovery of upfront capital costs (Braun and Hazelroth 2015; \r\nKoscielniak and Gorka 2016; Floater et al. 2017; Colenbrander et al. \r\n2018b; Zhan and de Jong 2018; Zhan et al. 2018a)."


id: 4ac0aab6f43e1ed3f12be381e29e0481
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10394
content:
"Irrespective of geography or development level, many cities face \r\nsimilar climate governance challenges such as lacking institutional, \r\nfinancial, and technical capacities (Gouldson et al. 2015; Hickmann \r\nand Stehle 2017; Sharifi et al. 2017; Fuhr et al. 2018). Large-scale \r\nsystem transformations are also deeply influenced by factors outside \r\ngovernance and institutions, such as private interests and power \r\ndynamics (Jaglin 2014; Tyfield 2014). In some cases, these private \r\ninterests are tied up with international flows of capital. At the local \r\nlevel, a  lack of empowerment, high upfront costs, inadequate and \r\nuncertain funding for mitigation, diverse and conflicting policy \r\nobjectives, multiple agencies and actors with diverse interests, high \r\nlevels of informality, and a  siloed approach to climate action are \r\nconstraining factors to mainstreaming climate action (Beermann "


id: aaa6baeb75d255b9345608a120a2385e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27244
content:
"ultiple dimensions\r\nons (geophysical, env\r\nxtent to which an ind\r\nence. Supplementary \r\nased (Table 8.SM.4). \r\non 11.\r\nEconomic \r\nCosts in 2030 and long term\r\nEffects on employment and \r\neconomic growth\r\nE B E B \r\nStrength of enab\r\n0 50 "


id: b3e79eeef2add176a49fdf179fac52b4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28894
content:
"varies through different forms of urban development or 'typologies' \r\n(Figure 8.6). Below, Figure 8.20 distils the typologies of urban growth \r\nacross three categories: emerging, rapidly growing, and established. \r\nUrban growth is relatively stabilised in established urban areas with \r\nmature urban form while newly taking shape in emerging urban areas. \r\nIn contrast, rapidly growing urban areas experience pronounced \r\nchanges in outward and/or upward growth. These typologies are not \r\nmutually exclusive, and can co-exist within an urban system; cities \r\ntypically encompass a spectrum of development, with multiple types \r\nof urban form and various typologies (Mahtta et al. 2019)."


id: 6eb6080a68ac4b5bb6b002f336b8c3d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16743
content:
"The way that cities are laid out and built will shape the entry \r\npoints for realising systemic transformation across urban form and \r\ninfrastructure, energy systems, and supply chains. Section  8.3.1 \r\ndiscusses the ongoing trend of rapid urbanisation  - and how it "


id: 57881c89af24b9f77638bfcbfc75f74
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12665
content:
"Established cities that are compact and walkable are likely to have \r\nlow per capita emissions, and thus can keep emissions low by focusing \r\non electrification of all urban energy services and using urban green \r\nand blue infrastructure to sequester and store carbon while reducing \r\nurban heat stress. Illustrative mitigation strategies with the highest \r\nmitigation potential are decarbonising electricity and energy carriers \r\nwhile electrifying mobility, heating, and cooling (Table  8.3 and \r\nFigure 8.19). Within integrated strategies, the importance of urban \r\nforests, street trees, and green space as well as green roofs, walls, \r\nand retrofits, also have high mitigation potential (Section  8.4.4 \r\nand Figure 8.18)."


id: 2431b762b02b294a3f70f70638d538d9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3553
content:
"Mitigation options that involve spatial planning, urban form, and \r\ninfrastructure - particularly co-located and mixed land use, as well as \r\nTOD - provide the greatest opportunities when urban areas are rapidly \r\ngrowing or emerging (Section  8.4.2). Established urban areas that \r\nare already compact and walkable have captured mitigation benefits \r\nfrom these illustrative strategies to various extents. Conversely, \r\nestablished urban areas that are dispersed and auto-centric have \r\nforegone these opportunities, with the exception of urban infill and \r\ndensification that can be used to transform or continue to transform \r\nthe existing urban form. Figure  8.21 underscores that urban \r\nmitigation options and illustrative strategies differ by urban growth \r\ntypologies and urban form. Cities can identify their entry points for \r\nsequencing mitigation strategies."


id: 9ebfac37ec2483e4a218bacbd0147600
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25149
content:
"Established cities that are dispersed and auto-centric are likely to \r\nhave higher per capita emissions and thus can reduce emissions \r\nby focusing on creating modal shift and improving public transit \r\nsystems in order to reduce urban transport emissions, as well \r\nas focusing on infilling and densifying. Only then can the urban \r\nform constraints on locational and mobility options be effective \r\nat reducing transport-based emissions. Among mitigation options \r\nbased on spatial planning, urban form, and infrastructure, urban infill \r\nand  densification has priority. For these cities, the use of urban \r\ngreen and blue infrastructure will be essential to offset residual \r\nemissions that cannot be reduced because their urban form is already \r\nestablished and difficult to change."


id: f0486f4e8ca69f6ff46ac67c3e047d03
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39658
content:
"The emissions reduction potential of urban mitigation options \r\nfurther varies based on governance contexts, institutional capacity, \r\nand economic structure, as well as human and physical geography. \r\nAccording to the development level, for instance, urban form can \r\nremain mostly planned or unplanned, taking place spontaneously, \r\nwith persistent urban infrastructure gaps remaining (Lwasa \r\net al. 2018; Kareem et al. 2020). Measures for closing the urban \r\ninfrastructure gap while addressing 'leapfrogging' opportunities \r\n(see Glossary) for mitigation and providing co-benefits represent \r\npossibilities for shifting development paths for sustainability \r\n(Cross-Chapter Box 5 in Chapter 4)."


id: a81e6cd08ffe3967cae126e3948fe0c1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26792
content:
"Established cities will achieve the largest GHG emissions \r\nsavings by replacing, repurposing, or retrofitting the building \r\nstock, encouraging modal shift, electrifying the urban energy \r\nsystem, as well as infilling and densifying urban areas."


id: 3d8cc46ae6c961102e56515332f936ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8003
content:
"Shifting pathways to low-carbon development for established cities \r\nwith existing infrastructures and locked-in behaviours and lifestyles \r\nis admittedly challenging. Urban infrastructures such as buildings, \r\nroads, and pipelines often have long lifetimes that lock-in emissions, \r\nas well as institutional and individual behaviour. Although the \r\nexpected lifetime of buildings varies considerably by geography, \r\ndesign, and materials, typical lifespans are at minimum 30 years to \r\nmore than 100 years."


id: 29cdbf91104b9d9bed78abf0b958d3c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4581
content:
"Cities where urban infrastructure has already been built have \r\nopportunities to increase energy efficiency measures, prioritise \r\ncompact and mixed-use neighbourhoods through urban regeneration, \r\nadvance the urban energy system through electrification, undertake \r\ncross-sector synergies, integrate urban green and blue infrastructure, \r\nencourage behavioural and lifestyle change to reinforce climate \r\nmitigation, and put into place a wide range of enabling conditions as \r\nnecessary to guide and coordinate actions in the urban system and \r\nits impacts in the global system. Retrofitting buildings with state of \r\nthe art deep-energy retrofit measures could reduce emissions of the \r\nexisting stock by about 30-60% (Creutzig et al. 2016a) and in some \r\ncases up to 80% (Urge-Vorsatz et al. 2020) (Section 8.4.3)."


id: cc09d3af346179f8b7a07c633eaa8160
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33221
content:
"Urban design for existing urban areas includes strategies for urban \r\nenergy transitions for carbon neutrality based on renewable energy, \r\ndistrict heating for the city centre and suburbs, as well as green and \r\nblue interfaces (Pulselli et al. 2021). Integrated modelling approaches \r\nfor urban energy system planning, including land use and transport \r\nand flexible demand-side options, is increased when municipal actors \r\nare also recognised as energy planners (Yazdanie and Orehounig \r\n2021) (Section 8.4.3). Enablers for action can include the co-design of \r\ninfill residential development through an inclusive and participatory \r\nprocess with citizen utilities and disruptive innovation that can \r\nsupport net-zero-carbon power while contributing to 1.5degC pathways, "


id: 6908a7260fb7739e6a89f21d216cef43
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15748
content:
"At the same time, some of the rapidly growing cities in developing \r\ncountries can have existing walkable urban design that can be \r\nmaintained and supported with electrified urban rail plus renewable\u0002energy-based solutions to avoid a shift to private vehicles (Sharma \r\n2018). In addition, community-based distributed renewable electricity \r\ncan be applicable for the regeneration of informal settlements rather \r\nthan more expensive informal settlement clearance (Teferi and \r\nNewman 2018). Scalable options for decentralised energy, water, \r\nand wastewater systems, as well as spatial planning and urban \r\nagriculture and forestry, are applicable to urban settlements across \r\nmultiple regions simultaneously (Lwasa 2017)."


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created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1415
content:
"the SDGs, and affordable housing simultaneously (Wiktorowicz et al. \r\n2018). Cross-sectoral strategies for established cities, including those \r\ntaking place among 120 urban areas, also involve opportunities for \r\nsustainable development (Kilkis 2019, 2021b)."


id: 237aa67a48e51c493a09e918b7d069c5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3438
content:
"Rapidly urbanising areas can experience pressure for rapid growth \r\nin urban infrastructure to address growth in population. This \r\nchallenge can be addressed with coordinated urban planning and \r\nsupport from enabling conditions for pursuing effective climate \r\nmitigation (Section  8.5 and Box  8.3). The ability to mobilise low\u0002carbon development will also increase opportunities for capturing \r\nco-benefits for urban inhabitants while reducing embodied and \r\noperational emissions. Transforming urban growth, including its \r\nimpacts on energy and materials, can be carefully addressed with the \r\nintegration of cross-sectoral strategies and policies."


id: f5296dd82216d647870b3c78ddbbf2b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40497
content:
"Rapidly growing cities with new and actively developing \r\ninfrastructures can avoid higher future emissions through \r\nusing urban planning to co-locate jobs and housing, and \r\nachieve compact urban form; leapfrogging to low-carbon \r\ntechnologies; electrifying all urban services, including \r\ntransportation, cooling, heating, cooking, recycling, water \r\nextraction, wastewater recycling, and so on; and preserving \r\nand managing existing green and blue assets."


id: 8f34bf34b3a6efca3033420ef77f3868
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22396
content:
"New and emerging cities have unparalleled potential to \r\nbecome low- or net-zero-emissions urban areas while \r\nachieving high quality of life by creating compact, co-located, \r\nand walkable urban areas with mixed land use and TOD, that \r\nalso preserve existing green and blue assets."


id: 4447620a79af8301b3619c780c49d56e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9249
content:
"The fundamental building blocks that make up the physical attributes \r\nof cities, such as the layout of streets, the size of the city blocks, \r\nthe location of where people live versus where they work, can affect \r\nand lock in energy demand for long time periods (Seto et al. 2016) "


id: a81fc6f7223ccec23637a6472b961242
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26794
content:
"In this context, illustrative mitigation strategies that can serve as \r\na  roadmap for emerging cities includes priorities for co-located \r\nand mixed land use, as well as TOD, within an integrated approach \r\n(Table  8.3 and Figure  8.19). This has cascading effects, including \r\nconserving existing green and blue assets (e.g., forests, grasslands, \r\nwetlands), many of which sequester and store carbon. Priorities \r\nfor decarbonising electricity and energy carriers while electrifying \r\nmobility, heating, and cooling take place within the integrated \r\napproach (Section  8.4.3). Increasing greenways and permeable \r\nsurfaces, especially from the design of emerging urban areas onward, \r\ncan be pursued, also for adaptation co-benefits and linkages with the \r\nSDGs (Section 8.4.4 and Figure 8.18)."


id: f101f432f4cb4ffa41dca7c6df102cb1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39770
content:
"(Section  8.4.1). A  large share of urban infrastructures that will be \r\nin place by 2050 has yet to be constructed and their design and \r\nimplementation will determine both future GHG emissions as well as \r\nthe ability to meet mitigation goals (Creutzig et al. 2016a) (Figure 8.10 \r\nand Table 8.1). Thus, there are tremendous opportunities for new and \r\nemerging cities to be designed and constructed to be low-emissions \r\nwhile providing high quality of life for their populations."


id: 3a131bbd5e716fa5eb803e3198099ff9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7430
content:
"The UN International Resource Panel (IRP) estimates that building \r\nfuture cities under conventional practices will require a more than \r\ndoubling of material consumption, from 40 billion tonnes annually \r\nin 2010 to about 90 billion tonnes annually by 2050 (Swilling et al. \r\n2018). Thus, the demand that new and emerging cities will place \r\non natural resource use, materials, and emissions can be minimised \r\nand avoided only if urban settlements are planned and built much \r\ndifferently than today, including minimised impacts on land use \r\nbased on compact urban form, lowered use of materials, and related \r\ncross-sector integration, including energy-driven urban design for \r\nsustainable urbanisation."


id: 4882b983a198aaec8a2f2eefa2126d96
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9970
content:
"Minimising and avoiding raw material demands depends on \r\nalternative options while accommodating the urban population. In \r\naddition, operational emissions that can be committed by new urban \r\ninfrastructure can range between 8.5 GtCO2 and 14 GtCO2 annually \r\nup to 2030 (Erickson and Tempest 2015). Buildings and road networks \r\nare strongly influenced by urban layouts, densities, and specific uses. \r\nCities that are planned and built much differently than today through \r\nlight-weighting, material substitution, resource efficiency, renewable \r\nenergy, and compact urban form, have the potential to support more \r\nsustainable urbanisation and provide co-benefits for inhabitants \r\n(Figures 8.17 and 8.22)."


id: b682838ff1aab8533cf242a79b93f314
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29318
content:
"Figure  8.22:  Raw material demands and committed emissions from building urban areas. The horizontal bars represent the projected increase in raw \r\nmaterial demands in the year 2050. The vertical bars represent the possible range of committed CO2 emissions in 2030. The importance of alternative solutions to reduce \r\nraw material demands and committed emissions while increasing co-benefits is represented by the circular process on the right-hand side. Ranges for committed emissions \r\nfrom new urban infrastructure are based on Erickson and Tempest (2015) SEI WP 11. Source: drawn using data from Erickson and Tempest (2015) and Swilling et al. (2018)."


id: f5d7bd33ed056b86f004143f991f6654
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40613
content:
"Integrated scenarios across sectors at the local level can decouple \r\nresource usage from economic growth (Hu et al. 2018) and enable \r\n100% renewable energy scenarios (Zhao et al. 2017a; Bacekovic \r\nand Ostergaard 2018). Relative decoupling is obtained (Kalmykova \r\net al. 2015) with increasing evidence for turning points in per capita \r\nemissions, total emissions, or urban metabolism (Chen et al. 2018b; \r\nShen et al. 2018). The importance of integrating energy and resource \r\nefficiency in sustainable and low-carbon city planning (Dienst \r\net al. 2015), structural changes, as well as forms of disruptive social \r\ninnovation, such as the 'sharing economy' (see Glossary), is also \r\nevident based on analyses for multiple cities, including those that \r\ncan be used to lower the carbon footprints of urban areas relative to \r\nsub-urban areas (Chen et al. 2018a)."


id: 917e82875b82cfadd78706edbfccd4a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22810
content:
"economy can also have positive impacts on improving air and \r\nenvironmental quality with related co-benefits for health and well\u0002being (Diallo et al. 2016; Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis 2016; Shakya \r\n2016; Liu et al. 2017; Ramaswami et al. 2017a; Sun et al. 2018b; \r\nTayarani et al. 2018; Park and Sener 2019; Gonzalez-Garcia et al. \r\n2021). Low-carbon development options can be implemented in ways \r\nthat reduce impacts on water use, including water use efficiency, \r\ndemand management, and water recycling, while increasing water \r\nquality (Koop and van Leeuwen 2015; Topi et al. 2016; Drangert and \r\nSharatchandra 2017; Lam et al. 2017, 2018; Vanham et al. 2017; Kim \r\nand Chen 2018). The ability to enhance biodiversity while addressing \r\nclimate change depends on improving urban metabolism and \r\nbiophilic urbanism towards urban areas that are able to regenerate \r\nnatural capital (Thomson and Newman 2018; IPBES 2019b)."


id: b0de0adb87f16cedf9675df69945f4a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28346
content:
"To minimise carbon footprints, new cities can utilise new intelligence \r\nfunctions as well as changes in energy sources and material \r\nprocesses. Core design strategies of a compact city can be facilitated \r\nby data-driven decision-making so that new urban intelligence \r\nfunctions are holistic and proactive rather than reactive (Bibri 2020). \r\nIn mainstream practices, for example, many cities use environmental \r\nimpact reviews to identify potentially negative consequences of \r\nindividual development projects on environmental conditions on \r\na piecemeal project basis."


id: 45f89c67f8f6c7794c2bddfa8a204d36
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9534
content:
"There are readily available solutions for low-carbon urban \r\ndevelopment that can be further supported by new and emerging \r\nones, such as tools for optimising the impact of urban form on energy \r\ninfrastructure (Hu et al. 2015; Shi et al. 2017b; Xue et al. 2017; Dobler \r\net al. 2018; Egusquiza et al. 2018; Pedro et al. 2018; Soilan et al. \r\n2018). The costs of low-carbon urban development are manageable, \r\nand enhanced with a  portfolio approach for cost-effective, cost\u0002neutral, and reinvestment options with evidence across different \r\nurban typologies (Colenbrander et al. 2015, 2017; Gouldson et al. \r\n2015; Nieuwenhuijsen and Khreis 2016; Saujot and Lefevre 2016; \r\nSudmant et al. 2016; Brozynski and Leibowicz 2018)."


id: 695b3c7d3aaae08f44fbf7a42e580319
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15802
content:
"New cities can utilise: system-wide analyses of construction \r\nmaterials, or renewable power sources, that minimise ecosystem \r\ndisruption and energy use, through the use of lifecycle assessments \r\nfor building types permitted in the new city (Ingrao et al. 2019); \r\nurban-scale metabolic impact assessments for neighbourhoods \r\nin the city (Pinho and Fernandes 2019); strategic environmental \r\nassessments (SEAs) that go beyond the individual project and \r\nassess plans for neighbourhoods (Noble and Nwanekezie 2017); or \r\nmodelling of the type and location of building masses, tree canopies \r\nand parks, and temperature (surface conditions) and prevailing winds \r\nprofiles to reduce the combined effects of climate change and UHI \r\nphenomena, thus minimising the need for air conditioning (Matsuo \r\nand Tanaka 2019)."


id: 61b96b719bc714586574c9b889205ecb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14486
content:
"Resource-efficient, compact, sustainable, and liveable urban \r\nareas can be enabled with an integrated approach across sectors, \r\nstrategies, and innovations. From a geophysical perspective, the use \r\nof materials with lower lifecycle GHG impacts, including the use of \r\ntimber in urban infrastructure and the selection of urban development \r\nplans with lower material and land demand can lower the emission \r\nimpacts of existing and future cities (Muller et al. 2013; Carpio et al. \r\n2016; Liu et al. 2016a; Ramage et al. 2017; Shi et al. 2017a; Stocchero\r\net al. 2017; Bai et al. 2018; Zhan et al. 2018b; Swilling et al. 2018; \r\nXu et al. 2018b; UNEP IRP 2020) (Figure  8.17). The capacity to \r\nimplement relevant policy instruments in an integrated and \r\ncoordinated manner within a  policy mix while leveraging multi\u0002level support as relevant can increase the enabling conditions for \r\nurban system transformation (Agyepong and Nhamo 2017; Roppongi \r\net al. 2017).  "


id: 7082b66f28f5ac6a7844034b9f71aedb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17051
content:
"Information and communications technologies can play an important \r\nrole for integrating mitigation options at the urban systems level \r\nfor achieving zero-carbon cities. Planning for decarbonisation at \r\nthe urban systems level involves integrated considerations of the \r\ninteraction among sectors, including synergies and trade-offs among \r\nhouseholds, businesses, transport, land use, and lifestyles. The \r\nutilisation of big data, artificial intelligence and internet of things \r\n(IoT) technologies can be used to plan, evaluate and integrate \r\nrapidly progressing transport and building technologies, such as "


id: 6423cd82861d65734dc16335fc9ee8d6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14898
content:
"autonomous EVs, zero-energy buildings, and districts as an urban \r\nsystem, including energy-driven urban design (Creutzig et al. 2020; \r\nYamagata et al. 2020). Community-level energy sharing systems \r\nwill contribute to realising the decarbonisation potential of urban \r\nsystems at community scale, including in smart cities (Section 4.2.5.9, \r\nBox 10.1, and Cross-Chapter Box 11 in Chapter 16)."


id: 57e112f0860854c29929898155eedb24
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12724
content:
"density and high volume of public transportation (Layne et al. 2020; \r\nLee et al. 2020). Other research from 913 metropolitan areas shows \r\nthat density is unrelated to COVID-19 infection rates and, in fact, has \r\nbeen inversely related to COVID-19 mortality rates when controlled \r\nfor metropolitan population."


id: bbb2ceb26fb3e539df981ec0a20f981b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30251
content:
"Densely populated counties are found to have significantly lower \r\nmortality rates, possibly due to such advantages as better health care \r\nsystems, as well as greater adherence to social-distancing measures \r\n(Hamidi et al. 2020). Sustainable urbanisation and urban infrastructure \r\nthat address the SDGs can also improve preparedness and resilience \r\nagainst future pandemics. For example, long-term exposure to air \r\npollution has been found to exacerbate the impacts of COVID-19 \r\ninfections (Wu et al. 2020b), while urban areas with cleaner air from \r\nclean energy and greenspace, can provide advantages."


id: 15a04371ae598c7ac47e9147b63d5843
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1023
content:
"While there is growing literature on urban NBS, which encompasses \r\nurban green and blue infrastructure in cities, there is still a knowledge \r\ngap regarding how these climate mitigation actions can be \r\nintegrated in urban planning and design, as well as their mitigation \r\npotential, especially for cities that have yet to be built. In moving \r\nforward with the research agenda on cities and climate change \r\nscience, transformation of urban systems will be critical; however, \r\nunderstanding this transformation and how best to assess mitigation \r\naction remain key knowledge gaps (Butcher-Gollach 2018; Pathak \r\nand Mahadevia 2018; Rigolon et al. 2018; Anguelovski et al. 2019; \r\nBuyana et al. 2019; Trundle 2020; Azunre et al. 2021)."


id: ca909dc44384c6a1f38117f9ccbfa62b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32980
content:
"Some studies indicate that socio-economic factors, such as poverty, \r\nracial and ethnic disparities, and crowding are more significant than \r\ndensity in COVID-19 spread and associated mortality rate (Borjas \r\n2020; Maroko et al. 2020; Lamb et al. 2021). The evidence for the \r\nconnection between household crowding and the risk of contagion \r\nfrom infectious diseases is also strong. A  2018 World Health \r\nOrganization (WHO) systematic review of the effect of household \r\ncrowding on health concluded that a majority of studies of the risk of \r\nnon-tuberculosis infectious diseases, including flu-related illnesses, \r\nwere associated with household crowding (Shannon et al. 2018)."


id: 29c9596c15a00c33522bdb5bc21d1b66
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4577
content:
"There is a key knowledge gap in respect to the potential of the informal \r\nsector in developing country cities. Informality extends beyond \r\nillegality of economic activities to include housing, locally developed \r\noff-grid infrastructure, and alternative waste management strategies. \r\nLimited literature and understanding of the mitigation potential of \r\nenhanced informal sector is highlighted in the key research agenda \r\non cities from the Cities and Climate Change Science Conference \r\n(Prieur-Richard et al. 2018)."


id: 89e6fbe6bbb3a067cee724e4302a0bb9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21431
content:
"Though preliminary, some studies suggest that urban areas saw \r\nlarger overall declines in emissions because of lower commuter \r\nactivity and associated emissions. For example, researchers have \r\nexplored the COVID-19 impact in the cities of Los Angeles, Baltimore, \r\nWashington, DC, and San Francisco Bay Area in the United States. \r\nIn the San Francisco region, a  decline of 30% in anthropogenic \r\nCO2 was observed, which was primarily due to changes in on-road \r\ntraffic (Turner et al. 2020). Declines in the Washington, DC/Baltimore \r\nregion and in the Los Angeles urban area were 33% and 34%, \r\nrespectively, in the month of April 2020 compared to previous years \r\n(Yadav et al. 2021)."


id: 33f062df06df667d944053f81f21c02e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6382
content:
"City-level models and data for understanding of urban systems is \r\nanother knowledge gap. With increased availability of open data \r\nsystems, big data and computing capacities, there is an opportunity \r\nfor analysis of urban systems (Frantzeskaki et al. 2019)."


id: 126544e916c73f1c6d154c9bf759ba7d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 438
content:
"While there is much literature on urban climate governance, there \r\nis still limited understanding of the governance models and regimes \r\nthat support multi-level decision-making for mitigation and climate \r\naction in general. Transformative climate action will require changing \r\nrelationships between actors to utilise the knowledge from data and \r\nmodels and deepen understanding of the urban system to support \r\ndecision-making."


id: f698aa116f2cacde007fed0df9516f57
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40756
content:
"At the global scale COVID-related lockdown and travel restrictions \r\nreduced daily CO2 emissions by -17% in early April 2020 compared \r\nto 2019 values (Le Quere et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2020b), though \r\nsubsequent studies have questioned the accuracy of the indirect \r\nproxy data used (Oda et al. 2021). Research at the national scale \r\nin the United States found that daily CO2 emissions declined -15% \r\nduring the late March to early June time period (Gillingham et al. \r\n2020). Research in China estimated that the first quarter of 2020 saw \r\nan 11.5% decline in CO2 emissions relative to 2019 (Zheng et al. 2020; \r\nHan et al. 2021). In Europe, estimates indicated a -12.5% decline in \r\nthe first half of 2020 compared to 2019 (Andreoni 2021). Rebound \r\nto pre-COVID trajectories has been evidenced following the ease of \r\ntravel restrictions (Le Quere et al. 2021). It remains unclear to what \r\nextent COVID resulted in any structural change in the underlying \r\ndrivers of urban emissions."


id: c8796b0fbd1e2f6f30c2d2049059a7f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32574
content:
"The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted many aspects of urban \r\nlife while raising questions about urban densities, transportation, \r\npublic space, and other urban issues. The impact of COVID-19 on \r\nurban activity and urban GHG emissions may offer insights into urban \r\nemissions and their behavioural drivers and may include structural \r\nshifts in emissions that last into the future. The science is unclear as to \r\nthe links between urban characteristics and COVID-19, and involves \r\nmultiple aspects. For example, some research shows higher COVID-19 \r\ninfection rates with city size (e.g., Dalziel et al. 2018; Stier et al. 2021), \r\nas well as challenges to epidemic preparedness due to high population "


id: 3878fc12fbdc01c401d572811a6d7041
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7148
content:
"improvements in many cities around the world (see critical \r\nreview by Adam et al. 2021). Many outdoor air pollutants, such \r\nas particulates, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and volatile \r\norganic compounds declined during national lockdowns. Levels \r\nof tropospheric ozone, however, remained constant or increased. \r\nA promising transformation that has been observed in many cities \r\nis an increase in the share of active travel modes such as cycling \r\nand walking (Sharifi and Khavarian-Garmsir 2020). While this may be \r\ntemporary, other trends, such as increased rates of teleworking and/\r\nor increased reliance on smart solutions that allow remote provision \r\nof services provide an unprecedented opportunity to transform urban \r\ntravel patterns (Belzunegui-Eraso and Erro-Garces 2020; Sharifi and \r\nKhavarian-Garmsir 2020)."


id: e705551e9c9cca9d7031188e8af82350
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37940
content:
"The urban share of global emissions is significant and is expected \r\nto increase in the coming decades. This places emphasis on the \r\nneed to expand development of urban emissions scenarios within \r\nclimate mitigation scenarios (Gurney et al. 2021, 2022). The literature \r\non globally comprehensive analysis of urban emissions within the \r\nexisting IPCC scenario framework remains very limited, curtailing \r\nunderstanding of urban emissions tipping points, mitigation \r\nopportunities and overall climate policy complexity. A review of the \r\napplications of the SSP-RCP scenario framework also recommended \r\ndownscaling global SSPs to improve the applicability of this \r\nframework to regional and local scales (O'Neill et al. 2020). \r\nThis remains an urgent need and will require multidisciplinary research \r\nefforts, particularly as net-zero-emissions targets are emphasised."


id: 13cb51e60ad735f37d0fb41ff2b903ba
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 695
content:
"Related to the transport sector, the pandemic has resulted in concerns \r\nregarding the safety of public transport modes, which has resulted \r\nin significant reductions in public transport ridership in some cities \r\n(Bucsky 2020; de Haas et al. 2020) while providing opportunities \r\nfor urban transitions in others (Newman AO 2020). Considering \r\nthe significance of public transportation for achieving low-carbon \r\nand inclusive urban development, appropriate response measures \r\ncould enhance health safety of public transport modes and regain \r\npublic trust (Sharifi and Khavarian-Garmsir 2020). Similarly, there is \r\na perceived correlation between the higher densities of urban living \r\nand the risk of increased virus transmission (Hamidi et al. 2020; \r\nKhavarian-Garmsir et al. 2021)."


id: d3ba976202b05e25a869901eeb3f9b8c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34592
content:
"While city size could be a risk factor with higher transmission in larger \r\ncities (Hamidi et al. 2020; Stier et al. 2021), there is also evidence \r\nshowing that density is not a major risk factor and indeed cities that \r\nare more compact have more capacity to respond to and control \r\nthe pandemic (Hamidi et al. 2020). Considering the spatial pattern \r\nof density, even distribution of density can reduce the possibility \r\nof crowding that is found to contribute to the scale and length of \r\nvirus outbreak in cities. Overall, more research is needed to better \r\nunderstand the impacts of density on outbreak dynamics and address \r\npublic health concerns for resilient cities."


id: a6a81b043b22f3084ba47017a1e39e70
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26536
content:
"Cities could seize this opportunity to provide better infrastructure to \r\nfurther foster active transportation. This could, for example, involve \r\nmeasures, such as expanding cycling networks and restricting \r\nexisting streets to make them more pedestrian- and cycling-friendly \r\ncontributing to health and adaptation co-benefits, as discussed in \r\nSection 8.2 (Sharifi 2021). Strengthening the science-policy interface \r\nis another consideration that could support urban transformation \r\n(Cross-Chapter Box 1 in Chapter 1)."


id: e5c0cf2a86c1b8d12433032b5e53c2b6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37727
content:
"Similarly, independent verification or evaluation of urban GHG \r\nemissions has seen a  large number of research studies (e.g.,  Wu \r\net al. 2016; Sargent et al. 2018; Whetstone 2018; Lauvaux et al. \r\n2020). This has been driven by the recognition that self-reported \r\napproaches may not provide adequate accuracy to track emissions \r\nchanges and provide confidence for mitigation investment (Gurney \r\nand Shepson 2021)."


id: 84fa32c5ec3478658f26aaa095036f85
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20535
content:
"The most promising approach to independent verification of urban \r\nemissions has been the use of urban atmospheric monitoring (direct \r\nflux and/or concentration) as a means to assess and track urban GHG \r\nemissions (Davis et al. 2017). However, like the basic accounting \r\napproach itself, standardisation and practical deployment and scaling \r\nis an essential near-term need."


id: ff77040fcf3a9be9730f049424ea8e1b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42350
content:
"Over half of the world's population currently resides in urban areas - a number forecasted to increase to nearly 70% by 2050. \r\nUrban areas also account for a growing proportion of national and global emissions, depending on emissions scope and geographic \r\nboundary. These trends are projected to grow in the coming decades; in 2100, some scenarios show the urban share of global \r\nemissions above 80%, with 63% being the minimum for any scenario (with the shares being in different contexts of emissions \r\nreduction or increase) (Sections 8.3.3 and 8.3.4). As such, urban climate change mitigation considers the majority of the world's \r\npopulation, as well as some of the key drivers of global emissions. In general, emissions scenarios with limited outward urban land \r\nexpansion are also associated with a smaller rise in global temperature (Section 8.3.4)."


id: 8d9c4ea9dc90b58b1f2c4004ba8782a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22106
content:
"The urban share of global emissions and its projected growth stem in part from urban carbon lock-in - that is, the path dependency \r\nand inertia of committed emissions through the long lifespan of urban layout, infrastructures, and behaviour. As such, urban \r\nmitigation efforts that address lock-in can significantly reduce emissions (Section 8.4.1). Electrification of urban energy systems, \r\nin tandem with implementing multiple urban-scale mitigation strategies, could reduce urban emissions by 90% by 2050 - thereby \r\nsignificantly reducing global emissions (Section 8.3.4). Urban areas can also act as points of intervention to amplify synergies and \r\nco-benefits for accomplishing the Sustainable Development Goals (Section 8.2)."


id: 4f3915f0192f71b008f7b36e3efbca6e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11225
content:
"A city's layout, patterns, and spatial arrangements of land use, transportation systems, and built environment (urban form), as well \r\nas its state and form(s) of development (urban growth typology), can inform the most impactful emissions savings 'entry points' \r\nand priorities for urban mitigation strategies (Sections 8.4.2 and 8.6). For rapidly growing and emerging urban areas, there is the \r\nopportunity to avoid carbon lock-in by focusing on urban form that promotes low-carbon infrastructure and enables low-impact \r\nbehaviour facilitated by co-located medium to high densities of jobs and housing, walkability, and transit-oriented development \r\n(Sections 8.6.2 and 8.6.3). For established cities, strategies include electrification of the grid and transport, and implementing energy \r\nefficiency across sectors (Section 8.6.1)."


id: 975d1b2e3071c382137702eaf151e6cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23836
content:
"No approach has been systematically applied to all cities worldwide. Rather, they have been applied individually or in combination \r\nto subsets of global cities. Considerable uncertainty remains in estimating urban emissions. However, top-down approaches have \r\nsomewhat more objective techniques for uncertainty estimation in comparison to bottom-up approaches. Furthermore, supply chain \r\nestimation typically has more uncertainty than direct or territorial emission frameworks."


id: c33483bf327da5f4cbee46263b39b871
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31616
content:
"Lwasa, S., K.C. Seto, X. Bai, H. Blanco, K.R. Gurney, S. Kilkis, O. Lucon, J. Murakami, J. Pan, A. Sharifi, Y. Yamagata, 2022: \r\nUrban systems and other settlements Supplementary Material. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of \r\nClimate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on \r\nClimate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, \r\nR. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Available from https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/\r\nwg3/."


id: dd33155106daf1b9e74768e0e238e29
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36187
content:
"In Chapter 8, Figure 8.4 on co-benefits of urban mitigation actions \r\nin Section 8.2, and Figure 8.18 on the feasibility assessment based \r\non the enablers and barriers of implementing mitigation options for \r\nurban systems in Section 8.5 refer to supplementary materials 8.SM.1 \r\nand 8.SM.2, respectively. These two materials for the SDG linkages \r\nand the feasibility assessment are contained in this contribution. "


id: 45b3307f81e535ac7b124d183b09657b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9477
content:
"Co-benefits and trade-offs in the scope of urban mitigation are \r\nfocused in Section 8.2.1. Based on the urban mitigation options that \r\nare synthesised in Section 8.4, SDG linkages are further considered \r\nper urban mitigation option, including the integration of urban \r\nmitigation options through integrated approaches. The evaluations \r\nare based on the linkages with the SDGs considering synergies \r\n(+) and trade-offs (-). These linkages are context specific and the \r\npossible synergies and/or trade-offs with the SDGs will change "


id: aca65f2d29818f852d62371e3d9d282e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27620
content:
"Table 8.SM.2. | References/line of sight for the SDG linkages of the mitigation options for urban systems."


id: 68bb48c088cdcf264c146324cc882920
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15694
content:
"This Supplementary Material to Chapter 8 provides an overview \r\nof the extent to which different factors affect the feasibility of \r\nmitigation options in urban systems that may differ across context, \r\ntime and scale of implementation and the line of sight upon which \r\nthe feasibility assessment in Figure 8.19 in Section 8.5 is based. The \r\nmulti-dimensional feasibility assessment is based on 18 indicators \r\nin the 6 dimensions of geophysical, environmental-ecological, \r\ntechnological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional feasibility. \r\nAn indicator in this assessment framework can pose positive and/\r\nor negative impacts as enablers or barriers of the mitigation option. \r\nIndicators that provide positive impacts as enablers (E) are marked \r\nin blue while those that can have negative impacts as barriers (B) \r\nare marked in orange in Table 8.SM.3. Levels of confidence (LoC) "


id: c9d6886537ccedc14ac91582d0af4bb5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32839
content:
"Is technologically scalable in different \r\nregions that increases with the \r\ngeographic heat/cold demand density \r\nof the urban area. There are relatively \r\nmore opportunities with urban \r\nenergy planning processes. District \r\nheating and/or cooling networks are \r\nable to also support flexibility in the \r\nenergy system and act as low-cost \r\nstorage options"


id: 87e98c70e752e938e83569edef804882
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21068
content:
"Can already provide total annual cost \r\nsavings over building-level solutions. \r\nFuture improvements depend on \r\nsystem optimisation, the ability to \r\nintegrate low-temperature renewable \r\nenergy sources and excess electricity \r\nfrom renewables in upgrading existing \r\nor implementing new district heating \r\nand cooling networks, and modular \r\napproach across suitable urban areas"


id: 511106864a168314fcd4ddbfa377f9b5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11540
content:
"Costs are favourable. Renewable \r\nelectricity is also relevant for \r\ndecarbonising the heating sector \r\nthrough power-to-heat that can be a \r\ncost-effective option, including large\u0002scale heat pumps in district heating \r\nand cooling networks"


id: fabbb51e5acdc748fd6c950617209151
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41490
content:
"Is positive and increases with \r\nthe ability to stimulate a green \r\neconomy, e.g., access to renewable\u0002energy-based district heating \r\nand cooling networks reduces \r\nthe operational GHG emissions \r\nof the local economy, increases \r\ncompetitiveness and supports jobs \r\nin design and implementation, \r\nequipment manufacturing, \r\noperation and maintenance"


id: 417f0da008a8b22e588f50aca4e21a5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8715
content:
"Is positive and increases with the \r\nability to establish local jobs and use \r\nrevenues locally. Access to renewable \r\nelectricity reduces the operational \r\nGHG emissions of the local economy, \r\nthereby increasing competitiveness, \r\nwhile providing a net status of long\u0002term, full-time jobs"


id: 8ca86197d19fb62d9391714b8dbe6c65
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21933
content:
"Increases based on the business \r\nmodel with local ownership of \r\ndistrict heating and cooling networks \r\nhaving the most positive impact \r\non local benefits. Also contributes to \r\naddressing energy poverty based on \r\nthe provision of affordable energy \r\nfor satisfying thermal comfort in \r\nurban areas"


id: 10c32402945203861ba265890faa97d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 131
content:
"Depends on the ability to implement \r\npolicy instruments to exploit and \r\nintegrate local resources for supplying \r\nthermal energy cost-effectively to \r\nurban areas while implementing \r\nclimate targets. Bottom-up and \r\ninteractive regulatory frameworks \r\nbased on multi-level policies are \r\nsuggested for facilitating coordination \r\namong energy sectors as an enabler"


id: ecd9c2c790c926407cb6c0af285f0444
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39039
content:
"Paolo Bertoldi (Italy), Jacob M. Kihila (the United Republic of Tanzania), Andre F.P. Lucena (Brazil), \r\nErika Mata (Spain/Sweden), Sebastian Mirasgedis (Greece), Aleksandra Novikova (Germany/the \r\nRussian Federation), Yamina Saheb (France/Algeria)"


id: 5a5ea555d8fae02983b5b7f83db93ecf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13152
content:
"Peter Berrill (Germany/Ireland), Lucas R. Caldas (Brazil), Marta Chafer (Spain), Shan Hu (China), \r\nRadhika Khosla (United Kingdom/India), William F. Lamb (Germany/United Kingdom), David Verez \r\n(Cuba/Spain), Joel Wanemark (Sweden)"


id: 79228bc7b5bd252d6940a4d01fdb536c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18500
content:
"Cabeza, L. F., Q. Bai, P. Bertoldi, J.M. Kihila, A.F.P. Lucena, E. Mata, S. Mirasgedis, A. Novikova, Y. Saheb, 2022: Buildings. \r\nIn IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth \r\nAssessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, \r\nR. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, \r\n(eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.011"


id: 8b2388953898268494e13b6d9d2c1a7b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21641
content:
"In most regions, historical improvements in efficiency have \r\nbeen approximately matched by growth in floor area per capita. \r\nImplementing sufficiency measures that limit growth in floor \r\narea per capita, particularly in developed regions, reduces the \r\ndependence of climate mitigation on technological solutions \r\n(medium evidence, medium agreement). At a global level, up to \r\n17% of the mitigation potential could be captured by 2050 through \r\nsufficiency interventions (medium evidence, medium agreement). \r\nSufficiency is an opportunity to avoid locking buildings in carbon\u0002intensive solutions. Density, compacity, building typologies, bioclimatic \r\ndesign, multi-functionality of space, circular use of materials, use of "


id: 3359f7c2e9e2ac22a36e6be3130bc32d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6286
content:
"many examples of deep retrofits where additional costs per  CO2\r\nabated are not significantly higher than those of shallow retrofits. \r\nHowever, for the whole stock they tend to be in cost intervals of \r\nUSD0-200 tCO2\r\n-1 and >USD200 tCO2-1 (medium evidence, medium \r\nagreement). Literature emphasizes the critical role of the decade \r\nbetween in 2020 and 2030 in accelerating the learning of know-how \r\nand skills to reduce the costs and remove feasibility constrains for \r\nachieving high efficiency buildings at scale and set the sector at the \r\npathway to realise its full potential (high evidence, high agreement) \r\n{9.6, 9.9}."


id: 8d67e44daf577a59cd71f73ac2052701
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22061
content:
"The decarbonisation of buildings is constrained by multiple \r\nbarriers and obstacles as well as limited flow of finance \r\n(robust evidence, high agreement). The lack of institutional \r\ncapacity, especially in developing countries, and appropriate \r\ngovernance structures slow down the decarbonisation of the \r\nglobal building stock (medium evidence, high agreement). \r\nThe building sector stands out for its high heterogeneity, with many \r\ndifferent building types, sizes, and operational uses. Its segment \r\nrepresenting rented property faces principal/agent problems where \r\nthe tenant benefits from the decarbonisation investment made by the \r\nlandlord. The organisational context and the governance structure \r\ncould trigger or hinder the decarbonisation of buildings (high \r\nevidence, high agreement). Global investment in the decarbonisation \r\nof buildings was estimated at USD164 billion in 2020, not enough to \r\nclose the investment gap (robust evidence, high agreement) {9.9}."


id: 417311d31eecff83fd6871070654b9f4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8704
content:
"Well-designed and effectively implemented mitigation actions \r\nin the buildings sector have significant potential for achieving \r\nthe United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The impacts \r\nof mitigation actions in the building sector go far beyond the goal \r\nof climate action (SDG 13) and contribute to further meeting fifteen \r\nother SDGs. Mitigation actions in the building sector bring health \r\ngains through improved indoor air quality and thermal comfort as well \r\nas reduced financial stresses in all world regions. Overall decarbonised \r\nbuilding stock contribute to well-being and has significant macro- and \r\nmicro-economic effects, such as increased productivity of labour, job \r\ncreation, reduced poverty, especially energy poverty, and improved \r\nenergy security that ultimately reduces net costs of mitigation \r\nmeasures in buildings (high evidence, high agreement) {9.8}."


id: 98c3772f043a32288ab794c8d2ac15e5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24092
content:
"and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (IPCC, 2018; IEA, 2019c; \r\nIEA 2019e). Mitigation interventions in buildings are heterogeneous \r\nin many different aspects, from building components (envelope, \r\nstructure, materials, etc.) to services (shelter, heating, etc.), to \r\nbuilding types (residential and non-residential, sometimes also called \r\ncommercial and public), to building size, function, and climate zone. \r\nThere are also variations between developed and developing countries \r\nin mitigation interventions to implement, as the former is challenged \r\nby the renovation of existing buildings while the latter is challenged by \r\nthe need to accelerate the construction of new buildings. "


id: 3fcdf20bdcb9e063b8fdcb93c531af08
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8419
content:
"This chapter aims at updating the knowledge on the building \r\nsector since the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth \r\nAssessment Report (IPCC AR5) (Lucon et al. 2014). Changes since AR5 \r\nare reviewed, including: the latest development of building service \r\nand components (Section  9.2), findings of new building related \r\nGHG emission trends (Section 9.3), latest technological (Section 9.4) \r\nand non-technological (Section  9.5) options to mitigate building \r\nGHG emissions, potential emission reduction from these measures \r\nat global and regional level (Section  9.6), links to adaptation \r\n(Section 9.7) and sustainable development (Section 9.8), and sectoral \r\nbarriers and policies (Section 9.9). "


id: 450dc8af751cc05160de56f01fa4ad3f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9374
content:
"The chapter introduces the concept of sufficiency, identified in \r\nthe literature as a  mitigation strategy with high potential, and is \r\norganised around the Sufficiency, Efficiency, Renewables (SER) \r\nframework (Box 9.1)."


id: 687eca85d8e20ef4c1eb4c86c9dd0c27
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15650
content:
"The SER framework was introduced in the late 1990s by a French NGO (Negawatt 2017) advocating for a decarbonised energy transition. \r\nIn 2015, the SER framework was considered in the design of the French energy transition law, and the French energy transition agency \r\n(ADEME) is developing its 2050 scenario based on the SER framework. "


id: 61a6628939a37b6dbf7268dadbde492a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14469
content:
"The three pillars of the SER framework include (i) sufficiency, which tackles the causes of the environmental impacts of human \r\nactivities by avoiding the demand for energy and materials over the lifecycle of buildings and goods, (ii) efficiency, which tackles the \r\nsymptoms of the environmental impacts of human activities by improving energy and material intensities, and (iii) the renewables \r\npillar, which tackles the consequences of the environmental impacts of human activities by reducing the carbon intensity of energy \r\nsupply (Box 9.1, Figure 1). The SER framework introduces a hierarchical layering, sufficiency first followed by efficiency and renewable, \r\nwhich reduces the cost of constructing and using buildings without reducing the level of comfort of the occupant. "


id: c5f90626ef7e4698a4245b55f1b8c98d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32140
content:
"with less in relative terms without considering the planetary boundaries, while the former is about long-term actions driven by non\u0002technological solutions (i.e., land-use management and planning), which consume less in absolute-term and are determined by the \r\nbiophysical processes (Princen 2003). "


id: 27359b8661ea42432dafef996d5a1ca5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4061
content:
"Applying sufficiency principles to buildings requires (i) optimising the use of buildings, (ii) repurposing unused existing ones, \r\n(iii)  prioritising multi-family homes over single-family buildings, and (iv) adjusting the size of buildings to the evolving needs of \r\nhouseholds by downsizing dwellings (Wilson and Boehland 2005; Duffy 2009; Fuller and Crawford 2011; Stephan et al. 2013; Huebner \r\nand Shipworth 2017; Sandberg 2018; McKinlay et al. 2019; Ellsworth-Krebs 2020; Berrill et al. 2021) (Box 9.1, Figure 2). "


id: fa88700eb1122ef30228849d9abf5769
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41450
content:
"Efficiency, and especially energy efficiency and more recently resource efficiency, and the integration of renewable to buildings \r\nare widespread concepts since the oil crisis of the seventies, while only most advanced building energy codes consider sufficiency \r\nmeasures (IEA 2013). Efficiency and renewable technologies and interventions are described in Sections 9.4 and 9.9. "


id: dc4f8e7e73591663d494ea8df5d8a1ba
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36033
content:
"A systematic categorisation of policy interventions in the building sector through the SER framework (Box 9.1, Figure 1) enables \r\nidentification of the policy areas and instruments to consider for the decarbonisation of the building stock, their overlaps as well as \r\ntheir complementarities. It also shows that sufficiency policies go beyond energy and climate policies to include land-use and urban \r\nplanning policies as well as consumer policies suggesting a need for a different governance including local authorities and a bottom\u0002up approach driven by citizen engagement. "


id: 1ce3c421b3d3ed36fe93f3ddf383dc6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2262
content:
"The four novelties introduced in this assessment link the building \r\nsector to other sectors and call for more sectoral coupling when \r\ndesigning mitigation solutions. Guidelines and methodologies \r\ndeveloped in Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are adopted in this chapter. \r\nDetailed analysis in building GHG emissions is discussed based on \r\nChapter 2 and scenarios to assess future emissions and mitigation \r\npotentials were selected based on Chapters, 3 and 4. There are \r\ntight linkages between this chapter and Chapter 6, 7, 8, 10 and 11, \r\nwhich are sectoral sectors. This chapter focusses more on individual \r\nbuildings and building clusters, while Chapter  8 discusses macro \r\ntopics in urban areas. Findings of this chapter provides contribution \r\nto cross-sectoral prospection (Chapter  12), policies (Chapter  13), \r\ninternational cooperation (Chapter  14), investment and finance \r\n(Chapter 15), innovation (Chapter 16), and sustainable development \r\n(Chapter 17)."


id: e2766b64bb289a87ee9ed45ec89f77b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37140
content:
"Compared to AR5, this assessment introduces four novelties (i) the \r\nscope of CO2 emissions has been extended from direct and indirect \r\nemissions considered in AR5 to include embodied emissions, (ii) beyond \r\ntechnological efficiency measures to mitigate GHG emissions in \r\nbuildings, the contribution of non-technological, in particular of \r\nsufficiency measures to climate mitigation is also considered, \r\n(iii) compared to the IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5degC \r\n(SR1.5), the link to sustainable development, well-being and decent \r\nliving standard for all has been further developed and strengthened, \r\nand finally (iv) the active role of buildings in the energy system by \r\nmaking passive consumers prosumers is also assessed."


id: fed8387d6bd7d37e3e438b99cda68fa3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42233
content:
"This section mainly details the boundaries of the building sector; \r\nmitigation potentials are evaluated in the following sections."


id: 60bc1b0e56dced7408399acd6189853c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14313
content:
"Building types and their composition affect the energy consumption for \r\nbuilding operation as well as the GHG emissions (Hachem-Vermette \r\nand Singh 2019). They also influence the energy cost (MacNaughton \r\net al. 2015) therefore, an identification of building type is required to \r\nunderstand the heterogeneity of this sector. Buildings are classified \r\nas residential and non-residential buildings. Residential buildings can \r\nbe classified as slums, single-family house and multi-family house or \r\napartment/flats building. Single-family house can be divided between \r\nsingle-family detached (including cottages, house barns, etc.) and "


id: fe7ed80ba90e348feef55597bf7f79d3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42146
content:
"steel). Iron, steel and concrete were the most important materials \r\nof the nineteenth century (Wright 2000; De Villanueva Dominguez \r\n2005). In that context, prefabricated buildings (prefabrication also \r\nknown as pre-assembly or modularisation) appeared within the \r\nso-called off-site construction. Prefabrication has come to mean \r\na method of construction whereby building elements and materials, \r\nranging in size from a single component to a complete building, \r\nare manufactured at a  distance from the final building location. \r\nPrefabricated buildings have been developed rapidly since the \r\nSecond World War and are widely used all over the world (Pons \r\n2014; Moradibistouni et al. 2018)."


id: b85c8013c5c442a126b65dd8662b3d3b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29649
content:
"single-family attached (or terrace house, small multi-family, etc.). \r\nAnother classification is per ownership: owner-occupiers, landlords, \r\nand owners' association/condominiums. "


id: 8e04647175709a22b6cb636f36a25182
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22179
content:
"Non-residential buildings have a  much broader use. They include \r\ncultural buildings (which include theatres and performance, \r\nmuseums and exhibits, libraries, and cultural centres), educational \r\nbuildings (kindergarten, schools, higher education, research centre, \r\nand laboratories), sports (recreation and training, and stadiums), \r\nhealthcare buildings (health, well-being, and veterinary), hospitality \r\n(hotel, casino, lodging, nightlife buildings, and restaurants and bars), \r\ncommercial buildings and offices (institutional buildings, markets, \r\noffice buildings, retail, and shopping centres), public buildings \r\n(government buildings, security, and military buildings), religious \r\nbuildings (including worship and burial buildings), and industrial \r\nbuildings (factories, energy plants, warehouses, data centres, \r\ntransportation buildings, and agricultural buildings)."


id: 32a272edf41d4b3bdb5c5a7b779e4117
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6169
content:
"Recently, advances in technology have produced new expectations \r\nin terms of design possibilities. In that context, 3D printing seems \r\nto have arrived. 3D printing may allow in the future to build faster, \r\ncheaper and more sustainable (Agusti-Juan et  al. 2017; Garcia \r\nde Soto et  al. 2018). At the same time, it might introduce new \r\naesthetics, new materials, and complex shapes that will be printed \r\nat the click of a mouse on our computers. Although 3D printing will \r\nnot replace architectural construction, it would allow optimisation \r\nof various production and assembly processes by introducing new \r\nsustainable construction processes and tools (De Schutter et  al. \r\n2018). Nevertheless, what is clear is that 3D printing is a technology \r\nstill in development, with a lot of potentials and that it is advancing \r\nquite quickly (Hager et al. 2016; Stute et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2020). "


id: e6b93581cc4af35d23613bbb3331a38d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37891
content:
"An understanding of the methods for assembling various materials, \r\nelements, and components is necessary during both the design and \r\nthe construction phase of a  building. A building can be broadly \r\ndivided into parts: the substructure which is the underlying structure \r\nforming the foundation of a building, and the superstructure, which is \r\nthe vertical extension of a building above the foundation."


id: 550858387a8b997ecebe20704edfa66a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12232
content:
"There is not a  global classification for the building components. \r\nNevertheless, Figure  9.1 tries to summarise the building \r\ncomponents found in literature (Mana Reixach 2000; Asbjorn 2009; \r\nChing 2014). The buildings are divided in the substructure and the \r\nsuperstructure. The substructure is the foundation of the building, \r\nwhere the footing, basement, and plinth are found. The superstructure \r\nintegrates the primary elements (heavyweight walls, columns, floors \r\nand ceilings, roofs, sills and lintels, and stairs), the supplementary \r\ncomponents (lightweight walls and curtain walls), the completion \r\ncomponents (doors and windows), the finishing work (plastering and \r\npainting), and the buildings services (detailed in Section 9.3)."


id: 508508316dfe59fcd91aba3d13e612ea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11439
content:
"Building services make buildings more comfortable, functional, \r\nefficient, and safe. In a  generic point of view, building services \r\ninclude shelter, nutrition, sanitation, thermal, visual, and acoustic \r\ncomfort, entertainment, communications, elevators, and illumination. \r\nIn a more holistic view building services are classified as shown in \r\nFigure 9.2. "


id: d99218e6dc9d8620445b05cdfb0178bb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35577
content:
"A building management system is a  system of devices configured \r\nto control, monitor, and manage equipment in or around a building \r\nor building area and is meant to optimise building operations and \r\nreduce cost (Schuster et al. 2019). Recent developments include the \r\nintegration of the system with the renewable energy systems (Arnone \r\net al. 2016), most improved and effective user interface (Rabe et al. \r\n2018), control systems based on artificial intelligence and internet of \r\nthings (IoT) (Farzaneh et al. 2021)."


id: f654f5c8b81123a07e82d55f745393e7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40706
content:
"The use of air conditioning systems in buildings will increase with \r\nthe experienced rise in temperature (Davis and Gertler 2015; \r\nDe Falco et al. 2016) (Figure 9.8). This can ultimately lead to high \r\nenergy consumption rates. Therefore, adoption of energy efficient \r\nair conditioning is pertinent to balance the provision of comfortable \r\nindoor conditions and energy consumption. Some of the new \r\ndevelopments that have been done include ice refrigeration (Xu et al. \r\n2017), the use of solar photovoltaic power in the air conditioning \r\nprocess (Burnett et al. 2014), and use of common thermal storage \r\ntechnologies (De Falco et al. 2016) all of which are geared towards \r\nminimising energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. "


id: b0635f070d65f099a95bc929b69a5b1a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28268
content:
"Lambertz et al. (2019) stated that when evaluating the environmental \r\nimpact of buildings, building services are only considered in a very \r\nsimplified way. Moreover, it also highlights that the increasing use \r\nof new technologies such as Building Information Modelling (BIM) \r\nallows for a much more efficient and easier calculation process for \r\nbuilding services, thus enabling the use of more robust and complete \r\nmodels. Furthermore, recent studies on building services related to \r\nclimate change (Verez and Cabeza 2021) highlight the importance of \r\nembodied energy (Parkin et al. 2019) (Section 9.4)."


id: bd9d00345c40cbef4af7feee772bb1d0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30619
content:
"Building designs have to consider provision of adequate ventilation. \r\nNatural ventilation reduces energy consumption in buildings in warm \r\nclimates compared to air conditioning systems (Taleb 2015; Azmi \r\net al. 2017). Enhanced ventilation has higher benefits to the public \r\nhealth than the economic costs involved (MacNaughton et al. 2015). "


id: 97df404f2dcbde4dca67ce20261e81d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23932
content:
"On the refrigeration systems, the recent developments include the \r\nuse of solar thermoelectric cooling technologies as an energy efficient \r\nmeasure (Liu et  al. 2015b); use of nanoparticles for energy  saving \r\n(Azmi et al. 2017) to mention some. "


id: b11b6d2dcbaf6e5cf2d06a0ef7c1fdeb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28385
content:
"Future emissions were assessed using four global scenarios and their \r\nrespective baselines (Box  9.2). The selection of the scenarios was \r\nbased on the features of each scenario, the geographic scope, and \r\nthe data availability to analyse future building emissions based on \r\nthe SER framework (Box 9.1)."


id: ee86b3ef387ec3b93e40b775f0de01bb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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vector_id: 39341
content:
"Eastern Asia\r\nAustraliaJapan and New Zealand\r\nAfrica\r\nb) Historical scenarios\r\nFigure 9.3 | Building GHG emissions: historical based on IEA data and future emissions based on two IEA scenarios (sustainable development, and net \r\nzero emissions), IMAGE Lifestyle-Renewable scenario and Resource Efficiency and Climate Change-Low Energy Demand scenario (RECC-LED)."


id: 61394059791a19a2873d792c403b9116
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14405
content:
"Three out of the four scenarios selected, and their related baselines, are based on top-down modelling and were submitted to AR6 \r\nscenario database, which includes in total 931 scenarios with a building module (Annex III; see also Boxes 3.1 and 3.2, and Cross\u0002Chapter Box 3 in Chapter 3). A fourth scenario, not included in AR6 scenario database, and based on a bottom-up modelling approach \r\nwas added. "


id: 7a6a60a8bef743a137361458541f12b4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18731
content:
"The main features of these scenarios are shortly described below while the underlying modelling approaches are described in Annex III. \r\nEach scenario is assessed compared to its baseline scenario: "


id: 228be010e3ffd4915edb73ebcd71c2ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3293
content:
"2021 Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario (NZE) is a normative scenario, which sets out a narrow but achievable pathway for \r\nthe global energy sector to achieve net zero CO2 emissions by 2050 (IEA 2021a)."


id: 1341c8f17f42a2e986ad7075af5622b6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 602
content:
"2020 Sustainable Development Scenario (SDS), which integrates the impact of COVID-19 on health outcomes and economies. It is \r\nalso a normative scenario, working backwards from climate, clean air, and energy access goals. SDS examines what actions would be \r\nnecessary to achieve these goals. The near-term detail is drawn from the IEA Sustainable Recovery Plan, which boosts economies and \r\nemployment while building cleaner and more resilient energy systems (IEA 2020c). "


id: 6d3e2ac05fd6e53a445d7a0182028f25
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16497
content:
"Analysis of the IEA scenarios above was conducted compared to the 2019 Current Policies Scenario, which shows what happens if the \r\nworld continues along its present path (IEA 2020c), and considered as a baseline scenario. "


id: 6cd09c36ff0bbbf35800477a65d8cd71
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16422
content:
"IMAGE-Lifestyle-Renewable (LiRE) scenario is based on an updated version of the SSP2 baseline, while also meeting the RCP2.6 \r\nradiative forcing target using carbon prices, together with the increased adoption of additional lifestyle changes, by limiting the \r\ngrowth in the floor area per capita in Developed Countries as well as the use of appliances. Regarding energy supply, IMAGE-LiRE \r\nassumes increased electrification and increased share of renewable in the energy mix (Detlef Van Vuuren et al. 2021). "


id: 628cb43acee481d2581a10410c5d02a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14627
content:
"Resource Efficiency and Climate Change-Low Energy Demand (RECC-LED) scenario is produced by a global bottom-up model, \r\nwhich assesses contributions of resource efficiency to climate change mitigation. RECC-LED estimates the energy and material flows \r\nassociated with housing stock growth, driven by population and the floor area per  capita (Pauliuk et  al. 2021). This scenario is \r\ninformed by the Low Energy Demand Scenario (LED), which seeks convergence between developed and developing countries in the \r\naccess to decent living standard (Grubler et al. 2018). "


id: 5bda4de00574bdd7f015d32e9466684f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13420
content:
"For consistency between the four scenarios, aggregation of regions in this chapter differs from the one of the IPCC. Europe and Eurasia \r\nhave been grouped into one single region. "


id: b3b6cc93215179157e0c4831247242e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28863
content:
"The IEA-NZE scenario projects emissions from the global building \r\nstock to be lowered to 29 MtCO2 by 2050 against 1.7 GtCO2 in the \r\nIEA-SDS and 3.7 GtCO2 in IMAGE-LiRE Scenario. These projections \r\ncan be compared to IEA-CPS in which global emissions from buildings \r\nwere projected to be at 13.5 GtCO2 in 2050, which is equivalent to \r\nthe 2018 emissions level (Figure 9.3a). By 2050, direct emissions from \r\nresidential buildings are projected to be lowered to 108 MtCO2 in the \r\nIEA-NZE, this is four times less than the projected direct emissions in \r\nRECC-LED scenario, six times less than those under the IEA-SDS and \r\neleven times less than those in the IMAGE-LiRE scenario. "


id: 40945a4e6a155777464cd183ee746164
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8552
content:
"In the IEA-NZE scenario, indirect emissions are projected to be below \r\nzero by 2050 for both residential and non-residential buildings, \r\nwhile residual indirect emissions from residential buildings are \r\nprojected to be 125 MtCO2 in RECC-LED, 634 MtCO2 in IEA-SDS, and \r\n842 GtCO2 in IMAGE-LiRE. Residual indirect emissions from non\u0002residential buildings are projected to be at 1.7 GtCO2 in IEA SDS and \r\ndouble of this in IMAGE-LiRE scenario (Figure 9.3a). Compared to \r\nIEA-SDS, the highest decrease of emissions in IEA-NZE is expected \r\nto occur after 2030. Direct emissions from residential buildings \r\nin IEA-NZE are projected to be, by 2030, at 1.37 GtCO2, against \r\n1.7 GtCO2 in the three other scenarios. The highest cut in emissions \r\nin IEA-NZE and in IMAGE-LiRE occur through the decarbonisation \r\nof energy supply. "


id: eb9040bffbc895a63f8167f19a369d43
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38812
content:
"Emissions per  capita from residential buildings at a  global level \r\nreached 0.85 tCO2 per person in 2019. The four scenarios assessed \r\nproject a  decrease of the global per  capita emissions by 2050, \r\nranging from 0 tCO2 in IEA-NZE 0.21 tCO2 per  person in IMAGE\u0002LiRE, a 75% lower than those of 2019 (Figure 9.4a). There are great "


id: ca1179a3a447782b5d6325fa6de87790
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32878
content:
"differences in the projected per capita emissions under each scenario \r\ndifferent scenarios across the regions (Figure  9.4b). Compared to \r\nIEA-SDS and IMAGE-LiRE scenarios, RECC-LED projects the lowest \r\nemissions per capita in all regions by 2050. Emissions per capita in \r\nEurope and Eurasia are projected to be the highest in all scenarios by \r\n2050, ranging from 0.26 tCO2 in RECC-LED and 0.31 tCO2 in IEA-SDS \r\nto 0.65 tCO2 in IMAGE-LiRE."


id: 3fb7bed7bda41fb409d60af22067d4e4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8403
content:
"Building specific drivers of GHG emissions in the four scenarios \r\ndescribed above are assessed using an index decomposition analysis \r\nwith building specific identities and reflecting the three pillars of \r\nthe Sufficiency, Efficiency, Renewables (SER) framework. Broad \r\ndrivers of GHG emissions such as GDP and population are analysed \r\nusing a Kaya decomposition in Chapter 2. Previous decompositions \r\nanalysing drivers of global GHG emissions in the building sector have \r\neither assessed only the impact of GDP and population as drivers of \r\nGHG emissions (Lamb et al. 2021) or the impact of building specific \r\ndrivers on energy demand and not on CO2 emissions (Lucon et al. \r\n2014; Urge-Vorsatz et al. 2015; IEA 2020c; ODYSSEE 2020). For this \r\nassessment, the decomposition was conducted for energy-related \r\nCO2 emissions for residential buildings only, due to lack of data for \r\nnon-residential buildings. "


id: 5ce94bfb91c4f9fdac4e2a8cc9e5b360
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13611
content:
"The attribution of changes in emissions in the use phase to changes \r\nin the drivers of population, sufficiency, efficiency, and carbon \r\nintensity of energy supply is calculated using additive log-mean \r\ndivisia index decomposition analysis (Ang and Zhang 2000). The "


id: 41f0cf230f66b6137e03428be3d828b2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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vector_id: 8793
content:
"b)\r\nAfrica\r\n44%\r\n149%\r\n0%\r\n0%\r\n102%\r\n29%\r\n0%\r\n750\r\n1000\r\n^ ^ ^\r\n^\r\n^\r\n^\r\nAustralia, Japan and New Zealand\r\n55%\r\n2%\r\n38%\r\n0% 14%\r\n400\r\n600\r\n^\r\n^\r\nFigure 9.5 | Decompositions of changes in historical residential energy emissions 1990-2019, changes in emissions projected by baseline scenarios for \r\n2020-2050, and differences between scenarios in 2050 using scenarios from three models: IEA, IMAGE, and RECC. RECC-LED data include only space \r\nheating and cooling and water heating in residential buildings (a) global resolution, and (b) for nine world regions."


id: e5c25074e883b54dcd314cdfd87419f8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37729
content:
"Countries, the highest untapped sufficiency potential occurred in \r\nAsia-Pacific Developed region. Middle East is the only region where \r\nefficiency potential remained untapped (Figure 9.5b)."


id: 503f8cc1864b312a24a90169f1930d23
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11402
content:
"for 52% and increasing carbon intensity of the global energy mix \r\naccounted for 16%. Efficiency improvement contributed to decreasing \r\nglobal emissions from residential buildings by 49% (Figure 9.5a). The \r\nsufficiency potential was untapped in all regions over the same period \r\nwhile the decarbonisation of the supply was untapped in developing \r\ncountries and to some extent in Asia-Pacific Developed. The highest \r\nuntapped sufficiency and supply decarbonisation potentials occurred \r\nin Southern Asia where the lack of sufficiency measures has led to \r\nincreasing emissions by 185% and the high carbon intensity of the \r\nenergy mix has led to increasing emissions by 340%. In Developed "


id: 4d574e9acbf5b9761ba1aa3f30ec664d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10886
content:
"Scenarios assessed show an increase of the untapped sufficiency \r\npotential at the global level over the period 2020-2050. The highest \r\nuntapped sufficiency potential occurs in IEA scenarios as there are \r\nno changes in the floor area per  capita across different scenarios. \r\nThe lack of sufficiency measures in current policies will contribute to \r\nincreasing emissions by 54%, offsetting the efficiency improvement "


id: bf72f2cae1d5ce8d4cb5028ebe87b585
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30946
content:
"equally across regions and three out of the four scenarios assessed \r\ndo not assume a convergence, by 2050, in the floor area per capita, \r\nbetween developed and developing countries. Only RECC-LED \r\nimplements some convergence between Developed Countries and \r\nemerging economies to a range of 20-40 m2 per capita. IEA scenarios \r\nassume a growth in the floor area per capita in all regions with the \r\nhighest growth in Developed Countries, up to 72 m2 per capita in \r\nNorth America from 66 m2 per capita in 2019. IMAGE-LiRE projects \r\na floor area per capita in Africa at 14 m2 per person. This is lower than \r\nthe one of 2019, which was at 16 m2 per capita (Figure 9.6). Beyond \r\ncapturing the sufficiency potential by limiting the growth in the floor \r\narea per capita in Developed Countries while ensuring decent living \r\nstandard, the acceptability of the global scenarios by developing \r\ncountries is getting attraction in academia (Hickel et al. 2021). "


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vector_id: 2753
content:
"Global final energy demand from buildings reached 128.8 EJ in 2019, \r\nequivalent to 31% of global final energy demand. The same year, \r\nresidential buildings consumed 70% out of global final energy demand \r\nfrom buildings. Over the period 1990-2019, global final energy \r\ndemand from buildings grew by 38%, with 54% increase in non\u0002residential buildings and 32% increase in residential ones. At regional \r\nlevel, the highest increase of final energy demand occurred in Middle \r\nEast and Africa in residential buildings and in all South-East Asia and \r\nPacific in non-residential ones. By 2050, global final energy demand \r\nfrom buildings is projected to be at 86 EJ in IEA-NZE, 111 EJ in IEA-SDS \r\nand 138 EJ in IMAGE-LiRE. RECC-LED projects the lowest global final \r\nenergy demand, at 15.7 EJ by 2050, but this refers to water heating, \r\nspace heating and cooling in residential buildings only (Figure 9.7a)."


id: 5d9d078ad22d842df12e79abcaac6ee1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13763
content:
"There is a growing literature on the decarbonisation of end-use sectors \r\nwhile providing decent living standard for all (Rao and Pachauri 2017; \r\nGrubler et al. 2018; Rao and Min 2018; Rao et al. 2019; Millward\u0002Hopkins et  al. 2020). The floor area per  capita is among the gaps \r\nidentified in the convergence between developed and developing \r\ncountries in the access to decent living (Kikstra et  al. 2021) while \r\nmeeting energy needs. In the Low Energy Demand (LED) scenario, \r\n30 m2 per capita is the converging figure assumed by 2050 (Grubler \r\net al. 2018) while in the Decent Living with minimum Energy (DLE) \r\nscenario, (Millward-Hopkins et al. 2020) assumes 15 m2 per capita."


id: 79b15782390a526fe22bb991e1b26d33
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18613
content:
"Overall, the global residential building stock grew by almost 30% \r\nbetween 2005 and 2019. However, this growth was not distributed "


id: 6393d1248b9fe63b54eab22f4c14a5f6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14810
content:
"use of gas grew by 75% in residential buildings and by 46% in non\u0002residential ones. By 2050, RECC-LED projects electricity to contribute \r\nby 71% to final energy demand in residential buildings, against 62% \r\nin IEA-NZE and 59% in IMAGE-LiRE. IEA-NZE is the only scenario to \r\nproject less than 1% of gas use by 2050 in residential buildings while \r\nthe contribution of electricity to energy demand of non-residential \r\nbuildings is above 60% in all scenarios. At regional level, the use of \r\ncoal in buildings is projected to disappear while the use of electricity \r\nis projected to be above 50% in all regions by 2050 (Figure 9.7b). "


id: beaef75d6e437c15931c86a29e7b68c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30814
content:
"Over the period 1990-2019, the use of coal decreased at a global \r\nlevel by 59% in residential buildings and 52% in non-residential \r\nones. Solar thermal experienced the highest increase, followed by \r\ngeothermal  and electricity. However, by 2019, solar thermal and \r\ngeothermal contributed by only 1% each to global final energy \r\ndemand, while electricity contributed by 51% in non-residential \r\nbuildings and 26% in residential ones. The same year, gas contributed \r\nby 26% to non-residential final energy demand and 22% to residential \r\nfinal energy demand, which makes gas the second energy carrier \r\nused in buildings after electricity. Over the period 1990-2019, the "


id: 9260d60ea7628fb84c8f159b9832d8dd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22974
content:
"(Dixon et al. 2015; Van de Ven et al. 2019; IEA 2019a; Taylor et al. \r\n2020). According to (Hanna et al. 2016) policies failed in improving \r\nthe use of biomass. Over the period 1990-2019, the traditional \r\nuse of biomass decreased by 1% and all scenarios assessed do not \r\nproject any traditional use of biomass by 2050. Biomass is also used \r\nfor the construction of buildings, leading to low embodied emissions \r\ncompared to concrete (Heeren et al. 2015; Hart and Pomponi 2020; \r\nPauliuk et al. 2021). "


id: 82574412ee942dc625e4e1b627c7e760
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20058
content:
"Over the period 1990-2019, space heating was the dominant end-use \r\nin residential buildings at a global level, followed by water heating, \r\ncooking, and connected and small appliances (Figure 9.8a). However, \r\nenergy demand from connected and small appliances experienced \r\nthe highest increase, 280%, followed by cooking, 89%, cooling, 75%, \r\nwater heating, 73% and space heating, around 10%. Space heating \r\nenergy demand is projected to decline over the period 2020-2050 \r\nin all scenarios assessed. RECC-LED projects the highest decrease, \r\n77%, of space heating energy demand, against 68% decrease in the \r\nIEA-NZE. IMAGE-LiRE projects the lowest decrease of heating energy \r\ndemand, 21%. To the contrary, all scenarios confirm cooling as \r\na strong emerging trend (Box 9.3) and project an increase of cooling \r\nenergy demand. IMAGE-LiRE projects the highest increase, 143% \r\nagainst 45% in the IEA-NZE while RECC-LED projects the lowest \r\nincrease of cooling energy demand, 32%."


id: 86071e653d8a71b039b6e2f26ae1b250
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20722
content:
"In Developed Countries, biomass is used for generating heat and \r\npower leading to reduction of indirect emissions from buildings \r\n(Ortwein 2016) (IEA et al. 2020 c). However, according to (IEA 2019b) \r\ndespite the mitigation potential of biomass, if the wood is available \r\nlocally, its use remains low in Developed Countries. Biomass is \r\nalso used for efficient cook stoves and for heating using modern \r\nappliances such as pellet-fed central heating boilers. In developing \r\ncountries, traditional use of biomass is characterised by low efficiency \r\nof combustion (due to low temperatures) leading to high levels of \r\npollutants and CO output, as well as low efficiency of heat transfer. \r\nThe traditional use of biomass is associated with public health risks \r\nsuch as premature deaths related to inhaling fumes from cooking "


id: d62fed4b18a5c25994825b1ebed4c95
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35000
content:
"There are great differences in the contribution of each end-use to the \r\nregional energy demand (Figure 9.8b). In 2019, more than 50% of \r\nresidential energy demand in Europe and Eurasia was used for space \r\nheating while there was no demand for space heating in Middle East, \r\nreflecting differences in climatic conditions. To the contrary, the share \r\nof energy demand from cooking out of total represented 53% in the "


id: 5166479a290e1c9f54ff37a009779085
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11597
content:
"Middle East against 5% in Europe and Eurasia reflecting societal \r\norganisations. The highest contribution of energy demand from \r\nconnected and small appliances to the regional energy demand was \r\nobserved in 2019 in the Asia-Pacific Developed, 24%, followed by the \r\nregion of Southern Asia, South-East Asia and Developing Pacific, with \r\n17%. Energy demand from cooling was at 9% out of total energy \r\ndemand of Southern Asia, South-East Asia and Developing Pacific \r\nand at 8% in both Middle East and North America while it was at \r\n1% in Europe in 2019. "


id: 92ebee1081ad891362239abd988fc99f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23059
content:
"all regions driven by increased wealth and the increased ambient \r\ntemperatures due to global warming (Cayla et al. 2011; Liddle and \r\nHuntington 2021) (Box 9.3). The highest increase, 32%, in ownership \r\nof room air-conditioners was observed in Southern Asia and South\u0002East Asia and Developing Pacific while Europe, Latin America and \r\nCaribbean countries, Eastern Asia and Africa experienced an increase \r\nof 21% in households' ownership of room air-conditioners. The \r\nlowest increases in room air-conditioners ownership were observed \r\nin the Middle East and North America with 1% and 8% each as these \r\ntwo markets are almost saturated. All scenarios assessed project an \r\nincrease of ownership of cooling appliances in all regions over the \r\nperiod 2020-2050. "


id: 6eba67553dbb9728b856fcca60dd892a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16745
content:
"appliances all over the world. The highest increase in ownership of \r\nconnected appliances, 403%, was observed in Eastern Asia and the \r\nlowest increase in ownership of connected appliances was observed \r\nin North America, 94%. Future energy demand is expected to occur \r\nin the developing world given the projected rate of penetration of \r\nhousehold appliances and devices (Wolfram et al. 2012). However, \r\n(Grubler et al. 2018) projects a lower energy demand from connected \r\nand small appliances by assuming an increase of shared appliances \r\nand multiple appliances and equipment will be integrated into units \r\ndelivering multiple services."


id: dbef172902d1a2556f4f8d5809c3764a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35979
content:
"Energy demand from connected and small appliances was, at a global \r\nlevel, above 7 EJ in 2019 (Figure  9.8a). However, it is likely that \r\nglobal energy demand from connected and small appliances is much \r\nhigher as reported data do not include all the connected and small \r\nappliances used by households and does not capture energy demand \r\nfrom data centres (Box 9.3). Over the period 1990-2019, the highest \r\nincrease of energy demand from connected and small appliances, \r\n4740%, was observed in Eastern Asia, followed by Southern Asia, \r\n1358% while the lowest increase, 99%, occurred in Asia-Pacific \r\nDeveloped countries. The increase of energy demand from connected \r\nand small appliances is driven by the ownership increase of such "


id: 3dd65e9294631091bcaf12ba9618a1c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8047
content:
"Energy demand from digitalisation occurs in data centres, which are dedicated buildings or part of buildings for accommodating \r\nlarge amount of information technologies equipment such as servers, data storage and communication devices, and network devices. \r\nData centres are responsible for about 2% of global electricity consumption (Avgerinou et al. 2017; Diguet and Lopez 2019). Energy \r\ndemand from data centres arises from the densely packed configuration of information technologies, which is up to 100 times higher \r\nthan a standard office accommodation (Chu and Wang 2019). Chillers combined with air handling units are usually used to provide \r\ncooling in data centres. Given the high cooling demand of data centres, some additional cooling strategies, such as free cooling, \r\nliquid cooling, low-grade waste heat recovery, absorption cooling and so on, have been adopted. In addition, heat recovery can"


id: 55e4918f1f2d628f1036a74a86a4c78c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12382
content:
"provide useful heat for industrial and building applications. More recently, data centres are being investigated as a potential resource \r\nfor demand response and load balancing (Zheng et al. 2020; Koronen et al. 2020). Supplying data centres with renewable energy \r\nsources is increasing (Cook et al. 2014) and is expected to continue to increase (Koomey et al. 2011). Estimates of energy demand from \r\ndigitalisation (connected and small appliances, data centres, and data networks) combined vary from 5% to 12% of global electricity \r\nuse (Gelenbe and Caseau 2015; Malmodin and Lunden 2018; Ferreboeuf 2019; Diguet and Lopez 2019). According to (Ferreboeuf \r\n2019) the annual increase of energy demand from digitalisation could be limited to 1.5% against the current 4% if sufficiency \r\nmeasures are adopted along the value chain. "


id: 7549f810fb7b474a7e9b44020c0c945d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17866
content:
"of whole buildings. Several technologies are listed as being able to \r\nachieve significant performance improvements and cost potentials \r\n(daylighting and electric lighting, household appliances, insulation \r\nmaterials, heat pumps, indirect evaporative cooling, advances in \r\ndigital building automation and control systems, and smart meters \r\nand grids to implement renewable electricity sources)."


id: bcf061ffecbc8519db87327614e8302d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30484
content:
"Literature in this topic is extensive, but unfortunately, most studies \r\nand reviews do not relate themselves to climate change mitigation, \r\ntherefore there is a clear gap in reporting the mitigation potential \r\nof the different technologies (Cabeza et  al. 2020). It should be \r\nhighlighted that when assessing the literature, it is clear that a lot \r\nof new research is focused on the improvement of control systems, \r\nincluding the use of artificial intelligence or internet of things (IoT)."


id: 704b9a4e319c02886c5000003a8311a1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17014
content:
"This section is organised as follow. First, the key points from AR5 \r\nand special reports are summarised, following with a  summary of \r\nthe technological developments since AR5, specially focusing on \r\nresidential buildings."


id: 1017040d4cb6ed5c141b5bdc9b3421d6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16
content:
"As building energy demand is decreased the importance of \r\nembodied energy and embodied carbon in building materials \r\nincreases (Urge-Vorsatz et  al. 2020). Buildings are recognised as \r\nbuilt following five building frames: concrete, wood, masonry, steel, \r\nand composite frames (International Energy Agency 2019a); but \r\nother building frames  should be considered to include worldwide \r\nbuilding construction practice, such as rammed earth and bamboo in \r\nvernacular design (Cabeza et al. 2021)."


id: e83643c8560b687a77ad89d2da280964
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38183
content:
"The AR5 WG3 Chapter 9 on Buildings (Lucon et al. 2014) presents \r\nmitigation technology options and practices to achieve large \r\nreductions in building energy use as well as a synthesis of documented \r\nexamples of large reductions in energy use achieved in real, new, and \r\nretrofitted buildings in a variety of different climates and examples \r\nof costs at building level. A key point highlighted is the fact that the \r\nconventional process of designing and constructing buildings and \r\nits systems is largely linear, losing opportunities for the optimisation "


id: 77f58b5052b076aa305223322e22d38d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18309
content:
"The most prominent materials used following these frames \r\nclassifications are the following. Concrete, a  man-made material, \r\nis the most widely used building material. Wood has been used for \r\nmany centuries for the construction of buildings and other structures \r\nin the built environment; and it remains as an important construction \r\nmaterial today. Steel is the strongest building material; it is mainly "


id: 4aabac65f019e4abd06930936ca11c38
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10379
content:
"used in industrial facilities and in buildings with big glass envelopes. \r\nMasonry is a  heterogeneous material using bricks, blocks, and \r\nothers, including the traditional stone. Composite structures are \r\nthose involving multiple dissimilar materials. Bamboo is a traditional \r\nbuilding material throughout the world tropical and sub-tropical \r\nregions. Rammed earth can be considered to be included in masonry \r\nconstruction, but it is a  structure very much used in developing \r\ncountries and it is finding new interest in developed ones (Cabeza \r\net al. 2021)."


id: f8083c6976fad5232c50dea5e63947a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41010
content:
"!\"!!\"#\r\n$ = %&' x )%&\r\n'\r\n%&' x *+()*)%&\r\n' x *+&+'!\r\n*+()*\r\n= %&' x ,-.. x /.. x 012"


id: ee4bea0d058d022b392903047d025b9e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39292
content:
"Figure 9.10 (continued): Decompositions of changes in residential embodied emissions projected by baseline scenarios for 2020-2050, and differences \r\nbetween scenarios in 2050 using two scenarios from the RECC model. (a) Global resolution, and (b) for nine world regions. Emissions are decomposed based on \r\nchanges in driver variables of population, sufficiency (floor area of new construction per capita), material efficiency (material production per floor area), and renewables (GHG \r\nemissions per unit material production). 'Renewables' is a summary term describing changes in GHG intensity of energy supply. Emission projections to 2050, and differences \r\nbetween scenarios in 2050, demonstrate mitigation potentials from the dimensions of the SER framework realised in each model scenario."


id: ad8e59760d6556aa92dd2607e955dd63
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27776
content:
"Earth architecture is still limited to a niche (Morel and Charef 2019). \r\nSee also Cross-Chapter Box 9 in Chapter 13 for carbon dioxide removal \r\nand its role in mitigation strategies."


id: 340ce4ec582e53b9236ac1b952b7387b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6398
content:
"There are many technologies that can reduce energy use in buildings \r\n(Finnegan et  al. 2018; Kockat et  al. 2018a), and those have been \r\nextensively investigated. Other technologies that can contribute to \r\nachieving carbon zero buildings are less present in the literature. \r\nCommon technologies available to achieve zero energy buildings \r\nwere summarised in (Cabeza and Chafer 2020) and are presented in \r\nTables 9.SM.1 to 9.SM.3 in detail, where Figure 9.11 shows a summary."


id: 6cc9bbb8671bfefaf7721f86df678847
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16417
content:
"Electrical appliances have a  significant contribution to household \r\nelectricity consumption (Pothitou et  al. 2017). Ownership of \r\nappliances, the use of appliances, and the power demand of the \r\nappliances are key contributors to domestic electricity consumption \r\n(Jones et al. 2015). The drivers in energy use of appliances are the \r\nappliance type (e.g.,  refrigerators), number of households, number \r\nof appliances per  household, and energy used by each appliance \r\n(Chu and Bowman 2006; Cabeza et al. 2014; Spiliotopoulos 2019). \r\nAt the same time, household energy-related behaviours are also \r\na driver of energy use of appliances (Khosla et al. 2019) (Section 9.5). \r\nAlthough new technologies such as IoT linked to the appliances \r\nincrease flexibility to reduce peak loads and reduce energy demand "


id: df2c5f7fde53400cebfc91a8b0490a84
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36517
content:
"Other opportunities exist, such as building light-weighting or more \r\nefficient material production, use and disposal (Hertwich et  al. \r\n2020), fast-growing biomass sources such as hemp, straw or flax as \r\ninsulation in renovation processes (Pittau et al. 2019), bamboo-based \r\nconstruction systems as an alternative to conventional high-impact \r\nsystems in tropical and subtropical climates (Zea Escamilla et al. 2018). "


id: e1609d48d65fdcd460ddbfd504411f7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36916
content:
"But appliances are also a significant opportunity for energy efficiency \r\nimprovement. Research on energy efficiency of different appliances \r\nworldwide showed that this research focused in different time frames \r\nin different countries (Figure 9.12). This figure presents the number \r\nof occurrences of a term (the name of a studied appliance) appearing \r\nper year and per country, according to the references obtained from \r\na  Scopus search. The figure shows that most research carried out \r\nwas after 2010. And again, this figure shows that research is mostly \r\ncarried out for refrigerators and for brown appliances such as smart \r\nphones. Moreover, the research carried out worldwide is not only \r\ndevoted to technological aspects, but also to behavioural aspects \r\nand quality of service (such as digital television or smart phones)."


id: b961f9127579f124bb38280ed024ec9a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29829
content:
"(Kramer  et  al. 2020), trends show that appliances account for an \r\nincreasing amount of building energy consumption (Figure  9.8). \r\nAppliances used in Developed Countries consume electricity and \r\nnot fuels (fossil or renewable), which often have a  relatively high \r\ncarbon footprint. The rapid increase in appliance ownership (Cabeza \r\net al. 2018b) can affect the electricity grid. Moreover, energy intensity \r\nimprovement in appliances such as refrigerators, washing machines, \r\nTVs, and computers has counteracted the substantial increase \r\nin ownership and use since the year 2000 (International Energy \r\nAgency 2019b)."


id: 6e1ed0cf3382858ef1e2c3cf025e87d0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16635
content:
"On the other hand, a heritage building is a historical building which, for \r\ntheir immense value, is subject to legal preservation. The integration of \r\nrenewable energy systems in such buildings is more challenging than \r\nin other buildings. In the review carried out by Cabeza et al. (2018a) \r\ndifferent case studies are presented and discussed, where heat pumps, \r\nsolar energy and geothermal energy systems are integrated in such \r\nbuildings, after energy efficiency is considered."


id: c54c77a29623c35eceea928ed4f3b82c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32016
content:
"Lighting energy accounts for around 19% of global electricity \r\nconsumption (Attia et al. 2017; Enongene et al. 2017; Baloch et al. \r\n2018). Many studies have reported the correlation between the \r\ndecrease in energy consumption and the improvement of the energy \r\nefficiency of lighting appliances (Table 9.1). Today, the new standards \r\nrecommend the phase out of incandescent light bulbs, linear \r\nfluorescent lamps, and halogen lamps and their substitution by more \r\nefficient technologies such as compact fluorescent lighting (CFL) and \r\nlight-emitting diodes (LEDs) (Figure 9.8). Due to the complexity of \r\nthese systems, simulation tools are used for the design and study \r\nof such systems, which can be summarised in Baloch et al. (2018)."


id: 9b40e3773b852c5fcef4f2f505526411
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24560
content:
"Single-phase induction motors are extensively used in residential \r\nappliances and other building low-power applications. Conventional \r\nmotors work with fixed speed regime directly fed from the grid, giving \r\nunsatisfactory performance (low efficiency, poor power factor, and \r\npoor torque pulsation). Variable speed control techniques improve \r\nthe performance of such motors (Jannati et al. 2017)."


id: 42375cfcfc36c186ee4b3d89a36676c6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8850
content:
"Within the control strategies to improve energy efficiency in appliances, \r\nenergy monitoring for energy management has been extensively \r\nresearched. Abubakar et al. (2017) present a review of those methods. \r\nThe paper distinguishes between intrusive load monitoring (ILM), with \r\ndistributed sensing, and non-intrusive load monitoring (NILM), based \r\non a single point sensing."


id: 5863da29d78a11eca8c7a3bcad418434
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12803
content:
"Nearly zero energy (NZE) buildings or low-energy buildings are possible \r\nin all world relevant climate zones (Mata et al. 2020b; Urge-Vorsatz \r\net al. 2020) (Figure 9.13). Moreover, they are possible both for new \r\nand retrofitted buildings. Different envelope design and technologies \r\nare needed, depending on the climate and the building shape and \r\norientation. For example, using the Passive House standard an annual \r\nheating and cooling energy demand decrease between 75% and \r\n95% compared to conventional values can be achieved. Table 9.2 lists \r\nseveral exemplary low- and NZE-buildings with some of their feature."


id: f9fcfcc4cd53f74a828335683929fa58
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41346
content:
"Historical buildings, defined as those built before 1945, are usually \r\nlow-performance buildings by definition from the space heating point \r\nof view and represent almost 30-40% of the whole building stock \r\nin European countries (Cabeza et  al. 2018a). Historical buildings \r\noften contribute to townscape character, they create the urban \r\nspaces that are enjoyed by residents and attract tourist visitors. They \r\nmay be protected by law from alteration not only limited to their \r\nvisual appearance preservation, but also concerning materials and \r\nconstruction techniques to be integrated into original architectures. "


id: e4e7c6ec27904b5e01f7c3980139faa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37561
content:
"Table 9.2 | Selected exemplary low- and net zero- energy buildings worldwide. Sources: adapted from Morck (2017); Schnieders et al. (2020); Urge-Vorsatz et al. (2020)."


id: 1e1737e25b90583aa17e744326b5ad8f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2490
content:
"Income is positively correlated to energy demand (Cayla et al. 2011; \r\nSreekanth et al. 2011; Couture et al. 2012; Moura et al. 2015; Singh \r\net al. 2017; Yu 2017; Bissiri et al. 2019; Mata et al. 2021b). High-income \r\nhouseholds tend to use more efficient appliances and are likely to be \r\nmore educated and environmentally sensitive, but their higher living \r\nstandards require more energy (Harold et al. 2015; Hidalgo et al. 2018). \r\nLow-income households are in higher risk of fuel poverty (Section 9.8). "


id: d45ff7dbe2b94d3775feb83de404eb3f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34686
content:
"Non-technological (NT) measures are key for low-carbon buildings, \r\nbut still attract less attention than technological measures (Creutzig \r\net al. 2016, 2018; Ruparathna et al. 2016; Mundaca et al. 2019; Vence \r\nand Pereira 2019; Cabeza et al. 2020; Mata et al. 2021b). The section \r\nis set out to understand, over the building's lifecycle, NT determinants \r\nof buildings' energy demand and emissions (Section 9.5.1); to present \r\nNT climate mitigation actions (Section  9.5.2); then, to understand \r\nhow to get these actions implemented (Section 9.5.3). The latter is \r\na starting point in the design of policies (Section 9.9)."


id: 40563f6c9ca7e90433848cc439456332
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8517
content:
"Mixed effects are found for household size, age, gender, ethnicity, \r\neducation levels and tenancy status (Engvall et  al. 2014; Hansen \r\n2016; Levy and Belaid 2018; Arawomo 2019; Rafiee et  al. 2019). \r\nSingle-parent and elderly households consume more gas and \r\nelectricity, and gender has no significant effect (Brounen et al. 2012; \r\nHarold et al. 2015; Huang 2015). Similarly, larger families use less \r\nelectricity per capita (Bedir et al. 2013; Kavousian et al. 2013). Heating \r\nexpenditure tends to be higher for owners than for renters, despite \r\nthe formers tendency to have more efficient appliances (Gillingham \r\net al. 2012; Davis, 2012; Kavousian et al. 2015)."


id: 9f7ae443aeb9c1d25e519e9fbb5e8ca0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25275
content:
"Buildings climate impact includes CO2 emissions from operational \r\nenergy use, carbon footprint, PM2.5 concentrations and embodied \r\ncarbon, and is unequivocally driven by GDP, income, population, \r\nbuildings floor area, energy price, climate, behaviour, and social and \r\nphysical environment (Wolske et al. 2020; Mata et al. 2021d)."


id: eede9b84f14d7af13fc7a09854872916
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39397
content:
"Occupants presence and movement, interactions with the building, \r\ncomfort-driven adaptations and cultural practices determine energy \r\nconsumption (Hong et al. 2017; Yan et al. 2017; D'Oca et al. 2018; \r\nKhosla et al. 2019; Li et al. 2019; O'Brien et al. 2020). Households \r\nconsume more on weekends and public holidays, and households with \r\nemployed occupants consume less than self-employed occupants, \r\nprobably because some of the latter jobs are in-house (Harold et al. \r\n2015; Hidalgo et al. 2018). Understanding and accurate modelling of \r\noccupant behaviour is crucial to reduce the gap between design and \r\nenergy performance (Gunay et al. 2013; Yan et al. 2017), especially \r\nfor more efficient buildings, which rely on passive design features, \r\nhuman-centred technologies, and occupant engagement (Grove\u0002Smith et al. 2018; Pitts 2017). "


id: a4bb1c4a8de9e46d144c01e24885dfe1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26201
content:
"Outdoor temperature, heating and cooling degree days, sunshine \r\nhours, rainfall, humidity and wind are highly determinant of energy \r\ndemand (Tol et al. 2012; Rosenberg 2014; Harold et al. 2015; Risch and \r\nSalmon 2017; Lindberg et al. 2019). Density, compacity, and spatial \r\neffects define the surrounding environment and urban microclimate. \r\nUrban residents usually have a relatively affluent lifestyle, but use \r\nless energy for heating (Niu et al. 2012; Huang 2015; Rafiee et al. \r\n2019; Ayoub 2019; Oh and Kim 2019). Urbanisation is discussed \r\nin Chapter 8."


id: b09983e419ed358216ef78fdcde2fd95
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28301
content:
"Climate variability and extreme events may drastically increase peak \r\nand annual energy consumption (Hong et al. 2013; Cui et al. 2017; \r\nMashhoodi et al. 2019). Climate change effects on future demand and \r\nemissions, are discussed in Section 9.7, and effects of temperature on \r\nhealth and productivity, in Section 9.8."


id: f9d0e4ad35726dab8c7351d19e4c159b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41310
content:
"A range of NT actions can substantially reduce buildings energy \r\ndemand and emissions (Figure  9.14; see Supplementary Material \r\n9.SM.2 for details). The subsections below present insights on the \r\nvariations depending on the solution, subsector, and region."


id: 827e6792cf4b4f7219ebe57ec99c40ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20081
content:
"Building typology and floor area (or e.g., number of bedrooms or lot \r\nsize) are correlated to energy demand (Manzano-Agugliaro et al. 2015; \r\nMoura et al. 2015; Fosas et al. 2018; Morganti et al. 2019; Berrill et al. \r\n2021). Affluence is embedded in these variables as higher-income \r\nhouseholds have larger homes and lots. Residential consumption \r\nincreases with the number of occupants but consumption per capita \r\ndecreases proportionally to it (Serrano et al. 2017). Construction or \r\nrenovation year has a negative correlation as recently built buildings \r\nmust comply with increasingly strict standards (Brounen et al. 2012; \r\nKavousian et  al. 2015; Osterbring et  al. 2016). Only for electricity \r\nconsumption no significant correlation is observed to building age \r\n(Kavousian et  al. 2013). Material choices, bioclimatic and circular \r\ndesign discussed in Section 9.4.2."


id: b353e5c3b6d341b15b3373f0ed6d3db
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28793
content:
"Bioclimatic design and passive strategies for natural heating, cooling \r\nand lighting, can greatly reduce buildings' climate impact, and avoid \r\ncooling in developing countries (Bienvenido-Huertas et  al. 2021, \r\n2020; Amirifard et  al. 2019). Design can provide additional small \r\nsavings, for example, by placing refrigerator away from the oven, \r\nradiators or windows (Christidou et al. 2014). Passive management \r\nrefers to adjustments in human behaviour such as adapted clothing, \r\nallocation of activities in the rooms of the building to minimise the "


id: 7e9838ba89086d278ee68355d2d43a84
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19428
content:
"energy use (Klein et  al. 2012; Rafsanjani et  al. 2015) or manual \r\noperation of the building envelope (Rijal et  al. 2012; Volochovic \r\net  al. 2012). Quantitative modelling of such measures is most \r\ncommon for non-residential buildings, in which adaptive behaviours \r\nare affected by the office space distribution and interior design, \r\namount of occupants, visual comfort, outdoor view, and easy-to-use \r\ncontrol mechanisms (O'Brien and Gunay 2014; Talele et  al. 2018). \r\nSocio-demographic factors, personal characteristics and contextual \r\nfactors also influence occupant behaviour and their interactions with \r\nbuildings (D'Oca et al. 2018b; Hong et al. 2020). "


id: b212241a1191c0024a00ab361e77fcc6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28553
content:
"Adjustment in the set-point temperature in winter and summer results \r\nin savings between 5% and 25% (Ayoub et al. 2014; Christidou et al. \r\n2014; Taniguchi et al. 2016; Sun and Hong 2017). As introduced in \r\nSection 9.3, a series of recent works study a cap on the living area \r\n(Mata et  al. 2021a) or an increase in household size (Berrill et  al. \r\n2021). These studies are promising but of limited complexity in \r\nterms of rebounds, interactions with other measures, and business \r\nmodels, thus require further investigation. Professional assistance \r\nand training on these issues is limited (Maxwell et al. 2018)."


id: afa1888b743a858aec50eb65227c205e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28138
content:
"Active management refers to human control of building energy \r\nsystems. Efficient lighting practices can effectively reduce summer \r\npeak demand (Dixon et  al. 2015; Taniguchi et  al. 2016). On the \r\ncontrary, the application of the daylight-saving time in the US \r\nincreases up to 7% lighting consumption (Rakha et  al. 2018). \r\nEfficient cooking practices for cooking, appliance use (e.g.,  avoid \r\nstand-by regime, select eco-mode), or for hot water can save up \r\nto 25% (Peschiera and Taylor 2012; Teng et  al. 2012; Abrahamse \r\nand Steg 2013; Berezan et al. 2013; Hsiao et al. 2014; Dixon et al. \r\n2015; Reichert et al. 2016). High behavioural control is so far proven \r\ndifficult to achieve (Ayoub et al. 2014; Skold et al. 2018). Automated \r\ncontrols and technical measures to trigger occupant operations are \r\naddressed in Section 9.4."


id: b3d0f0037c4f0ef8a2105d84d6ccc051
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28880
content:
"Willingness to adopt is found for certain measures (full load to \r\nlaundry appliances, lid on while cooking, turning lights off, defer \r\nelectricity usage and HVAC systems, adjust set-point temperature by \r\n1degC) but not for others (appliances on standby, using more clothes, \r\navoid leaving the TV on while doing other things, defer ovens, ironing \r\nor heating systems, adjust set-point temperature by 3degC, move to \r\na  low energy house or smaller apartment) (Yohanis 2012; Brown \r\net  al. 2013; Li et  al. 2017; Skold et  al. 2018). A positive synergy \r\nwith digitalisation and smart home appliances is identified, driven \r\nby a  combination of comfort requirements and economic interest, \r\nconfirmed by a willingness to defer electricity usage in exchange for \r\ncost savings (Ferreira et al. 2018; Mata et al. 2020c)."


id: 855c3f3965128bb6da93b5d736ebb8dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20600
content:
"Cooperative efforts are necessary to improve buildings energy \r\nefficiency (Masuda and Claridge 2014; Kamilaris et  al. 2014; \r\nRuparathna et al. 2016). For instance, interdisciplinary understanding \r\nof organisational culture, occupant behaviour, and technology \r\nadoption is required to set up occupancy/operation best practises \r\n(Janda 2014). Similarly, close collaboration of all actors along the \r\nvalue chain can reduce by 50% emissions from concrete use (Habert \r\net al. 2020); such collaboration can be enhanced in a construction \r\nproject by transforming the project organisation and delivery contract \r\nto reduce costs and environmental impact (Hall and Bonanomi \r\n2021). Building commissioning helps to reduce energy consumption \r\nby streamlining the systems, but benefits may not persist. Energy \r\ncommunities are discussed later in the chapter. "


id: b46da11119d6f7b84650d53bf8c06ebd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28984
content:
"In a flexible behaviour, the desired level of service is the same, but \r\nit can be shifted over time, typically allowing automated control, \r\nfor the benefit of the electricity or district heating networks. There \r\nare substantial economic, technical, and behavioural benefits from \r\nimplementing flexibility measures (Mata et al. 2020c), with unknown \r\nsocial impacts."


id: 87c3e4ca0d276436e4ce1ad1444aa24f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21043
content:
"NT challenges include training and software costs (tailored learning \r\nprograms, learning-by-doing, human capital mobilisation), client and \r\nmarket demand (service specification, design and provision, market \r\nand financial analysis) and legal issues (volatile energy prices, meeting \r\nregulation); and partnership, governance and commercialisation. \r\nThese challenges are identified for Building Information Modelling \r\n(BIM) (Oduyemi et  al. 2017; Rahman and Ayer 2019), PV industry \r\n(Triana et al. 2018), smart living (Solaimani et al. 2015) or circular \r\neconomy (Vence and Pereira 2019). "


id: 75c55a07627384062538216a1d284abc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17950
content:
"Non-technological CSE solutions, based on the Regenerate, Share, \r\nOptimise, Loop, Virtualise, Exchange (ReSOLVE) framework (CE100 \r\n2016; ARUP 2018) include sharing, virtualising and exchanging. \r\nThese are less studied than circular materials, with notably less \r\ninvestigation of existing buildings and sharing solutions (Pomponi \r\nand Moncaster 2017; Hoibye and Sand 2018; Kyro 2020; European \r\nCommission 2020). "


id: f37e5faa7b9203998102e92831f1aede
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40216
content:
"Mixed effects are found for technical issues, attitudes, and values \r\n(Table 9.3). In spite of proven positive environmental attitudes and \r\nwillingness to adopt mitigation solutions, these are outweighed by \r\nfinancial aspects all over the world (Mata et  al. 2021b). Adopters \r\nin Developed Countries are more sensitive towards financial issues \r\nand comfort disruptions; whereas in other world regions techno\u0002economic concerns prevail. Private consumers seem ready to support \r\nstronger governmental action, whereas non-private interventions are \r\nhindered by constraints in budgets and profits, institutional barriers \r\nand complexities (Curtis et al. 2017; Zuhaib et al. 2017; Tsoka et al. \r\n2018; Kim et al. 2019)."


id: f74fc06e864ec1dc61706b7542f9513
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40890
content:
"A variety of interventions targeted to heterogeneous consumer \r\ngroups and decision makers is needed to fulfil their diverse needs \r\n(Zhang et al. 2012; Haines and Mitchell 2014; Gram-Hanssen 2014; \r\nMarshall et  al. 2015; Friege et  al. 2016; Hache et  al. 2017; Liang \r\net al. 2017; Ketchman et al. 2018; Soland et al. 2018). Policy reviews \r\nfor specific market segments and empirical studies investigating \r\ninvestment decisions would benefit from a multidisciplinary approach \r\nto energy consumption patterns and market maturity (Boyd 2016; \r\nHeiskanen and Matschoss 2017; Baumhof et al. 2018; Marzano et al. \r\n2018; Wilson et al. 2018). "


id: e51613425837a74017af43d017efa86b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37603
content:
"Table 9.3 | Reasons for Adoption of Climate Mitigation Solutions. The sign represents if the effect is positive (+) or negative (-), and the number of signs represents \r\nconfidence level (++, many references; +, few references) (Mata et al. 2021a)."


id: b2b0672c11fcda3f6af33fa4e10e1687
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28677
content:
"own-environmental values (Mortensen et  al. 2016; Heiskanen and \r\nMatschoss 2017; Ketchman et al. 2018). "


id: e697fc6410544b3a5e218332035b5e6f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37864
content:
"In North America and Europe, personal attitudes, values, and \r\nexisting information and support are the most and equally important \r\nreasons for improving the building envelope. Consumers have some \r\neconomic concerns and little technical concerns, the latter related to \r\nthe performance and maintenance of the installed solutions (Mata \r\net al. 2021a). In other world regions or climate zones the literature \r\nis limited."


id: a8e41f7756cd4188b9149032d5a3d472
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26924
content:
"Although consumers are willing to install distributed RES worldwide, \r\nand information has successfully supported their roll out, economic \r\nand governmental support is still necessary for their full deployment. \r\nTechnical issues remain for either very novel technologies or for \r\nthe integration of RES in the energy system (Urge-Vorsatz et  al. \r\n2020; Mata et al. 2021a). Capacities are to be built by coordinated \r\nactions by all stakeholders (Musonye et al. 2020). To this aim, energy \r\ncommunities and demonstrative interventions at local scale are key \r\nto address technical, financial, regulatory and structural barriers and \r\ndocument long-term benefits (von Wirth et al. 2018; Shafique et al. \r\n2020; Fouladvand et al. 2020)."


id: 3a031e676683a1a6d4f7dbb400707bcc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7420
content:
"Motivations are often triggered by urgent comfort or replacement \r\nneeds. Maintaining the aesthetic value may as well hinder the \r\ninstallation of insulation if no technical solutions are easily available \r\n(Haines and Mitchell 2014; Bright et al. 2019). Local professionals \r\nand practitioners can both encourage (Friege 2016; Ozarisoy and \r\nAltan 2017) and discourage the installation of insulation, according \r\nto their knowledge and training (Curtis et al. 2017; Zuhaib et al. 2017; \r\nMaxwell et al. 2018; Tsoka et al. 2018). If energy renovations of the \r\nbuildings envelopes are not normative, cooperative ownership may \r\nbe a  barrier in apartment buildings (Miezis et  al. 2016). Similarly, \r\nproduct information and labelling may be helpful or overwhelming \r\n(Ozarisoy and Altan 2017; Lilley et  al. 2017; Bright et  al. 2019). \r\nDecisions are correlated to governmental support (Swantje et  al. \r\n2015; Tam et  al. 2016) and peer information (Friege et  al. 2016; \r\nFriege 2016)."


id: 2cdecd381a74e2fef4007d53df6ef600
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5162
content:
"Regarding solar technologies, heterogeneous decisions are formed \r\nby socio-demographic, economic and technical predictors interwoven \r\nwith a variety of behavioural traits (Alipour et al. 2020; Khan 2020). \r\nStudies on PV adoption confirm place-specific (various spatial \r\nand peer effects), multi-scalar cultural dynamics (Bollinger and \r\nGillingham 2012; Schaffer and Brun 2015; Graziano and Gillingham \r\n2015). Environmental concern and technophilia drive the earliest PV \r\nadopters, while later adopters value economic gains (Hampton and \r\nEckermann 2013; Jager-Waldau et al. 2018; Abreu et al. 2019; Palm \r\n2020). Previous experience with similar solutions increases adoption \r\n(Baumhof et al. 2018; Qurashi and Ahmed 2019; Bach et al. 2020; \r\nReindl and Palm 2020). "


id: c36ee7d6eb032fecc6d324b8edc12522
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31659
content:
"The intervention is required to be cost efficient, although value could \r\nbe placed in the amount of energy saved (Mortensen et  al. 2016; \r\nLilley et al. 2017; Howarth and Roberts 2018; Kim et al. 2019) or the \r\nshort payback period (Miezis et al. 2016). Subsidies have a positive \r\neffect (Swan et al. 2017)."


id: 7963866b7ca297a671bac550dbbd3e9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18555
content:
"Studies on low-carbon materials tend to focus on wood-based \r\nbuilding systems and prefabricated housing construction, mostly \r\nin high-income countries, as many sustainable managed forestries \r\nand factories for prefabricated housing concentrated in such regions \r\n(Mata et al. 2021a). This uneven promotion of wood can lead to its \r\noverconsumption (Pomponi et al. 2020). "


id: 9001aba0fd3fdb1c66170ab47f025630
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22538
content:
"Mixed willingness is found to adopt efficient technologies. While \r\nDeveloped Countries are positive towards building envelope \r\ntechnologies, appliances such as A-rated equipment or condensing \r\nboilers are negatively perceived (Yohanis 2012). In contrast, adopters \r\nin Asia are positive towards energy-saving appliances (Liao et  al. \r\n2020; Spandagos et al. 2020)."


id: 4cd61a5a6adfe21f15a14527f2bfba34
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10789
content:
"Although the solutions are not yet implemented at scale, examples \r\ninclude the adoption of low carbon cement in Cuba motivated by the \r\npossibility of supplying the rising demand with low initial investment \r\ncosts (Cancio Diaz et al. 2017) or adoption of bamboo-based social \r\nhouses in The Philippines motivated by local job creation and typhoon \r\nresistance (Zea Escamilla et al. 2016). More generally, low investment \r\ncosts and high level decision-making, for example, political will and \r\nenvironmental values of society, increase the adoption rate of low\u0002carbon materials (Steinhardt and Manley 2016; Lien and Lolli 2019; \r\nHertwich et al. 2020). In contrast, observed barriers include lobbying \r\nby traditional materials industries, short-term political decision \r\nmaking (Tozer 2019) and concerns over technical performance, risk \r\nof damage, and limited alternatives available (Thomas et al. 2014). "


id: f8f04c11cb8a1f5792c26f9fba76b936
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41159
content:
"Comfort, economic and ecological aspects, as well as information \r\ninfluence the purchase of a  heating system (Claudy et  al. 2011; \r\nDecker and Menrad 2015). Information and support from different \r\nstakeholders are the most relevant aspects in different geographical \r\ncontexts (Hernandez-Roman et al. 2017; Tumbaz and Mogulkoc 2018; \r\nCurtis et al. 2018; Bright et al. 2019; Chu and Wang 2019). "


id: f3eea9807bc0d2fa0d9aa6094c7533cb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40292
content:
"Among high-income countries, economy aspects have positive \r\neffects, specially reductions in energy bills and financial incentives \r\nor subsidies (Chun and Jiang 2013; Christidou et al. 2014; Mortensen \r\net  al. 2016; Clancy et  al. 2017; Ketchman et  al. 2018). Having \r\ncomplementary technologies already in place also has positively \r\naffects adoption (Zografakis et  al. 2012; Clancy et  al. 2017), but \r\nperformance and maintenance concerns appear as barriers (Qiu et al. \r\n2014). The solutions are positively perceived as high-technology \r\ninnovative, to enhance status, and are supported by peers and "


id: 8e6eadc71de7c75b0a5f722cb39f08ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22247
content:
"Demand-supply flexibility measures are experimentally being adopted \r\nin North America, Europe, and Asia-Pacific Developed  regions. "


id: fe262116b8d78be6777d807eb63f93ac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42078
content:
"Although training is a basic requirement, attitude, past experience, \r\nand social pressure can also be highly relevant, as illustrated for \r\nwaste management in a survey to construction site workers (Amal \r\net  al. 2017). Traditional community practices of reuse of building \r\nelements are observed to be replaced by a culture of waste (Ajayi \r\net al. 2015; Hongping 2017)."


id: 95c8dff6bef31e75851dd71783810094
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23544
content:
"Changes  in the current regulatory framework would facilitate \r\nparticipation based on trust and transparent communication \r\n(Wolsink 2012; Nyborg and Ropke 2013; Mata et al. 2020b). However, \r\nconsumers expect governments and energy utilities to steer the \r\ntransition (Seidl et al. 2019)."


id: aedfc4fd91bd66df68ee90c751a139f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28011
content:
"Economic challenges are observed, as unclear business models, \r\ndisadvantageous market models and high costs of advanced smart \r\nmetering. Technical challenges include constraints for HPs and \r\nseasonality of space heating demands. Social challenges relate to lack \r\nof awareness of real-time price information and inadequate technical \r\nunderstanding. Consumers lack acceptance towards comfort changes \r\n(noise, overnight heating) and increased automation (Drysdale et al. \r\n2015; Bradley et  al. 2016; Sweetnam et  al. 2019). Risks identified \r\ninclude higher peaks and congestions in low price-hours, difficulties \r\nin designing electricity tariffs because of conflicts with CO2 intensity, \r\nand potential instability in the entire electricity system caused by \r\ntariffs coupling to wholesale electricity pricing."


id: d0bd6a31ad70272422204430b0569d79
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34075
content:
"Section  9.4 provides an update on technological options and \r\npractices, which allow constructing and retrofitting individual \r\nbuildings to produce very low emissions during their operation \r\nphase. Since AR5, the world has seen a  growing number of such \r\nbuildings in all populated continents, and a  growing amount of \r\nliterature calculates the mitigation potential for different countries \r\nif such technologies and practices penetrate at scale. Figure  9.15 \r\nsynthesises the results of sixty-seven bottom-up studies, which \r\nrely on the bottom-up technology-reach approach and assess the \r\npotential of such technologies and practices, aggregated to stock of \r\ncorresponding products and/or buildings at national level. "


id: 6fb1d7dc42b2a5c465acc67e96b66cd8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16906
content:
"Emerging market players are changing customer utility relationships, \r\nas the grid is challenged with intermittent loads and integration \r\nneeds for ICTs, interfering with consumers requirements of autonomy \r\nand privacy (Wolsink 2012; Parag and Sovacool 2016). Although \r\nmost private PV owners would make their storage system available \r\nas balancing load for the grid operator, the acquisition of new \r\nbatteries by a majority of consumers requires incentives (Gahrs et al. \r\n2015). For distributed energy hubs, social acceptance depends on the \r\namount of local benefits in economic, environmental or social terms \r\n(Kalkbrenner and Roosen 2015), and increases around demonstration \r\nprojects (von Wirth et al. 2018)."


id: a1fe62d072296066d6c1c5e9ba45a34d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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content:
"The circular and sharing economy begins to be perceived as \r\norganisational and technologically innovative, with the potential \r\nto provide superior customer value, response to societal trends and \r\npositive marketing (Mercado 2018; Cantzler et  al. 2020; Nussholz \r\net  al. 2020). Although technical and regulatory challenges remain, \r\nthere are key difficulties around the demonstration of a business case \r\nfor both consumers and the supply chain (Pomponi and Moncaster \r\n2017; Hart et al. 2019)."


id: 2e0aad1e1e844f2ff69a1fa2d289e1cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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content:
"The analysis of Figure 9.15 illustrates that there is a large body of \r\nliterature attesting to mitigation potential in the countries of Europe \r\nand North America of up to 55-85% and in Asia-Pacific Developed of \r\nup to 45% in 2050, as compared to their sector baseline emissions, \r\neven though they sometimes decline. For developing countries, \r\nthe literature estimates the potential of up to 40-80% in 2050, as \r\ncompared to their sharply growing baselines. The interpretation \r\nof these estimates should be cautious because the studies rely \r\non assumptions with uncertainties and feasibility constrains (see \r\nSections 9.6.4, Figure 9.20 and Supplementary Material Table 9.SM.6). "


id: 41b7ba40be149c7eb644a85357631c11
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8756
content:
"via policies and measures. Nearly all national or regional studies \r\noriginate from Europe and North America recognising challenges, \r\nDeveloped Countries face toward decarbonisation. Thus, Goldstein \r\net  al. (2020) suggested prioritising the reduction in floor space of \r\nwealthier population and more efficient space planning because grid \r\ndecarbonisation is not enough to meet the U.S. target by 2050 whereas \r\naffluent suburbs may have 15 times higher emission footprints than \r\nnearby neighbourhoods. Cabrera Serrenho et  al. (2019) argue that \r\nreducing the UK floor area is a  low cost mitigation option given \r\na low building replacement rate and unreasonably high retrofit costs \r\nof existing buildings. Lorek and Spangenberg (2019) discusses the \r\nopportunity of reducing building emissions in Germany fitting better \r\nthe structure of the dwelling stock to the declined average household \r\nsize, as most dwellings have 3-4 rooms while most households have \r\nonly one person. "


id: 130a6f14bd26af232b4c6fd049403f9c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 562
content:
"The novelty since AR5 is emerging bottom-up literature, which \r\nattempts to account for potential at national and global level from \r\napplying the sufficiency approach (see Box  9.1 in Section  9.1 and \r\ndecomposition analysis in Section  9.3.2). In spite of the reducing \r\nenergy use per unit of floor area at an average rate of 1.3% per year, \r\nthe growth of floor area at an average rate of 3% per year causes \r\nrising energy demand and GHG emissions because each new square \r\nmeter must be served with thermal comfort and/or other amenities\r\n(International Energy Agency 2017; Ellsworth-Krebs 2020). Nearly all \r\nstudies reviewed in Figure 9.15 assume the further growth of floor \r\narea per capita until 2050, with many studies of developing countries \r\ntargeting today per capita floor area as in Europe."


id: 27f4d6a45e59519aa518926bb1720553
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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"Table  9.4 reviews the bottom-up literature, which quantifies the \r\npotential from reorganisation of human activities, efficient design, \r\nplanning, and use of building space, higher density of building \r\nand settlement inhabitancy, redefining and downsizing goods and \r\nequipment, limiting their use to health, living, and working standards, \r\nand their sharing, recognising the number of square meters and \r\ndevices as a determinant of GHG emissions that could be impacted "


id: cd0b860a1efcd8e27f26fd4a404f70bb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Whereas these studies suggest sufficiency as an important option for \r\nDeveloped Countries, global studies argue that it is also important \r\nfor the developing world. This is because it provides the means to \r\naddress inequality, poverty reduction and social inclusion, ensuring "


id: e63f6d1cac5692b9640a9f95e7713397
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37811
content:
"Table 9.4 | Potential GHG emission reduction in the building sector offered by the introduction of sufficiency as a main or additional measure, as \r\nreported by bottom-up (or hybrid) literature."


id: d5a4cbc20df2c76e1d61f8105de8b70a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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vector_id: 34901
content:
"the provision of acceptable living standards for the entire global \r\npopulation given the planetary boundaries. As Figure 9.6 illustrates, \r\nthe largest share of current construction occurs in developing \r\ncountries, while these countries follow a similar demographic track \r\nof declining household sizes versus increasing dwelling areas. This \r\ntrajectory translates into the importance of their awareness of the \r\nlikely similar forthcoming challenges, and the need in early efficient \r\nplanning of infrastructure and buildings with a focus on space usage \r\nand density."


id: f0c6032625057d0549a4d846d8d744ff
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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vector_id: 39724
content:
"regional absolute potentials. When several bottom-up studies were \r\nidentified for a region, either a rounded average or a rounded median \r\nfigure was taken, giving the preference to the one that was closest \r\nto the potential estimates of countries with very large contribution to \r\nregional baseline emissions in 2050 (e.g., to China in Eastern Asia). \r\nFurthermore, we preferred studies, which assessed the whole or \r\na large share of sector emissions and considered a comprehensive \r\nset of measures. The regional baseline emissions, refer to the World \r\nEnergy Outlook (WEO) Current Policy Scenario (International Energy \r\nAgency 2019c). The sector mitigation potential reported in Chapter 12 \r\nfor the year 2030 was estimated in the same manner. "


id: 5286a4d7026bd95f9a7cb8415db7ec09
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11799
content:
"Figure 9.16 presents the mitigation potential in the building sector \r\nfor the world and each region in 2050, estimated as a  result of \r\nthis aggregation exercise. The potentials presented in the figure \r\nare different from those reported in Section  9.3.3, where they are \r\nestimated by IEA and IMAGE hybrid model. The figure provides \r\ntwo breakdowns of the potential, into the reduction of direct and \r\nindirect emissions as well as into the reduction of emissions from \r\nintroducing sufficiency, energy efficiency, and renewable energy \r\nmeasures. The potential estimates rely on the incremental stepwise \r\napproach, assembling the measures according to the SER framework "


id: ac84770c7970324442ec667e5571e560
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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"This section presents an aggregation of bottom-up potential \r\nestimates for different countries into regional and then global \r\nfigures for 2050, based on literature presented in Section  9.6.1. \r\nFirst, national potential estimates reported as a  share of baseline \r\nemissions in 2050 were aggregated into regional potential estimates. \r\nSecond, the latter were multiplied with regional baseline emissions \r\nto calculate the regional potential in absolute numbers. Third, the \r\nglobal potential in absolute numbers was calculated as a  sum of "


id: badbee2b04f5b91366389b670ea081b6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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vector_id: 30088
content:
"Figure 9.16 | Global and regional estimates of GHG emissions in the building sector in 2020 and 2050, and their potential reduction in 2050 broken \r\ndown by measure (sufficiency/energy efficiency/renewable energy) and by emission source (direct/indirect). Note: the baseline refers to the WEO Current Policy \r\nScenario (International Energy Agency 2019c). It may differ from other chapters."


id: 86839970e3da4dab77e3a2fbfc8866cd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"space, housing swaps, shared homes and facilities, space and room \r\nrenting, and others (Bierwirth and Thomas 2019a; Ivanova and Buchs \r\n2020; Ellsworth-Krebs 2020). Whereas literature does not provide \r\na  robust cost assessment of the sufficiency potential, it indicates \r\nthat these measures are likely to be at no or very little cost (Cabrera \r\nSerrenho et al. 2019)."


id: 9a9ea705d9a99a370ab95c93c68422a6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24443
content:
"(Box 9.1) and correcting the amount of the potential at each step for \r\nthe interaction of measures. The sequence of energy efficiency and \r\nrenewable energy measures follow the conclusion of the IPCC Special \r\nReport on Global Warming of 1.5degC (SR1.5) (Rogelj et al. 2018) that \r\nlower energy demand allows more choice of low-carbon energy \r\nsupply options, and therefore such sequencing is more beneficial and \r\ncost-effective."


id: a7b1939169a4d4a7388299de4d3132a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26718
content:
"The exchange of lights, appliances, and office equipment, including \r\nICT, water heating, and cooking technologies could reduce more than \r\n8% and 13% of the total sector baseline emissions in developed \r\nand developing countries respectively, typically at negative cost \r\n(Department of Environmental Affairs 2014; de Melo and de Martino \r\nJannuzzi 2015; Prada-Hernandez et  al. 2015; Subramanyam et  al. \r\n2017a,b; Gonzalez-Mahecha et  al. 2019; Grande-Acosta and Islas\u0002Samperio 2020). This cost-effectiveness is, however, often reduced \r\nby a larger size of appliances and advanced features, which offset \r\na share of positive economic effects (Molenbroek et al. 2015). "


id: 7300f4a31800d2b621cc2ac422d9aaa5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17484
content:
"Literature agrees that new advanced buildings, using design, form, \r\nand passive building construction equipped with demand-side \r\nmeasures, and advanced HVAC technologies can reduce the sector \r\ntotal baseline emissions in developed and developing countries by \r\nat least 10% and 25% in 2050, respectively, and renewable energy \r\ntechnologies backed-up with demand-side flexibility and digitalisation \r\nmeasures typically installed in new buildings could further reduce \r\nthese emissions by at least 11% and 7% (see also Cross-Chapter \r\nBox  12 in Chapter  16). The literature, however, provides different \r\nand sometimes conflicting information of their cost-effectiveness. \r\nEsser et  al. (2019) reported that by 2016, the perceived share of \r\nbuildings similar or close to NZEB in the new construction was just "


id: 761cee68ddbeb68a4a4b6807ae8c4803
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18007
content:
"Figure  9.17 indicates that a  very large share of the potential in \r\nDeveloped Countries could be realised through the introduction \r\nof sufficiency measures (at least 18% of their baseline emissions). \r\nLiterature identifies many opportunities, which may help \r\noperationalise it. These are reorganisation of human activities, \r\nteleworking, coworking, more efficient space design, planning and \r\nuse, higher density of building and settlement inhabitancy, flexible "


id: 124f7ba95d914318ccbd18a1efe64cac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 420
content:
"** including the change in construction methods; management and operation of buildings; and efficient heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning.\r\n*** typically in new high performance buildings."


id: e7418e1bde65f42682fccdf232001569
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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content:
"Figure 9.17 | Indicative breakdown of GHG emission reduction potential of the buildings sector in developed and developing countries into measure \r\nand costs in 2050, in absolute figures with uncertainty ranges and as a share of their baseline emissions. Notes: (i) The baseline refers to the WEO Current Policy \r\nScenario (International Energy Agency 2019c). It may differ from other chapters. (ii) The figure merged the results of Eurasia into those of Developed Countries."


id: 4a2493885b7cfedfecb316ac569fdc53
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10287
content:
"above 20% across the EU. In this region, additional investment costs \r\nwere no higher than 15%, as reported for Germany, Italy, Denmark, \r\nand Slovenia (Erhorn-Kluttig et al. 2019). Still, the European market \r\nexperiences challenges which relate to capacity and readiness, as \r\nrevealed by the Architects' Council of Europe (ACE) (2019), which \r\nrecords a  decline in the share of architects who are designing \r\nbuildings to NZEB standards to more than 50% of their time, from \r\n14% in 2016 to 11% in 2018. In contrast, the APEC countries reported \r\nadditional investment costs of 67% on average (Xu and Zhang 2017) \r\nthat makes them a key barrier to the NZEB penetration in developing "


id: 993837a3b0c27a402d74f5ae5bd67872
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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vector_id: 24171
content:
"countries as of today (Feng et al. 2019). This calls for additional R&D \r\npolicies and financial incentives to reduce the NZEB costs (Xu and \r\nZhang 2017; Kwag et al. 2019)."


id: a11ee18985e64933f688696827573fb7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25570
content:
"Thermal efficiency retrofits of existing envelopes followed up by \r\nthe exchange of HVAC backed up with demand-side measures \r\ncould reduce the sector total baseline emissions in developed and \r\ndeveloping countries by at least 18% and 7% respectively in 2050. \r\nThere have been many individual examples of deep building retrofits, \r\nwhich incremental costs are not significantly higher than those of "


id: 161c01007e570f0a8e2b7d5ec4f46838
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"shallow retrofits. However, the literature tends to agree that cost\u0002effective or low cost deep retrofits are not universally applicable \r\nfor all cases, especially in historically urban areas, indicating a large \r\nshare of the potential in the high-cost category (Department of \r\nEnvironmental Affairs 2014; Akander et al. 2017; Paduos and Corrado \r\n2017; Semprini et al. 2017; Subramanyam et al. 2017b; Streicher et al. \r\n2017; Mata et al. 2019). Achieving deep retrofits assumes additional \r\nmeasures on the top of business-as-usual retrofits, therefore high \r\nrate of deep retrofits at acceptable costs are not possible in case of \r\nlow business-as-usual rates (Streicher et al. 2020). "


id: fc30b93d7c02a2761e0ad9c58361d2a2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41735
content:
"Among key factors affecting the costs-effectiveness of achieving \r\nhigh-performance buildings remain low energy prices in many \r\ncountries worldwide (Alaidroos and Krarti 2015; Akander et al. 2017) \r\nand high discount rates reflecting low access to capital and high \r\nbarriers. Copiello et al. (2017) found that the discount rate affects the \r\neconomic results of retrofits four times higher than the energy price, \r\nand therefore the reduction in upfront costs and working out barriers \r\nare the feasibility enablers."


id: 79f20843cad0b6cd74b675e91e509a85
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18654
content:
"The good news is that literature expects a significant cost reduction \r\nfor many technologies, which are relevant for the construction of \r\nhigh energy-performance buildings and deep retrofits. Applying \r\na  technology learning curve to the data available for Europe and \r\nreviewing dozens of studies available, Kohler et al. (2018) estimated \r\nthe cost reduction potential of biomass boilers, heat pumps, \r\nventilation, air conditioning, thermal storages, electricity storages, \r\nsolar PVs and solar thermal systems of 14%, 20%, 46-52%, 29%, \r\n29%, 65%, 57%, and 43% respectively in 2050; no significant cost \r\nreduction potential was found, however, for established and wide\u0002spread insulation technologies. More investment into Research, \r\nDevelopment and Demonstration (RD&D) to reduce the technology \r\ncosts and more financial incentives to encourage uptake of the \r\ntechnologies would allow moving along this learning curve. "


id: f847ebe9609d7099fc53d3321640ef19
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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"The fact that the largest share of the global flow area is still to be built \r\noffers a large potential for emission reduction that is, however, only \r\nfeasible if ambitious building energy codes will be applied to this new \r\nstock (see Section 9.9.3 on building codes). The highest demand for \r\nadditional floor area will occur in developing countries; the building \r\nreplacement is also the highest in developing countries because \r\ntheir building lifetime could be as short as 30 years (Lixuan et  al. \r\n2016; Alaidroos and Krarti 2015). Whereas as of 2018, 73 countries \r\nhad already had building codes or were developing them, only 41 had \r\nmandatory residential codes and 51 had mandatory non-residential \r\ncodes (Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction et al. 2019). \r\nTherefore, the feasibility of capturing this potential is a  subject to \r\ngreater coverage, adoption, and strength of building codes."


id: 41f881000691bb4ea5b84a46721c29d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8800
content:
"Furthermore, some literature argues that the key to cost-effectiveness \r\nis not necessarily a reduction in costs of technologies, but a know\u0002how and skills of their choosing, combining, sequencing, and timing \r\nto take the most benefits of their interdependence, complementarity, \r\nand synergy as illustrated by many examples (Lovins 2018; Urge\u0002Vorsatz et  al. 2020). However, the scenarios reviewed lack such \r\napproaches in their cost assessments. Few indicative examples of cost \r\nreduction at scale were provided though not by the scenario literature, \r\nbut case studies of the application of One-Stop Shop (OSS) approach \r\nat scale (Section 9.9.4). In 2013, the Dutch Energiesprong network \r\nbrokered a  deal between Dutch building contractors and housing \r\nassociations to reduce the average retrofit costs from EUR130,000 \r\ndown to EUR65,000 for 111,000 homes with building prefabrication "


id: f518ff7ef7bbd700f587082196045c4e
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vector_id: 40487
content:
"Low rates of building retrofits are the major feasibility constraint \r\nof building decarbonisation in Developed Countries. Long building \r\nlifetime and their slow replacement caused a lock-in of low energy \r\nperformance in old buildings of Developed Countries, especially in \r\nurban areas. A few studies of developing countries, mostly medium \r\nand high-income, also considered building retrofits (Prada-Hernandez \r\net al. 2015; Yu et al. 2018b; Zhou et al. 2018; Krarti 2019; Kamal et al. \r\n2019). The studies in Developed Countries tend to rely on either of the "


id: d2903819e26302a6f7c35fc2269851f6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34399
content:
"systems and project delivery models while targeting energy savings \r\nof 45-80% (Urge-Vorsatz et al. 2020); out of which 10,000 retrofits \r\nhave been realised by 2020. The French Observatory of Low Energy \r\nBuildings reported to achieve the cost-effective deep renovations of \r\n818 dwellings and 27 detached houses in France setting a cap for \r\nabsolute primary energy consumption to achieve after renovation \r\nand a  cap for the budget to deliver it. The cost-effectiveness was, \r\nhowever, calculated with grants and public subsidies (Saheb 2018). "


id: 4704f97cfc03e20d12a40edce485e2ef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9697
content:
"As discussed in Section  9.6.1, the alternative and low-cost \r\nopportunity to reduce the sector emissions in the countries with high \r\nfloor area per capita and the low stock turnover is offered by the \r\nintroduction of the sufficiency approach. Section  9.9.3.1 discusses \r\na range of policy instruments, which could support the realisation of \r\nthe sufficiency potential. As the approach is new, the literature does \r\nnot yet report experiences of these measures. In the framework of \r\nproject OptiWohn, the German cities of Gottingen, Koln und Tubingen \r\njust started testing the sufficiency approach and policy measures \r\nfor sufficiency (Stadt Gottingen 2020). Therefore, the feasibility \r\nof realising the sufficiency potential depends on its recognition by \r\nthe energy and climate policy and the introduction of supporting \r\nmeasures (Samadi et al. 2017; Ellsworth-Krebs 2020; Goldstein et al. \r\n2020). More research is needed to understand which measures will \r\nwork and which will not. "


id: f165b0ccaa686105314d362fb422f3a0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39854
content:
"The potential is a dynamic value, increasing with the technological \r\nprogress. Most potential studies reviewed in Section 9.6.1 consider \r\ntoday mature commercialised or near to commercialisation \r\ntechnologies with demonstrated characteristics 'freezing them' \r\nin the potential estimates until the study target year. Until 2050, \r\nmany of these technologies will further improve, and furthermore \r\nnew advanced technologies may emerge. Therefore, the potential \r\nestimates are likely to be low estimates of the real potential volumes. \r\nFurthermore, models apply many other assumptions and they cannot \r\nalways capture right emerging societal or innovation trends; these \r\ntrends may also significantly impact the potential size into both \r\ndirections (Brugger et al. 2021)."


id: 87ab74442d4dc29e69c3ecbb5d477099
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21027
content:
"With the declining amount of emissions during the building \r\noperation stage, the share of building embodied emissions in their \r\nlifetime emissions will grow, also due to additional building material \r\n(Penaloza et al. 2018; Cabeza et al. 2021). Reviewing 650 lifecycle \r\nassessment case studies, Rock et al. (2020) estimated the contribution \r\nof embodied emissions to building lifetime emissions up to 45-50% \r\nfor highly efficient buildings, surpassing 90% in extreme cases. "


id: 3329b2e0a8ade0e44ad81584d3bc76a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6257
content:
"Similar to buildings, the energy consumption and associated \r\nemissions of appliances and equipment is driven by the replacement \r\nof old appliances and the additional stock due to the increase \r\nin penetration and saturation of appliances. The feasibility of \r\nappliance stock replacement with efficient options is higher than \r\nthe feasibility of building stock replacement or retrofit due to their \r\nsmaller size, shorter lifetime, and cheaper costs (Chu and Bowman \r\n2006; Spiliotopoulos 2019). Some literature argues that once \r\nappliances achieve a  particular level of efficiency their exchange \r\ndoes not bring benefits from the resource efficiency point of view "


id: ca3e8bce0c26c784d8cc6910aecb283
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32925
content:
"The impacts of climate change on buildings can affect building \r\nstructures, building construction, building material properties, indoor \r\nclimate and building energy use (Andric et al. 2019). Many of those \r\nimpacts and their respective adaptation strategies interact with GHG \r\nmitigation in different ways."


id: f0173b6d2e195b62fdaa2cc8898a1cce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39622
content:
"A large body of literature on climate impacts on buildings focuses \r\non the impacts of climate change on heating and cooling needs \r\n(de Wilde and Coley 2012; Wan et al. 2012; Andric et al. 2019). The \r\nassociated impacts on energy consumption are expected to be higher \r\nin hot summer and warm winter climates, where cooling needs are \r\nmore relevant (Li et al. 2012; Wan et al. 2012; Andric et al. 2019). If not \r\nmet, this higher demand for thermal comfort can impact health, sleep \r\nquality and work productivity, having disproportionate effects on \r\nvulnerable populations and exacerbating energy poverty (Biardeau \r\net al. 2020; Sun et al. 2020; Falchetta and Mistry 2021) (Section 9.8). "


id: 7cea45c5acd9d9c8ec835e90013de84f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19167
content:
"The impacts of increased energy demand for cooling can have \r\nsystemic repercussions (Ciscar and Dowling 2014; Ralston Fonseca \r\net al. 2019), which in turn can affect the provision of other energy \r\nservices. Space cooling can be an important determinant of peak \r\ndemand, especially in periods of extreme heat (International Energy \r\nAgency 2018). Warmer climates and higher frequency and intensity \r\nof heat waves can lead to higher loads (Dirks et al. 2015; Auffhammer \r\net al. 2017), increasing the risk of grid failure and supply interruptions."


id: 56439ac50206ee6818f4e5929b53a2d6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12445
content:
"Although heating demand in cold climate regions can be expected \r\nto decrease with climate change and, to a  certain extent, outweigh \r\nthe increase in cooling demand, the effects on total primary energy \r\nrequirements are uncertain (Li et al. 2012; Wan et al. 2012). Studies \r\nhave found that increases in buildings energy expenditures for cooling "


id: b912735b8c9f8c2d01edb16d522f1cca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29765
content:
"Buildings are capital-intensive and long-lasting assets designed to \r\nperform under a  wide range of climate conditions (Hallegatte 2009; \r\nPyke et al. 2012). Their long lifespan means that the building stock will \r\nbe exposed to future climate (Hallegatte 2009; de Wilde and Coley 2012; \r\nWan et al. 2012) and, as such, adaptation measures will be necessary. "


id: d6abeeb5ea788d94255a3e30de23fd75
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35072
content:
"more than compensate the savings from lower heating demands in \r\nmost regions (Clarke et al. 2018). In addition, climate change may affect \r\nthe economic feasibility of district heating systems (Andric et al. 2019). "


id: 8d9d3955262f2e4e53b639e4a79df77f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22108
content:
"Adaptation options interacts with mitigation efforts because \r\nmeasures to cope with climate change impacts can increase energy \r\nand material consumption, which may lead to higher GHG emissions \r\n(Kalvelage et  al. 2014; Davide et  al. 2019; Sharifi 2020). Energy \r\nconsumption is required to adapt to climate change. Mitigation \r\nmeasures, in turn, influence the degree of vulnerability of buildings \r\nto future climate and, thus, the adaptation required."


id: c7e4043fe5fa1a0c8c0adc8d7679a124
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32477
content:
"In cold climates, a  warming climate can potentially increase the \r\nrisk of overheating in high-performance buildings with increased \r\ninsulation and airtightness to reduce heat losses (Gupta and Gregg \r\n2012). In such situations, the need for active cooling technologies \r\nmay arise, along with higher energy consumption and GHG emissions \r\n(Gupta et al. 2015). "


id: 285e8db78f33a55d0df967ecd47e2b8f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4306
content:
"Changes in cloud formation can affect global solar irradiation \r\nand, therefore, the output of solar photovoltaic panels, possibly \r\naffecting on-site renewable energy production (Burnett et al. 2014). \r\nThe efficiency of solar photovoltaic panels and their electrical \r\ncomponents decreases with higher temperatures (Bahaidarah et al. \r\n2013; Simioni and Schaeffer 2019). However, studies have found that \r\nsuch effects can be relatively small (Totschnig et al. 2017), making \r\nsolar PV a robust option to adapt to climate change (Shen and Lior \r\n2016; Santos and Lucena 2021) (see Section 9.4). "


id: a95e04958faea49d3f5f58961a528839
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27021
content:
"Climate change can also affect the performance, durability and \r\nsafety of buildings and their elements (facades, structure, etc.) \r\nthrough changes in temperature, humidity, wind, and chloride and \r\nCO2 concentrations (Bastidas-Arteaga et al. 2010; Bauer et al. 2018; \r\nRodriguez-Rosales et al. 2021; Chen et al. 2021). Historical buildings \r\nand coastal areas tend to be more vulnerable to these changes \r\n(Huijbregts et al. 2012; Mosoarca et al. 2019; Cavalagli et al. 2019; \r\nRodriguez-Rosales et al. 2021). "


id: 25adef2895b2d650b6fe0fbe2d67b398
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3814
content:
"Mitigation alternatives through passive approaches may increase \r\nresilience to climate change impacts on thermal comfort and reduce \r\nactive cooling needs (Wan et al. 2012; van Hooff et al. 2016; Andric \r\net al. 2019; Gonzalez Mahecha et al. 2020; Rosse Caldas et al. 2020). \r\nCombining passive measures can help counteracting climate change \r\ndriven increases in energy consumption for achieving thermal \r\ncomfort (Huang and Hwang 2016)."


id: 742b2802d93a7fa81f5558a348cd80dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17674
content:
"Temperature variations affect the building envelope, for example, \r\nwith cracks and detachment of coatings (Bauer et al. 2016, 2018). \r\nHigher humidity (caused by wind-driven rain, snow or floods) hastens \r\ndeterioration of bio-based materials such as wood and bamboo \r\n(Brambilla and Gasparri 2020), also deteriorating indoor air quality \r\nand users health (Huijbregts et al. 2012; Grynning et al. 2017; Lee \r\net al. 2020). "


id: ed92b78b2e6140f5d03fdd758968a692
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39156
content:
"Studies raise the concern that measures aimed at building envelope \r\nmay increase the risk of overheating in a warming climate (Dodoo \r\nand Gustavsson 2016; Fosas et al. 2018) (Section 9.4). If this is the \r\ncase, there may be a  conflict between mitigation through energy \r\nefficiency building regulations and climate change adaptation (Fosas \r\net al. 2018). However, while overheating may occur as a result of poor \r\ninsulation design, better insulation may actually reduce overheating \r\nwhen properly projected and the overheating risk can be overcome \r\nby clever designs (Fosas et al. 2018). "


id: e73bc53d18de1ecf348054b0ae410559
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37978
content:
"Climate change can accelerate the degradation of reinforced \r\nconcrete structures due to the increase of chloride ingress (Bastidas\u0002Arteaga et al. 2010) and the concentration of CO2, which increase \r\nthe corrosion of the embedded steel (Stewart et  al. 2012; Peng \r\nand Stewart 2016; Chen et al. 2021). Corrosion rates are higher in \r\nplaces with higher humidity and humidity fluctuations (Guo et  al. \r\n2019), and degradation could be faster with combined effects of \r\nhigher temperatures and more frequent and intense precipitations \r\n(Bastidas-Arteaga et al. 2010; Chen et al. 2021). "


id: 892ea222f9bd75de9e823601b1839e28
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21302
content:
"Strengthening building structures to increase resilience and reduce \r\nexposure to the risk of extreme events, such as draughts, torrential floods, \r\nhurricanes and storms, can be partially achieved by improving building \r\nstandards and retrofitting existing buildings (Bjarnadottir et al. 2011). \r\nHowever, future climate is not yet considered in parameters of existing \r\nbuilding energy codes (Steenbergen et  al. 2012). While enhancing \r\nstructural resilience would lead to GHG emissions (Liu and Cui 2018), \r\nso would disaster recovery and rebuilding. This adaptation-mitigation \r\ntrade-off needs to be further assessed."


id: f6fd70c3494dd7ff71f8e96f7eb011d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40825
content:
"Higher frequency and intensity of hurricanes, storm surges and \r\ncoastal and non-coastal flooding can escalate economic losses to \r\ncivil infrastructure, especially when associated with population \r\ngrowth and urbanisation in hazardous areas (Bjarnadottir et al. 2011; \r\nLi et  al. 2016; Lee and Ellingwood 2017). Climate change should \r\nincrease the risk and exposure to damage from flood (de Ruig et al. \r\n2019), sea level rise (Bosello and De Cian 2014; Zanetti et al. 2016; \r\nBove et al. 2020) and more frequent wildfires (Barkhordarian et al. \r\n2018; Craig et al. 2020)."


id: 24cfd74f2abc82f67ef969f225aa6c9b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3672
content:
"The impacts on buildings can lead to higher maintenance needs \r\nand the consequent embodied environmental impacts related \r\nto materials production, transportation and end-of-life, which \r\naccount for a relevant share of GHG emissions in buildings lifecycle \r\n(Rasmussen et  al. 2018). Climate change induced biodegradation \r\nis especially important for bio-based materials such as wood and \r\nbamboo (Brambilla and Gasparri 2020) which are important options \r\nfor reducing emissions imbued in buildings' construction materials \r\n(Penaloza et al. 2016; Churkina et al. 2020; Rosse Caldas et al. 2020). "


id: 9a7c4b71294a6354e66c88c4cbd517d0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24423
content:
"Well-designed and effectively implemented mitigation actions in \r\nthe sector of buildings have significant potential for achieving \r\nthe United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). \r\nSpecifically, the multiple impacts of mitigation policies and measures \r\ngo far beyond the goal of climate action (SDG 13) and contribute \r\nto further activating a  great variety of other SDGs (Figure  9.18 \r\npresents some indicative examples). Table 9.5 reviews and updates \r\nthe analysis carried out in the context of the IPCC Special Report \r\non Global Warming of 1.5degC (SR1.5) (Roy et al. 2018) demonstrating \r\nthat the main categories of GHG emission reduction interventions \r\nin buildings, namely the implementation of energy sufficiency and \r\nefficiency improvements as well as improved access and fuel switch \r\nto modern low carbon energy, contribute to achieving 16 out of \r\na total of 17 SDGs. "


id: ed1bc72ce2ff4b0c46023284342bab4c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39092
content:
"Although there can potentially be conflicts between climate change \r\nmitigation and adaptation, these can be dealt with proper planning, \r\nactions, and policies. The challenge is to develop multifunctional \r\nsolutions, technologies and materials that can mitigate GHG \r\nemissions while improving buildings adaptive capacity. Solutions \r\nand technologies should reduce not only buildings' operational \r\nemissions, but also embodied emissions from manufacturing and \r\nprocessing of building materials (Rock et  al. 2020). For instance, \r\nsome building materials, such as bio-concrete, can reduce lifecycle \r\nemissions of buildings and bring benefits in terms of building thermal \r\ncomfort in tropical and subtropical climates. Also, energy efficiency, \r\nsufficiency and on-site renewable energy production can help to \r\nincrease building resilience to climate change impacts and reduce \r\npressure on the energy system."


id: e411f091680be4f644188aaa737afac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37428
content:
"A review of a relatively limited number of studies made by Urge\u0002Vorsatz et al. (2016) and Payne et al. (2015) showed that the size \r\nof multiple benefits of mitigation actions in the sector of buildings \r\nmay range from 22% up to 7400% of the corresponding energy \r\ncost savings. In 7 out of 11 case studies reviewed, the value of the \r\nmultiple impacts of mitigation actions was equal or greater than \r\nthe value of energy savings. Even in these studies, several effects \r\nhave not been measured and consequently the size of multiple \r\nbenefits of mitigation actions may be even higher. Quantifying \r\nand if possible, monetising, these wider impacts of climate action \r\nwould facilitate their inclusion in cost-benefit analysis, strengthen \r\nthe adoption of ambitious emissions reduction targets, and improve \r\ncoordination across policy areas reducing costs (Smith et al. 2016; \r\nThema et al. 2017)."


id: da58bd3586ab59541f100fb052e65c55
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35712
content:
"A growing body of research acknowledges that mitigation actions \r\nin buildings may have substantial social and economic value \r\nbeyond their direct impact of reducing energy consumption and/\r\nor GHG emissions (IEA 2014; Urge-Vorsatz et al. 2016; Deng et al. \r\n2017; Reuter et  al. 2017; US EPA 2018; Kamal et  al. 2019; Bleyl \r\net al. 2019) (see also Cross-Chapter Box 6 in Chapter 7). In other \r\nwords, the implementation of these actions in the residential and "


id: d9f956e54608f2004574e50fcc17e573
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35650
content:
"Figure  9.18 | Contribution of mitigation policies of the building sector to meeting sustainable development goals. Source: based on information from \r\nIEA(2019d); IEA (2020b); Mills (2016); European Commission (2016); Rafaj et al. (2018); Mzavanadze (2018a); World Health Organization (2016); and literature review \r\npresented in Section 9.8.5.2."


id: 66f9d38c9891432f30cdb6b6eeff2a30
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15384
content:
"Table  9.5 | Aspects of mitigation actions in buildings and their contributions to the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. S: enhancement of energy \r\nsufficiency; E: energy efficiency improvements; R: improved access and fuel switch to lower carbon and renewable energy."


id: 924708b9e2658a7fb2760fc04a535415
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22957
content:
"compared to current levels, and 1.5 million fewer premature deaths \r\nin relation to a reference scenario, which assumes the continuation \r\nof existing and planned policies. The level of incremental investment \r\nneeded in developing countries to achieve universal access to modern \r\nenergy was estimated at around USD0.8 trillion cumulatively to 2040 \r\nin the scenarios examined (Rafaj et al. 2018). "


id: ccdcdae6bc2269a18a201e65bb1205c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33376
content:
"At the core of these policies is the promotion of improved cook\u0002stoves and other modern energy-efficient appliances to cook (for the \r\nhealth benefits of improved cook-stoves see for example (Garcia\u0002Frapolli et al. 2010; Malla et al. 2011; Aunan et al. 2013; Jeuland et al. \r\n2018), as well as the use of non-solid fuels by poor households in \r\ndeveloping countries (Figure 9.19). Most studies agree that the use of \r\nnon-solid energy options such as LPG, ethanol, biogas, piped natural \r\ngas, and electricity is more effective in reducing the health impacts of \r\nHAP compared to improved biomass stoves (see for example Larsen \r\n2016; Rosenthal et  al. 2018; Steenland et  al. 2018; Goldemberg \r\net al. 2018). On the other hand, climate change mitigation policies \r\n(e.g., carbon pricing) may increase the costs of some of these clean \r\nfuels (e.g.,  LPG, electricity), slowing down their penetration in the \r\npoor segment of the population and restricting the associated health "


id: 1058906d5daf34b4464d178d15ae3662
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 65
content:
"benefits (Cameron et  al. 2016). In this case, appropriate access \r\npolicies should be designed to efficiently shield poor households \r\nfrom the burden of carbon taxation (Cameron et  al. 2016). The \r\nevaluation of the improved biomass burning cook-stoves under real\u0002world conditions has shown that they have lower than expected, and \r\nin many cases limited, long-run health and environmental impacts, \r\nas the households use these stoves irregularly and inappropriately, \r\nfail to maintain them, and their usage decline over time (Patange \r\net al. 2015; Aung et al. 2016; Hanna et al. 2016; Wathore et al. 2017). \r\nIn this context, the various improved cook-stoves programs should \r\nconsider the mid- and long-term needs of maintenance, repair, or \r\nreplacement to support their sustained use (Shankar et  al. 2014; \r\nSchilmann et al. 2019)."


id: cb0ef2425c74084bcd7eaff131738963
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33067
content:
"Electrification of households in rural or remote areas results \r\nalso to significant health benefits. For example, in El Salvador, \r\nrural electrification of households leads to reduced overnight air \r\npollutants concentration by 63% due to the substitution of kerosene \r\nas a lighting source, and 34-44% less acute respiratory infections \r\namong children under six (Torero 2015). In addition, the connection \r\nof the health centres to the grid leads to improvements in the quality \r\nof health care provided (Lenz et al. 2017)."


id: b90ed1991d9fe8d712f825aa2ee757ce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29763
content:
"Improved energy efficiency in buildings contributes in fuel poverty \r\nalleviation and brings health gains through improved indoor \r\ntemperatures and comfort as well as reduced fuel consumption and \r\nassociated financial stress (Curl et al. 2015; Lacroix and Chaton 2015; \r\nLiddell and Guiney 2015; Thomson and Thomas 2015; Willand et al. \r\n2015; Poortinga et al. 2018). On the other hand, households suffering \r\nmost from fuel poverty experience more barriers for undertaking \r\nbuilding retrofits (Braubach and Ferrand 2013; Camprubi et al. 2016; "


id: a4b6c5ad64fac090788160832f9fc66b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26197
content:
"per dwelling and would generate an average saving to the healthcare \r\nsystem of EUR372 per  year and dwelling (due to better thermal \r\ncomfort conditions in winter)."


id: 5a4c38f9d6db8611177adef5d8ad153c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13132
content:
"Apart from the health benefits mentioned above, mitigation actions \r\nin the buildings sector are also associated with environmental \r\nbenefits to ecosystems and crops, by avoiding acidification and \r\neutrophication, biodiversity through green roofs and walls, building \r\nenvironment through reduced corrosion of materials, and so on \r\n(Thema et al. 2017; Mzavanadze 2018b; Knapp et al. 2019; Mayrand \r\nand Clergeau 2018), while some negative effects cannot be excluded \r\n(Dylewski and Adamczyk 2016). "


id: 559eecba29a15b0bf41fd24a08b88c42
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12337
content:
"The health benefits of residents due to mitigation actions in buildings \r\nare significant (for a review see Maidment et al. 2014; Thomson and \r\nThomas 2015; Fisk et al. 2020), and are higher among low income \r\nhouseholds and/or vulnerable groups, including children, the elderly \r\nand those with pre-existing illnesses (Maidment et  al. 2014; IEA \r\n2014; Ortiz et al. 2019). Tonn et al. (2018) estimated that the health\u0002related benefits attributed to the two weatherisation programs \r\nimplemented in the US in 2008 and 2010 exceeds by a factor of 3 \r\nthe corresponding energy cost savings yield. IEA (2014) also found \r\nthat the health benefits attributed to energy efficiency retrofit \r\nprograms may outweigh their costs by up to a factor of 3. Ortiz et al. \r\n(2019) estimated that the energy retrofit of vulnerable households \r\nin Spain requires an investment of around EUR10.9-12.3 thousands "


id: d43acc7bbc15305448d0b81ff2a15118
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34669
content:
"Also, very important are the effects of mitigation actions in buildings \r\non the reduction of consumption of natural resources, namely fossil \r\nfuels, metal ores, minerals, and so on. These comprise savings from \r\nthe resulting reduced consumption of fuels, electricity and heat and \r\nthe lifecycle-wide resource demand for their utilities, as well as \r\npotential net savings from the substitution of energy technologies \r\nused in buildings  - production phase extraction (European \r\nCommission 2016; Thema et  al. 2017). Teubler et  al. (2020) found "


id: 8e0176f6be8c9e4b3a5e781c74d5468a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22175
content:
"that the implementation of an energy efficiency scenario in European \r\nbuildings will result in resource savings (considering only those \r\nassociated with the generation of final energy products) of 406 kg \r\nper MWh lower final energy demand in the residential sector, while \r\nthe corresponding figure for non-residential buildings was estimated \r\nat 706 kg per MWh of reduced energy demand. On the other hand, \r\nSmith et al. (2016) claim that a switch to more efficient appliances \r\ncould result in negative impacts from increased resource use, which \r\ncan be mitigated by avoiding premature replacement and maximising \r\nrecycling of old appliances."


id: 2c4897e9d2ef81d3dc6263d8e904d9d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5057
content:
"Mitigation actions aiming to reduce the embodied energy of buildings \r\nthrough using local and sustainable building materials can be used to \r\nleverage new supply chains (e.g., for forestry products), which in turn \r\nbring further environmental and social benefits to local communities \r\n(Hashemi et  al. 2015; Cheong and Storey 2019). Furthermore, \r\nimproved insulation and the installation of double- or triple-glazed \r\nwindows result in reduced noise levels. It is worth mentioning that \r\nfor every 1 dB decrease in excess noise, academic performance in \r\nschools and productivity of employees in office buildings increases by \r\n0.7% and 0.3% respectively (Kockat et al. 2018b). Smith et al. (2016) \r\nestimated that in the UK the annual noise benefits associated with \r\nenergy renovations in residential buildings may reach PS400 million in \r\n2030 outweighing the benefits of reduced air pollution. "


id: b6e441ac29fbec62bd69b605fdfec2ea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29380
content:
"The implementation of well-designed climate mitigation measures in \r\nbuildings can help to reduce energy/fuel poverty and improve living \r\nconditions with significant benefits for health (Section  9.8.2) and \r\nwell-being (Payne et al. 2015; Smith et al. 2016; Tonn et al. 2018). \r\nThe social implications of energy poverty alleviation for the people \r\nin low- and middle-income developing countries with no access to \r\nclean energy fuels are further discussed in Section 9.8.4.2. In other \r\ndeveloping countries and in developed economies as well, the \r\nimplementation of mitigation measures can improve the ability of "


id: d58d821c8e630778a0f71132debb6a83
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34882
content:
"countries to read, socialise, and be more productive during the \r\nevening, while it is also associated with greater school attendance \r\nby children (Torero 2015; Rao et al. 2016; Barnes and Samad 2018). \r\nChakravorty et al. (2014) found that a grid connection can increase \r\nnon-agricultural incomes of rural households in India from 9% up \r\nto 28.6% (assuming a  higher quality of electricity). On the other \r\nhand, some studies clearly show that electricity consumption for \r\nconnected households is extremely low, with limited penetration of \r\nelectrical appliances (Cameron et al. 2016; Lee et al. 2017) and low \r\nquality of electricity (Chakravorty et al. 2014). The implementation \r\nof appropriate policies to overcome bureaucratic red tape, low \r\nreliability, and credit constraints, is necessary for maximising the \r\nsocial benefits of electrification."


id: f1e50da4b955d7f21f3934df7b65b304
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39944
content:
"Regarding non-residential buildings, (European Commission 2016) \r\nreviewed a  number of studies showing that buildings with high \r\nenergy efficiency or certified with green certificates present higher \r\nsales prices by 5.2-35%, and higher rents by 2.5-11.8%. More \r\nrecent studies in relation to those included in the review confirm \r\nthese results (Mangialardo et  al. 2018; Ott and Hahn 2018) or \r\nproject even higher premiums. Chegut et  al. (2014) found that \r\ngreen certification in the London office market results in a premium \r\nof 19.7% for rents. On the other hand, in Australia, a review study \r\nshowed mixed evidence regarding price differentials emerged as \r\na  function of energy performance of office buildings (Acil Allen \r\nConsulting 2015). Other studies have shown that energy efficiency \r\nand green certifications have been associated with lower default \r\nrates for commercial mortgages (Wallace et al. 2018; An and Pivo \r\n2020; Mathew et al. 2021)."


id: ba92d4a86afefa9a434d772698abb5c5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30040
content:
"As regards improvements in workforce performance due to improved \r\nindoor conditions (i.e., air quality, thermal comfort, etc.), (Kozusznik et al. \r\n2019) conducted a systematic review on whether the implementation \r\nof energy efficient interventions in office buildings influence well-being \r\nand job performance of employees. Among the 34 studies included in "


id: 541665531953ababe34a4916f5fb84e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12068
content:
"dollars of consumer bill savings in the US. These effects may again \r\nhave a  positive impact on public budgets. Furthermore, reduced \r\nenergy consumption on a large scale is likely to have an impact on \r\nlower energy prices and hence on reducing the cost of production \r\nof various products, improving the productivity of the economy and \r\nenhancing security of energy supply (IEA 2014; Thema et al. 2017)."


id: a7336a710697cb62f6c02645c03dfacd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26629
content:
"More generally, (Giraudet 2020) based on a  meta-analysis of \r\nseveral studies, showed that the capitalisation of energy efficiency is \r\nobserved in building sales and rental (even in the absence of energy \r\nperformance certificates), but the resulting market equilibrium can \r\nbe considered inefficient as rented dwellings are less energy efficient \r\nthan owner-occupied ones."


id: dbfab54cc61c653baf875b7dacdb1d12
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35986
content:
"Understanding the reasons why cost-effective investment in \r\nbuilding energy efficiency are not taking place as expected by \r\nrational economic behaviour is critical to design effective policies \r\nfor decarbonise the buildings (Cattano et al. 2013; Cattaneo 2019). \r\nBarriers depend from the actors (owner, tenant, utility, regulators, \r\nmanufacturers, etc.), their role in energy efficiency project and the \r\nmarket, technology, financial economic, social, legal, institutional, \r\nregulatory and policy structures (Reddy 1991; Weber 1997; Sorrell \r\net al. 2000; Reddy 2002; Sorrell et al. 2011; Cagno et al. 2012; Bardhan \r\net al., 2014; Bagaini et al. 2020; Vogel et al. 2015; Khosla et al. 2017; "


id: 53b81195bf83c16fc868a9faef035284
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11997
content:
"Furthermore, energy savings due to the implementation of mitigation \r\nactions will result, mainly in the long-run, in increased disposable \r\nincome for households, which in turn may be spent to buy other \r\ngoods and services, resulting in economic development, creation of \r\nnew permanent employment and positive public budget implications \r\n(IEA 2014; Thema et al. 2017; US EPA 2018). According to Anderson \r\net  al. (2014), the production of these other goods and services is \r\nusually more labour-intensive compared to energy production, \r\nresulting in net employment benefits of about 8 jobs per  million "


id: 978ad50dcdbd9a43f68ae06231fb65f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23877
content:
"lue bars indicate \r\ners and enablers \r\nn. The shading in\r\n, 2030 versus 20\r\nEconomic \r\nCosts in 2030 and long term\r\nEffects on employment \r\nand economic growth\r\nB E B \r\ners and barriers \r\n100"


id: 3cc085b3da5f93d53a7cce954c41d526
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7871
content:
"high rebound effects upon retrofitting (Teli et  al. 2016; Cali et  al. \r\n2016; Galvin and Sunikka-Blank 2017). The access for all to modern \r\nenergy services such as heating and cooling is one of the well-being \r\nobjectives governments aim for. However, ensuring this access leads \r\nto an increase of energy demand which is considered as a rebound \r\neffect by (Chitnis et al. 2013; Orea et al. 2015; Poon 2015; Teli et al. \r\n2016; Seebauer 2018; Sorrell et  al. 2018; Berger and Holtl 2019). \r\nAydin et al. (2017) found that in the Netherlands the rebound effect \r\nfor the lowest wealth quantile is double compared to the highest \r\nwealth quantile. Similar, energy access in developing countries leads \r\nto an increase consumption compared to very low baselines which \r\nis considered by some authors as rebound (Copiello 2017). On the \r\nother hand, in households whose members have a  higher level of \r\neducation and/or strong environmental values, the rebound is lower \r\n(Seebauer 2018)."


id: e6aea3bad3166d5837d66565f2d9a70e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37884
content:
"Rebound effects in the building sector could be a co-benefit, in cases \r\nwhere the mechanisms involved provide faster access to affordable \r\nenergy and/or contribute to improved social well-being, or a trade-off, to \r\nthe extent that the external costs of the increased energy consumption \r\nexceed the welfare benefits of the increased  energy service \r\nconsumption (Chan and Gillingham 2015; Borenstein 2015; Galvin \r\nand Sunikka-Blank 2017; Sorrell et al. 2018). In cases where rebound \r\neffects are undesirable, appropriate policies could be implemented for \r\ntheir mitigation. "


id: 4983212dac9cbb85f4e6dacae13c1f81
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10161
content:
"In the buildings sector energy efficiency improvements and promotion \r\nof cleaner fuels can lead to all types of rebound effects,  while \r\nsufficiency measures lead only to indirect and secondary effects \r\n(Chitnis et  al. 2013). The consideration of the rebound effects as \r\na behavioural economic response of the consumers to cheaper energy \r\nservices can only partially explain the gap between the expected \r\nand actual energy savings (Galvin and Sunikka-Blank 2017). The \r\nprebound effect, a term used to describe the situation where there \r\nis a  significant difference between expected and observed energy \r\nconsumption of non-refurbished buildings, is usually implicated in "


id: 1e6f6ad15d14e68885db735509cf0c9a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2556
content:
"There is no single energy efficiency policy (Wiese et al. 2018) able to \r\ndecarbonise the building sector, but a range of polices are needed, often \r\nincluded in a policy package (Kern et al., 2017; Rosenow et al. 2017) "


id: 7848f45a6522b430b137e31c0c1d59f1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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vector_id: 18373
content:
"Revisions in tenant and condominium law are necessary for reducing \r\ndisincentives between landlord and tenant or between multiple \r\nowners, these acts alone cannot incentivise them to uptake an energy \r\nefficiency upgrade in a property (Economidou and Serrenho, 2019). \r\nA package addressing split incentives include regulatory measures, \r\ninformation measures, labels, individual metering rules and financial \r\nmodels designed to distribute costs and benefits to tenants and \r\nowners in a  transparent and fair way (Bird and Hernandez 2012; \r\nEconomidou and Bertoldi 2015; Castellazi et  al. 2017). A more \r\nactive engagement of building occupants in energy saving practices, \r\nthe development of agreements benefitting all involved actors, \r\nacknowledgement of real energy consumption and establishment of \r\ncost recovery models attached to the property instead of the owner \r\nare useful measures to address misalignments between actors. "


id: 4335a6c05da33642af6d5d106903276d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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vector_id: 9033
content:
"In Developed Countries policy packages are targeted to increase \r\nthe number and depth of renovations of existing building, while for \r\ndeveloping countries policies focus on new construction, including \r\nregulatory measures and incentives, while carbon pricing would be \r\nmore problematic unless there is a strong recycling of the revenues. \r\nBuilding energy codes and labels could be based on LCA emissions, \r\nrather than energy consumption during the use phase of buildings, as \r\nit is the case in Switzerland and Finland (Kuittinen and Hakkinen 2020)."


id: a6d487140ffab5dbe5118c6795365d07
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26563
content:
"Policy packages should also combine sufficiency, efficiency, and \r\nrenewable energy instruments for buildings, for example some \r\nnational building energy codes already include minimum requirements \r\nfor the use of renewable energy in buildings."


id: d1468c9700df4583f36d04e3a18588cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34169
content:
"Building energy codes. Several scholars highlighted the key \r\nrole of mandatory building energy codes and minimum energy \r\nperformance requirements for buildings (Enker and Morrison 2017). \r\nWang et al. (2019) finds that, 'Building energy efficiency standards \r\n(BEES) are one of the most effective policies to reduce building "


id: 782e3f5230469ad3d8fb3c8e22a4265d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18356
content:
"Recently the concept of sufficiency complementary to energy \r\nefficiency has been introduced in policy making (Brischke et al. 2015; \r\nHewitt 2018; Thomas et al. 2019; Bertoldi 2020; Saheb 2021) (Box 9.1). "


id: fb38e238d6f19d9f30d8dfdbf0233323
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:19
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content:
"mandatory regulations for existing buildings include Canada, the \r\nUS (specific cities), China and Singapore. Policies include mandating \r\nenergy retrofits for low performances existing buildings, when sold \r\nor rented. In countries with increasing building stock, in particular in \r\ndeveloping countries, policies are more effective when targeting new \r\nbuildings (Kamal et al. 2019)."


id: 95b1ef6d842e6524e49d07ac1a115d7d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23529
content:
"NZEBs definitions are proposed by (Marszal et al. 2011; Deng and Wu \r\n2014; Zhang and Zhou 2015; Williams et al. 2016; Wells et al. 2018), \r\ncovering different geographical areas, developing and Developed \r\nCountries, and both existing buildings and new buildings. In 2019, \r\nChina issued the national standard Technical Standard for Nearly \r\nZero Energy Building (MoHURD, 2019). California has also adopted \r\na  building energy code mandating for NZEBs for new residential \r\nbuildings in 2020 and 2030 for commercial buildings (Feng et  al. \r\n2019). Several countries have adopted targets, roadmaps or \r\nmandatory building energy codes requiring net zero energy buildings \r\n(NZEBs) for some classes of new buildings (Feng et al. 2019). "


id: e07ac2e41a2cda7b41c320c02c03a786
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36745
content:
"Building labels and Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs).\r\nBuildings labels are an important instrument, with some limitations. \r\nLi et  al. (2019b) reviewed the EU mandatory Energy Performance \r\nCertificates for buildings and proposed several measures to make the \r\nEPC more effective in driving the markets towards low consumption \r\nbuildings. Some authors have indicated that the EPC based on the \r\nphysical properties of the buildings (asset rating) may be misleading \r\ndue to occupancy behaviour (Cohen and Bordass 2015) and \r\ncalculation errors (Crawley et al. 2019). Control authorities can have \r\na large impact on the quality of the label (Mallaburn 2018). Labels \r\ncan also include information on the GHG embedded in building \r\nmaterial or be based on LCA."


id: 70efbfcf14fd207feef2ac3cf15f29b5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17131
content:
"US EPA Energy Star and NABERS (Gui and Gou, 2020) are building \r\nperformance labels based on performance, not on modelled energy \r\nuse. Singapore has mandatory building energy labels, as do many \r\ncities in the US, while India and Brazil have mandatory labels for \r\npublic buildings."


id: 915faa8bd186e720921a1b8bcf4021c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22783
content:
"Mandatory energy performance disclosure and benchmarking of \r\nbuilding energy consumption is a  powerful policy instrument in \r\nparticular for non-residential buildings (Trencher et  al. 2016) and \r\ncould be more accurate than energy audits. Gabe (2016) showed that \r\nmandatory disclosure is more effective than voluntary disclosure. \r\nSome US cities (e.g., New York) have adopted Emissions Performance \r\nStandards for buildings, capping CO2 emissions. Accurate statistics \r\nrelated to energy use are very important for reducing GHG in building \r\nsector. In 2015, the Republic of Korea stablished the National \r\nBuilding Energy Integrated Management System, where building \r\ndata and energy consumption information are collected for policy \r\ndevelopment and public information."


id: e7115391ac944926dedc601bc9df9450
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37949
content:
"Building codes could also foster the usage of wood and timber as \r\na construction in particular for multi-storey buildings and in the long \r\nterm penalise carbon intensive building materials (Ludwig 2019) with \r\npolicies based on environmental performance assessment of buildings \r\nand the 'wood first' principle (Ludwig 2019; Ramage et al. 2017)."


id: cfc0d7ea34a84c2aff15940b13bfdbb9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33912
content:
"Retro-commissioning is a cost-effective process to periodically check \r\nthe energy performance of existing building and assure energy savings \r\nare maintained overtime (Kong et al. 2019; Ssembatya et al. 2021)."


id: 4494fada93170d9990e7ea0ad2081713
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9301
content:
"In countries with low rate of new construction, it is important to \r\nconsider mandatory building energy codes for existing buildings, but \r\nthis may also be relevant for countries with high new construction, \r\nas they will have soon a large existing building stock. The EU has \r\nrequirements already in place when building undergo a  major \r\nrenovation (Economidou et  al. 2020). Countries considering "


id: 4e1710b82bd8a8595c1fc524a120c967
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11006
content:
"Energy audits. Energy audits, help to overcome the information \r\nbarriers to efficiency investments, in particular buildings owned \r\nor occupied by small companies (Kalantzis and Revoltella, 2019). \r\nIn the EU energy audits are mandatory for large companies under \r\nthe Energy Efficiency Directive (Nabitz and Hirzel 2019), with some \r\nEU Member States having a  long experience with energy audits, "


id: 672c4aaa3c3762fa976240f33b368ee1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15426
content:
"be carefully selected and kept as simple as possible focusing on \r\nthe following: entertain, engage, embed and educate (Dewick and \r\nOwen 2015)."


id: f4dc39e14565f7f3ebad510b4b137e47
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40445
content:
"as part of national voluntary agreements with the private sector \r\n(Rezessy and Bertoldi 2011; Cornelis 2019). Singapore has adopted \r\nmandatory audit for buildings (Shen et  al. 2016). In the United \r\nStates, several cities have adopted energy informational policies in \r\nrecent years, including mandatory buildings audits (Trencher et  al. \r\n2016; Kontokosta et al. 2020). The State of New York has in place \r\na subsidised energy audit for residential building since 2010 (Boucher \r\net al. 2018). It is important to assure the training of auditors and the \r\nquality of the audit."


id: 1164dc2b8dbdb1c8cbb96d647f0d9491
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 254
content:
"Appliance energy labelling. Mandatory energy labelling schemes \r\nfor building technical equipment and appliances are very often \r\nimplemented together with minimum efficiency standards, with the \r\nmandatory standard pushing the market towards higher efficiency \r\nand the label pulling the market (Bertoldi, 2019). OECD countries, \r\nand many developing countries (for example China, Ghana, Kenya, \r\nIndia, South Africa, etc.) (Chunekar 2014; Diawuo et  al. 2018; \r\nIssock et al. 2018) have adopted mandatory energy labelling. Other \r\nlabelling schemes are of voluntary nature, for example, the Energy \r\nStar programme in the US (Ohler et  al. 2020), which covers many \r\ndifferent appliances."


id: cf7b68a0ab25659a72a4afaad77b7689
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33858
content:
"The concept of carbon allowances or carbon budget can also be \r\napplied to buildings, by assigning a  yearly CO2 emissions budget \r\nto each building. This policy would be a less complex than personal \r\nallowances as buildings have metered or billed energy sources \r\n(e.g.,  gas, electricity, delivered heat, heating oil, etc.). The scheme "


id: b8fed902c92a778228a86f8452842d76
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29750
content:
"stimulates investments in energy efficiency and on-site renewable \r\nenergies and energy savings resulting from behaviour by buildings \r\noccupant. For commercial buildings, similar schemes were \r\nimplemented in the UK CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme (closed in \r\n2019) or the Tokyo Metropolitan Carbon and Trade Scheme (Nishida \r\nand Hua 2011; Bertoldi et  al. 2013a). Since 2015 the Republic of \r\nKorea implemented an Emission Trading Scheme, covering buildings \r\n(Park and Hong 2014; Lee and Yu 2017; Narassimhan et al. 2018). \r\nMore recently under the New York Climate Mobilization Act enacted \r\nin 2019 New York City Local Law 97 established 'Carbon Allowances' \r\nfor large buildings (Spiegel-Feld 2019; Lee 2020). "


id: 253121ad0db59958bc13916e3517b307
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3736
content:
"Public money can be used to reward and give incentives to energy \r\nsaved, as a result of technology implementation, and/or as a result of \r\nenergy conservation and sufficiency (Eyre 2013; Bertoldi et al. 2013b; \r\nPrasanna et al. 2018). This can be seen as a core feature of the Energy \r\nSavings Feed-in Tariff (ES-FiT). The ES-FiT is a  performance-based \r\nsubsidy, whereby actions undertaken by end-users  - for example, \r\ninvestments in energy efficiency technology measures - are awarded \r\nbased on the real energy savings achieved."


id: 5ecf1e1eda9b99783f4bfd5008bb604
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13971
content:
"A policy, which can have similar impact to a carbon tax and is the \r\nenergy price/subsidy reform, which also involves raising energy \r\nprices. Energy price/subsidy reform reduces energy consumption and \r\ngreenhouse gas emissions and encourages investment in energy \r\nefficiency (Coady et al. 2018; Aldubyan and Gasim, 2021). In a similar \r\nmanner, government revenues from subsidies reforms can be used to \r\nmitigate the distributional impact on vulnerable population groups, \r\nincluding direct cash transfer programmes (Rentschler and Brazilian \r\n2017; Schaffitzel et al. 2020)."


id: 16d0cdc4604dda606b92429771d17142
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1229
content:
"Energy or carbon taxes. Energy and/or carbon taxes are a climate \r\npolicy, which can help in reducing energy consumption (Sen and \r\nVollebergh 2018) and manage the rebound effect (Font Vivanco \r\net al. 2016; Peng et al. 2019; Freire-Gonzalez 2020; Bertoldi 2020). \r\nThe carbon tax has been adopted mainly in OECD countries and in \r\nparticular in EU Member States (Sen and Vollebergh 2018; Hajek \r\net al. 2019; Bertoldi 2020). There is high agreement that carbon taxes \r\ncan be effective in reducing CO2 emissions (Andersson 2017; IPCC \r\n2018; Hajek et al. 2019). It is hard to define the optimum level of \r\ntaxation in order to achieve the desired level of energy consumption \r\nor CO2 emission reduction (Weisbach et al. 2009). As for other energy \r\nefficiency policy distributional effect and equity considerations have \r\nto be carefully considered and mitigated (Borozan 2019). High energy "


id: b95d4c33210fcc06091159d235ec78a5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29825
content:
"Taxes could also be used to penalise inefficient behaviour and favour \r\nthe adoption of efficient behaviour and technologies. Taxes are used \r\nin some jurisdictions to promote energy efficient appliances with \r\nlower VAT. Similarly, the annual building/property tax (and also the \r\npurchase tax) could be based on the CO2 emissions of the buildings, \r\nrather than on the value of the building. Tax credits are also an \r\nimportant subsidy for the renovation of buildings in France (Giraudet \r\n2020), Italy (Alberini and Bigano 2015) and other countries."


id: 7c028d766b74ed282ae296a64bf88069
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19024
content:
"mortgages to finance efficiency improvements. There are two types of \r\nenergy mortgages: (i) the Energy Efficient Mortgages (EEMs), and (ii) the \r\nEnergy Improvement Mortgages (EIMs), both can help in overcoming \r\nthe main barriers to retrofit policies (Miu et  al. 2018). The success \r\ndepends on the improved energy efficiency with a positive impact on \r\nproperty value and on the reduction of energy bills and the income \r\nincrease in the household. In the EU, the EeMAP Initiative aims to create \r\na standardised energy efficient mortgage template (Bertoldi et al. 2021)."


id: 3e481167a6a76129519afedd2a2a93bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8135
content:
"Grants and subsidies are traditional financing instruments used by \r\ngovernments when optimal levels of investments cannot be fully \r\nsupported by the market alone. They can partly help overcoming the \r\nupfront cost barrier as they directly fill an immediate financial gap \r\nand thus enable a temporary shift in the market (Newell et al. 2019). \r\nThese forms of support are usually part of policy mixes including \r\nfurther fiscal and financial instruments such as feed-in tariffs and \r\ntax breaks (Polzin et al. 2019). Potential issues with subsidies are the \r\nlimited availability of public financing, the stop and go due to annual \r\nbudget and the competition with commercial financing."


id: fe5492d42a14ca4c2680b46da98e51ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42117
content:
"On-bill financing is a mechanism that reduces first-cost barriers by \r\nlinking repayment of energy efficiency investments to the utility \r\nbill and thereby allowing customers to pay back part or all costs of \r\nenergy efficiency investments over time (Brown 2009). On-bill finance \r\nprogrammes can be categorised into: (i) on-bill loans (assignment of \r\nthe obligation to the property) and (ii) on-bill tariffs (payment off in \r\ncase of ownership transfer) (Eadson et  al. 2013). On-bill finance \r\nprogrammes can be more effective when set up as a service rather \r\nthan a loan (Mundaca and Klocke 2018)."


id: 82aabf1b82b90e63af276db5dfadd5de
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20119
content:
"Property Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) is a  means of financing \r\nenergy renovations and renewable energy through the use of specific \r\nbonds offered by municipal governments to investors (Mills 2016). \r\nMunicipalities use the funds raised to loan money towards energy \r\nrenovations in buildings. The loans are repaid over the assigned long \r\nterm (15-20 years) via an annual assessment on their property tax \r\nbill (Kirkpatrick and Bennear 2014). This model has been subject \r\nto consumer protection concerns. Residential PACE programmes \r\nin California have been shown to increase PV deployment in \r\njurisdictions that adopt these programs (Kirkpatrick and Bennear \r\n2014; Ameli et al. 2017). In US commercial buildings, PACE volumes \r\nand programs, however, continue to grow (Lee 2020). "


id: 27bf550026f0c089f891f9b2067f0a84
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4181
content:
"Wholesaling of EE of loans and utilities programmes, are other important \r\nfinancing instruments. Another financing mechanism for building \r\nefficiency upgrades, mainly implemented so far in the US, is efficiency\u0002as-a-service under an energy services agreement (ESA), where the \r\nbuilding owners or tenant pay to the efficiency service provider a charge \r\nbased on realised energy savings without any upfront cost (Kim et al. \r\n2012; Bertoldi, 2020). ESA providers give performance guarantees \r\nassuming the risk that expected savings would occur (Bertoldi, 2020)."


id: 5d4db159070b21737296f11f88c857a9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13693
content:
"Revolving funds allow reducing investment requirements and \r\nenhancing energy efficiency investment impacts by recovering \r\nand reinvesting the savings generated (Setyawan 2014). Revolving \r\nfund could make retrofit cost-neutral in the long term and could \r\nalso dramatically increase low carbon investments, including in \r\ndeveloping countries (Gouldson et al. 2015)."


id: 5a0dce01e79bd1f658209955cfd6ca94
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13087
content:
"Carbon finance, started under the Kyoto Protocol with the flexible \r\nmechanisms and further enhanced under the Paris Agreement \r\n(Michaelowa et al. 2019), is an activity based on 'carbon emission rights' \r\nand its derivatives (Liu et al. 2015a). Carbon finance can promote low\u0002cost emission reductions (Zhou and Li 2019). Under Emission Trading \r\nSchemes or other carbon pricing mechanisms, auctioning carbon \r\nallowances creates a new revenue stream. Revenues from auctioning \r\ncould be used to finance energy efficiency projects in buildings with \r\ngrants, zero interest loans or guarantees (Wiese et al. 2020)."


id: fa85010b551731ce889cc41d4046067
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41445
content:
"Crowdfunding is a  new and rapidly growing form of financial \r\nintermediation that channels funds from investors to borrowers \r\n(individuals or companies) or users of equity capital (companies) \r\nwithout involving traditional financial organisations such as banks \r\n(Miller and Carriveau 2018). Typically, it involves internet-based \r\nplatforms that link savers directly with borrowers (European Union \r\n2015). It can play a significant role at the start of a renewable and \r\nsustainable energy projects (Dilger et al. 2017)."


id: 3f0b3baa3d8a08107259b5a92104217a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8276
content:
"FiT systems is the increasing cost of policies maintenance (Zhang et al. \r\n2018; Pereira da Silva et al. 2019; Roberts et al. 2019a). In Germany, \r\nthe financial costs, passed on to consumers in the form a levy on the \r\nelectricity price have increased substantially in recent years (Winter \r\nand Schlesewsky 2019) resulting in opposition to the FiT in particular \r\nby non-solar customers. A particular set up of the FiT encourage self\u0002consumption through net metering and net billing, which has a lower \r\nfinancial impact on electricity ratepayers compared with traditional \r\nFiTs (Pacudan 2018; Roberts et al. 2019b; Vence and Pereira 2019)."


id: 2a7405ad06655dd2c72ae164120029c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4696
content:
"The One-Stop Shop (OSS) service providers for buildings energy \r\nrenovations are organisations, consortia, projects, independent experts \r\nor advisors that usually cover the whole or large part of the customer \r\nrenovation journey from information, technical assistance, structuring and \r\nprovision of financial support, to the monitoring of savings (Mahapatra \r\net al. 2019; Bertoldi 2021b). OSSs are transparent and accessible advisory \r\ntools from the client perspective and new, innovative business models \r\nfrom the supplier perspective (Boza-Kiss and Bertoldi 2018)."


id: 5eae371b87d7cc2cdd9e0afeb5055f19
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13946
content:
"In some countries, for example, Australia (Duong et al. 2019), South \r\nKorea (Choi et al. 2018a), China (Yi et al. 2019), there was a transition \r\nfrom subsidies under the FiT to market-based mechanisms, such \r\nas RPSs and tendering. Compared with FiT, RPS (or Renewable \r\nObligations) reduce the subsidy costs (Zhang et al. 2018). A number \r\nof scholars (Xin-gang et  al. 2017; Liu et  al. 2018a, 2019a) have \r\nhighlighted the RPSs' effectiveness in promoting the development of \r\nrenewable energy. Other authors (Requate 2015; An et al. 2015) have \r\npresented possible negative impacts of RPSs. "


id: 836f2fafba460ab53080c55942eb34b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20259
content:
"On-site renewable energy generation is a  key component for the \r\nbuilding sector decarbonisation, complementing sufficiency and \r\nefficiency. Renewable energies (RES) technologies still face barriers \r\ndue to the upfront investment costs, despite the declining price of \r\nsome technologies, long pay-back period, unpredictable energy \r\nproduction, policy incertitude, architectural (in particular for built-in \r\nPV) and landscape considerations, technical regulations for access to \r\nthe grid, and future electricity costs (Mah et al. 2018; Agathokleous \r\nand Kalogirou 2020). "


id: 5b3f5fed63f5190c02d54b927126d2c9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13303
content:
"Several policy instruments for RES have been identified by scholars \r\n(Fouquet 2013; Azhgaliyeva et  al. 2018; Pitelis et  al. 2020): direct \r\ninvestments; feed-in tariffs; grants and subsidies; loans and taxes; \r\n(tradable) green certificates or renewable/clean energy portfolio \r\nstandards; information and education; strategic planning; codes and \r\nstandards; building codes; priority grid access; research, development \r\nand deployment and voluntary approaches. There are specific policies \r\nfor renewable heating and cooling (Connor et al. 2013). In 2011, the \r\nUK introduced the Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) support scheme \r\n(Balta-Ozkan et al. 2015; Connor et al. 2015). The RHI guarantee a fixed \r\npayment per unit of heat generated by a renewable heat technology \r\nfor a specific contract duration (Yilmaz Balaman et al. 2019)."


id: 2bfad2fea8c91fb2291ca5b90421ba78
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4989
content:
"The most common implemented policy instruments are the feed-in \r\ntariffs (FiTs) and the Renewable/Energy Portfolio Standards (RPSs) (Xin\u0002gang et al. 2017a; Alizada 2018; Bergquist et al. 2020), with FiTs more \r\nsuited for small scale generation. More than 60 countries and regions \r\nworldwide have implemented one of the two policies (Sun and Nie 2015). \r\nFiT is a price policy guaranteeing the purchase of energy generation at \r\na specific fixed price for a fixed period (Barbosa et al. 2018; Xin-gang \r\net al. 2020). RPS is a quantitative policy, which impose mandatory quota \r\nof RES generation to power generators (Xin-gang et al. 2020). "


id: 8793d8fcf205e1bd7b509fb325e09f88
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21011
content:
"A flat rate feed-in tariff (FiT) is a well-tested incentive adopted in many \r\njurisdictions to encourage end-users to generate electricity from RES \r\nusing rooftop and on-site PV systems (Pacudan 2018). More recently, \r\nthere has been an increasing interest for dynamic FiTs taking into \r\naccount electricity costs, hosting capacity, ambient temperature, and \r\ntime of day (Hayat et al. 2019). Since 2014, EU Member States have \r\nbeen obligated to move from FiT to feed-in premium (FiTP) (Hortay \r\nand Rozner 2019); where a FiTP consist in a premium of top of the \r\nelectricity market price. Lecuyer and Quirion (2019) argued that under \r\nuncertainty over electricity prices and renewable production costs a flat \r\nFiT results in higher welfare than a FiTP. One of the main concerns with "


id: 651dc6534e67516b81bd39f966d12662
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15053
content:
"Ghazali et  al. 2020; Haelg 2020). A support scheme based on \r\ntenders allows a  more precise steering of expansion and lower \r\nrisk of excessive support (Gephart et al. 2017). Bento et al. (2020) \r\nindicated that tendering is more effective in promoting additional \r\nrenewable capacity comparing to other mechanisms such as FiTs. It \r\nis also important to take into account the rebound effect in energy \r\nconsumption by on-site PV users, which might reduce up to one fifth \r\nof the carbon benefit of renewable energy (Deng and Newton 2017)."


id: 48e0d659b6254497b5666de20e71dd8d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10039
content:
"The end-user will be at the centre as a key participant in the future \r\nelectricity system (Zepter et al. 2019; Lavrijssen and Carrillo Parra, 2017) \r\nproviding flexibility, storage, energy productions, peer-to-peer trading, \r\nelectric vehicle charging. Zepter indicates that 'the current market \r\ndesigns and business models lack incentives and  opportunities for "


id: c9465dcbf8a57c795852d856d0bb9e4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32740
content:
"As Section  9.6.3 points out, the incremental investment cost to \r\ndecarbonise buildings at national level is up to 3.5% GDP per annum "


id: 461a6b2c0cc7ae68a069631e97d44cde
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9547
content:
"Figure 9.21 | Incremental capital expenditure on energy efficiency investment (left) and renewable heat in buildings, 2015-2021. Notes: (i) An energy \r\nefficiency investment is defined as the incremental spending on new energy-efficient equipment or the full cost of refurbishments that reduce energy use. (ii) Renewable heat \r\nfor end-use include solar thermal applications (for district, space, and water heating), bioenergy and geothermal energy, as well as heat pumps. (iii) The investment in 2021 is \r\nan estimate. Source: IEA 2021b. "


id: af7defaf6c9865d19ab20ea832436b79
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28108
content:
"(von Lupke and Well 2020), highlighting the need of reinforcing the \r\ninstitutions, anticipatory governance, the inconsistency of energy \r\npolicies and the emerging multi-level governance."


id: a4b45b1f84783e14807480ea41fc91c6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26195
content:
"Multi-level and polycentric governance is essential for implementing \r\nsufficiency, energy efficiency and renewable energies policies (IPCC \r\n2018). Policies can be implemented at different levels of government \r\nand decision making, international, national, regional, and local. \r\nPolicies for building have be adopted at national level (Enker and \r\nMorrison 2017), at state or regional level (Fournier et al. 2019), or \r\nat city level (Trencher and van der Heijden 2019). Zhao et al. (2019) \r\nfind that national policies are instrumental in driving low carbon \r\ndevelopments in buildings."


id: efdb2b7466b243409f0ed8b5b2ef264d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39586
content:
"experts. Thus, in development support, addition to technology \r\ntransfer, also capacity buildings for national and local authorities \r\nshould be provides. The Paris Agreement Article 11 aims at enhancing \r\nthe capacity of decision-making institutions in developing countries \r\nto support effective implementation. "


id: 44152843e26f3de3cb7ead1deb91e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9215
content:
"Enforcement of policies is of key importance. Policies on appliance \r\nenergy standards need to establish criteria for random checks and \r\ntests of compliance, establish penalties and sanctions for non\u0002compliance. For building code compliance there is the need to verify \r\ncompliance after construction to verify the consistence with building \r\ndesign (Vine et al. 2017). Often local authorities lack resources and \r\ntechnical capacity to carry out inspections to check code compliance. \r\nThis issue is even more pressing in countries and cities with large \r\ninformal settlements, where buildings may not be respecting building \r\nenergy codes for safety and health."


id: 9ff5e5c38ed34b0a53750b85121833b5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25355
content:
"In 2019, global GHG emissions from buildings were at 12 GtCO2-eq out of which 24% were direct emissions, 57% were indirect \r\nemissions, and 18% were embodied emissions. More than 95% of emissions from buildings were CO2 emissions, CH4 and N2O \r\nrepresented 0.08% each and emissions from halocarbon contributed by 3% to global GHG emissions from buildings."


id: 8b891a141aa581cc383217c85364344a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21715
content:
"Paolo Bertoldi (Italy), Jacob M. Kihila (the United Republic of Tanzania), Andre F.P. Lucena (Brazil), \r\nErika Mata (Sweden/Spain), Sebastian Mirasgedis (Greece), Aleksandra Novikova (Germany/the \r\nRussian Federation), Yamina Saheb (France/Algeria)"


id: 9bf5cc85b0205edb1851951560cc421d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24691
content:
"Cabeza, L. F., Q. Bai, P. Bertoldi, J.M. Kihila, A.F.P. Lucena, E. Mata, S. Mirasgedis, A. Novikova, Y. Saheb, 2022: Buildings \r\nSupplementary Material. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working \r\nGroup III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. \r\nSlade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. \r\nLisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Available from https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/."


id: 2ec64425a8d33db1e89876c918b61a76
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5506
content:
"Figure 9.11 shows a summary of the available technologies with \r\nclimate change mitigation potential in buildings. Here, an extended \r\nlist of such technologies is presented (Table 9.SM.1 to Table 9.SM.3)."


id: 35f5862a1a387d4a042194cb28beaaac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6741
content:
"Sources: Cabeza et al. (2010); Radhi (2011); Asdrubali et al. (2012); Capozzoli et al. (2013); Chen et al. (2013); Seong and Lim (2013); Bojic et al. (2014); Haggag et al. (2014); \r\nSpanaki et al. (2014); Djedjig et al. (2015); Yang et al. (2015); Andjelkovic et al. 2016; Coma et al. 2016; Costanzo et al. 2016; Pomponi et al. 2016; Coma et al. 2017; Khoshbakht \r\net al. 2017; Saffari et al. 2017; Jedidi and Benjeddou 2018; Bevilacqua et al. 2019; Rosado and Levinson 2019; Varela Lujan et al. 2019; Annibaldi et al. (2020); Cabeza and \r\nChafer (2020); Kameni Nematchoua et al. (2020)."


id: af8adb8242ec067f8eb5503a50364400
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28119
content:
"Sources: adapted from Imanari et al. (1999); Yu and Chan (2009); Cansevdi et al. (2010); Fallahi et al. (2010); Privara et al. (2011); de Gracia et al. (2013); Sourbron et al. (2013); \r\nSarbu and Sebarchievici (2014); Vakiloroaya et al. (2014a); Mujahid Rafique et al. (2015); Zhu et al. (2015); Harby et al. (2016); Navarro et al. (2016b); Jassim (2017); Luo et al. \r\n(2017); Lee et al. (2018); Romdhane and Louahlia-Gualous (2018); Alam et al. (2019); Gong et al. (2019); Hohne et al. (2019); Irshad et al. (2019); Liu et al. (2019); Omara and \r\nAbuelnour (2019); Soltani et al. (2019); Zhang et al. (2019); Cabeza and Chafer (2020); Dong et al. (2020); Ling et al. (2020); Mahmoud et al. (2020); Peng et al. (2020); Yu et al. \r\n(2020); Zhang et al. (2020b). "


id: 1a0eedf2c57be165f5348ccec6b32f93
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1784
content:
"Table 9.SM.5 summarises the results of 17 studies from 12 different \r\ncountries showing the price premium of energy efficient dwellings."


id: 918e12a71f4d8256513282486f9e2cbc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22831
content:
"Buildings consume 40% of final energy in the EU and are responsible for 36% of the EU CO2 emissions (Renovation Wave 2020). In the EU \r\nthe majority of buildings are already built, with several buildings between 50 and 20 years old, that is, built before energy performance \r\nrequirements were part of building energy codes, therefore having poor energy performances. The current energy renovation rate is \r\n1% per year, with many renovations only marginally improving the energy performances. At the current renovation rate, the target to \r\ndecarbonise the building stock in the EU by 2050 will be largely missed."


id: 5613276cb7250883274e336a1da4d76f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12416
content:
"The EU has developed over the years a comprehensive policy package of several policy instruments, aiming at reducing energy \r\nconsumption, integrating renewable energies and thus mitigating GHG emissions from buildings (Economidou et al. 2020). "


id: 36d62cb403aab5e87d8e609fdaa7a378
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6876
content:
"The EU has an overall binding economy-wide domestic emission reductions target of at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 and, for \r\nsectors of the economy not covered by the EU Emission Trading System, the Effort Sharing Regulation (2018) set a target to reduce \r\nemissions by 30% by 2030 compared to 2005 (this target will include only buildings direct emissions), with specific mandatory targets \r\nfor individual MSs. "


id: 891125042b75d1db180f8952d0585c53
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21277
content:
"In addition, there is an overall mandatory EU energy saving target set at reducing primary energy by 32.5% against a business as usual \r\n(BAU) scenario, each MSs must contribute to reaching this target (but no mandatory individual targets for MSs). As results, in order \r\nto contribute to the EU target, individual MSs have adopt a range of national policies and measures for the building sector in addition to \r\nthe EU EPBD LTRSs requirements as described in the National Energy and Climate Plans of 2020. "


id: 378029c4b3f6c79f87eb4694df5c169
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6977
content:
"To complement measures for the overall performance of buildings, regulatory measures focuses on the building equipment and \r\ntechnical services such as air conditioners, boilers, lightings, domestic appliances. In the EU minimum energy performance requirements \r\nfor appliances and equipment are adopted at EU level under the Ecodesign Directive (2005). The energy efficiency requirements are \r\nthe same for all the MSs and now all the major building technical equipment are covered by dedicated regulation under the Ecodesign. \r\nAs example the removal from sale of incandescent and halogen lamps has been implemented under the Ecodesign Directive."


id: aeed1dc106c3e08686ff60fb8ce8bcba
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28017
content:
"In the EU over 10,000 cities taking part in the Covenant of Mayors initiative (Palermo et al. 2020) have adopted measures to improve \r\nthe energy efficiency of public and private as part of the city planning or city building permits."


id: 9c8b849848bb61631dc479dd0c564ec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24792
content:
"Immerzeel et al. (2014); Hejazi et al. (2015); Holland et al. (2015); Fricko et al. (2016); Song et al. 2016; Urge-Vorsatz et al. (2016); Correa et al. (2017); Thema \r\net al. (2017); Balaban and Puppim de Oliveira (2017); Rao and Pachauri (2017); Goldemberg et al. (2018); Rosenthal et al. (2018); Steenland et al. (2018); \r\nMcCollum et al. (2018); Mzavanadze (2018c); Wu et al. (2018). "


id: a13ef13cdc709c340640030f98cecf30
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25590
content:
"Christidou et al. (2014); (Jensen et al. (2015); Miezis et al. (2016b); Sadeghi et al. (2016); Khan (2019); Dane; Kim and Yang (2020); Osunmuyiwa et al. (2020); \r\nSpandagos et al. (2020); Al-Shareefi et al. (2021); Ardito et al. (2021); Del Rio Castro et al. (2021); Del Rio Castro et al. (2021); Dornberger and Schwaferts (2021); \r\nGavrila Gavrila and de Lucas Ancillo (2021); Pigliautile et al. (2021); Sabarish et al. (2021); Serrano (2021); Strenger and Frerich (2021); Wan and Bai (2021). "


id: 3348ecb237de183bb4a7fbee37e74edd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6274
content:
"Positive and negative direct and indirect effects associated with lower \r\nenergy demand and possible reductions in energy prices, energy efficiency \r\ninvestments, lower energy expenditures and fostering innovation. \r\nImprovements in labour productivity. Expanding clean cooking in developing \r\ncountries would increase the productive time for women and children that \r\ncan be used for income generation or rest."


id: 81ad605488ed32cbdfdadbb46c7ed2d5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19943
content:
"Positive and negative direct and indirect effects associated with lower \r\ndemand for fuels and possible reductions in energy prices, renewable \r\nenergy systems (RES) investments, improved energy access and fostering \r\ninnovation. Improvements in labour productivity. In addition, electrification \r\nof remote rural areas and other regions that do not have access to \r\nelectricity, through RES and microgrids, enables people living in poor \r\ndeveloping countries to read, socialise, and be more productive during the \r\nevening, and it is also associated with greater school attendance by children."


id: 8cd52b8a9071346e84ad284aa1da1ba9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21962
content:
"Torero (2015); Rao et al. (2016); Urge-Vorsatz et al. (2016); Mofidi and Akbari (2017); European Commission (2016); Akander et al. (2017); Makumbe et al. \r\n(2017); Niemela et al. (2017); Thema et al. (2017); Barnes and Samad (2018); Kohler et al. (2018);McCollum et al. (2018); Saheb et al. (2018); Alawneh et al. \r\n(2019); Bleyl et al. (2019); Vimpari and Junnila (2019); Alajmi et al. (2020); Fina et al. (2020); Grande-Acosta and Islas-Samperio (2020); Parupudi et al. (2020); \r\nSharda et al. (2021); Calise et al. (2021); Lindholm et al. (2021)."


id: 31e24676ed0bed394c6b9f751a791c8b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6030
content:
"Garcia-Frapolli et al. (2010); Heffner and Campbell (2011); Malla et al. (2011); Zografakis et al. (2012); Aunan et al. (2013); Christidou et al. (2014); Johansson \r\net al. (2015); Willand et al. (2015); Figueroa (2016); Hanna et al. (2016); Urge-Vorsatz et al. (2016); Balaban and Puppim de Oliveira (2017); Berrueta et al. \r\n(2017b); Bonan et al. (2017); Hernandez-Roman et al. (2017); Thema et al. (2017); Jeuland et al. (2018); Ketchman et al. (2018); McCollum et al. (2018); \r\nMzavanadze (2018); Rosenthal et al. (2018); Tonn et al. (2018); Alawneh et al. (2019b); Wang et al. (2019); Reindl and Palm (2020); Rey-Moreno and Medina\u0002Molina (2020); Mata et al. (2021). "


id: fc54578de3cd2807501749cf00d2bfd1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41761
content:
"Smart meters support the introduction of new \r\nand dynamic tariff schemes that allow price \r\nbenefits for the end-users. Active management \r\nand digitalisation practices can effectively enhance \r\nenergy access and security by reducing peak \r\ndemand, improving the primary energy intensity of \r\nthe economy, mitigating the dependence on fossil \r\nfuels, postponing the installation of new facilities, \r\nreducing electricity prices volatility, and so on."


id: 4a7f466b883d12945cc367223f755ba8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10348
content:
"Improving energy access enhances agricultural \r\nproductivity and improves food security. Result in \r\nenergy/fuel poverty alleviation and in improving \r\nenergy security. On the other hand, increased \r\nbioenergy production may restrict the available \r\nland for food production."


id: d36d775a88eb2c83e5b08bfe9fc4be4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34537
content:
"Mahlia and Saidur (2010); McNeil et al. (2013); Rahman et al. (2015); Gerke et al. (2017); Russo et al. (2018); Singh et al. (2019). "


id: 34e383addd5188e445cec84beca34335
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6547
content:
"Subash Dhar (India/Denmark), Ogheneruona E. Diemuodeke (Nigeria), Tsutomu Kajino (Japan), \r\nDavid Simon Lee (United Kingdom), Sudarmanto Budi Nugroho (Indonesia), Xunmin Ou (China), \r\nAnders Hammer Stromman (Norway), Jake Whitehead (Australia)"


id: 96340a33bec02652e1e388f56a80320c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23621
content:
"Otavio Cavalett (Brazil), Michael Craig (the United States of America), Felix Creutzig (Germany), \r\nNick Cumpsty (United Kingdom), Maria Josefina Figueroa Meza (Venezuela/Denmark), \r\nMaximilian  Held (Switzerland), Christine Hung (Norway), Alan Jenn (the United States of \r\nAmerica), Paul Kishimoto (Canada), Takashi Kuzuya (Japan), William F. Lamb (Germany/United \r\nKingdom), Shivika Mittal (India), Helene Muri (Norway), Minal Pathak (India), Daniel  Posen \r\n(Canada), Simon Robertson (Australia), Andrea Santos (Brazil), Karen C. Seto (the United States \r\nof America), Rohit Sharma (India), Benjamin K. Sovacool (Denmark/United Kingdom), Linda Steg \r\n(the Netherlands), Lorenzo Usai (Italy), Aranya Venkatesh (the United States of America/India), \r\nSonia Yeh (Sweden)"


id: 45b2cb09f5f9fa33673a0080811c7a0b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9476
content:
"Jaramillo, P., S. Kahn Ribeiro, P. Newman, S. Dhar, O.E. Diemuodeke, T. Kajino, D.S. Lee, S.B. Nugroho, X. Ou, \r\nA.  Hammer  Stromman, J. Whitehead, 2022: Transport. In IPCC, 2022: Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate \r\nChange. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on \r\nClimate Change [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, \r\nR. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, J. Malley, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and \r\nNew York, NY, USA. doi: 10.1017/9781009157926.012"


id: 3c0f298f4ed7e1fab79aa6e73196f303
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7756
content:
"Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) have lower lifecycle greenhouse \r\ngas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles \r\n(ICEVs) when BEVs are charged with low-carbon electricity \r\n(high confidence). Electromobility is being rapidly implemented in \r\nmicromobility (e-autorickshaws, e-scooters, e-bikes), in transit systems, \r\nespecially buses, and, to a lesser degree, in the electrification of personal \r\nvehicles. BEVs could also have the added benefit of supporting grid \r\noperations. The commercial availability of mature lithium-ion batteries \r\n(LIBs) has underpinned this growth in electromobility."


id: cc94a9e614270d58c07624319234b369
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33315
content:
"Meeting climate mitigation goals would require transformative \r\nchanges in the transport sector (high confidence). In 2019, \r\ndirect greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the transport sector \r\nwere 8.7 GtCO2-eq (up from 5.0 GtCO2-eq in 1990) and accounted \r\nfor 23% of global energy-related CO2 emissions. 70% of direct \r\ntransport emissions came from road vehicles, while 1%, 11%, and \r\n12% came from rail, shipping, and aviation, respectively. Emissions \r\nfrom shipping and aviation continue to grow rapidly. Transport\u0002related emissions in developing regions of the world have increased \r\nmore rapidly than in Europe or North America, a trend that is likely \r\nto continue in coming decades (high confidence). {10.1, 10.5, 10.6}"


id: 98e8c5578a6633e347df5ce52fe62df9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24115
content:
"As global battery production increases, unit costs are declining. Further \r\nefforts to reduce the GHG footprint of battery production, however, \r\nare essential for maximising the mitigation potential of BEVs. The \r\ncontinued growth of electromobility for land transport would require \r\ninvestments in electric charging and related grid infrastructure (high \r\nconfidence). Electromobility powered by low-carbon electricity has \r\nthe potential to rapidly reduce transport GHG and can be applied \r\nwith multiple co-benefits in the developing world's growing cities \r\n(high confidence). {10.3, 10.4, 10.8}"


id: 1f85a4d6cf46bd0aa8e089d0c8d7a680
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2755
content:
"discretion of each country. While the International Civil Aviation \r\nOrganization (ICAO) and International Maritime Organization (IMO) \r\nhave established emissions reductions targets, only strategies to \r\nimprove fuel efficiency and reduce demand have been pursued, and \r\nthere has been minimal commitment to new technologies. Some \r\nauthors in the literature have argued that including international \r\nshipping and aviation under the Paris Agreement could spur stronger \r\ndecarbonisation efforts in these segments. {10.5, 10.6, 10.7}"


id: 1b7bf04dbbff46846ddab59b0e6fe855
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2022
content:
"There are growing concerns about resource availability, labour \r\nrights, non-climate environmental impacts, and costs of critical \r\nminerals needed for LIBs (medium confidence). Emerging \r\nnational strategies on critical minerals and the requirements from \r\nmajor vehicle manufacturers are leading to new, more geographically \r\ndiverse mines. The standardisation of battery modules and packaging \r\nwithin and across vehicle platforms, as well as increased focus on \r\ndesign for recyclability, are important. Given the high degree of \r\npotential recyclability of LIBs, a  nearly closed-loop system in the \r\nfuture could mitigate concerns about critical mineral issues (medium \r\nconfidence). {10.3, 10.8}"


id: 84bc7e05e3653ba6fcff9c2d7b21f95b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20497
content:
"The scenarios literature indicates that fuel and technology shifts are \r\ncrucial to reducing carbon emissions to meet temperature goals. \r\nIn general terms, electrification tends to play the key role in land\u0002based transport, but biofuels and hydrogen (and derivatives) could \r\nplay a  role in decarbonisation of freight in some contexts (high \r\nconfidence). Biofuels and hydrogen (and derivatives) are likely more \r\nprominent in shipping and aviation (high confidence). The shifts \r\ntowards these alternative fuels must occur alongside shifts towards \r\nclean technologies in other sectors (high confidence). {10.7}"


id: 92d8d32b819c0b8b41dbe5ba760a9028
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23051
content:
"The deployment of low-carbon aviation and shipping fuels \r\nthat support decarbonisation of the transport sector could \r\nrequire changes to national and international governance \r\nstructures (medium confidence). Currently, the Paris Agreement \r\ndoes not specifically cover emissions from international shipping \r\nand aviation. Instead, accounting for emissions from international \r\ntransport in the Nationally Determined Contributions is at the "


id: d101e0660bc87a9b4eba09008abcef5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34120
content:
"The  chapter assesses the future trajectories emerging from global, \r\nenergy, and national scenarios and concludes with a discussion on \r\nenabling conditions for transformative change in the sector."


id: d24952f5a3380724c42e03c8a5745e81
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34351
content:
"This chapter examines the transport sector's role in climate change \r\nmitigation. It appraises the transport system's interactions beyond the \r\ntechnology of vehicles and fuels to include the full lifecycle analysis \r\nof mitigation options, a  review of enabling conditions, and metrics \r\nthat can facilitate advancing transport decarbonisation goals. The \r\nchapter assesses developments in the systems of land-based transport \r\nand introduces, as a new feature since AR5, two separate sections \r\nfocusing on the trends and challenges in aviation and shipping. "


id: 47622e659f7935d1bd1fe7faaa808ba0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9768
content:
"This section (Section 10.1) discusses how transport relates to virtually \r\nall the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the trends and drivers \r\nmaking transport a big contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, \r\nthe impacts climate change is having on transport that can be \r\naddressed as part of mitigation, and the overview of emerging transport \r\ndisruptions with potential to shape a low-carbon transport pathway."


id: b9d0a8c4ea0830b66cadb0d9b049ca8b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29905
content:
"IRP 2019; WBA 2019; SLoCaT 2019; Yin 2019). Table 10.1 summarises \r\ntransport-related topics for these SDGs and corresponding research. \r\nSection 17.3.3.7 also provides a cross-sectoral overview of synergies \r\nand trade-offs between climate change mitigation and the SDGs."


id: 3d5a633826c327c61b2196ce162bcd45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7970
content:
"The adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development by the \r\nUnited Nations (UN) has renewed international efforts to pursue and \r\naccurately measure global actions towards sustainable development \r\n(United Nations 2015). The 17 SDGs set out the overall goals that \r\nare further specified by 169 targets and 232 SDG indicators, many of \r\nwhich relate to transport (United Nations 2017; Lisowski et al. 2020). \r\nA sustainable transport system provides safe, inclusive, affordable, \r\nand clean passenger and freight mobility for current and future \r\ngenerations (Williams 2017; Litman 2021) so transport is particularly \r\nlinked to SDGs 3, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, and 13 (Move Humanity 2018; "


id: d4c6df06c18ee94a3cdd29f19b43b8bc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34753
content:
"The transport sector directly emitted around 8.9 Gtonnes (Gt) of carbon \r\ndioxide equivalent (CO2-eq) in 2019, up from 5.1 GtCO2-eq in 1990 \r\n(Figure 10.1). Global transport was the fourth largest source of GHG \r\nemissions in 2019 following the power, industry, and the agriculture, "


id: 8a1e4f505a297c1d40ae30794d6bea21
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21473
content:
"Figure 10.1 | Global and regional transport greenhouse gas emissions trends. Indirect emissions from electricity and heat consumed in transport are shown in \r\npanel (a) and are primarily linked to the electrification of rail systems. These indirect emissions do not include the full lifecycle emissions of transportation systems (e.g., vehicle \r\nmanufacturing and infrastructure), which are assessed in Section 10.4. International aviation and shipping are included in panel (a) but excluded from panel (b). Indirect \r\nemissions from fuel production, vehicle manufacturing and infrastructure construction are not included in the sector total. Source: adapted from Lamb et al. (2021) using data \r\nfrom Minx et al. (2021)."


id: 523100789276e41ea008f1507f70872a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11732
content:
"three-wheelers, and mini buses contribute about 75% of passenger \r\ntransport-related CO2 emissions, while collective transport services (bus \r\nand railways) generate about 7% of the passenger transport-related \r\nCO2 emissions despite covering a fifth of passenger transport globally \r\n(Rodrigue 2017; Halim et al. 2018; Sheng et al. 2018; SLoCaT 2018a; \r\nGota et  al. 2019). While alternative lighter powertrains have great \r\npotential for mitigating GHG emissions from cars, the trend has been \r\ntowards increasing vehicle size and engine power within all vehicle \r\nsize classes, driven by consumer preferences towards larger sport \r\nutility vehicles (SUVs) (IEA 2020a). On a global scale, SUV sales have \r\nbeen constantly growing in the last decade, with 40% of the vehicles \r\nsold in 2019 being SUVs (IEA 2020a) (Section 10.4, Box 10.3)."


id: cc9791dd6b080214164ca775c353d32e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33317
content:
"forestry and land use (AFOLU) sectors. In absolute terms, the transport \r\nsector accounts for roughly 15% of total GHG emissions and about 23% \r\nof global energy-related CO2 emissions (IEA 2020a). Transport-related \r\nGHG emissions have increased fast over the last two decades, and \r\nsince 2010, the sector's emissions have increased faster than for any \r\nother end-use sector, averaging +1.8% annual growth (Section 10.7). \r\nAddressing emissions from transport is crucial for GHG mitigation \r\nstrategies across many countries, as the sector represents the largest \r\nenergy consuming sector in 40% of countries worldwide. In most \r\nremaining countries, transport is the second largest energy-consuming \r\nsector, reflecting different levels of urbanisation and land use patterns, \r\nspeed of demographic changes and socio-economic development (IEA \r\n2012; Gota et al. 2019; Hasan et al. 2019; Xie et al. 2019)."


id: 94a739cb2cb5b29b7b3b8f7eeb5f035
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23357
content:
"Indirect emissions from electricity and heat shown in Figure  10.1 \r\naccount for only a  small fraction of current emissions from the \r\ntransport sector (2%) and are associated with electrification of \r\ncertain modes like rail or bus transport (Lamb et al. 2021). Increasing \r\ntransport electrification will affect indirect emissions, especially \r\nwhere carbon-intense electricity grids operate."


id: b240eaa32c272136a9f726868aab548
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28594
content:
"Global freight transport, measured in tonne-kilometres (tkm), \r\ngrew by 68% between 2000 and 2015 and is projected to grow \r\n3.3 times by 2050 (ITF 2019). If unchecked, this growth will make \r\ndecarbonisation of freight transport very difficult (McKinnon 2018; \r\nITF 2019). International trade and global supply chains from industries \r\nfrequently involving large geographical distances are responsible for \r\nthe fast increase of CO2 emissions from freight transport (Yeh et al. \r\n2017; McKinnon 2018), which are growing faster than emissions \r\nfrom passenger transport (Lamb et  al. 2021). Heavy-duty vehicles \r\n(HDVs) make a disproportionate contribution to air pollution, relative \r\nto their global numbers, because of their substantial emissions of \r\nparticulate matter and of black carbon with high short-term warming \r\npotentials (Anenberg et al. 2019)."


id: 31f978f30699cc945d5acf250e795be9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6045
content:
"Growth in transport-related GHG emissions has taken place across \r\nmost world regions (see Figure  10.1b). Between 1990 and 2019, \r\ngrowth in emissions was relatively slow in Europe, Australia, Japan and \r\nNew Zealand, Eurasia, and North America while it was unprecedently \r\nfast in other regions. Driven by economic and population growth, \r\nthe annual growth rates in Eastern Asia, Southern Asia, South-East \r\nAsia and Pacific, and Africa were 6.1%, 5.2%, 4.7%, and 4.1%, \r\nrespectively. Latin America and the Middle East have seen somewhat \r\nslower growth in transport-related GHG emissions (annual growth \r\nrates of 2.4% and 3.3%, respectively) (ITF 2019; Minx et al. 2021). \r\nSection 10.7 provides a more detailed comparison of global transport \r\nemissions trends with those from regional and sub-sectoral studies."


id: daa6e828d7d064ef67d55f622c59b98a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35761
content:
"The rapid growth in global transport emissions is primarily a result of \r\nthe fast growth in global transport activity levels, which grew by 73% \r\nbetween 2000 and 2018. Passenger and freight activity growth have \r\noutpaced energy efficiency and fuel economy improvements in this \r\nperiod (ITF 2019). The global increase in passenger travel activities \r\nhas taken place almost entirely in non-OECD countries, often starting \r\nfrom low motorisation rates (SLoCaT 2018a). Passenger cars, two- and "


id: 39f16b58b949c6ad3e1c2d7ceb667d2f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7404
content:
"Most countries are examining opportunities for combined mitigation\u0002adaptation efforts, using the need to mitigate climate change \r\nthrough transport-related GHG emissions reductions and reduction \r\nof pollutants as the basis for adaptation action (Thornbush et  al. \r\n2013; Wang et al. 2020). For example, urban sprawl indirectly affects \r\nclimate processes, increasing emissions and vulnerability, which \r\nworsens the potential to adapt (Congedo and Munafo 2014; Macchi \r\nand Tiepolo 2014). Hence, using a range of forms of rapid transit \r\nas structuring elements for urban growth can mitigate climate \r\nchange-related risks as well as emissions, reducing impacts on new \r\ninfrastructure, often in more vulnerable areas (Newman et al. 2017). \r\nSuch changes are increasingly seen as having economic benefit \r\n(Ha et  al. 2017), especially in developing nations (Chang 2016; \r\nMonioudi et al. 2018)."


id: c3ec2441aef11d598ddbf150d15378d3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31751
content:
"Electrification of passenger transport in light-duty vehicles (LDVs) is well \r\nunderway as a commercial process with socio-technical transformative \r\npotential and will be examined in detail in Sections 10.3 and 10.4. \r\nBut the rapid mainstreaming of electric vehicles (EVs) will still need \r\nenabling conditions for land transport to achieve the shift away from \r\npetroleum fuels, as outlined in Chapter 3 and detailed in Section 10.8. \r\nThe other mitigation options reviewed in this chapter are so far only \r\nincremental and are less commercial, especially shipping and aviation \r\nfuels, so stronger enabling conditions are likely, as detailed further in \r\nSections 10.5 to 10.8. The enabling conditions that would be needed \r\nfor the development of an emerging technological solution for such \r\nfuels are likely to be very different from those for electromobility, but \r\nnevertheless they both will need demand and efficiency changes to \r\nensure they are equitable and inclusive."


id: 22ba7ece9d9156045b736604afd00b22
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3323
content:
"Section  10.2 sets out the transformation of transport through \r\nexamining systemic changes that affect demand for transport \r\nservices and the efficiency of the system. Section 10.3 looks at the \r\nmost promising technological innovations in vehicles and fuels. \r\nThe  next three sections (10.4, 10.5, and 10.6) examine mitigation \r\noptions for land transport, aviation, and shipping. Section  10.7 \r\ndescribes the space of solutions assessed in a range of integrated \r\nmodelling and sectoral transport scenarios. Finally, Section 10.8 sets "


id: a1192d978eed47c210e6cc42a31ee215
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25567
content:
"out what would be needed for the most transformative scenario that \r\ncan manage to achieve the broad goals set out in Chapter 3 and the \r\ntransport goals set out in Section 10.7."


id: 313347f7c06eda1adeb01487c824e7fa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5906
content:
"form and urban infrastructure influence the time and cost of travel, \r\nwhich, in turn, drive travel demand and modal choice (Marchetti and \r\nAusubel 2001; Newman and Kenworthy 2015)."


id: 944e64f8858a954c429bf090e0223414
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23302
content:
"Throughout history, three main urban fabrics have developed, each \r\nwith different effects on transport patterns based on a fixed travel \r\ntime budget of around one hour (Newman et  al. 2016). The high\u0002density urban fabric developed over the past several millennia \r\nfavoured walking and active transport for only a few kilometres (km). \r\nIn the mid-19th  century, urban settlements developed a  medium\u0002density fabric that favoured trains and trams traveling over 10 to \r\n30  km corridors. Finally, since the mid-20th  century, urban form \r\nhas favoured automobile travel, enabling mass movement between \r\n50 and 60 km. Table 10.2 describes the effect of these urban fabrics \r\non GHG emissions and other well-being indicators."


id: 43237a05afb63429d81f832985e458a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9022
content:
"Systemic change is the emergence of new organisational patterns that \r\naffect the structure of a system. While much attention has been given \r\nto engine and fuel technologies to mitigate GHG emissions from the \r\ntransport sector, population dynamics, finance and economic systems, \r\nurban form, culture, and policy also drive emissions from the sector. \r\nThus, systemic change requires innovations in these components. \r\nThese systemic changes offer the opportunity to decouple transport \r\nemissions from economic growth. In turn, such decoupling allows \r\nenvironmental improvements like reduced GHG emissions without \r\nloss of economic activity (UNEP 2011; UNEP 2013; Newman et  al. \r\n2017; IPCC 2018)."


id: 4a407a238052c42e5e73070b8f6766e1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10304
content:
"The physical characteristics that make up built areas define the \r\nurban form. These physical characteristics include the shape, size, \r\ndensity, and configuration of the human settlements. Urban form \r\nis intrinsically coupled with the infrastructure that allows human \r\nsettlements to operate. In the context of the transport sector, urban "


id: 4148b9e3fde31a35bb4825cedaab4b6d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8666
content:
"Newman et al. 2017; Gota et al. 2019). While some cities continue \r\non a trend towards reaching peak car use on a per-capita basis, for \r\nexample Shanghai and Beijing (Gao and Newman 2020), there is \r\na need for increased investments in urban form strategies that can \r\ncontinue to reduce car dependency around the world."


id: a88bee2d750763d22bdc259169b68550
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26865
content:
"Ultimately, infrastructure investments influence the structural \r\ndependence on cars, which in turn influence the lock-in or path \r\ndependency of transport options with their greenhouse emissions \r\n(Newman et al. 2015; Grieco and Urry 2016). The 21st century saw \r\na  new trend to reach peak car use in some countries as a  result \r\nof a  revival in walking and transit use (Grieco and Urry 2016; "


id: 3ea4bc89f459d9e9d7c4a34436e19d7c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8210
content:
"Authors: Felix Creutzig (Germany), Karen C. Seto (the United States of America), Peter Newman (Australia)"


id: 748e8f54fbb29446569c9065c227ec34
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17740
content:
"Urban transport is responsible for about 8% of global CO2 emissions or 3 GtCO2 per year (Chapters 5 and 8). In contrast to energy \r\nsupply technologies, urban transport directly interacts with mobility lifestyles (Section 5.4). Similarly, non-GHG emission externalities, \r\nsuch as congestion, air pollution, noise, and safety, directly affect urban quality of life, and result in considerable welfare losses. \r\nLow-carbon, highly accessible urban design is not only a major mitigation option, it also provides for more inclusive city services \r\nrelated to well-being (Sections 5.1 and 5.2). Urban planning and design of cities for people are central to realise emission reductions \r\nwithout relying simply on technologies, though the modes of transport favoured will influence the ability to overcome the lock-in \r\naround automobile use (Gehl 2010; Creutzig et al. 2015b)."


id: 5ab194fac91e63bffe07e5ece026f42
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13208
content:
"Where lock-in has occurred, other strategies may alleviate the GHG emissions burden. Urban planning still plays a key role in recreating \r\nlocal hubs. Available land can be used to build rail-based transit, made financially viable by profiting from land value captured around \r\nstations (Ratner and Goetz 2013). Shared or pooled mobility can offer flexible on-demand mobility solutions that are efficient also in \r\nsuburbs and for integrating with longer commuting trips (ITF 2017)."


id: 998a613b1f09d4bd1a599ed58dbaa94d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24240
content:
"Low-carbon highly accessible urban design is not only a major mitigation option, it also provides for more inclusive city services related \r\nto well-being (Sections 5.1 and 5.2). Solutions involve planning cities around walkable sub-centres, where multiple destinations, such \r\nas shopping, jobs, leisure activities, and others, can be accessed within a 10 minute walk or bicycle ride (Newman and Kenworthy \r\n2006). Overall, the mitigation potential of urban planning is about 25% in 2050 compared with a business-as-usual scenario (Creutzig \r\net al. 2015a; Creutzig et al. 2015b). Much higher levels of decarbonisation can be achieved if cities take on a regenerative development \r\napproach and act as geo-engineering systems on the atmosphere (Thomson and Newman 2016)."


id: bd02b70dea6be7ddfe45eb4c30288008
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30501
content:
"Avoid: the effect of prices and income on demand. Research \r\nhas shown that household income and price have a strong influence \r\non people's preferences for transport services (Bakhat et  al. 2017; \r\nPalmer et al. 2018). The relationship between income and demand \r\nis defined by the income elasticity of demand. For example, research \r\nsuggests that in China, older and wealthier populations continued to \r\nshow a preference for car travel (Yang et al. 2019) while younger and \r\nlow-income travellers sought variety in transport modes (Song et al. \r\n2018). Similarly, Bergantino et  al. (2018b) evaluated the income "


id: 10c19b6d8a9d66a0051c0cd998fb711f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 129
content:
"Behaviour continues to be a  major source of interest in the \r\ndecarbonisation of transport as it directly addresses demand. \r\nBehaviour is about people's actions based on their preferences. \r\nChapter 5 described an 'Avoid, Shift, Improve' process for demand\u0002side changes that affect sectoral emissions. This section discusses \r\nsome of the drivers of behaviour related to the transport sector and \r\nhow they link to this 'Avoid, Shift, Improve' process."


id: f29762e3458692994a4f0d823ce5cf1d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40081
content:
"many work and personal travel requirements; and revitalised local \r\nactive transport and e-micromobility (Newman 2020a; SLoCaT \r\n2021). The permanence of these changes post-COVID-19 is \r\nuncertain but possible (Earley and Newman 2021) (Cross-Chapter \r\nBox 1 in Chapter 1). However, these changes will require growth of \r\ninfrastructure for better ICT bandwidths in developing countries, and \r\nbetter provision for micromobility in all cities."


id: f8da9af288259a37d93f269d9237b399
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41145
content:
"elasticity of transport by mode in the UK. They found that the income \r\nelasticity for private cars is 0.714, while the income elasticities of rail \r\nand bus use are 3.253 (the greater elasticity, the more the demand \r\nwill grow or decline, depending on income). Research has also shown \r\na positive relationship between income and demand for air travel, \r\nwith income elasticities of air travel demand being positive and \r\nas large as 2 (Gallet and Doucouliagos 2014; Valdes 2015; Hakim \r\nand Merkert 2016; Hakim and Merkert 2019; Hanson et al. 2022). \r\nA survey in 98 Indian cities also showed income as the main factor \r\ninfluencing travel demand (Ahmad and de Oliveira 2016). Thus, as \r\nincomes and wealth across the globe rise, demand for travel is likely \r\nto increase as well."


id: f2aad5f0df1c758dd21775fd5e346ca8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40095
content:
"While the literature continues to show that time, cost, and income \r\ndominate people's travel choices (Ahmad and de Oliveira 2016; \r\nCapurso et al. 2019; He et al. 2020), there is also evidence of a role \r\nfor personal values, and environmental values in particular, shaping \r\nchoices within these structural limitations (Bouman and Steg 2019). \r\nFor example, individuals are more likely to drive less when they care \r\nabout the environment (De Groot et al. 2008; Abrahamse et al. 2009; \r\nJakovcevic and Steg 2013; Hiratsuka et al. 2018; Unal et al. 2019). \r\nMoreover, emotional and symbolic factors affect the level of car \r\nuse (Steg 2005). Differences in behaviour may also result due \r\nto differences in gender, age, norms, values, and social status. For \r\nexample, women have been shown to be more sensitive to parking \r\npricing than men (Simicevic et al. 2020)."


id: e2210cedf429da0c632d67ddc6cc650e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37062
content:
"Finally, and as noted in Chapter  5, recent research shows that \r\nindividual, social, and infrastructure factors also affect people's mode \r\nchoices. For example, perceptions about common travel behaviour \r\n(what people perceive to be 'normal' behaviour) influence their travel \r\nmode choice. The research suggests that well-informed individuals \r\nwhose personal norms match low-carbon objectives, and who \r\nbelieve they have control over their decisions, are most motivated \r\nto shift mode. Nonetheless, such individual and social norms can \r\nonly marginally influence mode choice unless infrastructure factors \r\ncan enable reasonable time and cost savings (Convery and Williams \r\n2019; Javaid et al. 2020; Feng et al. 2020; Wang et al. 2021)."


id: 2084288feb6d5aa97db7c4039a79521
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2944
content:
"Finally, structural shocks, such as a financial crisis, a pandemic, or the \r\nimpacts of climate change could affect the price and income elasticities \r\nof demand for transport services (van Ruijven et al. 2019). COVID-19 \r\nlockdowns reduced travel demand by 19% (aviation by 32%) and \r\nsome of the patterns that have emerged from the lockdowns could \r\npermanently change the elasticity of demand for transport (Tirachini \r\nand Cats 2020; Hendrickson and Rilett 2020; Newman 2020a; SLoCaT \r\n2021; Hanson et  al. 2022). In particular, the COVID-19 lockdowns \r\nhave spurred two major trends: electronic communications replacing "


id: a1adf427a12130670550a1f8d5b32835
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25663
content:
"design or manufacturing are offset by increased consumer demand \r\n(Kasulaitis et al. 2019). Whether or not dematerialisation can lead \r\nto reduction of emissions from the transport sector is still an open \r\nquestion that requires evaluating the entire product ecosystem \r\n(Van Loon et al. 2014; Coroama et al. 2015; Kasulaitis et al. 2019)."


id: d60f7134d35fef77cf4aff3b1d76a280
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34976
content:
"Shared economy. Shared mobility is arguably the most rapidly \r\ngrowing and evolving sector of the sharing economy and includes \r\nbike sharing, e-scooter sharing, car sharing, and on-demand mobility \r\n(Greenblatt and Shaheen 2015). The values of creating a more shared \r\neconomy are related to both reduced demand and greater efficiency, \r\nas well as the notion of community well-being associated with the \r\nact of sharing instead of simply owning for oneself (Maginn et al. \r\n2018; Sharp 2018). The literature on shared mobility is expanding, \r\nbut there is much uncertainty about the effect shared mobility will \r\nhave on transport demand and associated emissions (Nijland and \r\nJordy 2017; ITF 2018a; Tikoudis et al. 2021)."


id: 6c4e5732c69b00eaf12c1161679c6218
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16349
content:
"Asia represents the largest car-sharing region with 58% of worldwide \r\nmembership and 43% of global fleets deployed (Dhar et  al. 2020). \r\nEurope accounts for 29% of worldwide members and 37% of shared \r\nvehicle fleets (Shaheen et  al. 2018). Ride-sourcing and carpooling \r\nsystems are among the many new entrants in the short-term shared \r\nmobility options. On-demand transport options complemented with \r\ntechnology have enhanced the possibility of upscaling (Alonso\u0002Gonzalez et al. 2018). Car sharing could provide the same level of service \r\nas taxis, but taxis could be three times more expensive (Cuevas et al. \r\n2016). The sharing economy, as an emerging economic-technological \r\nphenomenon (Kaplan and Haenlein 2010), is likely to be a key driver \r\nof demand for transport of goods although data shows increasing \r\ncontainer movement due to online shopping (Suel and Polak 2018)."


id: af0e8be04d06a0841a1f12d41592b97f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28044
content:
"Structural and behavioural choices that drive transport-related GHG \r\nemissions, such as time and cost based on geography of freight and \r\nurban fabric, are likely to continue to be major factors. But there is \r\nalso a variation within each structural choice that is based around \r\npersonal demand factors related to values that indirectly change \r\nchoices in transport. Chapter  5 identified three megatrends that \r\naffect demand for services, including circular economy, the shared \r\neconomy, and digitalisation. These three megatrends can have \r\nspecific effect on transport emissions, as described below."


id: 63e73bc09758b859051e252f7b14e53b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14864
content:
"Digitalisation. In the context of the transport sector, digitalisation \r\nhas enabled teleworking, which in turn reduces travel demand. On \r\nthe other hand, the prevalence of online shopping, enabled by the \r\ndigital economy, could have mixed effects on transport emissions \r\n(Le et al. 2021). For example, online shopping could reduce vehicle\u0002kilometres travelled but the move to expedited or rush delivery could \r\nmitigate some benefits as it prevents consolidation of freight (Jaller \r\nand Pahwa 2020)."


id: a5455516d3008b9345e91a2c812a4e64
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26306
content:
"Digitalisation could also lead to systemic changes by enabling \r\nsmart mobility. The smart mobility paradigm refers to the process \r\nand practices of assimilation of ICTs and other sophisticated high\u0002technology innovations into transport (Noy and Givoni 2018). Smart \r\nmobility can be used to influence transport demand and efficiency \r\n(Benevolo et  al. 2016). The synergies of emerging technologies \r\n(ICT, internet of things, big data) and shared economy could overcome "


id: 51c1354afd074cd168d99aecec4e4223
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11670
content:
"Information and communication technology (ICT). ICT is at the core of smart mobility and will provide the avenue for data to be \r\ncollected and shared across the mobility system. The use of ICT can help cities by providing real-time information on mobility options \r\nthat can inform those using private vehicles, along with transit users or those using bikes or walking. ICT can help with ticketing \r\nand payment for transit or for road user charges (Tafidis et al. 2017; Gossling 2018) when combined with other technologies such as \r\nBlockchain (Hargroves et al. 2020)."


id: 748f9155fb7a8cdbfc05df32cd7c347c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17742
content:
"Internet of Things sensors. Sensors can be used to collect data to improve road safety, improve fuel efficiency of vehicles, and reduce \r\nCO2 emissions (Kubba and Jiang 2014; Kavitha et al. 2018). Sensors can also provide data to digitally simulate transport planning \r\noptions, inform the greater utilisation of existing infrastructure and modal interconnections, and significantly improve disaster and \r\nemergency responses (Hargroves et al. 2017). In particular, IoT sensors can be used to inform the operation of fast-moving trackless \r\ntrams and their associated last-mile connectivity shuttles as part of a transit activated corridor (Newman et al. 2019, 2021)."


id: 63aa1736411f597b0fdd68e1b91559ce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14825
content:
"Mobility as a Service. New, app-based mobility platforms will allow for the integration of different transport modes (such as last-mile \r\ntravel, shared transit, and even micro-transit such as scooters or bikes) into easy-to-use platforms. By integrating these modes, users will \r\nbe able to navigate from A to B to C based on which modes are most efficient, with the necessary bookings and payments being made \r\nthrough one service. With smart city planning, these platforms can steer users towards shared and rapid transit (which should be the \r\ncentrepiece of these systems), rather than encourage more people to opt for the perceived convenience of booking a single-passenger ride \r\n(Becker et al. 2020). In low-density car-dependent cities, however, MaaS services such as the use of electric scooters/bikes are less effective \r\nas the distances are too long and they do not enable the easy sharing that can happen in dense station precincts (Jittrapirom et al. 2017)."


id: a9f2c1e9f557b0bee5da1d2649681176
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27121
content:
"Artificial intelligence (AI) and big data analytics. The rapidly growing level of technology enablement of vehicles and urban infrastructure, \r\ncombined with the growing ability to analyse larger and larger data sets, presents a significant opportunity for transport planning, design, \r\nand operation in the future. These technologies are used together to enable decisions about what kind of transport planning is used down \r\nparticular corridors. Options such as predictive congestion management of roads and freeways, simulating planning options, and advanced \r\nshared transit scheduling can provide value to new and existing transit systems (Toole et al. 2015; Anda et al. 2017; Hargroves et al. 2017)."


id: 6e8b211fc354a5e4c903a9d495f59056
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16713
content:
"Heavy haulage trucks in the mining industry are already autonomous \r\n(Gaber et al. 2021) and automation of long-haul trucks may happen \r\nsooner than automation of LDVs (Hancock et al. 2019). Autonomous \r\ntrucks may facilitate route and speed optimisation, and reduce fuel \r\nuse, which can in turn reduce emissions (Nasri et al. 2018; Paddeu \r\nand Denby 2021). There is growing interest in using drones for \r\npackage delivery. Drones could have lower impacts than ground\u0002based delivery and, if deployed carefully, drones could reduce \r\nenergy use and GHG emissions from freight transport (Stolaroff et al. \r\n2018). Overall, some commentators are optimistic that smart and \r\nautonomous technologies can transform the GHG emissions from \r\nthe transport sector (Seba 2014; Rifkin 2019; Sedlmeir et al. 2020). \r\nOthers are more sanguine unless policy interventions can enable the \r\ntechnologies to be used for purposes that include zero carbon and \r\nthe SDGs (Faisal et al. 2019; Hancock et al. 2019)."


id: 86643f7ffa34336e34af4c911763c0c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20808
content:
"The interactions between systemic factors set out here and technology \r\nfactors discussed in much more detail in the next sections show that \r\nthere is always going to be a  need to integrate both approaches. "


id: 82ea1454aed5d3586bf6463add732d05
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20160
content:
"Good technology that has the potential to transform transport will \r\nnot be used unless it fulfils broad mobility and accessibility objectives \r\nrelated to time, cost, and well-being. Chapter  5 has set out three \r\ntransport transformations based on demand-side factors with highly \r\ntransformative potential. Table  10.3 provides a  summary of these \r\nsystemic changes and their likely impact on GHG emissions. Note that \r\nthe quantitative estimates provided in the table may not be additive \r\nand the combined effect of these strategies on GHG emissions from \r\nthe transport sector require additional analysis."


id: 67e6feb0c3b697bbab462b39d6aa0ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15554
content:
"The advancements in energy carriers described in Figure  10.2 are \r\ndiscussed in greater detail in Chapter  6 (Energy) and Chapter  11 \r\n(Industry) but the review presented in this chapter highlights their \r\napplication in the transport sector. This section pays attention to the \r\nadvancements in alternative fuels, electric, and fuel cell technologies \r\nsince AR5."


id: b50b86d0e63bbea86ad3c45416d49c28
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29086
content:
"The average fuel consumption of new internal combustion engine \r\n(ICE) vehicles has improved significantly in recent years due to more \r\nstringent emissions regulations. However, improvements are now \r\nslowing down. The average fuel consumption of LDVs decreased by \r\nonly 0.7 % between 2016 and 2017, reaching 7.2 litres of gasoline\u0002equivalent (Lg-eq) per  100  km in 2017, much slower than the "


id: c2ba0ed86deec6088cd3e5aba407d9c4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31543
content:
"This section focuses on vehicle technology and low-carbon fuel \r\ninnovations to support decarbonisation of the transport sector. \r\nFigure 10.2 summarises the major pathways reviewed in this section. "


id: be1ef5421fea969c8b434caac5fdd3da
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30715
content:
"Figure 10.2 | Energy pathways for low-carbon transport technologies. Primary energy sources are shown in the far left, while the segments of the transport system are in \r\nthe far right. Energy carriers and vehicle technologies are represented in the middle. Primary pathways are shown with solid lines, while dotted lines represent secondary pathways."


id: 941eb68204a1f3f6720f00937edcee03
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23267
content:
"Table 10.4 | Engine technologies to reduce emissions from light-duty ICE \r\nvehicles and their implementation stage. Table nomenclature: GDI = Gasoline \r\ndirect injection, VVT = Variable valve technology, CDA = Cylinder deactivation, \r\nCR  =  compression ratio, GDCI = Gasoline direct injection compression ignition, \r\nEGR = exhaust gas recirculation, RCCI = Reactivity controlled compression ignition, \r\nGCI = Gasoline compression ignition. Source: Joshi (2020)."


id: d6ecefd681c8c906be916c2812b3cad6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35119
content:
"More details on land-use change impacts and the potential to deliver the projected demands of biofuels at the global level are further \r\naddressed in Chapter 7. While, in general, the above results cover most of the variety of GHG range intensities of biofuel options \r\npresented in the literature, the more specific life cycle assessment (LCA) literature should be consulted when considering specific \r\ncombinations of biomass feedstock and conversion technologies in specific regions."


id: 6582df9127c82997d4e0cddf04fe2047
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15125
content:
"Table  10.5 summarises performance data for different biofuel \r\ntechnologies, while Figure 10.3 shows the technology readiness levels."


id: 49ebcbac1f63ef4e29a054536e7374ca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10244
content:
"Within the aviation sector, jet fuels produced from biomass resources \r\n(so-called sustainable aviation fuels, or SAF) could offer significant \r\nclimate mitigation opportunities under the right policy circumstances. \r\nDespite the growing interest in aviation biofuels, demand and \r\nproduction volumes remain negligible compared to conventional \r\nfossil aviation fuels. Nearly all flights powered by biofuels have used \r\nfuels derived from vegetable oils and fats, and the blending level of \r\nbiofuels into conventional aviation fuels for testing is up to 50% today \r\n(Mawhood et al. 2016). To date, only one facility in the US is regularly \r\nproducing sustainable aviation fuels based on waste oil feedstocks. \r\nThe potential to scale up bio-based SAF volumes is severely restricted \r\nby the lack of low-cost and sustainable feedstock options (Chapter 7). \r\nLignocellulosic feedstocks are considered to have great potential for "


id: 3f1186dcb45a6703fe7164daf05b52b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8283
content:
"Table 10.5 | Ranges of efficiency, GHG emissions, and relative costs of selected biofuel conversion technologies for road, marine, and aviation biofuels."


id: c4ba45f7baafca62d2b256b369ba2b1d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31926
content:
"Notes: a Calculated as liquid fuels output divided by energy in feedstock entering the conversion plant; b GHG emissions here refers only to the conversion process. Impacts form \r\nthe different biomass options are not included here as they are addressed in Chapter 7; c Olofsson et al. (2017); d\r\n Koeble et al. (2017); e Simell et al. (2014); f de Souza Dias et al. \r\n(2015); g\r\n Castanheira et al. (2015); h Tanzer et al. (2019); i Klein et al. (2018); j Narula et al. (2017); k de Jong et al. (2017); l Salman et al. (2017); m Moreira et al. (2014); Roy \r\net al. (2015); Handler et al. (2016); n\r\n Salman et al. (2017); Moreira et al. (2014); Roy et al. (2015); Handler et al. (2016)."


id: 501667358732a49f6794e00c05214db
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11376
content:
"Figure 10.3 | Commercialisation status of selected biofuels conversion technologies. The grey boxes represent the current technology readiness level of each \r\nconversion technology. Source: based on Mawhood et al. (2016), Skeer et al. (2016), IEA (2017a), and Puricelli et al. (2021)."


id: f5ced8bb3f79d44d15417b80137e66b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40608
content:
"carrier and be used in fuel cells. These characteristics have driven \r\nincreased interest in the low-carbon production of ammonia, which \r\nwould have to be coupled to low-carbon hydrogen production (with \r\nlow-carbon electricity providing the needed energy or with CCS)."


id: 69e97c793b9a3a2200921749785b577d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15901
content:
"Ammonia. At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, \r\nammonia is a colourless gas with a distinct odour. Due to relatively \r\nmild conditions for liquefaction, ammonia is transferred and stored \r\nas a liquefied or compressed gas and has been used as an essential \r\nindustrial chemical resource for many products. In addition, since \r\nammonia does not contain carbon, it has attracted attention as \r\na carbon-neutral fuel that can also improve combustion efficiency (Gill \r\net al. 2012). Furthermore, ammonia could also serve as a hydrogen "


id: 5650d23024d662773d06186e383685a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12451
content:
"For EVs sold in 2018, the material demand was about 11 kilotonnes (kt) \r\nof optimised lithium, 15 kt of cobalt, 11 kt of manganese, and 34 kt \r\nof nickel (IEA 2019a; IEA 2021a). IEA projections for 2030 in the EV \r\n30@30 scenario show that the demand for these materials would \r\nincrease by 30 times for lithium and around 25 times for cobalt. While \r\nthere are efforts to move away from expensive materials such as \r\ncobalt (IEA 2019a; IEA 2021a), dependence on lithium will remain, \r\nwhich may be a  cause of concern (Olivetti et  al. 2017; You and \r\nManthiram 2018). A more detailed discussion on resource constraints \r\nfor lithium is provided in Box 10.6."


id: adef42bf475454f7e075774818976f43
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27846
content:
"Widespread electrification of the transport sector is likely crucial for \r\nreducing transport emissions and depends on appropriate electrical \r\nenergy storage systems (EES). However, large-scale diffusion of EES \r\ndepends on improvements in energy density (energy stored per unit \r\nvolume), specific energy (energy stored per unit weight), and costs \r\n(Cano et al. 2018). Recent trends suggest EES-enabled vehicles are \r\non a path to becoming the leading technology for LDVs, but their \r\ncontribution to heavy-duty freight is more uncertain."


id: 6fa1f1d9c1fac99b3f43ae237169fb59
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16897
content:
"Electrochemical storage of light and medium-duty vehicles.\r\nElectrochemical storage, i.e., batteries, are one of the most promising \r\nforms of energy storage for the transport sector and have dramatically \r\nimproved in their commerciality since AR5. Rechargeable batteries \r\nare of primary interest for applications within the transport sector, \r\nwith a range of mature and emerging chemistries able to support \r\nthe electrification of vehicles. The most significant change since \r\nAR5 and SPR1.5 is the dramatic rise in lithium-ion batteries (LIB), \r\nwhich has enabled electromobility to become a  major feature \r\nof decarbonisation."


id: 1caacd64e3ef0c830bec20beab559d9f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2217
content:
"of their more advanced technology status and higher practically \r\nachievable energy density (Fu et al. 2017). Like Li-air batteries, their \r\npoor specific power and energy efficiency will probably prevent zinc\u0002air batteries from being used as a primary energy source for EVs. Still, \r\nthey could be promising when used in a dual-battery configuration \r\n(Cano et al. 2018)."


id: 40c0d52da206e4a17a3be5bc85415ccc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8581
content:
"Hybrid energy storage (HES) systems, which combine a  capacitor \r\nand a  battery, achieve both high power and high energy, solving \r\nproblems such as capacity loss of the battery and self-discharge of \r\nthe capacitor. In these systems, the capacitor absorbs the steeper \r\npower, while the LIB handles the steady power, thereby reducing the \r\npower loss of the EV to half. Furthermore, since the in-rush current of \r\nthe battery is suppressed, there is an improvement in the reliability \r\nof the LIB (Noumi et al. 2014). In a hybrid diesel train, 8.2% of the \r\nregenerative energy is lost due to batteries' limited charge-discharge \r\nperformance; however, using an EDLC with batteries can save this \r\nenergy (Takahashi et al. 2017; Mayrink et al. 2020)."


id: b2833a3625180bd78fa44e0f8758d781
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28645
content:
"The development of power storage devices and advanced \r\nintegrated system approaches, including power electronics circuits \r\nsuch as HES and their control technologies, are important for the \r\nelectrification of mobility. These technologies are solutions that \r\ncould promote the electrification of systems, reduce costs, and \r\ncontribute to the social environment through multiple outcomes in \r\nthe decarbonisation agenda."


id: e6ed1f751a3847f9d281c8a4f6c35c47
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37915
content:
"In harder-to-electrify transport segments, such as heavy-duty \r\nvehicles, shipping, and aviation, hydrogen holds significant promise \r\nfor delivering emissions reductions if it is produced using low-carbon \r\nenergy sources. In particular, hydrogen fuel cells are seen as an \r\nemerging option to power larger vehicles for land-based transport \r\n(Tokimatsu et al. 2016; IPCC 2018; IEA 2019b). Despite this potential, \r\nfurther advancements in technological and economic maturity will \r\nbe required in order for hydrogen fuel cells to play a greater role. \r\nWhile this section focuses primarily on hydrogen fuel cells, ammonia \r\nand methanol fuel cells may also emerge as options for low \r\npower applications."


id: 8b38f95154423d9d82b5475249e6bd9b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21656
content:
"Alternative electricity storage technologies for heavy-duty \r\ntransport.While LIBs described in the previous section are driving the \r\nelectrification of LDVs, their application to railways, aviation, ships, and \r\nlarge vehicles faces challenges due to the higher power requirements \r\nof these applications. The use of a capacitor with a higher power density \r\nthan LIBs could be suitable for the electrification of such vehicles. \r\nIt is one of the solutions for regenerating large and instantaneous \r\nenergy from regenerative brakes. Classical capacitors generally show \r\nmore attractive characteristics in power density (8000-10,000 watts "


id: 7a1788defd5628bb418b49e53dd345a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18678
content:
"Hydrogen is likely to take diverse roles in the future energy system: \r\nas a fuel in industry and buildings, as well as transport, and as energy \r\nstorage for variable renewable electricity. Further research is required \r\nto understand better how a hydrogen transport fuel supply system \r\nfits within the larger hydrogen energy system, especially in terms of \r\nintegration within existing infrastructure, such as the electricity grid \r\nand the natural gas pipeline system (IEA 2015)."


id: 995a6fb2e5f76117566bbd2b71498177
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24199
content:
"Strong and durable policies would be needed to enable widespread \r\nuse of hydrogen as a  transport fuel and to sustain momentum \r\nduring a  multi-decade transition period for hydrogen FCVs to \r\nbecome cost-competitive with electric vehicles (Hydrogen Council \r\n2017; FCHEA 2019; FCHJU 2019; IEA 2019c; BNEF 2020; Hydrogen \r\nCouncil 2020). The analysis suggests that hydrogen is likely to have \r\nstrategic and niche roles in transport, particularly in long-haul \r\nshipping and aviation. With continuing improvements, hydrogen and \r\nelectrification will likely play a role in decarbonising heavy-duty road \r\nand rail vehicles."


id: e3fc1e1925f34cf1b74043cddaf332ac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37399
content:
"Ammonia and methanol fuel cells are considered to be less mature \r\nthan hydrogen fuel cells. However, they offer the benefit of using \r\na  more easily transported fuel that can be directly used without \r\nconverting to hydrogen (Zhao et al. 2019). Conversely, both methanol \r\nand ammonia are toxic, and in the case of methanol fuel cells, carbon \r\ndioxide is released as a by-product of generating electricity with the \r\nfuel cell (Zhao et al. 2019). Due to the lower power output, methanol \r\nand ammonia fuel cells are also not well suited to heavy-duty \r\nvehicles (Jeerh et al. 2021). They are therefore unlikely to compete \r\nwith hydrogen fuel cells. However, ammonia and methanol could \r\nbe converted to hydrogen at refuelling stations as an alternative to \r\nbeing directly used in fuel cells (Zhao et al. 2019)."


id: 6aa620aabc556027dce7cb18deaad236
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16045
content:
"EVs and HFCV require separate infrastructure than liquid fuels. The \r\nsuccessful diffusion of new vehicle technologies is dependent on \r\nthe preceding deployment of infrastructure (Leibowicz 2018), so that \r\nthe deployment of new charging and refuelling infrastructure will be \r\ncritical for supporting the uptake of emerging transport technologies \r\nlike EVs and HFCVs, where it makes sense for each to be deployed. \r\nAs a result, there is likely a need for simultaneous investment in both \r\ninfrastructure and vehicle technologies to accelerate decarbonisation \r\nof the transport sector."


id: 8f00a457f939554e6979fdd541895c7e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22355
content:
"Charging infrastructure. Charging infrastructure is important \r\nfor a number of key reasons. From a consumer perspective, robust \r\nand reliable charging infrastructure networks are required to build \r\nconfidence in the technology and overcome the often-cited barrier of "


id: 8b66ae92ec615ee4f6c597f91e4107de
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21685
content:
"that replaces a physical plug (Ainalis et al. 2020; Hill et al. 2020). \r\nThis type of charging infrastructure is particularly relevant for road \r\nfreight where load demand is higher. Road electrification can take \r\nthe form of a charging rail built into the road pavement, run along \r\nthe side of the road, through overhead catenary power lines - similar \r\nto electrical infrastructure used for rail - or at recharging facilities \r\nat stations along the route. This infrastructure can also be used to \r\ndirectly power other electrified powertrains, such as hybrid and HFCV \r\n(Hardman et al. 2018; Hill et al. 2020)."


id: 242374303e01a4eb2ef687a6c88c0370
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3539
content:
"Charging infrastructure also varies in terms of the level of charging \r\npower. For light vehicles, charging infrastructure is generally up to \r\n350 kW, which provides approximately 350 kilometres for every \r\n10 minutes of charging. For larger vehicles, like buses and trucks, \r\ncharging infrastructure is generally up to 600 kW, providing around \r\n50-100 km for every 10 minutes of charging (depending on the size \r\nof the vehicle). Finally, even higher-power charging infrastructure is \r\ncurrently being developed at rates greater than 1 MW, particularly \r\nfor long-haul trucks and for short-haul marine shipping and \r\naviation. For example, one of the largest electric ferries in the world, \r\ncurrently operating in Denmark, uses a 4.4 MW charger (Heinemann \r\net al. 2020)."


id: b1d3943d80319752ca2ade63a2d91285
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28509
content:
"Finally, there are several different charging standards, varying across \r\ntransport segments and across geographical locations. Like electrical \r\nappliances, different EV charging connectors and sockets have \r\nemerged in different regions, such as CCS2 in Europe (ECA 2021), \r\nGB/T in China (Hove and Sandalow 2019). Achieving interoperability \r\nbetween charging stations is seen as another important issue for \r\npolicymakers to address to provide transparent data to the market \r\non where EV chargers are located and a  consistent approach to \r\npaying for charging sessions (van der Kam and Bekkers 2020). \r\nInteroperability could also play an important role in enabling smart \r\ncharging infrastructure (Neaimeh and Andersen 2020)."


id: 830e7ff3d929c3dca390e402d4c2facc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20184
content:
"There are two types of charging infrastructure for electric vehicles: \r\nconductive charging involving a  physical connection and wireless/\r\ninduction charging. The majority of charging infrastructure deployed \r\ntoday for light- and heavy-duty vehicles is conductive. However, \r\nwireless charging technologies are beginning to emerge - particularly \r\nfor applications like bus rapid transit - with vehicles able to charge \r\nautonomously while parked and/or in motion (IRENA 2019). For \r\nroad vehicles, electric road systems, or road electrification, is also \r\nemerging as an alternative form of conductive charging infrastructure "


id: 7314c4a06fab74ec5af2e8d043863e88
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17497
content:
"and the dispensing strategy. Hydrogen supply could happen via on\u0002site production or via transport and delivery of hydrogen produced \r\noff-site. At the compression stage, hydrogen is compressed to achieve \r\nthe pressure needed for economic stationary and vehicle storage. This \r\npressure depends on the storage strategy. Hydrogen can be stored \r\nas a liquid or a gas. Hydrogen can also be dispensed to vehicles as \r\na gas or a liquid, depending on the design of the vehicles (though it \r\ntests the extremes of temperature range and storage capacity for an \r\nindustrial product). The technological and economic development of \r\neach of these components continues to be researched."


id: 7f272bfb7cdbd353b2630a987ae95694
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19524
content:
"Jochem et al. 2021), reduce the uncertainty in forecasts of daily and \r\nhourly electrical loads (Peng et al. 2012), and allow greater utilisation \r\nof generation capacity (Hajimiragha et  al. 2010; Madzharov \r\net al. 2014)."


id: fa169a9b3d468a8a1a21f8bc676a805a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41370
content:
"Smart charging strategies can also enhance the climate benefits \r\nof EVs (Yuan et al. 2021). Controlled charging can help avoid high\u0002carbon electricity sources, decarbonisation of the ancillary service \r\nmarkets, or peak shaving of high-carbon electricity sources (Jochem \r\net al. 2021). V2G-capable EVs can result in even lower total emissions, \r\nparticularly when compared to other alternatives (Reddy et al. 2016). \r\nNoel et  al. (2019) analysed V2G pathways in Denmark and noted \r\nthat at a penetration rate of 75% by 2030, USD34 billion in social \r\nbenefits could be accrued (through things like displaced pollution). \r\nThese social benefits translate to USD1,200 per vehicle. V2G-capable \r\nEVs were found to have the potential to reduce carbon emissions \r\ncompared to a conventional gasoline vehicle by up to 59%, assuming \r\noptimised charging schedules (Hoehne and Chester 2016)."


id: c0b1ad7e6f315b99268d03658381dea7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31199
content:
"Hydrogen infrastructure. HFCVs are reliant on the development \r\nof widespread and convenient hydrogen refuelling stations \r\n(FCHEA 2019; IEA 2019c; BNEF 2020). Globally, there are around \r\n540 hydrogen refuelling stations, with the majority located in North \r\nAmerica, Europe, Japan, and China (IEA 2021a). Approximately 70% \r\nof these refuelling stations are open to the public (Coignard et al. \r\n2018). Typical refuelling stations currently have a refuelling capacity \r\nof 100 to 350 kg/day (CARB 2019; CARB 2020; H2 Tools 2020; AFDC \r\n2021). At most, current hydrogen refuelling stations have daily \r\ncapacities under 500 kg a day (Liu et al. 2020b)."


id: a7a6962850847f83232f491a8e17b855
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26706
content:
"emissions reported in literature are possibly underestimated by as \r\nmuch as 15-38%, in comparison to real driving emissions (Fontaras \r\net  al. 2017; Tsiakmakis et  al. 2017; Triantafyllopoulos et  al. 2019). \r\nThe extent of these underestimations, however, varies between \r\npowertrain types, engine sizes, driving behaviour and environment."


id: b20d95828d0f8d4f5d419ac16fd8f0d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28547
content:
"LDVs represent the main mode of transport for private citizens \r\n(ITF 2019) and currently represent the largest share of transport \r\nemissions globally (IEA 2019d). Currently, powertrains depending \r\non gasoline and diesel fuels remain the dominant technology in the \r\nLDV segment (IEA 2019d). HEVs, and fully battery electric vehicles \r\n(BEVs), however, have become increasingly popular in recent years \r\n(IEA 2021a). Correspondingly, the number of lifecycle assessment \r\n(LCA) studies investigating HEVs, BEVs, and fuel cell vehicles have \r\nincreased. While historically the focus has been on the tailpipe \r\nemissions of LDVs, LCA studies demonstrate the importance of \r\nincluding emissions from the entire vehicle value chain, particularly \r\nfor alternative powertrain technologies."


id: 806cbf1bc0f90e591dcea702f2e3bffe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19724
content:
"Current average lifecycle impacts of mid-size ICEVs span from \r\napproximately 65 gCO2-eq pkm-1 to 210 gCO2-eq pkm-1, with \r\nboth values stemming from ICEVs running on biofuels. Between \r\nthis range of values, the current reference technologies are found, \r\nwith diesel-powered ICEVs having total median lifecycle impacts of \r\n130 gCO2-eq pkm-1 and gasoline-fuelled vehicle 160 gCO2-eq pkm-1. \r\nFuel consumption dominates the lifecycle emissions of ICEVs, with \r\napproximately 75% of these emissions arising from the tailpipe and \r\nfuel chain."


id: e893fbe6e84c8fccc98c12142544ff4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38258
content:
"Furthermore, note that the carbon footprint of biofuels used in \r\nFigure  10.4 are aggregate numbers not specific to any individual \r\nvalue chain or fuel type. They are derived by combining land use\u0002related carbon emissions from Chapter 7 with conversion efficiencies \r\nand emissions as described in Section  10.3. Specifically, land-use \r\nfootprints derived from the three modelling approaches employed \r\nhere are: i) Integrated Assessment Models  - Energy Modelling \r\nForum 33 (IAM EMF33); ii) Partial models assuming constant land \r\ncover (CLC), and, iii) Partial models using natural regrowth (NRG). The \r\nemissions factors used here correspond to scenarios where global \r\nproduction of biomass for energy purposes are 100 EJ/year, with \r\nlower emissions factors expected at lower levels of consumption and \r\nvice versa. Further details are available in Box 10.2 and Chapter 7."


id: bb06969d6490c28d8ec83b3a859594c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30122
content:
"The tailpipe emissions and fuel consumption reported in the literature \r\ngenerally do not use empirical emissions data. Rather, they tend to \r\nreport fuel efficiency using driving cycles such as New European \r\nDriving Cycle or the US Environmental Protection Agency Federal Test \r\nProcedure. As a result, depending on the driving cycle used, operating "


id: 2f63bbc9aef5e9464af67668a858a314
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5600
content:
"60 and 180 gCO2-eq pkm-1 with electricity generated from wind and \r\ncoal, respectively. The ability to achieve large carbon reductions via \r\nvehicle electrification is thus highly dependent on the generation of \r\nlow-carbon electricity, with the greatest mitigation effects achieved \r\nwhen charging the battery with low-carbon electricity. The literature \r\nsuggests that current BEVs, if manufactured on low-carbon electricity \r\nas well as operated on low-carbon electricity would have footprints \r\nas low 22 gCO2-eq pkm-1 for a  compact-sized car (Ellingsen \r\net  al. 2014; Ellingsen et  al. 2016). This value suggests a  reduction \r\npotential of around 85% compared to similarly-sized fossil fuel \r\nvehicles (median values). Furthermore, BEVs have a  co-benefit of \r\nreducing local air pollutants that are responsible for human health \r\ncomplications, particularly in densely-populated areas (Hawkins et al. \r\n2013; Ke et al. 2017)."


id: e2d89a2283d3fd36f4e8a3715de5906f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37205
content:
"offset the higher manufacturing emissions of the vehicle (Luk et al. 2018; Wu et al. 2019). In addition, these advanced materials may \r\nbe challenging to recycle in a way that retains their high technical performance (Meng et al. 2017)."


id: c2de814746f5273b225ecb1363f09890
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31560
content:
"Co-effects on particulate matter. Lightweighting may also alleviate the particulate matter (PM) emissions arising from road and \r\nbrake wear. BEVs are generally heavier than their ICEV counterparts, which may potentially cause higher stress on road surfaces \r\nand tyres, with consequently higher PM emissions per kilometre driven (Timmers and Achten 2016). Regenerative braking in HEVs, \r\nBEVs and FCVs, however, reduces the mechanical braking required, and therefore may compensate for the higher brake wear emissions \r\nfrom these heavier vehicle types. In addition, BEVs have no tailpipe emissions, which further offsets the increased PM emissions from \r\nroad and tyre wear. Therefore, lightweighting strategies may offer a carbon and particulates mitigation effect; however, in some cases, \r\nother technological options may reduce CO2 emissions even further."


id: d91d556be40c942554092e0eadb703cd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35492
content:
"Two-wheelers, consisting mainly of lower-powered mopeds and \r\nhigher-powered motorcycles, are popular for personal transport \r\nin densely populated cities, especially in developing countries. \r\nLCA studies for this class of vehicle are relatively uncommon \r\ncompared to four-wheeled LDVs. In the available results, however, \r\ntwo-wheelers exhibit similar trends for the different powertrain \r\ntechnologies as the LDVs, with electric powertrains having higher \r\nproduction emissions, but usually lower operating emissions. The \r\nlifecycle emissions intensity for two-wheelers is also generally lower \r\nthan four-wheeled LDVs on a  vehicle-kilometre basis. However, \r\ntwo-wheelers generally cannot carry as many passengers as four\u0002wheeled LDVs. Thus, on a passenger-kilometre basis, a fully occupied \r\npassenger vehicle may still have lower emissions than a  fully \r\noccupied two-wheeler. However, today, most passenger vehicles \r\nhave relatively low occupancy and thus have a correspondingly high "


id: fc53f11fcdb192adbd6f8f2688e7ed53
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41760
content:
"emissions intensity on a pkm basis. This points to the importance \r\nof utilisation of passenger vehicles at higher occupancies to \r\nreduce the lifecycle intensity of LDVs on a pkm basis. For example, \r\nthe median emissions intensity of a gasoline passenger vehicle is \r\n222 gCO2-eq  vkm-1, and 160 gCO2-eq vkm-1 for a  gasoline two\u0002wheeler (Cox and Mutel 2018). At a  maximum occupancy factor \r\nof four and two passengers, respectively, the transport emissions \r\nintensity for these vehicles is 55 and 80 gCO2-eq pkm-1. Under the \r\nsame occupancy rates assumption, BEV two-wheelers recharged on \r\nthe average European electricity mix, achieve lower lifecycle GHG \r\nintensities than BEV four-wheeled LDVs. On the other hand, FCV \r\ntwo-wheelers with hydrogen produced via steam methane reforming \r\npresent higher GHG intensity than their four-wheeled counterparts, \r\nwhen compared on a pkm basis at high occupancy rates."


id: 9d79ea6d05043868ee62a2484ac78d0a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24943
content:
"Figure 10.5 | LCC for light-duty internal combustion engine vehicles, battery electric vehicles, and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. The results for ICEVs represent \r\nthe LCC of a vehicle running on gasoline. However, these values are also representative for ICEVs running on diesel as the costs ranges in the literature for these two solutions \r\nare similar. The secondary y-axis depicts the cost of the different energy carriers normalised in USD per gigajoule for easier cross-comparability."


id: d43301554e12e7e51c7ce9affed31369
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34666
content:
"To successfully transition towards LDVs utilising low-carbon fuels or \r\nenergy sources, the technologies need to be accessible to as many \r\npeople as possible, which requires competitive costs compared to \r\nconventional diesel and gasoline vehicles. The lifecycle costs (LCCs) of \r\nLDVs depend on the purchasing costs of the vehicles, their efficiency, \r\nthe fuel costs, and the discount rate. Figure 10.5 shows the results \r\nof a  parametric analysis of LCC for diesel LDVs, BEVs, and FCVs. \r\nThe range of vehicle efficiencies captured in Figure 10.5 is the same \r\nas the range used for Figure  10.4, while the ranges for fuel costs \r\nand vehicle purchase prices come from the literature. The assumed \r\ndiscount rate for this parametric analysis is 3%. Appendix  10.2 \r\nincludes the details about the method and underlying data used to \r\ncreate this figure."


id: 6428932f203f4fef74abae10de982374
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14907
content:
"Figure  10.5 shows the range of LCC, in USD per  passenger\u0002kilometre, for different powertrain technologies, and the influence \r\nof vehicle efficiency (low or high), vehicle purchase price, and fuel/\r\nelectricity cost on the overall LCC. For consistency with Figure 10.4, \r\nan occupancy rate of 1.5 is assumed. Mid-sized ICEVs have \r\na purchase price of USD20,000-40,000, and average fuel costs are \r\nin the range of USD1-1.5 per litre. With these conditions, the LCC of \r\nfossil-fuelled LDVs span between USD0.22-0.35 pkm-1 or between \r\nUSD0.17-0.28 pkm-1, for low- and high-efficiency ICEVs respectively \r\n(Figure 10.5)."


id: b72523a7c7735886add32509ce369abe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29432
content:
"BEVs have higher purchase prices than ICEVs, though a sharp decline \r\nhas been observed since AR5. Due to the rapid development of the \r\nlithium-ion battery technology over the years (Schmidt et al. 2017) \r\nand the introduction of subsidies in several countries, BEVs are quickly \r\nreaching cost parity with ICEVs. Mid-sized BEVs' average purchase \r\nprices are in the range of USD30,000-50,000 but the levelised cost \r\nof electricity shows a larger spread (USD65-200/MWh) depending on \r\nthe geographical location and the technology (Chapter 6). Therefore, \r\nassuming purchase price parity between ICEVs and BEVs, BEVs show \r\nlower LCC (Figure 10.5) due to higher efficiency and the lower cost \r\nof electricity compared to fossil fuels on a per-gigajoule (GJ) basis \r\n(secondary y-axis on Figure 10.5)."


id: b2504c4f5ae29933c7ed3d690bda0826
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28610
content:
"the transport sector. Use of these public transit systems will depend \r\non urban design and consumer preferences (Section 10.2, Chapters 5 \r\nand 8), which in turn depend on time, costs, and behavioural choices."


id: 7f880fdd229cee5be24064b2fc90f0de
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19580
content:
"lifecycle emissions for rail than for other transport modes (Chester \r\nand Horvath 2012; Chester et al. 2013). One study reported values \r\nranging from 10-25 gCO2 per  passenger-kilometre (International \r\nUnion of Railways 2016), although embodied emissions from rail are \r\nknown to vary widely across case studies (Olugbenga et al. 2019). \r\nThese caveats are also applicable to the other figures in this section."


id: f1f25bffbc0f216df647a3f5c3cdbd81
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39954
content:
"At high occupancy, both bus and rail transport offer substantial \r\nGHG reduction potential per pkm, even compared with the lowest\u0002emitting private vehicle options. Even at 20% occupancy, bus and \r\nrail may still offer emission reductions compared to passenger cars, \r\nespecially notable when comparing BEVs with low-carbon electricity \r\n(the lowest-emission option for all technologies) across the three \r\nmodes. Only when comparing a  fossil fuel-powered bus at low \r\noccupancy with a low-carbon powered car at high occupancy is this \r\nconclusion reversed. Use of public transit systems, especially those \r\nthat rely on buses and passenger rail fuelled with the low-carbon \r\nfuels previously described, would thus support efforts to decarbonise "


id: fb64b4e74386858c3aea2e77b52997d3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41602
content:
"Figure 10.7 | Lifecycle costs for internal combustion engine vehicles, battery electric vehicles, and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles for buses and passenger \r\nrail. The range of efficiencies for each vehicle type are consistent with the range of efficiencies in Figure 10.6 (80% occupancy). The results for the ICEV can be used to evaluate \r\nthe lifecycle costs of ICE buses and passenger rail operated with any form of diesel, whether from petroleum, synthetic hydrocarbons, or biofuel, as the range of efficiencies \r\nof vehicles operating with all these fuels is similar. The secondary y-axis depicts the cost of the different energy carriers normalised in USD/GJ for easier cross-comparability."


id: fcbb6fc8f2d880d002f856234debee7b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41828
content:
"the focus of this review. Decarbonisation of medium- and heavy-duty \r\ntrucks would likely require the use of low-carbon electricity in battery \r\nelectric trucks, low-carbon hydrogen or ammonia in fuel-cell trucks, \r\nor bio-based fuels (from sources with low upstream emissions and \r\nlow risk of induced land-use change) used in ICE trucks."


id: 36569a84e88b16ad550148679d4bd91b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6793
content:
"As is the case with passenger transport, there is growing interest \r\nin alternative fuels that could reduce GHG emissions from freight \r\ntransport. Natural gas-based fuels (e.g., CNG, LNG) are an example, \r\nhowever these may not lead to drastic reductions in GHG emissions \r\ncompared to diesel. Natural gas-powered vehicles have been \r\ndiscussed as a  means to mitigate air quality impacts (Khan et  al. \r\n2015; Cai et  al. 2017; Pan et  al. 2020), but those impacts are not "


id: a4a76bffb0736d4d66c3e100cdd9332d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26184
content:
"Freight rail is also a major mode for the inland movement of goods. \r\nTrains are more energy efficient (per tkm) than trucks, so expanded \r\nuse of rail systems (particularly in developing countries where "


id: 13f148065bf8140b24ea5833ef721263
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 725
content:
"For trucks, Figure 10.8 includes two x-axes representing two different \r\nassumptions about their payload, which substantially influence \r\nemissions per tonne-kilometre. These results highlight the importance \r\nof truckload planning as an emissions reduction mechanism, for \r\nexample, as also shown in Kaack et  al. (2018). Several studies \r\nalso point to improvements in vehicle efficiency as an important \r\nmechanism to reduce emissions from freight transport (Taptich et al. \r\n2016; Kaack et  al. 2018). However, projections for diesel vehicles \r\nusing such efficiencies beyond 2030 are promising, but still far higher \r\nemitting than vehicles powered with low-carbon sources."


id: f09fe7c352de08c1c8afb99458a7cf7d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39708
content:
"demand for goods could grow exponentially) could provide carbon \r\nabatement opportunities. While diesel-based locomotives are still \r\na  major mode of propulsion used in freight rail, interest in low\u0002carbon propulsion technologies is growing. Electricity already powers \r\nfreight rail in many European countries using overhead catenaries. \r\nOther low-carbon technologies for rail may include advanced storage \r\ntechnologies, biofuels, synthetic fuels, ammonia, or hydrogen."


id: b296207a7820f21c1fd56b006d48d420
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28659
content:
"costs (especially the battery) would enable either alternative fuel \r\ntechnology to become financially attractive. These results are largely \r\nconsistent with raw results reported in existing literature, which \r\nsuggest ambiguity over whether BEV trucks are already competitive, \r\nbut more consistency that hydrogen is not yet competitive, but could \r\nbe in future (Zhao et al. 2016; Moultak et al. 2017; Sen et al. 2017; \r\nWhite and Sintov 2017; Zhou et al. 2017; Mareev et al. 2018; Yang \r\net  al. 2018a; El Hannach et  al. 2019; Lajevardi et  al. 2019; Tanco \r\net al. 2019; Burke and Sinha 2020; Jones et al. 2020). There is limited \r\ndata available on the LCC for freight rail, but at least one study \r\nIEA (2019g) suggests that electric catenary rail is likely to have \r\nsimilar costs to diesel rail, while battery electric trains remain more \r\nexpensive and hydrogen rail could become cheaper under forward\u0002looking cost reduction scenarios."


id: 62fb316be5a5dd3fc8de3ff092a777d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14710
content:
"Taken together, the results in this section suggest a range of cost\u0002effective opportunities to reduce GHG emissions from land-based \r\ntransport. Mode shift from cars to passenger transit (bus or rail) \r\ncan reduce GHG emissions while also reducing LCCs, resulting in \r\na  negative abatement cost. Likewise, increasing the utilisation of \r\nvehicles (i.e.,  % occupancy for passenger vehicles or % payload \r\nfor freight vehicles) simultaneously decreases emissions and costs \r\nper pkm or per tkm, respectively. Within a given mode, alternative fuel \r\nsources also show strong potential to reduce emissions at minimal \r\nadded costs. For LDVs, BEVs can offer emissions reductions with LCCs \r\nthat are already approaching that for conventional ICEVs. For transit \r\nand freight, near-term abatement costs for the low-carbon BEV and \r\nFCV options relative to their diesel counterparts range from near \r\nUSD0/tonne CO2-eq (e.g., BEV buses and BEV passenger rail) into the "


id: 691aade73cb75c2ccca5a3c144f35035
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15761
content:
"hundreds or even low thousands of dollars per tonne CO2-eq (e.g., for \r\nheavy-duty BEV and FCV trucks at current vehicle and fuel costs). \r\nWith projected future declines in storage, fuel cell, and low-carbon \r\nhydrogen fuel costs, however, both BEV and FCV technologies can \r\nlikewise offer GHG reductions at negative abatement costs across all \r\nland-transport modes in 2030 and beyond. Further information about \r\ncosts and potentials is available in Chapter 12."


id: 9088eed312120544ca785c1d4536b4d9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22636
content:
"of fossil fuel aviation kerosene ('Jet-A'), although its non-CO2\r\nemissions can also affect climate (Section  10.5.2). International \r\nemissions of CO2 are about 65% of the total emissions from aviation \r\n(Fleming and de Lepinay 2019), which totalled approximately 1 Gt \r\nof CO2 in 2018. Emissions from this segment of the transport sector \r\nhave been steadily increasing at rates of around 2.5% per year over \r\nthe last two decades (Figure 10.10), although for the period 2010 to \r\n2018 the rate increased to roughly 4% per year. The latest available \r\ndata (2018) indicate that aviation is responsible for approximately \r\n2.4% of total anthropogenic emissions of CO2 (including land-use \r\nchange) on an annual basis (using IEA data, IATA data and global \r\nemissions data of Le Quere et al. (2018b))."


id: 652a32d26f7fd7df463a461c9fd2503
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15066
content:
"This section addresses the potential for reducing GHG emissions from \r\naviation. The overriding constraint on developments in technology \r\nand energy efficiency for this sector is safety. Governance is \r\ncomplex in that international aviation comes under the International \r\nCivil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a  specialised UN agency. The \r\nmeasures to reduce GHG emissions that are considered include both \r\nin-sector (technology, operations, fuels) and out of sector (market\u0002based measures, high-speed rail modal shift/substitution). Demand \r\nmanagement is not explicitly considered in this section, as it was \r\ndiscussed in 10.2. A limited range of scenarios to 2050 and beyond \r\nare available and assessed at the end of the section."


id: f09a88ee0c2e77a3b079d00bc4aaa649
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39705
content:
"Aviation's net warming effect results from its historical and current \r\nemissions of CO2, and non-CO2 emissions of water vapour, soot, \r\nsulphur dioxide (from sulphur in the fuel), and nitrogen oxides \r\n(NOx, = NO + NO2) (IPCC 1999; Lee et al. 2021; Szopa et al. 2021). \r\nAlthough the effective radiative forcing (ERF) of CO2 from historic \r\naviation emissions is not currently the largest forcing term, it is difficult \r\nto address because of the sector's current dependency on fossil-based \r\nhydrocarbon fuels and the longevity of CO2. A residual of emissions of \r\nCO2 today will still have a warming effect in many thousands of years \r\n(Archer et al. 2009; Canadell et al. 2021) whereas water vapour, soot, \r\nand NOx emissions will have long ceased to contribute to warming \r\nafter some decades. As a result, CO2 mitigation of aviation to net zero \r\nlevels, as required in 1.5degC scenarios, requires fundamental shifts in \r\ntechnology, fuel types, or changes of behaviour or demand."


id: 3f37d07ba2aa28db4796130ceb56b95b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8309
content:
"Aviation is widely recognised as a 'hard-to-decarbonise' sector (Gota \r\net al. 2019) having a strong dependency on liquid fossil fuels and an \r\ninfrastructure that has long 'lock-in' timescales, resulting in slow fleet \r\nturnover times. The principal GHG emitted is CO2 from the combustion "


id: 9204e7a5b01dddae56ced8b7915fe8c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22907
content:
"or more to penetrate the fleet completely. Thus, the literature does \r\nnot support the idea that there are large improvements to be made \r\nin the energy efficiency of aviation that keep pace with the projected \r\ngrowth in air transport."


id: 2592252f28af2aac13a68ed1b4ef2f9a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3798
content:
"The development of 'sustainable aviation fuels' (referred to as \r\n'SAFs') that can reduce aviation's carbon footprint is a  growing \r\narea of interest and research. Alternative aviation fuels to replace \r\nfossil-based kerosene have to be certified to an equivalent standard \r\nas Jet-A for a  variety of parameters associated with safety issues. \r\nCurrently, the organisation responsible for aviation fuel standards, \r\nASTM International, has certified seven different types of sustainable \r\naviation fuels with maximum blends ranging from 10% to 50% \r\n(Chiaramonti 2019). Effectively, these blend requirements limit the \r\namount of non-hydrocarbon fuel (e.g., methanol) that can be added \r\nat present. While there currently is a  minimum level of aromatic \r\nhydrocarbon contained in jet fuel to prevent 'O-ring' shrinkage in "


id: 88aa5d9529df0dec7abfdd8036c2e499
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21205
content:
"the fuel seals (Khandelwal et al. 2018), this minimum level can likely \r\nbe lower in the medium to long term, with the added benefits of \r\nreduced soot formation and reduced contrail cirrus formation (Bier \r\net al. 2017; Bier and Burkhardt 2019)."


id: 789a970010d2473e12180a9e6fd5430d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18413
content:
"fossil fuel by 2050 (Gossling et al. 2021a). These synthetic fuels have \r\npotential for large lifecycle emissions reductions (Schmidt et  al. \r\n2016). In comparison to bio-SAF production, the implementation of \r\nthe processes is in its infancy. However, assuming availability of low\u0002carbon energy electricity, these fuels have much smaller land and \r\nwater requirements than bio-SAF. Low carbon-energy supply, scalable \r\ntechnology, and therefore costs, represent barriers. Scheelhaase et al. \r\n(2019) review current estimates of costs, which are estimated to be \r\napproximately four to six times the price of fossil kerosene."


id: 59e40d75dd4b44fc2d2720f708bd5a68
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13060
content:
"Costs remain a major barrier for bio-SAF, which cost around three \r\ntimes the price of kerosene (Kandaramath Hari et al. 2015). Clearly, \r\nfor SAFs to be economically competitive, large adjustments in prices \r\nof fossil fuels or the introduction of policies is required. Staples \r\net  al. (2018) estimated that in order to introduce bio-SAFs that \r\nreduce lifecycle GHG emissions by at least 50% by 2050, prices \r\nand policies were necessary for incentivisation. They estimate the \r\nneed for 268  new biorefineries per  year and capital investments \r\nof approximately 22 to 88 billion USD2015 per year between 2020 \r\nand 2050. Wise et al. (2017) suggest that carbon prices would help \r\nleverage production and availability."


id: 3559e006f2839cead59e33cf48d1dda8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6634
content:
"The non-CO2 impacts of LH2-powered aircrafts remain poorly \r\nunderstood. The emission index of water vapour would be much larger \r\n(estimated to be 2.6 times greater by Strom and Gierens (2002)) than \r\nfor conventional fuels), and the occurrence of contrails may increase \r\nbut have lower ERF because of the lower optical depth (Marquart \r\net al. 2005). Moreover, contrails primarily form on soot particles from \r\nkerosene-powered aircraft, which would be absent from LH2 exhaust \r\n(Karcher 2018). The overall effect is currently unknown as there are \r\nno measurements. Potentially, NOx emissions could be lower with \r\ncombustor redesign (Khandelwal et al. 2013)."


id: 6ffba3e621b89807d79573d00886a154
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16958
content:
"Various pathways have been discussed for the production of \r\nnon-bio SAFs such as power-to-liquid pathways (Schmidt et  al. \r\n2018), sometimes termed 'electro-fuels' (Goldmann et  al. 2018), \r\nor more generalised 'Power-to-X' pathways (Kober and Bauer \r\n2019). This process would involve the use of low-carbon electricity, \r\nCO2, and water to synthesise jet fuel through the Fischer-Tropsch \r\nprocess or methanol synthesis. Hydrogen would be produced via \r\nan electrochemical process, powered by low-carbon energy and \r\ncombined with CO2 captured directly from the atmosphere or \r\nthrough BECCS. The energy requirement from photovoltaics has \r\nbeen estimated to be of the order 14 to 20 EJ to phase out aviation "


id: 12b56cd32a5266ce0f8ece815a1c166a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 494
content:
"In conclusion, there are favourable arguments for LH2-powered \r\naircraft, both on an efficiency basis (Verstraete 2013) and an overall \r\nreduction in GHG emissions, even on an lifecycle basis. However, LH2\r\nrequires redesign of the aircraft, particularly for long-haul operations. \r\nSimilarly, there would be a need for expanded infrastructure for fuel "


id: 491b162640069c04524206e3271920a5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10085
content:
"agreed in 2016 to commence, in 2020, the 'Carbon Offsetting and \r\nReduction Scheme for International Aviation' (CORSIA). The pandemic \r\nsubsequently resulted in the baseline being changed to 2019."


id: cdbc98b2d9d713435cf801151fa9d4d9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33525
content:
"manufacture, storage, and distribution at airports, which is likely to \r\nbe more easily overcome if there is a more general move towards \r\na hydrogen-based energy economy."


id: aea19b09b31cde838c4aa56ae3bee6c5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27954
content:
"CORSIA has a  phased implementation, with an initial pilot phase \r\n(2021-2023) and a  first phase (2024-2026) in which states \r\nwill participate voluntarily. The second phase will then start in \r\n2026-2035, and all states will participate unless exempted. States \r\nmay be exempted if they have lower aviation activity levels or based \r\non their UN development status. As of September 2021, 109 ICAO \r\nMember States will voluntarily be participating in CORSIA starting \r\nin 2022. In terms of routes, only those where both States connecting \r\nthe route are participating are included. There will be a  special \r\nreview of CORSIA by the end of 2032 to determine the termination \r\nof the scheme, its extension, or any other changes to the scheme \r\nbeyond 2035."


id: f67450abec5668750fc11731f5355e1c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40731
content:
"Technological and operational trade-offs between CO2 and \r\nnon-CO2 effects. Since aviation has additional non-CO2 warming \r\neffects, there has been some discussion as to whether these can be \r\naddressed by either technological or operational means. For example, \r\nimproved fuel efficiency has resulted from high overall pressure ratio \r\nengines with large bypass ratios. This improvement has increased \r\npressure and temperature at the combustor inlet, with a  resultant \r\ntendency to increase thermal NOx formation in the combustor. \r\nCombustor technology aims to reduce this increase, but it represents \r\na potential technology trade-off whereby NOx control may be at the \r\nexpense of extra fuel efficiency. Estimating the benefits or disbenefits \r\nof CO2 (proportional to fuel burned) vs NOx in terms of climate is \r\ncomplex (Freeman et al. 2018)."


id: 7dd7ec890845d6f558d0ed5ad7399f4e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19314
content:
"Any global warming potential/temperature change potential type \r\nemissions equivalency calculation always involves the user selection \r\nof a  time horizon over which the calculation is made, which is \r\na subjective choice (Fuglestvedt et al. 2010). In general, the longer the \r\ntime horizon, the more important CO2 becomes in comparison with \r\na short-lived climate forcing agent. So, for example, a net (overall) \r\naviation GWP for a  20-year time horizon is 4.0 times that of CO2\r\nalone, but only 1.7 over a 100-year time horizon. Correspondingly, \r\na GTP for a 20-year time horizon is 1.3, but it is 1.1 for 100 years \r\n(Lee et al. 2021)."


id: 254c67bd59bd254b1c8d942f2c778420
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3749
content:
"Market-based offsetting measures. The EU introduced aviation \r\ninto its CO2 emissions trading scheme (ETS) in 2012. Currently, the \r\nEU-ETS for aviation includes all flights within the EU as well as to and \r\nfrom Eastern European and West-Central Asian states. Globally, ICAO "


id: 610dfc91bffc9114f3ef35c267b2ddc3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14368
content:
"the coming decades, the commencement of appropriate HSR services \r\nhas the potential to provide, particularly in the short- to medium\u0002term, additional means of aviation emissions mitigation."


id: b18e9e897ed220fb646771dfa9a03ae
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28463
content:
"and other markets and may be attributable to China having developed \r\na comprehensive network with hub stations, higher average speeds, \r\nand an integrated domestic market with strong patronage (Zhang \r\net al. 2019a)."


id: 451f0aa7f96e35a110b466c26bbb6a98
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9384
content:
"The most recent projection from ICAO (prior to the COVID-19 \r\npandemic) for international traffic (mid-range growth) is shown in \r\nFigure 10.11. This projection shows the different contributions of \r\nmitigation measures from two levels of improved technology, as \r\nwell as improvements in air traffic management and infrastructure \r\nuse. The projections indicate an increase in CO2 emissions by \r\na  factor of 2.2 in 2050 over 2020 levels for the most optimistic \r\nset of mitigation assumptions. The high/low traffic growth \r\nassumptions would indicate increases by factors of 2.8 and 1.1, \r\nrespectively in 2050, over 2020 levels (again, for the most optimistic \r\nmitigation assumptions)."


id: c26bcd3919be44a5f3ebde778fe539d8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:20
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31488
content:
"The International Energy Agency has published several long-term \r\naviation scenarios since AR5 within a  broader scope of energy \r\nprojections. Their first set of aviation scenarios include a 'reference \r\ntechnology scenario', a '2degC Scenario' and a 'Beyond 2degC Scenario'. \r\nThe scenarios are simplified in assuming a range of growth rates and \r\ntechnological/operational improvements (IEA 2017b). Mitigation \r\nmeasures brought about by policy and regulation are treated in \r\na broad-brush manner, noting possible uses of taxes, carbon pricing, \r\nprice and regulatory signals to promote innovation."


