# document

id: d88aa77da4e396ccd064f45378f8b7de
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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"[...] to tackle groundwater overexploitation (Kuper et  al., 2016), among \r others (see Section 9.10.2.4 and Chapter 4 Sections 4.6 and 4.7)."


id: c48e10ee904a6173c634aa5e5ecc1743
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
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vector_id: 31891
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"Ideally, a systems approach (Ericksen, 2008; Rosenzweig et al., 2020) \r could be used to assess how global environmental changes affect \r the food sector in Africa, emphasising the complex interactions that \r exist within the components of the food supply system, including its \r enabling socioeconomic and biophysical environment (Ingram, 2011; \r Foran et  al., 2014; Tendall et  al., 2015), and how food is connected \r to other critical systems such as energy, water and transportation \r (Albrecht et al., 2018; see Box 9.5). Production will not be the only \r aspect of food security that is impacted by climate change. Processing, \r storage, distribution and consumption will also be affected. Access \r to healthy and adequate food in the face of climate change requires \r resilience across these components of the food system (Adenle et al., \r 2017). However, most studies on climate change impacts on food in \r Africa are heavily focused on production only. A significant knowledge \r [...]"


id: a009655ce4cff97220125ff9921147b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
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vector_id: 25370
content:
"Climate change is projected to reduce sorghum yields in west Africa \r (Figure  9.23). For example, across the west African Sahel savanna \r sorghum yields are projected to decline on average 2% at 1.5degC and 5% \r at 2degC global warming (Faye et al., 2018). For coffee and tea in eastern \r Africa, olives in Algeria and sunflower in Botswana and Morocco, \r studies indicate mostly negative impacts on production systems. \r For example, in Kenya, compared to 2000, optimal habitat for tea \r production is projected to decrease in area by 27% with yields declining \r 10% for global warming of 1.8-1.9degC, although yield declines may be \r reduced at higher levels of warming (Beringer et al., 2020; Jayasinghe \r and Kumar, 2020; Rigden et al., 2020). Suitable area for tea production \r may reduce by half in Uganda (Eitzinger et al., 2011; Laderach et al., \r 2013). In east Africa, the coffee-growing area is projected to shift up \r [...]"


id: 97424d30c58ba8bfbb7568430f0b4744
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 23808
content:
"[...] in elevation with suitability decreasing 10-30% between 1.5-2degC of \r global warming (Bunn et al., 2015; Ovalle-Rivera et al., 2015)."


id: 5f5a727bb4d64f1a34e9bff631af8fc6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
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vector_id: 14087
content:
"Figure 9.22 |  Projected yield changes for major staple crops in Africa due to climate change (compared to 2005 yield levels). Projected impacts are grouped \r by projected global warming levels. Boxplots show a synthesis of projected staple crop impacts, with and without adaptation measures (e.g., planting date, cultivar, tillage or \r irrigation). On average crop yields are projected to decrease with increasing global warming across staple crops in Africa. The overall adaptation potential to offset yield losses \r across Africa for rice, maize and wheat reduces with increasing global warming. On average, in projections including adaptation options, yield losses in the median case are reduced \r from -33% to -10% of 2005 levels at 2degC of global warming and from -46% to -23% at 4degC. Global warming levels were calculated using a baseline for pre-industrial global \r [...]"


id: 260aa9d363dd6bbeeb5e4310b854bcb9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
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vector_id: 3868
content:
"[...] mean temperature of 1850-1900. Data are a synthesis across 35 studies for nearly 1040 locations and cases of projected impacts for regions of Africa for maize, rice and wheat \r (Hasegawa et al., 2021; Table SM9.5)."


id: 8d33bad6b2c2791b10bb2677c0d93e09
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"of drinking water, direct heat stress and the prevalence of livestock \r diseases (Nardone et al., 2010; Rojas-Downing et al., 2017; Godde et al., \r 2021). Climate change is projected to negatively affect fodder availability \r (Briske, 2017) because overall rangeland net primary productivity (NPP) \r by 2050 is projected to decrease 42% under RCP4.5 (2degC global warming) \r and 46% under RCP8.5 (2.4degC global warming) for western sub-Saharan \r Africa, compared to a 2000 baseline (Boone et al., 2018). NPP is also \r projected to decline by 37% in southern Africa, 32% in north Africa \r and 5% in both east Africa and central Africa by 2050 under RCP8.5 \r (2.4degC global warming) (Boone et al., 2018). For example, in Zimbabwe \r by 2040-2070, net revenues from livestock production, compared to a \r 2011 survey, are projected to decline by 8-32% under RCP4.5 for 2degC \r and 11-43% under RCP8.5 for 2.7degC global warming due to a decline in \r [...]"


id: 3e4f8082626259b2563049494110f5ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] fodder availability (Descheemaeker et al., 2018). The available literature \r does not comprehensively capture the economic implications of climate\u0002related impacts on livestock production across Africa."


id: 73c673945fce4bb91a259fc4a7521171
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"The focus of projected climate change impacts has been almost \r exclusively on agricultural production, yet climate change could \r have substantial impacts on the distribution and availability of wild\u0002harvested food plants in Africa (Wessels et al., 2021). Non-cultivated \r species in Africa are vulnerable to current and future climate changes, \r with widespread changes in woody plant cover already observed \r (see Section  9.6.1.1). Evidence about the impacts of climate change \r on individual wild food species is less consistent. Communities in the \r Kalahari (Crate and Nuttall, 2016) and Zimbabwe (Sango and Godwell, \r 2015) report growing scarcity of wild foods (such as wild meat and fruit) \r perceived to be, at least in part, due to drought and climate change. \r Shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) nuts provide fats and oils for the diets of \r many rural populations in west Africa. In Burkina Faso, global warming \r [...]"


id: 949dcbf00aabc410c4aefeaab07c9106
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] of 3degC is projected to reduce area of suitable habitat for the shea tree \r by 14% (Dimobe et al., 2020). In southern Africa, 40% of native, wild\u0002harvested food plant species are projected to decrease in geographic \r range extent at 1.7degC global warming with range reductions for 66% of \r species projected for 3.5degC (Wessels et al., 2021)."


id: 72c9d743b30433f2be7319f0e38b8c81
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
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content:
"Climate change is projected to threaten water availability for \r livestock. Droughts in Africa have become more intense, frequent and \r widespread in the last 50 years (Masih et al., 2014), and progressive \r increase in droughts between 3- and 20-fold under climate change \r up to 3degC of warming are projected for most of Africa (Section 9.5). \r In the Klela basin in Mali by 2050, groundwater recharge is projected \r to decline by 49% and groundwater storage by 24% under RCP8.5 \r (2.4degC global warming) compared to the 2006 baseline (Toure et al., \r 2017). Water availability for livestock during drought is a major \r concern for many African pastoralists including but not limited to those \r in Zimbabwe (Dzavo et al., 2019) and Nigeria (Ayanlade and Ojebisi, \r 2019). Increased livestock mortality and livestock price shocks have \r been associated with droughts in Africa, as well as being a potential \r pathway for climate-related conflict (Catley et al., 2014; see Box 9.9; \r [...]"


id: fd68fed58bf2afc1d9c2c826d4c4ecb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"Advances in remote sensing and climate analysis tools have allowed \r the development of weather index insurance products as a potential \r adaptation option, with Malawi and Ethiopia being early testbeds \r (Tadesse et al., 2015, Section 9.11.4). These pilot projects were initially \r sponsored by NGOs, but in the last decade, the private sector has \r become more active in this sector. The Ghana Agricultural Insurance \r Pool and Agriculture and Climate Risk Enterprise (ACRE) in Kenya, \r Tanzania and Rwanda are examples. Despite the potential for weather \r index insurance, uptake by smallholder farmers in Africa remains \r constrained by several factors. These include the failure to capture \r actual crop loss as in traditional crop insurance products, as well \r as the inability of poor farmers to pay premiums (Elum et al., 2017; \r Weber, 2019). Weather index insurance could be part of a wider \r portfolio of risk mitigation services offered to farmers (Tadesse et al., \r [...]"


id: 6fc109cd9be113ee6ffb778c924e7494
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] 2015; Weber, 2019). Strategic partnerships between key players (e.g., \r credit institutions, policymakers, meteorologists, farmer associations, \r extension services, NGOs) are needed to develop better products and \r build capacity among smallholder farmers to engage more beneficially \r with weather index insurance (Singh et al., 2018; Tesfaye et al., 2019)."


id: 8bc455841ed6009c8c6efae831765caf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"However, compared to temperate regions, risks of adaptation shortfalls--\r that is climate change impacts even after adaptation--are generally \r greater for current agricultural conditions across much of Africa (tropical, \r arid and semi-arid) (Sun et al., 2019). The overall adaptation potential \r to offset yield losses across Africa for rice, maize and wheat reduces \r with increasing global warming. On average, in projections including \r adaptation options, yield losses, in the median case, are reduced from \r -33% to -10% of 2005 levels at 2degC of global warming and from -46% \r to -23% at 4degC, but estimates vary widely (Figure 9.22; Hasegawa et al., \r 2021). Across Africa, the risks of no available genetic varieties of maize \r for growing season adaptation are higher for east Africa and southern \r Africa than for central or west Africa (Zabel et al., 2021). To keep pace \r with expected rates of climate change, crop breeding, development \r [...]"


id: f7fa82bfa57ff9b7ce62a4909cfd9a72
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] and adoption must accelerate to meet the challenge (Challinor et  al., \r 2016). Regional modelling has shown very little efficacy for late sowing, \r intensification of seeding density and fertilizers, water harvesting and \r other measures for cereals in west Africa at 2degC of global warming \r (Sultan and Gaetani, 2016; Guan et al., 2017). Historical climate change \r adaptation by crop migration has been shown in some cases (Sloat et al., \r 2020) but poses risks to biodiversity and water resources, and this option \r may be limited for maize in Africa by suitable climate shifting completely \r across national borders and available land at the edges of the continent \r (Franke et al., 2021). More research is required to evaluate the potential \r effectiveness and limits of adaptation options in African agriculture under \r future climate change (see Chapter 5 Section 5.4.4 for more details)."


id: 6138429dee4b2ecc0a930a0cc8ba6424
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"Climate change already poses a significant threat to marine and \r freshwater fisheries and aquaculture in Africa (Blasiak et  al., 2017; \r Harrod et  al., 2018a). Severe (>30%) coral bleaching has impacted \r ~80% of major reef areas in the western Indian Ocean and Red Sea \r along Africa's eastern coast (Hughes et  al., 2018). Biological effects \r (e.g., changes in primary production, fish distribution) have also \r occurred (Hidalgo et  al., 2018). Range shifts in marine fish species \r can exacerbate boundary conflicts among fisher communities (Penney \r et al., 2017; Belhabib et al., 2019). Changes in fish distribution and \r reductions in catch across inland fisheries are associated with climatic \r variability by fishing communities (Okpara et al., 2017b; Lowe et al., \r 2019; Muringai et al., 2019b). Floods and reduced river flow reduces \r fish catches (Kolding et al., 2019), which scale positively with discharge \r rates in rivers across Africa (McIntyre et al., 2016). Warming air and \r [...]"


id: 1d5e6f4227862a81fcea4ba88dded1dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] water temperatures have altered water stratification patterns in African \r lakes causing reductions in or redistributions of primary productivity \r and leading to reduced fish biomass (Section 9.6.1.3). Such changes, \r partially explain reduced fish catches in Lake Tanganyika (Cohen et al., \r 2016). In some regions, water scarcity has resulted in conflict within \r and among food production sectors (pastoralists, fishers and farmers) "


id: 97521c4345e18a372c4d366aea06100c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"A and 285 million to vitamin B12 and omega-3 fatty acids by mid-century \r under 1.7degC global warming (Golden et al., 2016). Maire et al. (2021) \r assessed the nutritional vulnerabilities of African countries to climate \r change and overfishing, and found that the four most vulnerable countries \r ranked on a scale from 0 (low vulnerability) to 100 (high vulnerability) \r were Mozambique (87), Madagascar (76), Tanzania (61) and Sierra Leone \r (58). Coral reef habitat in east Africa is projected to decrease, resulting \r in negative impacts on demersal fish stocks and invertebrates (Hoegh\u0002Guldberg et al., 2018). Central, west and east Africa are projected to be at \r the greatest nutritional risk from sea temperature rise, leading to reduced \r catch in coastal waters (Figure 9.25; Golden et al., 2016). In north Africa, \r a rise in water temperatures is expected to impact the phenology and \r migratory patterns of large pelagic species (e.g., bluefin tuna, Thunnus \r [...]"


id: 164e46b7b1becce88b6b353c3b7a7d3b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] thynnus) (Hidalgo et  al., 2018). Increased sea surface temperatures \r have been associated with increases in spring and summer upwelling \r intensity reducing the abundance and larval survival of small pelagic \r fishes and shellfish in west Africa (Bakun et al., 2015; Tiedemann et al., \r 2017; Atindana et al., 2020). Ocean warming, acidification and hypoxia "


id: 74a54634eea14d4ae4ecc45239827732
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"other regions with 2.7degC-3.3degC increase by end of century) based on a \r 3.9degC global warming scenario (Harrod et al., 2018b). In regions where \r inland fishery production is derived primarily from lakes, there is a lower \r likelihood of reduced catch, especially where precipitation is projected \r to increase (e.g., African Great Lakes region) (Harrod et  al., 2018b). \r Regions reliant on rivers and floodplains (e.g., Zambezi and Niger \r basins) are more likely to experience downturns in catch, as hydrological \r dynamics may be altered (Harrod et al., 2018b). Projections suggest that \r opportunistic species that do well in modified systems (Escalera-vazquez \r et al., 2017) and small pelagic fishes will remain important components \r of inland fishery food systems (Kolding et al., 2016; Gownaris et al., 2018; \r 2019). Climate adaptation responses that rely on freshwater resources \r (e.g., hydroelectric power generation, agricultural irrigation) represent \r [...]"


id: bcfd409cc006e54b8043469308e54046
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] threats to inland fisheries (Cowx et al., 2018; Harrod et al., 2018c), by \r changing flow regimes, reducing water levels, and increasing runoff of \r pesticides and nutrients (Harrod et al., 2018c)."


id: 87ec670625e2e4647ac8ee54ed5873a8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"Patterns of vulnerability and adaptive capacity are highly context \r dependent and vary within and among fishing communities in \r coastal and riparian areas (Ndhlovu and Saito, 2017; Lowe et  al., \r 2019; D'agata et  al., 2020). Interventions that integrate scientific \r knowledge and fishers' local knowledge while focusing on vulnerable \r groups are expected to be more successful (Musinguzi et al., 2018; \r Muringai et  al., 2019b). Infrastructure improvements (e.g., storage \r facilities, processing technologies, transport systems) could reduce \r post-harvest losses and improve food safety (Chan et al., 2019). Fisher \r safety can be aided by early warning of severe weather conditions \r (Thiery et  al., 2017), enhanced through communication via mass \r media and mobile phones (Thiery et al., 2017; Kiwanuka-Tondo et al., \r 2019). Although changing fishing gears and shifting target species \r are important adaptation options for artisanal fishers, many have \r [...]"


id: 846e80d1c86b5e3aa21880ee01f11e87
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] instead expanded their fishing range or increased effort (Musinguzi \r et al., 2015; Belhabib et al., 2016). Adapting to the impacts of climate \r change on marine fisheries productivity requires management \r reforms accounting for shifting productivity and species distributions, \r such as increasing marine protected areas, strengthening regional \r trade networks, and increasing the investment and innovation in \r climate-resilient aquaculture production (Golden et  al., 2021). This \r could yield higher catch and profits in the future relative to today \r in 50% of African countries with marine territories under 2degC global \r warming and in 35% under 4.3degC global warming (Free et al., 2020). \r For inland fisheries, opportunities for adaptation include better \r integration of inland fisheries into management plans from other \r sectors (e.g., hydropower and irrigation) (Harrod et al., 2018c; Cowx \r and Ogutu-Ohwayo, 2019; McCartney et al., 2019). There is growing \r [...]"


id: db992afbfcf5c85e953ded21a90a3b7a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 35925
content:
"[...] interest in enhancing the supply of freshwater fishery production \r from small water bodies and reservoirs in dryland regions of sub\u0002Saharan Africa (Kolding et al., 2016)."


id: 1aa2824a7ad050911472b82273a9648c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1885
content:
"Continuing current population and GDP growth trends, the extent of \r urban land exposed to high-frequency flooding is projected to increase \r around 270% in north Africa, 800% in southern Africa, and 2600% \r in mid-latitude Africa by 2030 when compared to 2000, without \r considering climate change (Guneralp et al., 2015). In addition, global \r warming is projected to increase frequency and magnitude of river \r floods in east, central and west Africa (Alfieri et al., 2017; Gu et al., \r 2020; Kam et al., 2021). On average, across large African river basins, \r the frequency of flood events with a current return period of 100 years \r is projected to increase to 1 in 40  years at 1.5degC and 2degC global \r warming, and 1 in 21 years at 4degC warming, with Egypt, Nigeria, Sudan \r and the Democratic Republic of Congo in the top 20 countries globally \r for projected damages (Alfieri et al., 2017). Compared to population in \r [...]"


id: f48e9e7e819212344e578a0775a30b08
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] 2000, human displacement due to river flooding in sub-Saharan Africa \r is projected to increase 600% by 2066-2096 with moderate-to-high \r population growth and 2.6degC global warming, with risk reducing to a \r 200% increase for low population growth and 1.6degC global warming \r (Kam et al., 2021)."


id: 95e720d0cb05115bbd1160c34d542e48
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"Urban vulnerabilities and exposure to climate change are increasing \r (medium to high confidence) and are influenced by patterns of urban \r settlement and housing characteristics (Satterthwaite, 2017; Godsmark \r et al., 2019; Williams et al., 2019a). About 70% of African cities are \r highly vulnerable to climate shocks of which small- and medium-sized \r towns and cities are more at risk (Verisk Maplecroft, 2018). Flooding \r was perceived as the most prominent water risk in 75% of 36 sampled \r cities across African sub-regions, while drought-related water scarcity \r was indicated as very important/important in 66.7% of cities (OECD, \r 2021). Almost one-third of African cities with populations of 300,000 \r or more are located in areas of high exposure to at least one natural \r hazard, including floods (11%) and droughts (20-25%) using natural \r hazard data for the period 1970s to early 2000s (Gu et al., 2015). The \r [...]"


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created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] coastal cities of east, west and north Africa are particularly vulnerable \r to the effects of rising sea levels (Abutaleb et al., 2018; IPCC, 2019a). \r From 2000-2015, the proportion of people exposed to floods increased \r for most African countries, with Mozambique and multiple countries in \r West Africa estimated to have had the proportion of their populations \r exposed to flooding increase more than 50% (Tellman et al., 2021)."


id: cb386179589b0e9e11ca8c207ea51d7d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"In the absence of any adaptation, Egypt, Mozambique, and Nigeria \r are projected to be worst affected by SLR in terms of the number of \r people at risk of flooding annually in a 4degC warming scenario (Hinkel \r et al., 2012). Recent estimates have explored the potential damages \r due to SLR and coastal extreme events in 12 major African cities using \r a stochastic approach to account for uncertainty (Abadie et al., 2020). \r The aggreate of expected average damages to these cities in 2050 \r is USD  65  billion for RCP4.5 and USD  86.5  billion for RCP8.5, and \r USD 137.5 billion under a high-end scenario that incorporates expert \r opinion on additional ice sheet melting with damages up to (Table 9.8). \r When considering low-probability, high-damage events, aggregate \r damage risks can be more than twice as high, reaching USD 187 billion \r and USD 206 billion under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, respectively, \r and USD 397 billion under the high-end scenario. City characteristics \r [...]"


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"[...] and exposure play a larger role in expected damages and risk than \r changes in sea level. The city of Alexandria in north Africa leads the "


id: 109b1a8d5b8379cec879d6c9f4eb0a29
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"Figure 9.29 |  Multiple large African cities will be exposed to sea level rise (SLR), these include the selected examples: (a) Dar es Salaam, Bagamoyo, and Stone \r Town in Tanzania (east Africa), (b) Lagos in Nigeria, and Cotonou and Porto-Novo in Benin (west Africa) and (c) Cairo and Alexandria in Egypt (north Africa). Orange shows built-up \r area in 2014. Shades of blue show permanent flooding due to SLR by 2050 and 2100 under low (RCP2.6), intermediate (RCP4.5) and high (RCP8.5) greenhouse gas emissions \r scenarios. Darker colours for higher emissions scenarios show areas projected to be flooded in addition to those for lower emissions scenarios. The figure assumes failure of coastal \r defences in 2050 and 2100. Some areas are already below current SLR and coastal defences need to be upgraded as SLRs (e.g., in Egypt), others are just above mean sea levels \r [...]"


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content:
"[...] and they do not necessarily have high protection levels, so these defences need to be built (e.g., Dar es Salaam and Lagos). Blue shading shows permanent inundation surfaces \r predicted by Coastal Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) given the 95th percentile K14/RCP2.6, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, for present day, \r 2050, and 2100 sea level projection for permanent inundation (inundation without a storm surge event), and RL10 (10-year return level storm) (Kulp and Strauss, 2019). Low-lying \r areas isolated from the ocean are removed from the inundation surface using connected components analysis. Current water bodies are derived from the SRTM Water Body Dataset. \r Orange areas represent the extent of coastal human settlements in 2014 (Corbane et al., 2018). See Figure CCP4.7 for projections including subsidence and worst-case scenario \r projections for 2100."


id: e9de8917630d9ba4103321033be83a17
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38492
content:
"population growth (SSP4) by the 2060s, with increases of 20-52 times \r 1985-2005 levels by 2080-2100, depending on the scenario (Rohat \r et al., 2019). West Africa (especially Nigeria) has the highest absolute \r exposure and southern Africa the least. Considering the urban heat \r island effect, the more vulnerable populations under 5 and over 64 \r exposed to heat waves of >15 days over 42degC are projected to increase \r from 27  million in 2010 to 360  million by 2100 for low population \r growth (SSP1) with 1.8degC global warming, increasing to 440 million for \r low population growth (SSP5) with >4degC global warming, with west \r Africa most affected (Marcotullio et al., 2021). This portends increased \r vulnerability to risk of heat stress in big cities of central, east and west \r Africa (very high confidence) (Gasparrini et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2017; \r Rohat et al., 2019). Shifting to a low urban population growth pathway \r [...]"


id: c377929bdc7bf4d151e172db5d8228cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31667
content:
"[...] is projected to achieve a greater reduction in aggregate exposure to \r extreme heat for most cities in west Africa, whereas limiting warming \r through lower emissions pathways achieves greater reductions in \r exposure in central and east Africa (Rohat et al., 2019)."


id: a473bb05d99e6e06358a168f1e048c48
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26144
content:
"Although an increase in drought hazard is projected for north and \r southwest southern Africa with increased global warming (Figure 9.15), \r central African countries may have the highest drought risk because of \r high vulnerability and high population growth (Ahmadalipour et  al., \r 2019). Among continents, Africa contains the second largest population \r of people living in drylands, which is expected to double by 2050 \r (IPCC, 2019a). Continuing current population and GDP growth trends, \r the extent of urban land in arid zones is projected to increase around \r 180% in southern Africa, 300% in north Africa and 700% in mid-latitude \r Africa by 2030 when compared to 2000, without considering climate \r change (Guneralp et al., 2015). At 1.5degC warming, urban populations \r exposed to severe droughts in west Africa are projected to increase \r (65+-34  million) and increase further at 2degC (IPCC, 2018b; Liu et  al., \r 2018b). Risks associated with increases in drought frequency and \r [...]"


id: 7a81e03a57f7b8d0bc7ed6c1bf19143f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18745
content:
"[...] magnitudes are projected to be substantially larger at 2degC than at 1.5degC \r for north Africa and southern Africa (IPCC, 2018b; Oppenheimer et al., \r 2019). Dryland populations exposed (vulnerable) to water stress, heat \r stress, and desertification are projected to reach 951 (178) million at \r 1.5degC, 1152 (220) million at 2degC, and 1285 (277) million at 3degC of global \r warming (IPCC, 2019a). At global warming of 2degC under a scenario \r of low population growth and sustainable development (SSP1), the \r exposed (vulnerable) dryland population is 974 (35) million and for \r higher population growth and low environmental protections (SSP3) it \r is 1.27 billion (522 million), a majority of which is in west Africa (IPCC, \r 2019a)."


id: 3d00cdfe443ec300d11718e5db02bdbb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7911
content:
"There is limited evidence of successful, proactively planned climate \r change adaptation in African cities (Simon and Leck, 2015), particularly \r for those countries highly vulnerable to climate change (Ford et  al., \r 2014). Planned adaptation initiatives in African cities since 2006 have \r been predominantly determined at the national level with negligible \r participation of lower levels of government (Ford et  al., 2014). \r Adaptation action directed at vulnerable populations is also rare (Ford \r et  al., 2014). There are emerging examples of cities planned climate \r adaptation measures, such as those advanced by Durban (Roberts, \r 2010), Cape Town (Taylor et al., 2016) and Lagos (Adelekan, 2016). There \r are also examples of community-led projects such as those in Maputo \r (Broto et al., 2015), which have seen meaningful help from a range of \r policy networks, dialogue forums and urban learning labs (Pasquini and \r [...]"


id: 41fe6bba859c3675fef51966c1e6be40
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8804
content:
"[...] Cowling, 2014; Shackleton et al., 2015). These researched cities can be \r lighthouses for wider exchange and the basis for a deeper synthesis of \r evidence (Lindley et al., 2019). However, planned adaptation progress is \r slow, especially in west and central Africa (Tiepolo, 2014)."


id: d70cec5d23e1d0779a39f100b65517e3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35137
content:
"Climate change and SLR will result in high economic costs for road \r infrastructure in sub-Saharan Africa (medium confidence) (Chinowsky \r et  al., 2015). Across Africa as a whole, potential cumulative costs \r estimates through 2100 range from USD  183.6  billion (with \r adaptation) to USD  248.3  billion (no adaptation) to repair and \r maintain existing roads damaged by temperature and precipitation \r changes directly related to projected climate change (see Figure 9.30) \r (Chinowsky et al., 2013). Climate-related road damage and associated \r repairs will be a significant financial burden to countries, but to \r varying degrees according to flood risk, existing road asset liability, \r topography and rural connectivity, among other factors (Chinowsky \r et  al., 2015; Cervigni et  al., 2017; Koks et  al., 2019). For example, \r Mozambique is projected to face estimated annual average costs \r of USD  123  million for maintaining and repairing roads damaged \r [...]"


id: da702893680b550da4446fd4a640c0c4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35731
content:
"[...] directly by precipitation and temperature changes from climate \r change through 2050 in a median climate change scenario for a \r policy that does not consider climate impacts during road design \r and construction (Chinowsky et al., 2015). Risk of river flooding to \r bridges in Mozambique under current conditions is estimated to be \r USD 200 million, equal to 1.5% of its GDP per year, and could rise to \r USD 400 million per year in the worst-case climate change scenario \r by 2050 (Schweikert et al., 2015)."


id: bfd4fa452ae10b9b8a2fab991754ef52
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31030
content:
"Under the Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action programme, \r investments in public transport and transit-oriented development are \r highlighted as desired mitigation-adaptation interventions within \r cities of South Africa, Ethiopia and Burkina Faso (UNFCCC, 2020). \r These interventions simultaneously reduce the vulnerability of low\u0002income residents to climate shocks, prevent lock-ins into carbon\u0002intensive development pathways and reduce poverty (high confidence) \r (Hallegatte et  al., 2016; Rozenberg et  al., 2019). The combined \r mitigation-adaptation interventions in the land use transport systems \r of African cities are also expected to have sufficient short-term co\u0002benefits (reducing air pollution, congestion and traffic fatalities) to be \r 'no regret' investments (very high confidence) (Hallegatte et al., 2016; \r Rozenberg et al., 2019). Only eight African countries have transport\u0002specific adaptation measures in their NDCs (Nwamarah, 2018). Five \r [...]"


id: a6a4258d93c9e3a325f64f2f03732798
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26532
content:
"linked (Schulz and Northridge, 2004; Moore and Diaz, 2015) and are \r largely outside the domain of the health sector. Climate change is \r already challenging the health and well-being of African communities, \r compounding the effects of underlying inequalities (high confidence). \r The interlinkage between climate change and social determinants of \r health are largely discussed at a global level (Commission of Social \r Determinants of Health, 2008), or for developed countries (Ahdoot \r et  al., 2015; Levy and Patz, 2015; Department of Economic and \r Social Affairs, 2016), with scant evidence for Africa. Nevertheless, \r there is robust evidence that the health impacts of climate change \r disproportionately affect the poorest people and children and, in some \r situations, can differ by gender and age (St Louis and Hess, 2008; \r Nyahunda et al., 2020; Ragavan et al., 2020; see Box 9.1). Unequal \r access to health care particularly affects rural communities (Falchetta \r [...]"


id: 40db1c8cb4620056e5172b942b626ec2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8594
content:
"[...] et  al., 2020), vulnerable women and children (Wigley et  al., 2020a) \r and challenges the achievement of development priorities such as \r universal health care access (SDG 3) (Weiss et al., 2020)."


id: 3e9dd8860890d8bf9ff9c608dc2b1015
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8201
content:
"Since AR5, significant progress has been made in understanding how \r changes in climate influence the seasonal and geographical range \r of malaria vectors, transmission intensity and burden of disease of \r malaria across Africa. Yet projecting changes remains challenging given \r the range of factors that influence transmission and disease patterns, \r and model outputs contain high degrees of uncertainty (Zermoglio \r et al., 2019; Giesen et al., 2020). Models have limited ability to account \r for population changes and development trends (Kibret et al., 2015; \r 2017), investments in health sectors and interventions (McCord, 2016; \r Colborn et al., 2018; Caminade et al., 2019), and confounders such as \r age, socioeconomic status, employment, labour migration and climate \r variability (Bennett et al., 2016; Karuri and Snow, 2016; Byass et al., \r 2017; Chuang et al., 2017; Colborn et al., 2018). Nevertheless, available \r [...]"


id: e3f2b5d856e676ff352579e196a0dcc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37392
content:
"[...] models do allow for projections of malaria transmission under different \r climate change scenarios to be made with high levels of certainty."


id: 5b6fb382cb89d9f037b38ac3fe7a2b5d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13330
content:
"In east and southern Africa and the Sahel, malaria vector hotspots \r and prevalence are projected to increase under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 by \r 2030 (1.5degC-1.7degC global warming) (high confidence) (Leedale et al., \r 2016; Semakula et al., 2017b; Zermoglio et al., 2019), becoming more \r pronounced later in the century (2.4degC-3.9degC global warming) (Ryan \r et  al., 2020). Under RCP4.5, 50.6-62.1  million people in east and \r southern Africa will be at risk of malaria by the 2030s (1.5degC global \r warming), and 196-198 million by the 2080s (2.4degC global warming) \r (Ryan et al., 2020). Northern Angola, southern DRC, western Tanzania and \r central Uganda are predicted to be worst impacted in 2030, extending \r to western Angola, upper Zambezi River basin, northeastern Zambia \r and the east African Highlands by 2080 (Ryan et al., 2020). Under rising \r temperatures, by the 2050s, the greatest shifts in suitability for malaria \r [...]"


id: 8c56d4f59a4b89ba6d374a2a1607f15e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21866
content:
"[...] transmission will be seen in east, southern and central Africa (2degC global \r warming) (Tonnang et al., 2014; Zermoglio et al., 2019; Ryan et al., 2020)."


id: 3038c6e152b3d39a1e363b7ad7b7d06b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5739
content:
"range due to changing environmental suitability, combined with rapid \r urbanisation and population growth, suggest that by 2050 populations \r exposed to these vectors in Africa may double, and by 2080 nearly \r triple at >2degC global warming (Kraemer et al., 2019). Southern limits \r of dengue transmission in Namibia and Botswana, and the western \r Sahel, may show the greatest expansions in environmental suitability \r under 1.8degC-2.6degC global warming (Messina et  al., 2019). In the \r warmest scenarios (RCP8.5), however, some parts of central Africa \r may become too hot for mosquitoes to transmit dengue, and thus \r at-risk populations may peak at intermediate warming levels (Ryan \r et al., 2019). Climatic conditions favourable for mosquitoes, combined \r with the increase of animal trade, may result in the expansion of the \r geographic range of zoonotic diseases like RVF (Martin et al., 2008), \r a threat for human and animal health with strong socioeconomic \r [...]"


id: c488eb1b1b0195867096650cfc37bfcb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31886
content:
"Future influenza pandemics are highly likely, as are regional epidemics and pandemics of novel zoonotic viruses (including coronaviruses \r and flaviviruses) (high confidence). In the next decades, climate change will reshape the risk landscape for emerging zoonotic threats as \r wildlife-livestock-human interfaces shift, facilitating the emergence of novel zoonotic threats and spillover of known zoonoses into novel \r geographies (Carlson et al., 2020a; Mordecai et al., 2020). Characteristics of urban development and level of service provision, for example, \r crowded living spaces and transport facilities, and access to water and sanitation will influence the transmission of COVID-19 and future \r disease outbreaks (Wilkinson, 2020). Historically, west and central Africa were considered especially at risk of outbreaks given their high \r biodiversity, high intensity of human-wildlife contact including wild meat trade, vulnerable health systems and history of Ebola virus \r [...]"


id: 850209ff2b075e9bffe5e43f49978373
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20541
content:
"[...] disease outbreaks (Paige et al., 2014; Allen et al., 2017; Pigott et al., 2017). However, as the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus \r (MERS-CoV) and COVID-19 pandemics have shown, there are multiple hotspots of viruses with pandemic potential globally, many of which \r are not in Africa. Thus, labelling African rainforests as unique 'hotspots' undermines global health work and pandemic preparedness."


id: 1054ce7877f8b40cceda659c4713616b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 63
content:
"Heat stress symptoms are prevalent among people in buildings that \r are poorly ventilated or insulated, or constructed with unsuitable \r materials (e.g., corrugated metal sheeting). These features are \r common to many structures in Africa, including slums, informal and \r low-income settlements, as well as schools and healthcare facilities \r (Bidassey-Manilal et al., 2016; Naicker et al., 2017; Wright et al., 2019). \r Temperatures inside these structures can exceed outdoor temperatures \r by 4degC or more and have large diurnal fluctuations (Mabuya and \r Scholes, 2020). Daily wage labourers and residents of urban informal \r settlements are among the most vulnerable to heat stress because \r of the urban heat island effect, with congestion, and inadequate \r ventilation, shade, open space and vegetation (Bartlett, 2008) being \r associated with impacts of both hot and cold conditions on public \r health (Ramin, 2009). Temperature extremes are expected to result in \r [...]"


id: b58e158e627819700206339b0f1fc3e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29167
content:
"[...] relatively more deaths in informal settlements than in other settlement \r types (Scovronick and Armstrong, 2012)."


id: aec8ff8f3868fe1e6c6c45bc25407d3f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27991
content:
"(c) showing avoidable deaths due to increased emissions mitigation efforts to achieve a lower global warming level (RCP4.5 rather than RCP8.5). These estimates of climate \r change impacts on mortality rates include temperature-related impacts only. They account for the benefits of income growth and incremental adaptation to climate change, both \r of which reduce mortality sensitivity to extreme temperatures. Projections were based on income and demographics from Shared Socioeconomic Pathway 3 (SSP3), with future \r adaptation based on adaptation actions observed in the global historical record. The estimates do not include the costs of the behaviours and investments required to achieve such \r adaptation (Carleton et al., 2018). Areas shown in burgundy in (c) have fewer deaths due to temperature under RCP8.5 than RCP4.5. This is because cold is currently the greatest \r [...]"


id: 3fd33f46e84ff6307dcc05465ac63773
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8421
content:
"[...] driver of temperature-related deaths in these areas, which is projected to be alleviated with increasing levels of global warming (Zhao et al., 2021)."


id: 983acb5bf1ef96cba2534749262a1f39
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23991
content:
"Projected risks for malnutrition in Africa are high (FAO, 2016; see \r Section  9.8.1): 433  million people in Africa are anticipated to be \r undernourished by 2030 (FAO et al., 2020) and, compared to 1961-\r 1990, 1.4  million additional African children will suffer from severe \r stunting by 2050 under 2.1degC global warming (WHO, 2014). In Burkina \r Faso, the mortality burden due to low crop yields could double by 2100 \r with 1.5degC of global warming (Belesova et al., 2019). Drought risks \r will include crop and livestock failures (Ahmadalipour et  al., 2019). \r Additionally, increasing concentrations of atmospheric CO2 will affect \r the nutritional quality of C3 plant staples, lowering levels of protein \r and minerals like zinc and iron (Myers et al., 2014; Weyant et al., 2018). \r Declining fish catches due to ocean warming, illegal fishing and poor \r stock management are projected to increase deficiencies of zinc, iron \r [...]"


id: e1468a440e2cab0224ec403cbcdabb76
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36895
content:
"[...] and vitamin A for millions of people across Mozambique, Angola and \r multiple west African countries (see Section 9.8.5; Golden et al., 2016)."


id: b180679b14dae282fe384eaaa80a4cd8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28452
content:
"Climate and health adaptation indicators are required for Africa \r to strengthen institutional capacity for risk monitoring and early \r warning systems, emergency preparedness and response, vulnerability \r reduction measures, shock-responsive and long-term social protection, \r and planning and implementing resilience-building measures (FAO \r and ECA, 2018). National-level progress is assessed through the \r Lancet Countdown indicators (Watts et  al., 2018), however, district\u0002and local-level indicators are needed to measure levels of vulnerability \r and response effectiveness at a local level, and for informing planning \r local service delivery. Potential indicators include monitoring the \r number of excess health conditions during extreme heat events. \r Indoor temperature monitoring in sentinel houses and health facilities \r is a related indicator (Ebi and Otmani Del Barrio, 2017), linked with \r threshold temperature levels at which health impacts occur, and the \r [...]"


id: 8f9200fcdcfb2cbe5d1bd82b4f0c1342
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22470
content:
"Increased awareness can facilitate community engagement and \r action (see Section 9.4.3). In Ghana, for example, local communities \r understand the climate hazards that drive outbreaks of meningitis \r and adapt accordingly by improving housing to limit heat and \r exposure, changing funeral practices during outbreaks, increased \r vaccination uptake and afforestation (Codjoe and Nabie, 2014). \r Similarly, participation in community organisations improved child \r nutrition in vulnerable rural households in Eswatini (Anchang et al., \r 2019). Interventions specifically targeting women are beneficial for \r food security, although they may be undermined by harmful gender \r norms in communities that are patriarchal, led by chiefs or have high \r rates of gender-based violence (Jaka and Shava, 2018; Kita, 2019; \r Masson et al., 2019). The BRACED project in Burkina Faso and Ethiopia \r specifically adopted a gender-transformative approach as an integral \r [...]"


id: 84a909d2a11b1b163f24810297fc95e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20483
content:
"[...] part of resilience building (McOmber et al., 2019). Improving 'climate \r literacy' could empower youth, women and men to be active citizens in \r promoting adherence of governments to international agreements in \r climate change (Mudombi et al., 2017; Chersich et al., 2019a)."


id: 3709e54b328ed27f7968804bf9ceaf37
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6910
content:
"Reducing morbidity and mortality during extreme heat events \r requires changes in behaviour and health promotion initiatives, \r health system interventions and modifications to the built and \r natural environment. Health promotion initiatives include promoting \r adequate hydration and simple cooling measures, such as drinking \r cold liquids, water sprays and raising awareness of the symptoms \r and importance of heat stress, including heatstroke (Aljawabra and \r Nikolopoulou, 2018). Adaptive measures are especially important \r for high-risk groups such as outdoor workers, the elderly, pregnant \r women and infants. Health systems interventions may include \r early warning systems, heat health regulation and health workers \r providing cooling interventions, such as supplying cool water or \r fans, during heat waves. Changes to the built environment include \r painting the roofs of houses white and improving ventilation during \r [...]"


id: 7760311cafe47ec5e66dbc8b5126b911
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18209
content:
"[...] extreme heat (Codjoe et al., 2020), the use of insulation materials or \r altering the building materials used for the construction of housing \r to improve their ability to moderate indoor temperatures (Mathews \r et al., 1995; Makaka and Meyer, 2006)."


id: b2fd361cc4f77db5d43f53e4960fc0b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28733
content:
"Several studies indicate that experiencing low rainfall, warming \r temperatures or extreme weather events reduce education attainment \r and that future climate change may reduce children's school participation, \r particularly for agriculturally dependent and poor urban households. In \r west and central Africa, experiencing lower-than-average rainfall during \r early life is associated with up to 1.8 fewer years of completed schooling \r in adolescence, while more rainfall and milder temperatures during the \r main agricultural season are positively associated with educational \r attainment for boys and girls in rural Ethiopia (Randell and Gray, 2016; \r Randell and Gray, 2019). In Uganda, low rainfall reduced primary \r school enrolment by 5% for girls (Bjorkman-Nyqvist, 2013), and in \r Malawi, in utero drought exposure was associated with delayed school \r entry among boys (Abiona, 2017). In rural Zimbabwe, experiencing \r [...]"


id: 3c49d2fc98da2ba8aa2a7bfe7badcaf4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7797
content:
"[...] drought conditions during the first few years of life was associated with \r fewer grades of completed schooling in adolescence, which translates \r into a 14% reduction in lifetime earnings (Alderman et al., 2006). In \r Cameroon, warming temperatures have negatively affected plantain \r yields, which in turn is linked to lower educational attainment (Fuller \r et  al., 2018). One suggested mechanism underlying the relationship \r between climate and schooling is that adverse climatic conditions \r can reduce income among farming households, leading them to pull \r children out of school (Randell and Gray, 2016; Marchetta et al., 2019). \r Other potential mechanisms are poor harvests from droughts or supply \r interruptions from extreme weather events leading to undernutrition \r among young children, negatively affecting cognitive development and \r schooling potential (Alderman et al., 2006; Bartlett, 2008)."


id: 8b23aaf40ae741b94eb702c0ebfc190b
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 21642
content:
"Substantial avoided economic damages to African countries are \r projected from ambitious, near-term global mitigation limiting global \r warming well below 2degC above pre-industrial levels (high confidence). \r Increased economic damage forecasts for Africa under high emissions \r scenarios start diverging rapidly from low emissions scenarios by the \r 2030s (Baarsch et al., 2020). Across nearly all African countries, GDP \r per capita is projected to be at least 5% higher by 2050 and 10-20% \r higher by 2100 if global warming is held to 1.5degC versus 2degC (Burke \r et al., 2018a; Baarsch et al., 2020) (Figure 9.37). The probability of this \r positive gain to GDP per capita from achieving 1.5degC versus 2degC is \r reported as close to 100% (Burke et al., 2018a). While these estimates \r rely on temperature and rainfall-driven damages, SLR also poses a risk \r for Africa. By 2050, damages from SLR across sub-Saharan Africa could \r [...]"


id: a5d708cf6005e10d2f18d16cf5db36b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"[...] reach 2-4% of GDP, depending on the socioeconomic, adaptation and \r emissions scenario (Parrado et al., 2020)."


id: f7c308792f18d05e786b4359030fd280
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40962
content:
"People in Africa are disproportionately employed in highly climate\u0002sensitive sectors: 55-62% of the sub-Saharan African workforce is \r employed in agriculture and, although between 90-95% of cropland \r is rainfed (Woodhouse et al., 2017; ILO, 2018a; International Institute \r of Water Management, 2019; World Bank, 2020c), there has been an \r expansion of small-scale 'farmer-led irrigation' (Woodhouse et  al., \r 2017). Agricultural GDP also appears more strongly affected by \r increasing temperatures than non-agricultural GDP, implying livelihood \r diversification out of agriculture may help minimise future economic \r damage (Bezabih et al., 2011; Burke et al., 2015b; Acevedo et al., 2017; \r Deryugina and Hsiang, 2017), although such workforce reallocation \r requires careful management and planning depending on the overall \r livelihood portfolios, type of farmer and profitability (Stringer et  al., \r 2020). De-agrarianisation can feed urbanisation, which may exacerbate \r [...]"


id: 76e9fa6e9d6af08c6d86593d8b652aad
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18132
content:
"There is scope for governments to better harness the role of the \r informal sector in mitigation and adaptation (Douxchamps et al., 2015; \r Satterthwaite et al., 2020). Multi-level governance that includes informal \r service providers, such as informal water and sanitation networks, into \r planned adaptation programmes can increase climate resilience, in part \r because these networks can respond with more flexibility than hard \r infrastructure projects (Satterthwaite et al., 2020; Peirson and Ziervogel, \r 2021). Climate risk is often concentrated in urban informal settlements \r (Section  9.9.4). Here, informal land markets influence development \r patterns and can help ensure adherence to building codes to ensure \r safety of informally built structures at high risks of landslides and floods \r and enforce compliance with regulations relating to planning and land \r use (Thorn et  al., 2015; Satterthwaite et  al., 2020). Improving land \r [...]"


id: 9e98a4f3d8c7fe4b844a359baec90090
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25129
content:
"[...] management practices of charcoal producers and artisanal gold miners, \r combined with appropriate alternative livelihood and energy sources, \r can reduce emissions and increase resilience (e.g., reduce erosion and \r sedimentation, increase water infiltration) and benefit health (Atteridge, \r 2013; Paz et al., 2015; Machacek, 2019; Barenblitt et al., 2021; Eniola, \r 2021). Providing concessional loans, commercial financing or equity \r investment to informal brick makers can boost delivery of low emission \r social housing while the use of crop residues or renewable energy for \r brick making can replace wood biomass and reduce pressure on forests \r (Alam, 2006; Paz et al., 2015)."


id: 66fba6c10f237375e63b1bc2608f27ce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 15385
content:
"Changes in trade patterns may help mitigate projected aggregate \r economic losses by reallocating agricultural production abroad and \r encouraging economic diversification toward less affected sectors. \r Temperature increases have been shown to lower agriculture and \r manufacturing exports with especially large declines in poor countries \r (Jones and Olken, 2010; Roberts and Schlenker, 2013). Further, imports \r of agricultural products are projected to rise across most of Africa by \r 2080-2099 under a high emissions scenario (RCP8.5), with increases \r ranging from ~30% of GDP in the Central African Republic to ~5% \r of GDP in South Africa and Nigeria, although some countries will \r experience increases in net agricultural exports (Nath, 2020). While \r these reallocation effects may be large, current evidence is mixed \r regarding whether such adjustment of production will dampen or \r amplify overall social costs of climate change in Africa (Costinot et al., \r [...]"


id: 67a82d12ddc4d99b9b5e196e713bd1f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"[...] 2012; Bren d'Amour et al., 2016; Wenz and Levermann, 2016; Nath, \r 2020), as food prices are projected to rise by 2080-2099 across all \r African countries under a scenario with high challenges to mitigation \r and adaptation (SSP3 and RCP8.5), with the largest price effects (up to \r 120%) experienced in Chad, Niger and Sudan (Nath, 2020). Moreover, \r reallocating production of agriculture abroad could be maladaptive if \r it leads to decline or replacement of traditional sectors by industrial \r and service sectors, which could lead to land abandonment, food \r insecurity and loss of traditional practices and cultural heritage (Thorn \r et al., 2020; Gebre and Rahut, 2021; Nyiwul, 2021)."


id: 5455423b957c3ada9c487e831187c983
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12116
content:
"shocks (Castells-Quintana et al., 2018). Poor households may reduce risk \r or aid recovery by cooperating with other households in their community \r to adapt collectively to climate change, for example, through informal \r insurance networks (Paul et al., 2016; Wuepper et al., 2018). Prioritising \r poor households for interventions including social protection, EbA, \r universal healthcare, climate-smart buildings and agriculture, flexible \r work hours under extreme heat and early warning systems will increase \r adaptation to climate shocks (Section  9.6.4; Chapter 6; Angula and \r Menjono, 2014; Moosa and Tuana, 2014; Hallegatte et al., 2016; Day \r et al., 2019). Pro-poor policies that link mitigation and adaptation, such \r as using renewable energy to increase rural electrification or using \r revenues from a carbon tax, combined with international financial \r support to increase social assistance, could support sustainable \r [...]"


id: 657e95719deb57db66de9fda73857a2a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15123
content:
"[...] eradication of poverty under near-term climate change (Hallegatte \r et al., 2016; Aklin et al., 2018; Simpson et al., 2021c). Integrating urban \r green infrastructure into adaptation planning in informal settlements \r can simultaneously unlock pathways for inclusivity and social justice \r (Section 9.9.5; Tozer et al., 2020; Wijesinghe and Thorn, 2021)."


id: 251a0abab8171f35579a0098754d35e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3719
content:
"In rural Africa, poor and female-headed households face greater \r livelihood risks from climate hazards (high confidence). Women \r often constitute a high proportion of the informal workforce and \r are also more likely to be unemployed than men (ILO, 2018a). \r These factors leave women, and particularly female-headed \r households, at greater risk of poverty and food insecurity from \r climate hazards. Controlling for multiple factors, income of female\u0002headed households in agricultural districts in South Africa is more \r vulnerable to precipitation variability than those headed by men \r (Davidson, 2016; Flato et  al., 2017). Across nine countries in east \r and west Africa women tend to control smaller plots of land that is \r often of poorer quality, have less access to inputs such as fertilizer, \r tools and improved seeds, have lower educational attainment and \r [...]"


id: ce81023b2d5ae1022c851ad7f9b404a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] benefit less from extension services, government agencies and non\u0002governmental organisations (Perez et al., 2015). Gender assessments \r prior to adaptation programmes can identify disparities in division \r of labour and income and socio-cultural norms, hindering women \r from holding leadership positions or determining livelihood and \r resource-use activities, thereby helping ensure equitable benefits \r from livelihood diversification and improving women's working \r conditions (ILO, 2018a). Gender-responsive policy instruments can \r measure success using sex-disaggregated data to monitor impact \r and meaningful participation in decision making (GCF, 2018b)."


id: 965b3c55f330ffd39a22350959b418ba
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23653
content:
"Social protection has been used for decades, particularly in eastern and \r southern Africa, to safeguard poor and vulnerable populations from \r poverty and food insecurity (Nino-Zarazua et al., 2012). Instruments of \r social protection include public works programmes, cash transfers, in\u0002kind transfers, social insurance and microinsurance schemes that assist \r individuals and households to cope during times of crisis and minimise \r social inequality. Evidence from Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda indicates \r national social protection programmes are effective in improving \r individual and household resilience to climate-related shocks, regardless \r of whether they aim specifically to address climate risks (Ulrichs et al., \r 2019). Strengthening social protection and better integrating climate \r risk management into design of social protection programmes can help \r build long-term resilience to climate change (Hallegatte et al., 2016; \r [...]"


id: 825ba63b3619b4570460998569d0601f
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20060
content:
"[...] Agrawal et al., 2019). For example, public works programmes can build \r climate resilience by targeting soil, water and ecosystem conservation \r and carbon sequestration, such as South Africa's Working for Water \r Programme that restores river catchments to reduce fire risk and \r increase water supplies (Turpie et al., 2008; Norton et al., 2020)."


id: 3e35a61f2426c4b29d5b3a96675c294c
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Exposure to climate hazards can trap poorer households in a cycle of \r poverty (Dercon and Christiaensen, 2011; Sesmero et al., 2018) and \r poor people in Africa are often more exposed to climate hazards \r than non-poor people. For example, poor people live in hotter areas \r in Nigeria and in multiple African countries, poor households are \r more exposed to flooding (Section  9.9.2; Hallegatte et  al., 2016). \r Daily wage labourers and residents of urban informal settlements \r are vulnerable to heat stress because of the urban heat island effect \r combined with congestion, little shade and ventilation (Bartlett, 2008). \r Climate change can negatively affect household poverty through \r price spikes, destroying assets or ability to invest in new assets and \r reducing productivity (Hallegatte et al., 2016) with important impact \r pathways operating through agriculture, ecosystem functioning and \r health (Sections 9.6; 9.8; 9.10; Chapters 5; 7; 8). Non-poor people can \r [...]"


id: ab3aaf24be70aba8d20027ad66e5d618
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27352
content:
"[...] lose more in absolute terms from climate shocks because of having \r more assets and higher incomes, but in relative terms, poor people \r often lose more than the non-poor. These relative losses matter most \r for livelihoods and welfare (Hallegatte et al., 2016)."


id: eae18e0ecd37b5ca605f6c91c03f9470
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38686
content:
"despite the relatively low cost, uptake remains low due to affordability \r constraints, lack of awareness, access to and trust in products, \r distribution challenges, basis risk, poor transparency, challenges \r regarding the integration of complementary interventions (e.g., access \r to improved inputs or informal savings/credit) and poor perceptions/\r norms of insurance and risk transfer. Lack of data and models further \r hinders insurers' ability to price risk correctly, which reduces value to \r clients (Greatrex et  al., 2015; Di Marcantonio and Kayitakire, 2017; \r WEF, 2021). Impact assessments point to potential but remain context\u0002specific (Awondo, 2019; Hansen et al., 2019b; Noritomo and Takahashi, \r 2020). In addition, there is no comprehensive overview of the number \r of people covered by such schemes, nor of the value they provide in \r terms of actual claims payouts. Lastly, donor and/or public funds still \r play an outsized role in launching and/or sustaining these schemes \r [...]"


id: e3cc34dd9cd2acec9a8d4daea3ce2a78
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37364
content:
"The impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have been substantially \r worsened by climate hazards in many places. In others, outbreak \r response has been disrupted (Phillips et  al., 2020; Kruczkiewicz \r et  al., 2021). These vulnerabilities are rooted in insufficient disaster \r preparedness infrastructure but are almost always worsened by social \r and economic inequality. Ensuring the most vulnerable populations \r are properly protected from climate change has co-benefits for \r recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic (Manzanedo and Manning, \r 2020). In particular, efforts to reduce syndemic vulnerabilities across \r key sectors (especially health, livelihoods and food security) will lessen \r climate change impacts and will also reduce the risk and impacts of \r future epidemics and pandemics, for example, during the pandemic, \r water scarcity has been a barrier to a key risk mitigation behaviour \r (hand washing). In the long-term, development efforts focused on \r [...]"


id: f5d04095071b993dab20f4eb7499c62
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40609
content:
"[...] WASH will reduce this vulnerability and also reduce the health toll of \r diarrheal disease linked to climate change (Anim and Ofori-Asenso, \r 2020; Zvobgo and Do, 2020). Spending recovery funds on social \r safety nets will reduce inequality and protect the most vulnerable \r communities (especially women and low-income and marginalised \r communities) from the social and economic impacts of disasters. Key \r among these safety nets is universal health coverage, including low- or "


id: ec5d4565784028a770cff2b9845aa835
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38946
content:
"Urbanisation in Africa is affected by climate conditions in rural agricultural areas (high confidence). Urbanisation can increase when \r reduced moisture availability depresses farm incomes or pastoral livelihoods become unviable (Marchiori et al., 2012; Henderson et al., \r 2014; Mastrorillo et al., 2016). The influence of rainfall on rural-urban migration increased since decolonisation, possibly due to more \r lenient legislation on internal mobility, with each 1% reduction in precipitation below a long-term average associated with a 0.45% \r increase in urbanisation (Barrios et  al., 2006). The rate of rural-urban migration is anticipated to increase (Neumann et  al., 2015) \r as a result of increasing vulnerability of agricultural livelihoods to climate change (Serdeczny et al., 2017). Nevertheless, rural-urban \r migration is not a simple one-way process. Peri-urban and rural areas provide developmental feedback loops, helping create a 'regional \r [...]"


id: 2121b2cd6d75d0a44c88c765d0f2159
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3049
content:
"[...] agglomeration' effect, for instance, through growing food demand, family and social connections, and flows back to rural areas of goods \r and services and financial investments (UN-Habitat, 2016; Dodman et al., 2017)."


id: 9ad34168cf9f4a0efb1ea311897464f4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24484
content:
"Studies on propensity to emigrate have uncovered conflicting results. Some findings suggest in low-income countries high temperatures \r 'trap' people at home and lower migration rates abroad, but in middle-income countries, these same high temperatures encourage \r emigration (Cattaneo and Peri, 2016). However, other research finds in poor and agriculturally dependent countries, high temperatures \r encourage international out-migration, particularly to the OECD (Cai et al., 2016). Some evidence indicates people who leave tend to \r be more educated, possibly leading to 'brain drain' (Mbaye, 2017). Recent evidence suggests hotter-than-normal temperatures across \r 103 countries, including many in Africa, increased asylum applications to the European Union (Missirian and Schlenker, 2017). Assuming \r no change in present-day vulnerability, asylum applications are projected to increase 34% across Africa (relative to 2000-2014) at 2.2degC \r [...]"


id: 1ba768e769f88034d1fa4b98f4905646
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2051
content:
"[...] global warming (Missirian and Schlenker, 2017), although this finding has been challenged in the literature (Abel et al., 2019; Boas et al., \r 2019)."


id: ec7a50a981389de41766a851200c805c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 38967
content:
"Table Box 9.8.2 |  Projected numbers and shares of internal climate migrants in 2050 by sub-regions of sub-Saharan Africa. Projections are for internal migration \r driven by three slow-onset climate hazards (water stress, crop failure and SLR), and excluding rapid-onset hazards such as floods and tropical cyclones. As such, they \r present a lower-bound estimate of potential climate change impacts on internal migration. Projections are for two warming scenarios: low emissions (RCP2.6) and high \r emissions (RCP8.5), both coupled with a socioeconomic pathway (SSP4) in which low-income countries have high population growth, high rates of urbanisation, and \r increasing inequality within and among countries. By 2050, between 17.4 million (RCP2.6) and 85 million (RCP8.5) people (up to 4% of the region's total population) \r could be moving as a consequence of climate impacts on water stress, crop productivity and SLR. More inclusive socioeconomic pathways with lower population growth \r [...]"


id: 1b832093309baf51bb065f9d3d44a981
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vector_id: 2028
content:
"[...] are projected to reduce these risks. West Africa has the highest levels of climate migrants, potentially reaching more than 50 million, suggesting that climate impacts will \r have a particularly pronounced impact on future migration in the region. In east Africa, out-migration hotspots include coastal regions of Kenya and Tanzania, western \r Uganda and parts of the northern highlands of Ethiopia. Kampala, Nairobi and Lilongwe may become hotspots of climate in-migration, coupled with existing rural to urban \r migration trends, and a high likelihood of movement toward non-climate-related sources of income in cities. Source: (Rigaud et al., 2018)."


id: 494fce3615ab5549e100abe058de3e35
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content:
"Periods of low rainfall or flooding also contribute to social instability and upheaval across Africa (Miguel et al., 2004; Ralston, 2015; von \r Uexkull et al., 2016; Harari and Ferrara, 2018; van Weezel, 2019; Ide et al., 2020). The link between rainfall and conflict appears likely\r due to crop losses and declines in economic opportunity. One study found that dry growing seasons increase conflict incidence across \r 36 African nations, with spillover effects from the location of climate shock to neighbouring communities (Harari and Ferrara, 2018). \r Conflict-inducing impacts of drought have also been uncovered in Somalia (Maystadt and Ecker, 2014), Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia and \r Kenya (Fjelde and von Uexkull, 2012; Hendrix and Salehyan, 2012; Couttenier and Soubeyran, 2014; Ralston, 2015; Linke et al., 2018; \r van Weezel, 2019), the DRC (von Uexkull et al., 2020) and in a pooled sample of African and Asian countries (von Uexkull et al., 2016). \r [...]"


id: 6475d4f2e57fc4daedba9818b44d740
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vector_id: 14949
content:
"[...] Extremely high rainfall may also incite conflict risk, although results are mixed (Hendrix and Salehyan, 2012; Raleigh and Kniveton, 2012). \r This uncertainty, combined with large uncertainties in rainfall projections under climate change, render future impacts of human-caused \r greenhouse gas emissions on rainfall-induced conflict in Africa highly uncertain."


id: c3f588b36f3865e14d6a228a921efebb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31755
content:
"Sea level rise (SLR) and its associated hazards will present increasing \r climate risk to African heritage in the coming decades (Figure 9.38; \r Marzeion and Levermann, 2014; Reimann et al., 2018; Brito and Naia, \r 2020). Although no continental assessment has quantified climate \r risk to African heritage and little is known of near-term exposure to \r hazards such as SLR and erosion, for a handful of coastal heritage \r sites included in global or Mediterranean studies, 10 cultural sites are \r identified to be physically exposed to SLR by 2100 at high emissions \r scenarios (RCP8.5) (Marzeion and Levermann, 2014; Reimann et al., \r 2018), of which, seven World Heritage Sites in the Mediterranean are \r also projected to face medium or high risk of erosion (Figure 9.38; \r Reimann et al., 2018). Further, Brito and Naia (2020) identify natural \r heritage sites across 27 African countries that will be affected by \r SLR by 2100 (RCP8.5), of which 15 sites covering eight countries \r [...]"


id: ecb45bf5a16538af436aa60bb6d989dc
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39003
content:
"[...] demonstrated a high need for proactive management actions because \r of high levels of biodiversity, international conservation relevance and \r exposure to SLR (Figure  9.38). These nascent studies highlight the \r potential severity of risk and loss and damage from climate change \r to African heritage, as well as gaps in knowledge of climate risk to \r African cultural and natural, particularly concerning bio-cultural \r heritage."


id: 8dfb7856ef00a8e8b38a356bac10c440
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22171
content:
"Historically, Africa has had a unique and sustainable architecture (Diop, \r 2018) characterised by area-specific, traditional earthen materials and \r associated Indigenous technology. Key examples include Tiebele in \r Burkina Faso, Walata in Mauritania, Akan in Ghana, Ghadames in Libya, \r Old Towns of Djenne in Mali (World Heritage Site) and other diverse \r earthen architecture across sub-Saharan Africa. Adegun and Adedeji \r (2017) indicate that earthen materials provide advantages in thermal \r conductivity, resistivity and diffusivity, indoor and outdoor temperature, \r as well as cooling and heating capacities. Moreover, earthen materials \r are recyclable and environmentally 'cleaner' (Sanya, 2012) because of \r the absence or small quantity of cement in production, thus reducing \r carbon emissions. Despite these advantages, the expertise and socio\u0002cultural ceremonies that accompany building and renewal of earthen \r [...]"


id: 9d4660cb074800b6aafad921e505c16
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24903
content:
"[...] architecture are disappearing fast (Adegun and Adedeji, 2017). Further, \r earthen construction is being threatened by extreme climatic variability "


id: 7aa0314a617001c03f63a825d0e78c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18768
content:
"Multi-year droughts have become more frequent in west Africa, and the 2015-2017 Cape Town drought was three \r times more likely due to human-caused climate change. Above 2degC global warming, drought frequency is projected \r to increase, and duration will double from approximately 2 to 4 months over north Africa, the western Sahel and \r southern Africa. Estimates of increased exposure to water stress are higher than those for decreases. By 2050, \r climate change could expose an additional 951 million people in sub-Saharan Africa to water stress while also \r reducing exposure to water stress by 459 million people. Compared to population in 2000, human displacement \r due to river flooding in sub-Saharan Africa is projected to triple for a scenario of low population growth and 1.6degC \r global warming. Changing rainfall distributions together with warming temperatures will alter the distributions \r [...]"


id: a7de24cd44ed2ecc0ab006677dca7b96
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26744
content:
"[...] of disease vectors like mosquitoes and midges. Malaria vector hotspots and prevalence are projected to increase \r in east and southern Africa and the Sahel under even moderate greenhouse gas emissions scenarios by the 2030s, \r exposing an additional 50.6-62.1 million people to malaria risk."


id: 6d44e335b0c3404bb08f3edcf0c93f29
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16503
content:
"With increasing warming, there is a lower likelihood species can migrate rapidly enough to track shifting climates, \r increasing extinction risk across more of Africa. At 2degC global warming more than 10% of African species are at \r risk of extinction. Species ability to disperse between areas to track shifting climates is limited by fencing, transport \r infrastructure, and the transformation of landscapes to agriculture and urban areas. Many species will lose large \r portions of their suitable habitats due to increases in temperature by 2100. Coupled with projected losses of Africa's \r protected areas, higher temperatures will also reduce carbon sinks and other ecosystem services. Many nature-based \r adaptation measures (e.g., for coral reefs, mangroves, marshes) are less effective or no longer effective above \r 1.5degC of global warming. Human-based adaptation strategies for ecosystems reach their limits as availability and \r [...]"


id: 9ebd97c0b69bf824fe16e634a05da1c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25147
content:
"Asian terrestrial-ecosystems change is driven by global \r warming, precipitation and Asian monsoon alteration, \r permafrost thawing and extreme events like dust storms, along \r with natural and human-related factors which are in interplay\r (high confidence). Treeline position in North Asian mountains moves \r upwards after the 1990s, while in Himalaya treeline demonstrates \r a multi-directional shift, either moves upwards or does not show \r upslope advance, or moves downwards. This can be explained by \r site-specific complex interaction of positive effect of warming on tree \r growth, drought stress, change in snow precipitation, land-use change \r (especially grazing) and other factors (high confidence). The increased \r considerable changes in biomes in Asia are a response to warming \r (medium confidence). Terrestrial and freshwater species, populations \r and communities are altered in line with climate change across Asia \r [...]"


id: 3f3af76d9f5c76d624b3074449fff5bf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 8312
content:
"[...] (medium to high confidence). Climate change, human activity and \r lightning have caused the increase in wildfire severity and area burned \r in North Asia after the 1990s (medium confidence). Length of plant \r growth season has increased in some parts of East and North Asia, \r while the opposite trend, or no change at all, has been observed in \r other parts (high confidence). Observed biodiversity or habitat losses \r of animals plants have been linked to climate change in some parts \r of Asia (high confidence). There is evidence that climate change can \r alter species interaction or spatial distribution of invasive species in \r Asia (high confidence). Changes in ecosystems in Asia during the 21st \r century are expected to be driven by projected climatic, natural and \r socioeconomic changes. Across Asia, under a range of representative \r concentration pathways and other scenarios, rising temperatures are \r expected to contribute to a northward shift of biome boundaries and \r [...]"


id: 39b9100a0f062003f95f79b759182221
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7367
content:
"Mongolia and changes in crop, farming systems and crop areas in \r almost all regions, with negative implications to food security (medium \r confidence). In India, rice production can decrease from 10 to 30%, \r whereas maize production can decrease from 25 to 70% assuming \r a range of temperature increase from 1degC to 4degC. Similarly, rice \r production in Cambodia can decrease by 45% by 2080 under the \r high-emissions scenario. Occurrence of pests, such as the golden apple \r snail (Pomacea canaliculate), associated with the predicted increase \r in climatically suitable habitats in 2080, threatens the top Asian rice\u0002producing countries including China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, \r Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, the Philippines and Japan. Increasing \r temperatures, changing precipitation levels and extreme climate \r events, such as heatwaves, droughts and typhoons, will persist in being \r important vulnerability drivers that will shape agricultural productivity \r [...]"


id: c03502bfa88c542fee107dcce019ab51
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"Climate change is increasing vector-borne and water-borne \r diseases, undernutrition, mental disorders and allergy-related \r illnesses in Asia by increasing hazards such as heatwaves, \r flooding and drought, and air pollutants, in combination with \r more exposure and vulnerability (high confidence). Sub-regional \r diversity in socioeconomic and demographic contexts (e.g., ageing, \r urban compared with agrarian society, increasing population compared \r with reduced birth rate, high income compared with low to middle \r income) and geographic characteristics largely define the differential \r vulnerabilities and impacts within countries in Asia. Under the \r medium-to-high emissions scenario, rising temperatures and extreme \r climate events will have an increasing impact on human health and \r well-being with varying types and magnitudes of impact across Asia \r (high confidence). More frequent hot days and intense heatwaves will \r [...]"


id: 532600d67715cd9645f3c395a5d2f39e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"[...] increase heat-related deaths. Increased floods and droughts will have \r adverse impacts on food availability and the prices of food, resulting \r in increased undernourishment in South and Southeast Asia. Increases \r in heavy rain and temperature will increase the risk of diarrhoeal \r diseases, dengue fever and malaria in tropical and subtropical Asia. \r {10.4.7}"


id: c148cf6c2513bb9c1cdf5ef039511464
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31306
content:
"Asian urban areas are considered high-risk locations from \r projected climate change, extreme events, unplanned urbanisation \r and rapid land-use change (high confidence) but also sites of \r ongoing adaptation (medium confidence). Asia is home to the \r largest share of people living in informal settlements, with 332 million \r in Eastern and Southeast Asia, and 197 million in Central and Southern \r Asia. By 2050, 64% of Asia's population will be urban. Coastal cities, \r especially in South and Southeast Asia, are expected to see significant \r increases in average annual economic losses between 2005 and 2050 \r due to flooding, with very high losses in East Asian cities under the high\u0002emissions scenario (high confidence). Climate change will amplify the \r urban heat-island effect across Asian cities (especially South and East \r Asia) at 1.5degC and 2degC temperature rise, both substantially larger than \r under the present climate (medium evidence, high agreement). Under \r [...]"


id: 678b10eb687e475362727f2ff2d3543f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"[...] the high-emissions scenario, higher risks from extreme temperature and \r precipitation are projected for almost all cities (medium confidence), \r with impacts on freshwater availability, regional food security, human \r health and industrial outputs. By 2080, 940 million to 1.1 billion urban \r dwellers in South and Southeast Asia could be affected by extreme heat \r lasting more than 30 d yr-1 (high confidence), with poorer populations \r affected the most. {10.4.6, Cross-Chapter Box URBAN in Chapter 6}"


id: fcd578bd5dab2b812db93b3ba62396e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"Climate change has caused direct losses due to the damage in \r infrastructure, disruption in services and affected supply chains in \r Asia (medium confidence) and will increase risk to infrastructure \r as well as provide opportunities to invest in climate-resilient \r infrastructure and green jobs (medium confidence). At higher \r warming, key infrastructures, such as power lines, transport by roads \r and railways, and built infrastructures, such as airports and harbours, \r are more exposed to climate-induced extreme events, especially in \r coastal cities (medium confidence). Evidence on urban adaptation \r across Asia is growing with examples of infrastructural adaptation \r (e.g., flood protection measures, and climate-resilient highways and \r power infrastructure), institutional adaptation (e.g., sustainable land\u0002use planning, zoning plans), nature ecosystem-based solutions (e.g., \r mangrove restoration, restoring and managing urban green spaces, \r [...]"


id: 7512de7554ad7efedb810adc44585161
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"[...] urban farming), technological solutions (e.g., smart cities, early warning \r systems) and behavioural adaptation (e.g., improved awareness and \r preparedness measures). However, adaptation actions tend to be in the \r initial stages and more reactive (57% of urban adaptations focus on \r preparatory interventions, such as capacity building, and 43% of cities "


id: 6434aa082b955a2376afa6b31ce81e5f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14917
content:
"Options such as climate-smart agriculture, ecosystem-based \r DRR and investing in urban blue-green infrastructure meet \r adaptation, mitigation and Sustainable Development Goals \r simultaneously, presenting opportunities for climate resilient \r development (CRD) pathways in Asia (high confidence). Climate \r risks, vulnerability and adaptation measures need to be factored into \r decision making across all levels of governance (high confidence). To \r help achieve this, there is a need to advance the current understanding \r of climate impacts across sectors and spatio-temporal scales, and \r improve on the current strategies in planning and budget allocation. \r More accurate forecasting of extreme events, risk awareness and \r prioritising individual and collective decision making also need to \r be addressed (high confidence). Options for Asian countries are \r transforming the risks of climate change into opportunities for the \r [...]"


id: 48c36900c096a06f00a515e86db43aa6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"[...] advancement of projects in the energy sector, including promoting \r investment in non-fossil energies, securing local natural gas resources, \r enhancing water harvesting, adopting green building technologies \r and encouraging multi-stakeholder partnerships. However, there are \r significant barriers to CRD such as fragmented, reactive governance; \r inadequate evidence on which actions to prioritise and how to \r sequence them; and finance deficits. Some Asian countries and regions \r offer solutions to overcome these barriers: through use of advanced \r technologies (in situ observation and remote sensing, a variety of \r new sensor technologies, citizen science, artificial intelligence and \r machine learning tools); regional partnerships and learning; improved \r forecasting capabilities; and better risk awareness (high confidence). \r {10.5, 10.6}"


id: 36d42e4587729fede031e5a4a022ff65
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"Figure 10.2 |  Detection and attribution of observed changes in Asia. Levels of Evidence (E), Agreement (A) and Confidence (C) are ranked by High (H), Medium (M) or \r Low (L). CID: climate-impact driver. References: (1) Heatwaves (Mishra et al., 2015; Rohini et al., 2016; Chen and Li, 2017; Panda et al., 2017; Ross et al., 2018); (2) Coastal urban \r flooding (Dulal, 2019); (3) Biodiversity and habitat loss (Wan et al., 2019); (4) Dust storms (Kelley et al., 2015; Yu et al., 2015; Alizadeh-Choobari et al., 2016; Nabavi et al., 2016); \r (5) Sea level rise (only for coastal cities) (Brammer, 2014; Shahid et al., 2016; Hens et al., 2018); (6) Urban heat island (UHI) effect (Choi et al., 2014; Santamouris, 2015; Estoque \r et al., 2017; Ranagalage et al., 2017; Kotharkar et al., 2018; Li et al., 2018a; Hong et al., 2019c); (7) Permafrost thawing (Shiklomanov et al., 2017a; Biskaborn et al., 2019); (8) \r [...]"


id: 1f6d5203fc02e34a9cf58d7656c5148f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"[...] Wildfire (Schaphoff et al., 2016; Brazhnik et al., 2017); (9) Extreme rainfall events (in urban areas) (Ali et al., 2014); (10) Urban drought (Gu et al., 2015; Pervin et al., 2020); (11) \r Primary production in ocean (Roxy et al., 2016); (12) Flood-induced damages (Fengqing et al., 2005); (13) Agriculture and food systems (Heino et al., 2018; Prabnakorn et al., 2018)."


id: d9430ac5649aa90713a882d839dc7e76
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 35521
content:
"Projections of future changes in annual mean surface air temperature \r in Asia are qualitatively similar to those in the previous assessments \r with greater warming at higher latitudes (i.e., North Asia) (high \r confidence) (Gutierrez et al., 2021). Projected surface air temperature \r changes in the Tibetan Plateau, Central Asia and West Asia are also \r significant (high confidence) (Gutierrez et al., 2021). The highest levels \r of warming for extremely hot days are expected to occur in West and \r Central Asia with increased dryness of land (high confidence) (SR1.5). \r Over mountainous regions, elevation-dependent warming will continue \r (medium confidence) (Hock et al., 2019). Glaciers will generally shrink, \r but rates will vary among regions (high confidence) (Wester et  al., \r 2019). Thawing permafrost presents a problem in northern areas of \r Asia, particularly Siberia (Parazoo et al., 2018). Temperature rise will \r [...]"


id: 3c842130ec8891e50949ec7d0e390272
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"[...] be strongest in winter in most regions, while it will be the strongest \r on summer in the northern part of West Asia and some parts of South \r Asia where a desert climate prevails (high confidence) (Gutierrez et al., \r 2021). The wet-bulb globe temperature, which is a measure of heat \r stress, is likely2\r  to approach critical health thresholds in West and \r South Asia under the RCP4.5 scenario, and in some other regions, such \r as East Asia, under the RCP8.5 scenario (high confidence) (Lee et al., \r 2021a; Seneviratne et al., 2021). The occurrence of extreme heatwaves \r will very likely increase in Asia. Projections show that a sizeable part \r of South Asia will experience heat stress conditions in the future (high \r confidence). It is virtually certain that cold days and nights will become \r fewer (Ranasinghe et al., 2021)."


id: 97ac947eede1204de77e07f0825c51ca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 23903
content:
"There is no significant long-term trend during 1951-2017 in the numbers \r of tropical cyclones (TCs) with maximum winds of 66.37 km  h-1 or \r higher forming in the western North Pacific and the South China Sea \r (medium confidence). There are substantial inter-decadal variations in \r basin-wide TC frequency and intensity in the western North Pacific (Lee \r et al., 2020a). Numbers of strong TCs (maximum winds of 124.93 km h-1\r or higher) also show no discernible trend since 1977 when complete \r wind-speed data near TC centre become available (JMA, 2018). \r According to Cinco et al. (2016), for TCs in the Philippines there are \r no significant trends in the annual number of TCs during 1951-2013. \r Their analysis showed that the Philippines have been affected by fewer \r TCs above 124.93 km h-1, but affected more by extreme TCs (above \r 158.11 km h-1). There has been a significant northwestward shift in \r TC tracks since the 1980s, and a detectable poleward shift since the \r [...]"


id: da6339ef99617d2a902f27216f75072b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35720
content:
"[...] 1940s in the average latitude where TCs reach their peak intensity in \r the western North Pacific (medium confidence) (Lee et al., 2020a)."


id: dec0808c7465ba53c35156d87bd090d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36453
content:
"Projections of future annual precipitation change are qualitatively \r similar to those in the previous SREX and AR5 assessments (IPCC, \r 2021). A very likely large percentage increase in annual precipitation \r is projected in South and North Asia (high confidence) (Douville \r et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2021a). Precipitation is projected to decrease \r over the northwest part of the Arabian Peninsula and increase over \r its southern part (medium confidence) (Gutierrez et al., 2021). Both \r heavy and intense precipitation are projected to intensify and become \r more frequent in South, Southeast and East Asia (high confidence) \r (Seneviratne et  al., 2021). There will be a large increase in flood \r frequency in these monsoon regions (Oppenheimer et  al., 2019). \r Without further mitigation efforts, this will lead to continued loss of lives \r and infrastructure. SR1.5 assessed higher risk from heavy precipitation \r events at 2degC compared with 1.5degC of global warming in East Asia. A \r [...]"


id: c43aed28366a39c5b862c38bf2466a92
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content:
"[...] large ensemble-modelling study shows that future warming is expected \r to further increase winter precipitation, and extreme weather events, "


id: f68bd9b658d6678dd6fb4c1ad11e15fc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"Relative SLR associated with climate change in Asia will range from \r 0.3-0.5 m in SSP1-2.6 to 0.7-0.8 m in SSP5-8.5 for 2081-2100 relative \r to 1995-2014 (Ranasinghe et al., 2021). In coastal regions, evaluation \r of SLR is necessary at the regional scale to assess the impacts on \r coastal sectors. Liu et  al. (2016c) investigated the regional-scale SLR \r using dynamic downscaling from the three global-climate models in the \r western North Pacific. In their projection in the case following the RCP8.5 \r scenario, the regional sea level rises along Honshu Island in Japan during \r 2081-2100 relative to 1981-2000 are 6-25 cm higher than the global \r mean SLR due to the dynamic response of the ocean circulation. For the \r impact assessment of coastal hazards, the total SLR included extreme \r events due to storm surge and high ocean waves, which are influenced \r by the changes in TCs (Seneviratne et al., 2021). Mori and Takemi (2016) \r [...]"


id: 9b0d9888b31552f8624b3fd474da9559
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vector_id: 24532
content:
"[...] summarised the characteristics of TCs in the western Pacific in the past \r and in the future, and the extreme value of significant wave height \r increased in several regions. There is considerable increase in the return \r levels along the China coast under 2.0degC warming compared with that \r under the 1.5degC warming scenario (Feng et al., 2018b)."


id: 13258e091f9da8726403989577ec9d64
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 582
content:
"Detection and attribution: Does climate change drive migration? Ascertaining the role of climate change in migration is difficult \r and contested (see Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7 and RKR-H in Chapter 16), with observation-based studies either linking \r extreme event incidence, weather anomalies and environmental change with migration numbers or drivers (McLeman, 2014; Singh et al., \r 2019a; Kaczan and Orgill-Meyer, 2020), and projection studies looking at particular risks such as SLR or drought by linking increasing \r warming (often through representative concentration pathways, RCPs) and population growth. Despite methodological disagreement on \r detection and attribution of migration due to climate change, there is medium confidence that higher warming and associated changes in \r frequency and intensity of slow-onset events (such as drought and sea level rise) and rapid-onset events (such as cyclones and flooding) \r [...]"


id: 7c24190f1a6cc5397b542fd1e77b35f9
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content:
"[...] will increase involuntary displacement in the future, especially under SSP3 and SSP4 pathways (Dasgupta et al., 2014a; Davis et al., 2018; \r Rigaud et al., 2018; Hauer et al., 2020). But its role is smaller than non-climatic socio-economic drivers of migration (Wodon et al., 2014; \r Adger et al., 2021)."


id: 8e3dc6fa2f7b4b22b2ed5ff5a9dad3d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22216
content:
"Current migration and displacement. One in three migrants comes from Asia and the highest ratio of outward migrants is seen from \r hazard-exposed Pacific countries (Ober, 2019). In 2019, approximately 1900 disasters triggered 24.9 million new displacements across \r 140 countries; in particular, Bangladesh, China, India and the Philippines each recorded more than 4 million disaster displacements (IDMC, \r 2019). Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Russia see significant disaster-associated displacements: for example, heavy rain-induced flooding in \r Khatlon (Tajikistan) triggered 5400 new displacements; landslides in the Jalal-Abad (Kyrgyzstan) saw 4700 new displacements; and \r floods in Altai, Tuva and Khakassia (Russia) displaced 1500 people. Iran reported the highest sub-regional figures with >520,000 new \r disaster-related displacements in 2019 (IDMC, 2019). In Southeast and East Asia, cyclones, floods and typhoons triggered internal \r [...]"


id: 6e0014f8e3cba4ee4de6ce7d33e41c4a
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content:
"[...] displacement of 9.6 million people in 2019, almost 30% of total global displacements (IDMC, 2019). With most migrants in the region \r being temporary migrant workers, loss of jobs and wages among them have been particularly severe due to adverse economic climate \r triggered by COVID-19 (ESCWA, 2020). It has also resulted in large-scale returns of migrant workers, and remittances have declined \r drastically (Khanna, 2020; Li et al., 2021). Remittances to Eastern Europe and Central Asia are expected to decline 16.1% from 57 billion \r USD in 2019 to 48 billion USD in 2020. Remittances in East Asia and the Pacific are estimated to fall 10.5% over the same period, from \r 147 billion to 131 billion USD (United Nations, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has had significant impacts on migrants (Rajan, 2020) in \r the region, and some countries have targeted migrants in economic stimulus packages or income-support programmes; however, access \r to such support has been heterogeneous."


id: 7a34f9e038d53925a5808205dda2c224
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vector_id: 18697
content:
"Projected migration. Regional variation is significant across Asia. By one estimate, in South Asia, internal climate migrants (i.e., those \r migrating due to climate change and associated impacts such as water scarcity, crop failure, SLR and storm surges) are projected to be \r 40 million by 2050 (1.8% of regional population) under high warming (Rigaud et al., 2018). While methodological critiques remain on \r projected migration estimates, what is certain is that some countries will be more affected that others; it is estimated that in southern \r Bangladesh, SLR could displace 0.9-2.1 million people by direct inundation by 2050 (Jevrejeva et al., 2016; Davis et al., 2018). In South \r Asia, migration hotspots include the Gangetic Plain and the Delhi-Lahore corridor, and coastal cities such as Chennai, Chittagong, Dhaka \r and Mumbai, which will be simultaneously exposed to climate-change impacts, major migration destinations and amplified rural-urban \r [...]"


id: e9619ecec72c6b7039fa6870dcc83359
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content:
"[...] migration (Ober, 2019). Importantly, there is low agreement on projected numbers (see Boas et al., 2019) with uncertainties around how \r local policies and individual behaviours will shape migration choices. Even in high-risk places, people might choose to stay or be unable \r to move, resulting in 'trapped' populations (Zickgraf, 2019; Ayeb-Karlsson et al., 2020). There is currently inadequate evidence to ascertain \r the nature and numbers of trapped populations currently or in the future."


id: ed5f9cdd3c4937d2d796dd7c3de17c18
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39132
content:
"Climate change has direct and indirect impacts on energy and \r industrial systems. It has a particularly wide and profound impact on \r energy systems (energy development, transportation, supply, etc.). \r With global warming, the energy consumption for heating in winter \r decreases, while the energy consumption for cooling in summer \r significantly increases, but the overall energy demand shows an \r upwards trend (high confidence) (Sailor, 2001; Szabo et al., 2018). Such \r demands in summer seasons will by far exceed any energy savings \r from the decrease in heating demand due to warmer winters. Higher \r demand for cooling due to hotter temperatures has become a major \r challenge in the energy sector in all countries. Furthermore, decreased \r water levels due to lower precipitation reduces hydroelectric output. \r This is particularly the case for countries such as Syria and Iraq with \r large hydroelectric capacity (Hamid and Raouf, 2009). Additionally, the \r [...]"


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vector_id: 14356
content:
"[...] decrease in water levels negatively affects low-carbon energy systems \r such as concentrated solar power and thermal-generation plants that \r require regular cooling and cleaning."


id: 16a96d06c6e006ba5d66e73c8e007eb0
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1199
content:
"Climate change adds extra pressure to current energy infrastructures \r in most countries where systems failures and blackouts are already \r common (Assaf, 2009). In the wake of extreme weather events (e.g., \r heatwaves), energy infrastructures remain inadequate to cope. This is \r particularly the case for countries such as Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and \r Palestine, with poor electricity infrastructures (Jordan, 2015). Extreme \r weather events could generate grave damage to power plants, most \r being located only a few metres above sea level, as well as power\u0002transmission towers and lines. In Lebanon, a small country where there \r are no Indigenous energy resources, the disruption of shipping of fuel \r supplies due to extreme weather events is a major risk. Other extreme \r weather events, such as floods and sandstorms, expose energy and \r industrial systems in the coastal areas due to a rise in sea level. Countries \r of the Arabian Peninsula are projected to experience significant inland \r [...]"


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"[...] flooding as sea levels rise (Hamid and Raouf, 2009). In East Asia wet \r snow accretion enhanced by global warming often causes damage to \r electric power lines (Sakamoto, 2000; Ohba and Sugimoto, 2020)."


id: 278654bb95e6f9893869716dca7a0b7f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4130
content:
"Asia faces an energy security problem even with the rapid growth in \r production and trade (IEEJ, 2018). Among 13 developing countries with \r large energy consumption in Asia, 11 are exposed to high energy security \r risk (WEC, 2018). This will be a major challenge for the sustainable \r development of Asia due to the vulnerability to global energy supplies \r and price volatility (Nangia, 2019). Asia lacks natural energy resources \r and has the smallest oil reserve but largely relies on fossil fuels. The \r dependency on fossil fuels was as high as 88.3% in China, 72.3% in \r India, 89.6% in Japan and 82.8% in Republic of Korea in 2013 (BP, \r 2014). Many countries in South Asia rely on a single source to supply \r more than half of the electricity (i.e., 67.9% from coal for India, 99.9% \r from hydropower for Nepal, 91.5% from natural gas for Bangladesh \r and 50.2% from oil for Sri Lanka) (Shukla et al., 2017). Additionally, \r [...]"


id: 9ee84c662be8142397a08243deb12def
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25182
content:
"[...] cooperation in Asia to create the integrated energy systems needed \r for enhancing overall security is still at a very preliminary stage due \r to countries having different strategic plans and lack of cooperation \r among them on the common concerns (Kimura and Phoumin, 2013)."


id: e948acdb2855997ca7fab15dbe1c7cce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38401
content:
"Some countries in the Arabian Peninsula, such as the United Arab \r Emirates (UAE), are adopting an array of approaches to enhance the \r adaptive capacity of the energy infrastructure and diffuse the risk of \r climate change over a larger area (e.g., energy efficiency, demand \r management, storm planning for power plants). In Al Mashrek, \r building institutional capacity in the energy sector is a necessary first \r step to mainstream climate-change adaptation (CCA). Countries such \r as Lebanon and Jordan have already made progress in mainstreaming \r CCA into electricity infrastructure. In the UAE, buildings account \r for more than 80% of the total electricity consumption. There are \r currently a set of measures and regulations on building conditions and \r specifications that are being applied to increase energy efficiency in \r buildings, but the rehabilitation and upgrading of old buildings still \r require further efforts (Environment, 2015). In Kuwait, one adaptation \r [...]"


id: fa15f6c41d738d1e9dc78e708c1270bb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41368
content:
"[...] measure to dust storms is through the reduction of the proportion \r of open-desert land from 75 to 51%, the increase in protected areas \r from 8 to 18% and greenbelt projects in desert areas (Kuwait, 2015). \r Addressing climate-change impact on energy systems in Lebanon, \r Jordan, Syria, Iraq and Palestine needs to simultaneously consider \r other interlinked challenges of population growth, rapid urbanisation, \r refugee influx, conflict and geopolitical location. To address these \r challenges and provide solutions for CCA, the promotion of multi\u0002stakeholder partnerships is key to breaking the silo approach."


id: e9464ea6a625b137e60179db2c615cca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38400
content:
"Alpine treeline position in Asian mountains in recent decades either \r moves upwards in North Asia or demonstrates multi-directional shifts \r in Himalaya (high confidence). Since AR5, in North Asia new evidence \r has appeared of tree expansion into mountain tundra and steppe, \r of intensive reproduction and increase in tree stands productivity in \r the past 30-100  years at the upper treeline in the Ural Mountains \r (Shiyatov and Mazepa, 2015; Zolotareva and Zolotarev, 2017; Moiseev \r et  al., 2018; Sannikov et  al., 2018; Fomin et  al., 2020; Gaisin et  al., \r 2020), in the Russian Altai Mountains (Kharuk et al., 2017a; Cazzolla \r Gatti et al., 2019) and in the Putorana Mountains (Kirdyanov et al., \r 2012; Pospelova et al., 2017; Grigor'ev et al., 2019). Lower treelines \r in the southernmost Larix sibirica forests in the Saur Mountains, \r eastern Kazakhstan, have suffered from increased drought stress in \r recent decades causing forest regeneration and tree growth decrease, \r [...]"


id: 5530bd31a5d705be97c36a986c05a240
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12261
content:
"[...] and tree mortality increase (Dulamsuren et al., 2013). In Jeju Island, \r Republic of Korea, recent warming has enhanced Quercus mongolica\r growth at its higher distribution and has led to Abies koreana (ABKO) \r growth reduction at all elevations, except the highest locality. Thus, \r the combination of warming, increasing competition and frequent \r tropical cyclone disturbances could lead to population decline or even \r extinction of ABKO at Jeju Island (Altman et al., 2020). In the Himalaya, \r the treeline over recent decades either moves upwards (Schickhoff \r et al., 2015; Suwal et al., 2016; Sigdel et al., 2018; Tiwari and Jha, 2018) "


id: 6df66adafcee3e281db595c98cde4cd4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16610
content:
"Since AR5, new evidence has appeared of alterations in terrestrial and \r freshwater species, populations and communities in line with climate \r change across Asia (medium to high confidence) (Arias et al., 2021). In \r North Asia, temperature increase and droughts have promoted spread \r northward of the current silk moth outbreak (has affected nearly \r 2.5 x 106 ha) in Central Siberia dark taiga since 2014 (Kharuk et al., \r 2017b; Kharuk et al., 2020). The climatic range of the Colorado potato \r beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) in 1991-2010 expanded east- and \r northward in Siberia and the Russian Far East compared with the \r 1951-1970 range (Popova, 2014). The climatic range of Ixodes ricinus, \r a vector of dangerous human diseases, expanded into Central Asia \r and south of the Russian Far East (Semenov et al., 2020). A butterfly \r (Melanargia russiae) in the Middle Urals moved northward (Zakharova \r et al., 2017). Thrush birds in West Siberia penetrated northward up to \r [...]"


id: a4c75049cd80148cdf33946fe74208e7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26216
content:
"[...] the limits of the sparse woodlands (Ryzhanovskiy, 2019a). The increase \r in the length of frost-free period observed in the Ilmen Nature Reserve, \r Middle Urals, during recent decades is supposed to be interlinked with \r changes in the amplitude and frequency of population waves of bank \r vole (Kiseleva, 2020). In Katunskiy Biosphere Reserve, Russian Altai, \r in the period 2005-2015, alpine plant species have shifted towards \r higher altitudes by 5.3 m on average (Artemov, 2018). Wild reindeer \r herds in Taimyr, north of Central Siberia, migrated northward to the \r Arctic Sea coast in hot summers between 1999-2003 and 2009-2016 \r because of an earlier massive emergence of bloodsucking insects \r (Pospelova et al., 2017). In Yakutia, the ranges of red deer, elk and the \r northern pika are expanding, and the winter survival of the mouse-like \r rodents has increased (Safronov, 2016). In the Chukchi Sea, in recent \r decades the average duration polar bears spent onshore increased by \r [...]"


id: e95cd0d7560400a5d75986687fcc8362
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38414
content:
"[...] 30 d (Rode et al., 2015b) in line with global warming and the rapid \r decline of their sea ice habitat (Derocher et al., 2013; Jenssen et al., \r 2015; Rode et al., 2015a)."


id: cf95cb443f6d6e01f1680920f9097e50
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33881
content:
"Climate change along with land-use and land-cover change influences \r soil organic carbon content, microbial biomass C, microbial respiration \r and the soil carbon cycle in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran (Soleimani \r et al., 2019; Francaviglia et al., 2020). In the fir forest ecosystems of \r the Tibetan Plateau, winter warming affects the ammonia-oxidising \r bacteria and archaea, thus altering the nitrogen cycle (Huang et al., \r 2016). Ecosystem carbon pool in the spruce forests of the northeast \r Tibetan Plateau was reduced by about 25% by deforestation due \r to recent decades of climate warming as well as wood pasture and \r logging (Wagner et  al., 2015). In Mongolia's forest steppe, recent \r decades of drought- and land-use-induced deforestation has reduced \r the ecosystem carbon stock density by about 40% (Dulamsuren et al., \r 2016). In Inner Mongolia, the predicted decreases in precipitation and \r warming for most of the temperate grassland region could lead to a \r [...]"


id: f690f2deb0c2347482d8318506a5906e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40752
content:
"[...] pH change, which would contribute to a soil C-N-P decoupling that \r could reduce plant growth and production in arid ecosystems (Jiao \r et al., 2016)."


id: 876ffcc0f99abff0ef050375bf4577a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20985
content:
"that neither the start of growing season (SOS) nor the end of growing \r season (EOS) presented detectable progressive patterns at the regional \r level in 1998-2012, except for the steppe-desert (6% of the total \r area) (Sha et al., 2016). In the Tianshan Mountains in China, the NPP of \r only 2 out of 12 types of vegetation increased in spring, and the NPP \r of only one type increased in autumn from 2000-2003 to 2012-2016 \r (Hao et al., 2019). In Republic of Korea, from 1970 to 2013, the SOS has \r advanced by 2.7 d per decade, and the EOS has been delayed by 1.4 d \r per decade (Jung et al., 2015). During the past decade, leaf unfolding \r has accelerated at a rate of 1.37 d yr-1, and the timing of leaf fall has \r been delayed at a rate of 0.34 d yr-1 (Kim et al., 2019d). Cherry blossoms \r are predicted to flower 6.3 and 11.2 d earlier after 2090 according \r to scenarios RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, respectively (Bae et  al., 2020). On \r [...]"


id: 4eb145329613870748ae46cd107eeca8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11116
content:
"[...] the Tibetan Plateau, it was found that the SOS has advanced and the \r EOS has been delayed over the past 30-40 years (Yang et al., 2017). \r Using normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) datasets and \r ground-based Budburst data (Wang et al., 2017c) found no consistent \r evidence that the SOS has been advancing or delaying over the Tibetan \r Plateau during the past two to three decades. The discrepancies among \r different studies in the trends of spring phenology over the Tibetan \r Plateau could be largely attributed to the use of different phenology \r retrieval methods. An uncertainty exists with the relationship between \r land-surface phenology and climate change estimated by satellite\u0002derived NDVI because these indices are usually composite products of \r a number of days (e.g., 16 d) that could fail to capture more details. \r Besides, due to lack of in situ observations, the SOS and EOS at large \r areas cannot be easy defined (Zhang et al., 2017d)."


id: 3fb46fe621e9d95a607d14e3756e49d8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8397
content:
"Climate change, human activity and lightning determine increases in \r wildfire severity and area burned in North Asia (high detection with \r medium-to-low attribution to climate change). In North Asia, the \r extent of fire-affected areas in boreal forest can be millions of hectares \r in a single extreme fire year (Duane et al., 2021) and nearly doubled \r between 1970 and 1990 (Brazhnik et al., 2017). During recent decades, \r the number, area and frequency of forest fires increased in Putorana \r Plateau (north of Central Siberia), in larch-dominated forests of Central \r Siberia and in Siberian forests as a whole. This increase is in line with \r an increase in the average annual air temperature, air temperature \r anomalies, droughts and the length of fire season (Ponomarev et al., \r 2016; Kharuk and Ponomarev, 2017; Pospelova et  al., 2017). The \r number of forest fires and damaged areas in Gangwon Province and \r the Yeongdong area in the 2000s increased by factors of 1.7 and 5.6, \r [...]"


id: a2c08bebb4c8a1986d06acf1cd074e3c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25850
content:
"[...] respectively, compared with the 1990s (Bae et  al., 2020). Climate \r change is not the sole cause of the increase in forest fire severity \r (Wu et  al., 2014; Wu et  al., 2018d). Ignition is often facilitated by \r lightning (Canadell et al., 2021), and over 80% of fires in Siberia are \r likely anthropogenic in origin (e.g., (Brazhnik et al., 2017). Gas field \r development and Indigenous tundra burning practices that may get \r out of control contribute to fire frequency in the forest-tundra of West \r Siberia (Adaev, 2018; Moskovchenko et al., 2020). Climate change in \r combination with socioeconomic changes has resulted in an increase \r in fire severity and area burned in South Siberia, and illegal logging \r increases fire danger in forest-steppe Scots pine stands (Ivanova et al., \r 2010; Schaphoff et al., 2016)."


id: a5c7c188fd24a92b83cbdc7e69f1cf47
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26391
content:
"In North Asia, in Central Siberia and south of West Siberia, the growth \r index of Siberian larch based on tree-ring width increased with the \r onset of warming and changed in antiphase with aridity in the 1980s \r (Kharuk et al., 2018). In Mongolia and Kazakhstan, the temperature \r increase over the previous decade promoted radial stem increment of \r the Siberian larch. However, the simultaneous influence of increased \r temperature, decreased precipitation and increased anthropogenic \r pressure resulted in widespread declines in forest productivity and \r reduced forest regeneration, and increased tree mortality (Dulamsuren \r et  al., 2013; Lkhagvadorj et  al., 2013a; Lkhagvadorj et  al., 2013b; \r Dulamsuren et al., 2014; Khansaritoreh et al., 2017). In Eastern Taimyr, \r growing season, the number of flowering shoots, annual increment, \r success of seed ripening and vegetation biomass have increased \r considerably in recent decades (Pospelova et  al., 2017). In Vishera \r [...]"


id: fe93c1a79048f8b5306ff416e0b3e2ac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42161
content:
"[...] Nature Reserve, northern Ural Mountains, annual temperature has \r increased in recent decades in parallel with a summer temperature \r drop and an increase in summer frost numbers. As a result, trends in \r vegetation change are mostly unreliable (Prokosheva, 2017)."


id: bef1339baaf88b91ae8f9fc9f13f573a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30861
content:
"Considerable changes in plant and animal species distribution under \r warming stress are expected in Asia until 2100 (high confidence). \r In East Asia, Cunninghamia lanceolate, a fast-growing and widely \r distributed coniferous timber species in China, is projected to increase \r distribution, to decrease the establishment probability and to reduce \r total NPP by the 2050s (Liu et  al., 2014c). In the monsoon regions \r of Asia, by the end of the 21st century, NPP is projected to increase \r by 9-45% (Ito et  al., 2016). Under climate change on the Korean \r Peninsula (KP), the potential habitat for Abies nephrolepis is the \r northern part of KP, and A. koreana will disappear from Jeju Island \r and shrink significantly in the KP (Yun et al., 2018), while evergreen \r forests will expand to the northern part of KP (Koo et al., 2018; Lim \r et al., 2018). It is expected that under projected warming, fig species \r in China will expand to higher latitudes and altitudes (Chen et  al., \r [...]"


id: ecf53d425bc3abab3386f2d8781713de
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39058
content:
"[...] 2018c). In Japan, under the A1B scenario, 89% of the area currently \r covered by the Fagus crenata-dominant forest type will be replaced \r by Quercus spp.-dominant forest types (Matsui et al., 2018). Current \r trends of climate change will reduce distribution of tall (2-2.5 m \r high) herb communities in Japan, and will increase suitably for them \r in the Russian Far East (Korznikov et al., 2019). A range expansion of \r Lobaria pindarensis, an endemic epiphytic lichen in the HKH region, is \r projected to move to the northeast and to higher altitudes in response \r to climate change, although the species' low dispersal abilities and \r the local availability of trees as a substratum will considerably limit \r latitudinal and altitudinal shifts (Devkota et al., 2019)."


id: 32d291f2a9f2d5c6cae891ee9bcfad96
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6209
content:
"Across Asia, under a range of representative concentration pathways \r (RCPs) and other scenarios, rising temperatures are expected to \r contribute to a northward shift of biome boundaries and an upwards \r shift of mountain treeline (medium confidence). Northward shift and \r area change of bioclimatic zones in Siberia (Anisimov et  al., 2017; \r Torzhkov et  al., 2019) and northeast Asia (Choi et  al., 2019) are \r projected. Projected changes in vegetation in China at the end of \r the 21st century reveal that the area covered by cold-dry potential \r vegetation decreases as the area covered by warm-humid potential \r vegetation increases (Zhao et  al., 2017a). Forest expansion into \r mountain tundra of the northern Urals is expected (Sannikov et  al., \r 2018). In Republic of Korea, projected under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 in the \r 2070s, suitable area loss of six subalpine tree species, namely, Korean \r fir, Khingan fir, Sargent juniper, Yeddo spruce, Korean yew and Korean \r [...]"


id: 6969b901473403c24dbadb3197dfc6a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15816
content:
"[...] arborvitae, range from 17.7 +- 20.1% to 65.2 +- 34.7%, respectively \r (Lee et al., 2021b). Korean fir forests would be replaced by temperate \r forests at lower elevations, while they would continuously persist at \r the highest elevations on Mt. Halla, Jeju Island and Republic of Korea \r (Lim et al., 2018). Himalayan birch at its upper distribution boundary \r either is projected to move upwards (Schickhoff et al., 2015; Bobrowski \r et  al., 2018) or considered to downslope as a response to global\u0002change-type droughts (Liang et al., 2014). Upwards shift in elevation \r of bioclimatic zones, decreases in area of the highest elevation zones \r and large expansion of the lower tropical and sub-tropical zones can \r be expected by the year 2050 throughout the transboundary Kailash \r Sacred Landscape of China, India and Nepal, and likely within the \r Himalayan region more generally (Zomer et al., 2014)."


id: 6f6fe68b3fb7cf643aa95c7937579359
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16871
content:
"The climatic range of Italian locust (Calliptamus italicus L.) under RCP4.5 \r will expand north- and east-ward to Siberia, the Russian Far East and \r Central Asia (Popova et  al., 2016). In Krasnoyarsk Krai, Siberia, it is \r projected that the needle cast disease caused by fungi from the genus \r Lophodermium Chevall. in the Scots pine nurseries would shift northward \r up to 2080 under A2 and B1 scenarios (Tchebakova et al., 2016). All \r four RCP scenarios showed north-ward expansion of vulnerable regions \r to pine wilt disease in China, Republic of Korea, the Russian Far East \r and Japan under climate conditions in 2070 (Hirata et al., 2017), and \r during 2026-2050 in Japan (Matsuhashi et al., 2020). It is noteworthy \r that disease expansion depends not only on climatic factors but also on \r the dispersal capacity of insect vectors, the transportation of infected \r logs to non-infected regions and the susceptibility of host trees (e.g., \r [...]"


id: d58be9aa54d4987d56bf2ef016fd6839
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34881
content:
"[...] Gruffudd et al., 2016). The suitable habitat area of the snow leopard \r Panthera uncia is projected to increase by 20% under the IPCC Scenario "


id: eab90a9d992b63f2e2949c1cc0c65192
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38654
content:
"Future climate change would cause biodiversity and habitat loss in \r many parts of Asia using modelling approaches (high confidence). \r Warren et al. (2018) projected that extirpation risks to terrestrial taxa \r (plants, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) from 2degC to 4.5degC \r global warming in 12 'priority places' in Asia, under the assumption of \r no adaptation (i.e., dispersal) by the 2080s, is from 12.2-26.4% to 29-\r 56% (Table 10.1; Figure 10.4). Under different scenarios, future climate \r change could reduce the extent of a suitable habitat for giant pandas \r (Fan et al., 2014), moose (Alces alces) (Huang et al., 2016), black muntjac \r (Muntiacus crinifrons) (Lei et  al., 2016) and the Sichuan snub-nosed \r monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) (Zhang et al., 2019d) in China; the \r Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in Iran (Ashrafzadeh et al., \r [...]"


id: 4c91f2aede928e8afba12eac609a6c06
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10733
content:
"[...] 2019a); the Bengal tiger (Mukul et al., 2019) in India; and four tree\u0002snail species (Amphidromus) in Thailand (Klorvuttimontara et al., 2017). \r However, climate change would have little impact on the habitats of \r the Asian elephant, but would cause extinction of the Hoolock gibbon "


id: 92cfbde32f5d9b771d4e255f4aa52da7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23046
content:
"The impact of future climate change on invasive species may be species\u0002or region specific (medium confidence). Climate change would promote \r invasion of a highly invasive aquatic plant Eichhornia crassipes (You \r et al., 2014), Ambrosia artemisiifolia (Qin et al., 2014), alligator weed \r (Alternanthera philoxeroides) (Wu et  al., 2016), invasive alien plant \r Solidago canadensis (Xu et  al., 2014), three invasive woody oil-plant \r species (Jatropha curcas, Ricinus communis and Aleurites moluccana) \r (Dai et  al., 2018), and 90 of ~150 poisonous plant species (Zhang \r et  al., 2017a) in China; six mostly highly invasive species (Ageratum \r houstonianum Mill., Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King & H. Rob., Hyptis \r suaveolens (L.) Poit., Lantana camara L., Mikania micrantha Kunth and\r Parthenium hysterophorus L.) in Nepal (Shrestha et al. 2018); 11 invasive \r plant species in the western Himalaya (Thapa et al., 2018); alien plants \r [...]"


id: 6caf09025aa09584e1f4f9ca7346d74d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16406
content:
"[...] in Georgia (Slodowicz et  al., 2018); the invasive green anole (Anolis \r carolinensis) in Japan (Suzuki-Ohno et al., 2017); the Giant African Snail "


id: dcb89b603e74fb7e024a0a9c69db2ea2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36094
content:
"century compared with the historical (1960-1990) estimate. This \r moves forest composition towards greater contribution of hardwoods \r (e.g., Betula spp., Populus spp.) (Brazhnik et  al., 2017). This shifting \r was also proved by observations in northern Mongolia, where boreal \r forest fires likely promote the relative dominance of B. platyphylla and \r threaten the existence of the evergreen conifers, Picea obovata and \r Pinus sibirica (Otoda et al., 2013). For Tuva Republic, warming ambient \r temperatures increase the potential evapotranspiration demands \r on vegetation, but if no concurrent increase in precipitation occurs, \r vegetation becomes stressed and either dies from temperature-based \r drought stress or more easily succumbs to insects, fire, pathogens or \r wind throw (Brazhnik et  al., 2017). Although Torzhkov et  al. (2019) \r also projected fire risk (FR) increase in Tuva Republic, they expect \r FR decrease in the Irkutsk region and Yakutia under RCP8.5, and FR \r [...]"


id: 1e014d8cdd479d68277363b7944f8829
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2474
content:
"[...] decrease in major parts of Central and East Siberia under RCP4.5 for \r 2090-2099. This discrepancy is due to differences in models, climate \r projections, fire severity metrics and other assumptions. According to \r global projections, FR will increase in Central Asia, Russia, China and \r India under a range of scenarios (Sun et al., 2019)."


id: 3874a5138b596ab86b09c37fc7149bd6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7144
content:
"Both natural and managed ecosystems, ecosystem services and \r livelihoods in Asia will potentially be substantially impacted by changing \r climate (Wu et al., 2018d). There will be increased risk for biodiversity, \r particularly many endemic and threatened species of fauna and flora \r already under environmental pressure from land-use change and other \r regional and global processes (Zomer et al., 2014; Rashid et al., 2015; Choi \r et al., 2019). Biomes shift not only serves as a signal of climate change \r but also provides important information for resources management and \r ecotone ecosystem conservation. A widespread upwards encroachment \r of subalpine forests would displace regionally unique alpine tundra \r habitats and possibly cause the loss of alpine species (Schickhoff et al., \r 2015). In North Asia, emissions from fires reduce forests' ability to \r regulate climate. A warmer and longer growing season will increase \r [...]"


id: eaa5cf3068dd13edda4d24cab43910a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38644
content:
"[...] vulnerability to fires, although fires can be attributed both to climate \r warming and to other human and natural influences. Recent field-based \r observations revealed that the forests in South Siberia are losing their \r ability to regenerate after fire and other landscape disturbances under \r a warming climate (Brazhnik et al., 2017). Data support the hypothesis \r of a climate-driven increase in fire frequency in boreal forests with the \r possible turning of boreal forests from a carbon sink to a carbon source \r (Ponomarev et al., 2016; Schaphoff et al., 2016; Brazhnik et al., 2017; \r Ponomarev et  al., 2018); however, warming resulting from forest fire \r is partly offset by cooling in response to increased surface albedo of \r burned areas in a snow-on period (Chen and Loboda, 2018; Chen et al., \r 2018a; Jia et al., 2019; Lasslop et al., 2019)."


id: 3bcb1587584ac4fc54153b9a03407347
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7707
content:
"Five of 15 endemic freshwater fish species in Iran will lose some parts \r of their current suitable range under climate change by 2070 (Yousefi \r et  al., 2020). In line with projected large increases in mean water \r temperature, the strongest increase is projected in exceeded frequency \r and magnitude of maximum temperature tolerance values for \r freshwater minnow (Zacco platypus) in East Asia for 2031-2100 (Van \r Vliet et al., 2013). Climate change under the A1B scenario is projected to \r decrease diversity (-0.1%) along with increased local richness (+15%) \r and range size (+19%) of stream macroinvertebrates in the Changjiang \r River catchment, southeast China, for the period 2021-2050, while \r land-use change is predicted to have the strongest negative impact \r (Kuemmerlen et al., 2015). The Asian clam Corbicula fluminea Muller, an \r invasive species native to southeast China, the Republic of Korea and \r southeast Russia, is projected to invade Southeast Asia under all four \r [...]"


id: 34673303a4ace5e3396167a316ad9cdf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6456
content:
"[...] RCP scenarios for the 2041-2060 and 2061-2080 periods (Gama et al., \r 2017). Projected SLR, related aquatic salinisation and alteration in fish \r species composition may have a negative impact on poor households in \r southwest coastal Bangladesh (Dasgupta et al., 2017a)."


id: beb5d6795c7bc1b22ea6a517fd8a34c5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30819
content:
"The West Asia region, especially the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plain, has been recognised as one of the most important dust-source areas \r in the world (Cao et al., 2015). The inhabitants of each of these settlements have experienced a decline in dust storms in recent decades, \r since the late 1980s at Nouakchott, since 2004 at Zabol and since the late 1970s at Minqin. Iran is mostly arid or semiarid, with deserts \r making up at least 25 million hectares of the country (NASA, 2018). Iran is experiencing unprecedented climate-related problems such \r as drying of lakes and rivers, dust storms, record-breaking temperatures, droughts and floods (Vaghefi et al., 2019). There are three \r key factors responsible for the generation of sand and dust storms: strong wind, lack of vegetation and absence of rainfall (EcoMENA, \r 2020). It seems that all of this is closely related to the heating surface and the occurrence of local dry instabilities (Ghasem et al., 2012). \r [...]"


id: 449a9dcfc5091c80e0a4986ff8806e03
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9302
content:
"[...] According to EcoMENA (2020), sand and dust storms cause significant negative impacts on society, the economy and the environment \r at the local, regional and global levels. The seasonality of the numbers of dusty days (NDD) in Iran shows the highest frequency in \r summer followed by spring and autumn (Modarres and Sadeghi, 2018). In the past decade, West Asia has witnessed more frequent and \r intensified dust storms affecting Iran and other Persian Gulf countries (Nabavi et al., 2016). In terms of long-term frequency of dust \r events, observational analyses show an overall rising trend of the frequency of Iran's dust events in recent years (Alizadeh-Choobari et al., \r 2016). Results show that there has been a direct relationship between dust event, drought and years of intensive drought (Dastorani \r and Jafari, 2019). Compared with the period 1980-2004, in the period 2025-2049, Iran is likely to experience more extended periods \r [...]"


id: 61d919e1525808d3449ee9bda907080a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14498
content:
"[...] of extreme maximum temperatures in the southern part of the country, more extended periods of dry (for >=120 d: precipitation <2 mm, \r Tmax >=30degC) as well as wet (for <=3 d: total precipitation >=110 mm) conditions and a higher frequency of floods (Vaghefi et al., 2019). The \r slope of precipitation in West Asia shows that during the period 2016-2045 in January, February, July and August, precipitation would \r increase and decrease in other months of the year (Ahmadi et al., 2018). Temperatures in Central Asia have risen significantly within \r recent decades, whereas mean precipitation remains almost unchanged (Haag et al., 2019); however, climatic trends can vary greatly \r between different sub-regions, across altitudinal levels and within seasons (Haag et al., 2019)."


id: 6b508b7f770fd262da6c4dc0dae184eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16182
content:
"conservation; to facilitate species movements across climatic gradients, \r an increase in landscape connectivity can be elaborated by setting up \r habitat corridors between nature reserves and along elevational and \r other climatic gradients (Brito-Morales et al., 2018; D'Aloia et al., 2019; \r United Nations Climate Change Secretariat, 2019). Assisted migration \r of species should be considered for isolated habitats as mountain \r summits or where movements are constrained by poor dispersal ability. \r Introducing seeds of the species to new regions will help to protect them \r from the extinction risk caused by climate change (Mazangi et al., 2016). \r In Asian boreal forests, a strategy and integrated programmes should \r be developed for adaptation of the forests to global climate change, \r including sustainable forest management, firefighting infrastructure and \r forest fuel management, afforestation, as well as institutional, social \r [...]"


id: 774ee631db2929c2e281bbce48257716
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18196
content:
"[...] and other measures in line with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) \r 15 'Life on Land' (Isaev and Korovin, 2013; Kattsov and Semenov, 2014; \r Bae et  al., 2020). Improvements in forest habitat quality can reduce \r the negative impacts of climate change on biodiversity and ecosystem \r services (Choi et al., 2021). Adaptation options for freshwater ecosystems \r in Asia include increasing connectivity in river networks, expanding \r protected areas, restoring hydrological processes of wetlands and rivers, \r creating shade to lower temperatures for vulnerable species, assisted \r translocation and migration of species (Hassan et  al., 2020; Chapter \r 2). Reduction of non-climate anthropogenic impacts can enhance the \r adaptive capacity of ecosystems (Tchebakova et al., 2016)."


id: 719266031a414b7549391f9d364715f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17228
content:
"Degradation and loss of coral reefs can affect about 4.5 million people \r in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean (Lam et al., 2019). In the coral \r reef fisheries sector, there are about 3.35 million fishers in Southeast \r Asia and 1.5 million fishers in the Indian Ocean (Teh et al., 2013). The \r economic loss under different climate-change scenarios and fishing \r efforts were estimated to range from 27.78 to 31.72  million USD \r annually in Nha rang Bay, Vietnam. A survey conducted in Taiwan, \r Province of China, showed that the average annual amount that people \r were personally willing to pay was 35.75 USD and the total amount \r was 0.43 billion USD. These high values indicate the need to preserve \r these coral reef ecosystems (Tseng et al., 2015). In Bangladesh, the \r coral reef of St. Martin's Island contributes 33.6 million USD yr-1 to the \r local economy, but climate change, along with other anthropogenic \r [...]"


id: c21cdbc0454b60351e040357e1a66567
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31447
content:
"An ecosystem-based approach to managing coral reefs in the Gulf \r of Thailand is needed to identify appropriate marine protected area \r (MPA) networks and to strengthen marine and coastal resource \r policies in order to build coral reef resilience (Sutthacheep et  al., \r 2013). Broadening the scope to develop novel mitigation approaches \r towards coral protection through the use of symbiotic bacteria and \r their metabolites (Motone et al., 2018; Motone et al., 2020) has been \r suggested. Coral culture and transplantation within the Gulf are \r feasible for helping maintain coral species populations and preserving \r genomes and adaptive capacities of Gulf corals that are endangered \r by future thermal-stress events (Coles and Riegl, 2013). Greater focus \r on understanding the flexibility and adaptability of people associated \r with coral reefs, especially in a time of rapid global change (Hoegh\u0002Guldberg et al., 2019), and a well-designed research programme for \r [...]"


id: d8171f8381c2395c576b418b344955c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35318
content:
"[...] developing a more targeted policy agenda (Lam et al., 2019), is also \r recommended. Cutting carbon emissions (Bruno and Valdivia, 2016) "


id: cf7ebde18c047c43dc874443fcb65fb5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33864
content:
"Globally, the extent of the blue carbon ecosystem has been estimated \r at 120,380 km2\r , with the highest spread by mangroves at 114,669 km2\r (95.3%), followed by seagrass meadows at 2,201 km2\r  (1.8%) and salt \r marshes at 3510 km2\r  (2.9%) (Himes-Cornell et al., 2018). In Asia, the \r total extent of these three ecosystems is 33,224 km2\r , forming 27.6% \r of the global total with the highest spread of mangrove at 32,767 km2\r , \r which forms 28.6% of the global mangrove coverage. The area of \r seagrass meadows spread in Asia has been estimated as 236 km2\r  and \r salt marsh 220 km2\r ,which forms 10.8 and 6.03% of the respective \r ecosystems globally (Himes-Cornell et al., 2018). Found at the land-\r sea interface, seagrasses provide varied services apart from acting as \r ecosystem engineers providing shelter and habitat for several marine \r fauna which are fished in several Asian countries (Jeyabaskaran et al., \r 2018; Nordlund et al., 2018; Unsworth et al., 2019b) thereby providing \r [...]"


id: 3b6129d0e50f8e4b07582bdd3d735740
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7635
content:
"Mangroves, tidal marshes and seagrass meadows (collectively called \r coastal blue carbon ecosystems) have sequestered carbon dioxide \r from the atmosphere continuously over thousands of years, building \r stocks of carbon in biomass and organic rich soils. Carbon dynamics \r in mangrove-converted aquaculture in Indonesia indicate that the \r mean ecosystem carbon stocks in shrimp ponds are less than half of \r the relatively intact mangroves (Arifanti et al., 2019). Conversion of \r mangroves into shrimp ponds in the Mahakam Delta have resulted in \r a carbon loss equivalent to 226 years of soil carbon accumulation in \r natural mangroves. In the Philippines, abandoned fishpond reversion \r to former mangrove has been found to be favourable for enhancing \r climate change mitigation and adaptation (Duncan et  al., 2016). \r Integrated mangrove-shrimp farming, with deforested areas not \r exceeding 50% of the total farm area, has been suggested to support \r [...]"


id: 5b44fc4bd275d2cc73ca737f996e21df
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13305
content:
"Seaweeds are an important biotic resource capable of capturing carbon \r and used widely as food, medicine and as raw material for industrial \r purposes. Warming and altered pH can affect seaweeds in different \r ways (Gao et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017; Gao et al., 2018a; Wu et al., \r 2019b). Outbreak of intense blooms of species like Ulva rigida (Gao \r et al., 2017) and Ulva prolifera (Zhang et al., 2019 f) have increased due \r to varied factors including climate change. These blooms have created \r huge economic losses in the Yellow Sea affecting local mariculture, \r tourism and the functioning of the coastal and marine ecosystems \r (Zhang et  al., 2019 f). Increased temperature was found to enhance \r the dark respiration and light compensation point of Ulva conglobate, \r which thrives in the mid-intertidal to upper subtidal zones, while the \r altered pH showed a limited effect (Li et al., 2020). Elevated temperature \r significantly enhanced growth, photosynthetic performances and \r [...]"


id: d3d544e373cde25990d4cf7f5732a11a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34608
content:
"[...] carbon-use efficiency of Sargassum horneri in both elevated and ambient \r CO2 levels suggesting that the present greenhouse effect would benefit \r the golden tide blooming macroalgae Sargassum horneri, which might \r enhance both the frequency and scale of golden tide (Wu et al., 2019b)."


id: 7cc1f171266d35ea236a987b288d4473
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19148
content:
"Varied responses to CRS in the China seas have been observed for \r small pelagic fishes (Ma et  al., 2019) and cephalopods (Ichii et  al., \r 2017). The winter and summer SSTs have shown evidence of decadal \r variability with abrupt changes from cold to warm in substantial \r association with climate indices to which coastal cephalopods in the \r China seas respond differentially, with some benefiting from warmer \r environments while others respond negatively (Pang et  al., 2018). \r In the western and eastern North Pacific marine ecosystem, it is \r indicated that groundfish may suffer more than pelagic fish (Yati et al., \r 2020). Habitat Suitability index models using SST, chlorophyll-a, sea \r surface height anomaly (SSHA) and sea surface salinity (SSS), as well \r as fishing effort, strongly indicate that Neon flying squid is affected \r by interannual environmental variations and undertakes short-term \r migrations to suitable habitat, affecting the fisheries (Yu et al., 2015). \r [...]"


id: 65aa1acc8d65c736113fcf1a5f01d538
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15148
content:
"[...] The 2015-2016 El Nino was found to impact coral reefs of shallower \r regions (depth of 5-15 m) in South Andaman, India, more than those \r beyond 20 m (Majumdar et al., 2018). On the southeast coast of India, \r with bleaching largely mediated by the SST anomaly and during the \r recovery period, macroalgae outgrowth has been observed (2.75%) \r indicating impacts on the benthic community (Ranith and Kripa, 2019). \r In the South China Sea, the increase in SST was found to be higher \r than predicted in recent decades, while the pH decreased at a rate of "


id: ab2a7a95fc86be5fc5fb53c4a417568e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27342
content:
"The vulnerabilities to disaster in coastal regions with high population \r densities are reported in several studies (Sajjad et al., 2018) that have \r assessed the vulnerabilities of coastal communities along the Chinese \r coast and shown that roughly 25% of the coastline, and more than \r 5 million residents, are in highly vulnerable coastal areas of mainland \r China, and these numbers are expected to double by 2100. Husnayaen \r et al. (2018) assessed the Semarang coast in Indonesia and showed \r that 20% of the total coastline (48.7 km) is very highly vulnerable. \r Mangroves continue to face threats due to pollution, conversion for \r aquaculture, agriculture, apart from climate-based threats like SLR \r and sea erosion (Richards and Friess, 2016; Romanach et  al., 2018; \r Wang et  al., 2018b; Friess et  al., 2019). Hypersalinity, storm effects \r on sediment deposition, fishery development and land erosion are \r responsible for most of the Sunderban mangrove degradations leading \r [...]"


id: 97a0ed53f3ce798332613bb52161b065
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23895
content:
"[...] to loss of livelihood (Uddin, 2014; Paul, 2017). In the Sunderbans of \r Asia, climate change is expected to increase river salinisation, which \r in turn could significantly negatively impact the valued timber species, "


id: 1220fa9e6b04613d899a122cd70cf5f1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 376
content:
"The UN's (2019) report on climate action and support trends highlights \r that the impacts of climate change on coastal ecosystems are mainly \r increased risks due to flooding, inundation due to extreme events, \r coastal erosions, ecosystem processes and, in the case of fisheries, \r variations in population or stock structures due to ocean circulation \r pattern, habitat loss degradation and ocean acidification. Analysis of \r data on the occurrence of varied natural hazards from 1900 to 2019 \r has shown that tropical cyclones, riverine floods and droughts have \r increased significantly, and the impacts of these events on coastal \r communities are also severe and destructive. The UN's average score \r for SDG Goal 14 (Life Under Water) for Asia was estimated as 46 \r among the scores of 40 nations, and the Ocean Health Biodiversity \r index was comparatively high (average 87.9); however, the indices \r show that more region-specific action plans are required to achieve \r [...]"


id: 5560f93b1e4105290cbe837f88792687
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12300
content:
"Apart from the human impacts, the ecology and resource abundance \r of coastal waters have been found to be impacted by extreme events. \r During tropical cyclones ecological variations, like lowering of SST, an \r increase in chlorophyll-a and a decrease in oxygen (Chacko, 2019; \r Girishkumar et al., 2019) have been observed. Global analyses of such \r events have indicated that they may have an impact on the fishery directly \r by creating unfavourable ecological conditions and destruction of critical \r habitats indirectly by affecting the eggs and larvae as well as subsequent \r fishery recruitment (McKinnon et al., 2003; Bailey and Secor, 2016). In \r the South China Sea in July 2000, during a 3-day cyclone period, an \r estimated thirtyfold increase in surface chlorophyll-a concentration was \r observed (Lin et al., 2003). The estimated carbon fixation resulting from \r this event alone is 0.8 Mt, or 2-4% of the SCS's annual new production \r [...]"


id: f896afe5cb407835ef1e7cbf5b79ef39
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41097
content:
"[...] (Lin et al., 2003). Since an average of 14 cyclones pass over this region \r annually, the contribution of cyclones to the annual new production has \r been estimated to be as high as 20-30% (Lin et al., 2003)."


id: fa748bd02b9ad84754dc62befc755e94
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41429
content:
"In the Southeast Asia region threats from both warming and acidification \r has indicated that by 2030, 99% of reefs will be affected, and by \r 2050, 95% are expected to be in the highest levels of the 'threatened' \r category (Burke et al., 2011), similar to global corals (Frieler et al., 2013; \r Bruno and Valdivia, 2016). Modelling results indicate that even under \r RCP scenarios, the functional traits of coral reefs can be affected (van \r der Zande et al., 2020) and coral communities will mainly consist of \r small numbers of temperature-tolerant and fast-growing species \r (Kubicek et al., 2019). Increases in temperature (+3degC) and pCO2 (+400 \r matm) projected for this century can reduce the sperm availability for \r fertilisation, which along with adult population decline either due to \r climate change or anthropogenic impacts (Hughes et al., 2017) can affect \r coral reproductive success thereby reducing the recovery of populations \r [...]"


id: a73471ccd9ccd2b2570bed6702d73ce0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26631
content:
"[...] and their adaptation potential (Albright and Mason, 2013; Hughes et al., \r 2018; Jamodiong et al., 2018). In the southern Persian Gulf, increased \r disturbance frequency and severity has caused progressive reduction \r in coral size, cover and population fecundity (Riegl et al., 2018), and \r this can lead to functional extinction. Connectivity required to avoid \r extinctions has increased exponentially with disturbance frequency \r and correlation of disturbances across the metapopulation. In the \r Philippines experiments have also proved that scleractinian corals, such \r as A. tenuis, A. millepora and F. colemani, which spawn their gametes \r directly into the water column, may experience limitations from sperm \r dilution and delays in initial sperm-egg encounters that can impact \r successful fertilisation (de la Cruz and Harrison, 2020)."


id: 6c09b53f2d36aedc6afbbfdb76e9c3e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16309
content:
"In South Asia, restoration programmes have been largely successful \r (Jayanthi et  al., 2018) but in some regions partly a failure due to \r inappropriate site selection, poor post-planting care and other issues \r (Kodikara et al., 2017). Using remote sensing it has been observed that \r there are high recovery rates of mangroves in a relatively short period \r (1.5 years) after a powerful typhoon, indicating that natural recovery \r and regeneration would be a more economically and ecologically \r viable strategy. Better mangrove management through mapping is \r suggested (Castillo et al., 2018; Gandhi and Jones, 2019). Statistical \r tools developed for modelling biomass and timber volume (Phan et al., \r 2019), and allometric models to estimate above-ground biomass and \r carbon stocks (Vinh et al., 2019), will be useful in estimating stocks in \r mangroves. Future mangrove loss may be offset by increasing national \r and international conservation initiatives that incorporate mangroves, \r [...]"


id: 62b2fa8d03cf79bc3ec9f245993ce015
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14655
content:
"[...] such as the SDGs, Blue Carbon, and Payments for Ecosystem Services \r (Friess et al., 2019). Since seagrass meadows and marine macroalgae \r are important habitats capable of combating impacts of climate \r change, the need for a global networking system with participation of \r stakeholders has been suggested (Duffy et al., 2019)."


id: 78253b4409cdaa18705c5eb6d3550ee6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18352
content:
"In Asia and elsewhere the interplay between the challenge of \r sustainability and climate change poses major policy challenges (von \r Stechow et al., 2016). The pursuit of SDG 6--protection and restoration \r of water-related ecosystems, universal and equitable access to safe \r and affordable drinking water for all, improvement in water quality by \r reducing pollution, elimination of dumping and significant reduction \r in release of hazardous chemicals and materials, and treatment of \r waste water through recycling and safe reuse globally--could be \r directly or indirectly challenged and undermined by climate change \r (Parkinson et al., 2019). Dissolved organic materials from sewage can \r enhance CO2 emissions, especially in rapidly urbanising river systems \r which receive untreated waste water and/or sewage across developing \r countries (Kim et al., 2019b). Conversely, policy interventions aimed \r at significant augmentation in water-use efficiency across all sectors, \r [...]"


id: 4a54559e11ced003acd45447e0d80e94
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10317
content:
"[...] ensuring sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address \r water scarcity and a significant reduction in the number of victims of \r water scarcity, especially the poor and marginalised, could mitigate \r vulnerabilities caused by climate change. More interdisciplinary \r research is needed on highly precarious future pathways and the \r intersection between CIDs and non-climate drivers in order to \r anticipate and mitigate diverging and uncertain outcomes."


id: 33aedc8f362fdf9c32fa39ba2e0e53a1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6338
content:
"Immerzeel et  al. (2020) have ranked all mountain-dependent water \r towers according to their water-supplying role and the downstream \r dependence of ecosystems, societies and economies. The resulting \r Global Water Tower index indicates that the upper Indus basin is both \r the most important and the most vulnerable water tower unit (WTU) \r in the world. A WTU is defined as 'the intersection between major river \r basins and a topographic mountain classification based on elevation \r and surface roughness'. Whereas all important transboundary WTUs \r in Asia remain highly vulnerable, it is the Indus WTU (inhabited \r by approximately 235 million people in the basin in 2016 (which is \r projected to increase by 50% by the middle of 21st century) where the \r average annual temperature is projected to increase by 1.9degC between \r 2000 and 2050, with wide-ranging consequences and trans-sectoral \r spillovers. The Indus WTU faces a deep risk produced by a combination \r [...]"


id: bde5b93953c74d5b7128bb6545d2c781
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30671
content:
"[...] of factors including water stress, ineffective governance, hydropolitical \r tensions, population growth and density, urbanisation and social \r transformations, with a significant bearing on SDG 6 on water, SDG 2 \r on food and SDG 7 on energy."


id: 52570213675fa4f23d9584e4dc6e7212
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11764
content:
"According to a quantitative scenario assessment for future water \r supply and demand in Asia to 2050, based on global climate change \r and socioeconomic scenarios (Satoh et  al., 2017), water demand in \r sectors such as irrigation, industry and households will increase by 30-\r 40% around 2050 in comparison with 2010. Water stress is likely to be \r more pronounced in Pakistan, and northern parts of India and China. \r By mid-21st Century, the international transboundary river basins of \r Amu Darya, Indus, Ganges could face severe water scarcity challenges \r due to climatic variability and changes acting as stress multipliers \r (high confidence). Within a country as well, the water scarcity could \r be exacerbated, such as in India and China, due to various drivers like \r population increase and climate change. Research on the differentiated \r impacts of climate change on freshwater sources across the Asian \r [...]"


id: bfc3102598e35b11775a7d8f5db3a896
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31018
content:
"[...] sub-regions remains inconclusive and requires assessment at the sub\u0002regional scale (IPCC, 2014b; Wester et al., 2019)."


id: 216d81d6ad0a1d57d362cf07d39e5156
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3091
content:
"Freshwater resources in Asia, which include both surface water and \r groundwater, are considerably strained, and changing climate is \r likely to act as a major stress multiplier (Dasgupta et al., 2015; Fant \r et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2018c; Mack, 2018). In Southern and Eastern \r Asia (SEA) nearly 200  million people are at risk of serious water\u0002stressed conditions. Effective mitigation might reduce the additional \r population under threat by 30% (60  million people), but still there \r is a 50% chance that 100  million people across SEA might face a \r 50% increase in water stress and a 10% chance that water stress will \r almost double in the absence of wide-ranging, multi-scalar adaptive \r measures (Gao et al., 2018c). With Millennium Development Goal 7c, \r which aimed to halve the population that had no sustainable access to \r water and basic sanitation before 2015, not having been fully realised, \r and Sustainable Development Goal 6 on water and sanitation not \r [...]"


id: c79c86f07b21403efb89fee45b3990de
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32430
content:
"[...] having been effectively operationalised, the water stress is likely to \r increase by the end of 2030 (Weststrate et al., 2019)."


id: 8999f2d3b4e5dc44a7b2f149d0aad3c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21384
content:
"The combined impacts of climate change and non-climate drivers \r on hydrological processes and water resources in transboundary \r rivers in diverse regions of Asia were well noted in AR5. In Central \r Asia, withdrawal is approximately equal to water availability, with \r Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan as the most water-stressed countries \r in the region (Karthe et  al., 2017; Russell, 2018). A study on water \r availability in mainland South Asia has pointed in the direction of \r decreasing precipitation trends in recent years, which have also \r contributed to the increasing incidence and severity of droughts (Liu \r et al., 2018b). There are reports of increase in occurrence and severity of \r different forms of droughts in the Koshi River basin (Central Himalaya) \r (Wu et al., 2019a; Hamal et al., 2020; Dahal et al., 2021; Nepal et al., \r 2021). Figure 10.5 shows the water stress in the HKH region. The water \r stress is relatively higher in the western region compared with the \r [...]"


id: 230a9ade8b6dc0569e9ed10f77e5dabe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3359
content:
"in the plains (Sharma et al., 2019). The HKH region stores about half \r of the ice mass in HMA, provisioning freshwater to almost 869 million \r people in the Indus, Tarim, Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins. \r While the warming climate increases the melt-water runoff enhancing \r water supply, it is indeed at the cost of glacier-mass reduction that \r would eventually reduce melt water and impact the people's livelihood \r downstream in the future (Nie et al., 2021). The melt runoff from the \r region plays an important role in downstream agriculture such as in the \r case of Indus where two-thirds of total irrigation withdrawal is from \r melt runoff in the pre-monsoon season (Biemans et al., 2019). Changes \r in cryosphere and other environmental changes have already impacted \r people living in high-mountain areas and are likely to introduce new \r challenges for water, energy and food security in the future (Borodavko \r [...]"


id: 4a6b404cac2ae377030007d681c77476
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10331
content:
"[...] et al., 2018; Adler et al., 2019; Bolch, 2019; Hoelzle et al., 2019; Rasul \r and Molden, 2019; Shen et al., 2020)."


id: 8ddecb70e9b6ff3b4af350f5d39ddc49
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22150
content:
"2016 (Kaab et al., 2018), and also surges which were frequently found \r in this vast region (e.g. Bhambri et al., 2017; Mukherjee et al., 2017; \r Ding et  al., 2018), threatening the security of the local and down \r streaming societies (high confidence).The total amount and area of \r glacier lakes increased during last decade (Zhang et al., 2015; Chen \r et al., 2017c) (high confidence). Himalayan rivers are frequently hit by \r catastrophic floods caused by the failure of glacial lakes (Cook et al., \r 2018; Ahluwalia et al., 2016). In Kedarnath, India (western Himalaya), \r a flash flood was triggered by glacier lake outburst flood (GLOF) \r released from the Chorabari glacial lake in June 2013 which caused \r extensive flooding, erosion of riverbanks and damage to downstream \r villages and towns, as well as the loss of several thousand lives (Rafiq \r et al., 2019; Das et al., 2015). Nepal has experienced 24 GLOF events \r which have caused considerable loss of life and damage to property \r [...]"


id: c5a9d6e6898625f6ed5578cff0f55f1e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32084
content:
"[...] and infrastructure (Icimod, 2011). There is high confidence that current \r glacier shrinkages have caused more glacial lakes to form in most \r mountainous regions, including HMA, but there is limited evidence \r that the frequency of GLOF has changed (Hock et  al., 2019). Veh \r et al. (2018) reported no clear trend of increasing GLOF events in the \r Himalayan region, although the southern Himalaya was identified as \r a hotspot region compared with the western Himalaya. Research has \r shown a decrease in glacier area of 24% in Nepal between 1980 and \r 2010 (Bajracharya et al., 2014)."


id: 6a39f4f85ecba8055be1f4f2bcf204c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15966
content:
"Climate-change impacts on both the quantity and quality of \r freshwater resources will hinder the attainment of SDG-6 (Water, \r 2020). Contamination of drinking water is caused by wildfires and \r drought that contribute to elevated levels of nutrients (nitrogen, \r phosphorus and sulphates), heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium \r and chromium), salts (chloride and fluorides), hydrocarbons, pesticides \r and even pharmaceuticals. Heavy rains and flooding also increase \r nutrients, heavy metals and pesticides, as well as turbidity and faecal \r pathogens in water supplies-especially when sewage treatment plants \r are overwhelmed by runoff (Mora et al., 2018). Pharmaceuticals and \r personal-care products (from source to disposal) are contributing to \r the vulnerability of urban waters. A study of vulnerability assessment \r of urban waters in highly populated cities in India and Sri Lanka, \r through analysing the concurrence of Pharmaceuticals and Personal \r [...]"


id: efc9a12eff77fc4232febee3be8a55dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39575
content:
"[...] Care Products (PPCPs), enteric viruses, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, \r metals, faecal contamination and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), \r also underlines the need for a resilience strategy and action plan (Rafiq \r et al., 2019)."


id: b9839f756c578a36bcc688aae1ee9864
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29848
content:
"There is a projection of an increase in runoff until the 2050s mainly \r due to an increase in precipitation in the upper Ganges, Brahmaputra, \r Salween and Mekong basins, where it could be due to accelerated \r melting in the upper Indus basin. The runoff could increase in the \r range of 3-27% (7-12% in Indus, 10-27% in Ganges and 3-8% in \r Brahmaputra) by mid-century compared with the reference period \r (1998-2008) for Himalayan river basins depending on the different \r RCP scenarios (Lutz et  al., 2014a). Likewise, Khanal et  al. (2021) \r suggest contrasting responses to climate change for HMA rivers in \r which, on the seasonal scale, the earlier onset of melting causes a \r shift in magnitude and peak of water availability, whereas on the \r annual scale, total water availability increases for the headwaters. The \r future flow would increase in Nepal's Central Himalaya region (Nepal, \r 2016; Ragettli et al., 2016; Bajracharya et al., 2018). These changes in \r [...]"


id: 2a91ef05f0325b966a36000f55dd0fee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] water availability in space and time will have serious consequences \r in downstream water availability for various sectoral uses and \r ecosystem functioning in Asia (Nepal et al., 2014; Green et al., 2015; \r Arfanuzzaman, 2018; Wijngaard et al., 2018; Rasul and Molden, 2019); \r however, future water availability is largely uncertain due to significant \r variation in climate-change projections among different global climate \r models (Nepal and Shrestha, 2015; Lutz et al., 2016; Li et al., 2019a)."


id: 1e4f2e89df67f9f42d9894340c63a39e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2527
content:
"Asia is no exception to the global trend of lake ecosystems, which \r provide drinking water to millions of people, being degraded (Jenny \r et  al., 2020) and severely threatened at the same time by climate \r change (Mischke, 2020). Lake surface conditions, such as ice cover, \r surface temperature, evaporation and water level react dramatically \r to this threat, and there are negative implications for water quantity \r and quality, food provisioning, recreational opportunities and \r transportation (Woolway et  al., 2020). Due to substantial regional \r variability, the quantum of future changes in lake water storage \r remains uncertain. A recent study (Liu et al., 2019a) using Moderate \r Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer 500-m spatial resolution global \r water product data, and applying the least squares method to analyse \r changes in the area of 14 lakes in Central Asia from 2001 to 2016, has \r shown that the area-shrinkage changes for all plains lakes in the study \r [...]"


id: 4c03dd0cd63bb42bfe39c8d4df9ead05
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10637
content:
"Significantly, climate change will add to already existing vulnerabilities. \r In the case of the Yellow River basin in China, underlining the interface \r between future water scarcity and hydroclimatic and anthropogenic \r drivers, a recent study expects moderate-to-severe water scarcity \r over six Yellow River sub-catchments under the RCP4.5 scenario, and \r anticipates that human influences on water scarcity will be worse than \r that of climate change, with water availability in the downstream being \r impacted by concurrent changes in land use and high temperature (Omer \r et  al., 2020). Nearly 8% of internationally shared or transboundary \r aquifers (TBAs), ensuring livelihood security for millions of people \r through sustaining drinking water supply and food production, are \r currently overstressed due to human overexploitation (Wada and \r Heinrich, 2013). The Asia Pacific region has the highest annual water \r withdrawal due to its geographic size, growing population and irrigation \r [...]"


id: a934a259f3af283839691be202fe6a6d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26992
content:
"[...] practices, and water for agriculture continues to consume 80% of the \r region's resources (Taniguchi et al., 2017b; Visvanathan, 2018)."


id: 33aa96075ce33bb48f0e2a670bcd1f24
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6334
content:
"In Central Asia, water scarcity has been ranked in the top five global risks (Gleick, 1993; Zhupankhan et al., 2018). Cross-boundary \r adaptation remains critically important in this region with abundant glaciers in the Pamir Plateau of Tajikistan (Hu et al., 2017) and areas \r with severe glacier retreat in the Tianshan Mountains (Liu and Liu, 2015). The spatial variations of glacier and other climate variables \r have added to uncertainty related to the dynamic of the water cycle. The headwater regions, such as Pamir area, would be significantly \r affected by the climate parameters, such as the stronger rainfall intensity, more frequent rainfall and higher temperature (Luo et al., \r 2019). The water resources in the Pamir Plateau will range from -0.48 to 5.6% (Gulakhmadov et al., 2020), and the crop phenological \r period in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan will be about 1-2 weeks earlier. The threat of agricultural water stress is increasing as well. The oasis in \r [...]"


id: b076b7057018b506f10134abf01b45b6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28282
content:
"[...] downstream areas will face more complex water resource fluctuations, water crisis and desertification. In particular, rain-fed agriculture in \r northern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and western Turkmenistan is particularly dependent on water resources. Under the RCP2.6 and RCP4.5 \r scenarios, considering CO2 fertilisation effects and land-use projections, the increase in CO2 atmospheric concentration and accumulated \r temperature can contribute to a 23% increase in cotton yield in Central Asia (Tian and Zhang, 2019), but extreme climate, such as \r drought, heatwaves and rainstorms, will have a 10% negative impact on agricultural production and the ecological environment (Zhang \r and Ren, 2017). High-efficiency water-saving technology will help the upstream and downstream water resource management in Central \r Asian countries to adapt to the variation in water resources quantity, frequency and spatial pattern."


id: 45d3b7de651dc049f3c3db981cd19642
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9506
content:
"there has been an increasing reliance on groundwater in South Asia \r for irrigation (Rodell et al., 2009; Tiwari et al., 2009; Surie and Prasai, \r 2015; Bhanja et al., 2016; Shrestha et al., 2016; Mukherjee, 2018; Shah \r et  al., 2018). It is noteworthy that India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and \r China together account for more than 50% of the world's groundwater \r withdrawals (Scott et al., 2019). A study conducted in the Shahpur and \r Maner districts of Bihar, India, in which drinking water sourced from \r the groundwater of 388 households was tested, showed that 70-90% \r of the sampled household's drinking water contained either arsenic \r or iron, or both (Thakur and Gupta, 2019). Given the nexus between \r CIDs and non-climate drivers, an effective adaptation to the impacts \r of climate change would also demand sustainable development and \r management of shared aquifer resources, which in turn require reliable \r TBA inventories and improved knowledge production and knowledge \r [...]"


id: 23233df358eda6b365f9b08a6eea32e0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3377
content:
"A study of peri-urban spaces involving four South Asian cities, Khulna \r (Bangladesh) (Pervin et al., 2020), Gurugram and Hyderabad (India), \r and Kathmandu (Nepal), has shown the nexus between intensifying use \r and deteriorating quality of water and the impact of climate change, \r resulting in peri-urban water insecurity and conflict (Roth et al., 2019). \r The challenge of ensuring access to water resources and their (re)\r allocation and prioritisation for marginalised communities remains on \r the agenda of policy-oriented interdisciplinary research and demands \r effective implementation of its findings at the grassroots level by the \r administrative agencies. Taking water security as a key CCA goal at the \r urban-city scale of Bangkok, a study (Babel et al., 2020) has shown the \r usefulness of a generic framework with 5 dimensions, 12 indicators \r and a set of potential variables to support national-level initiatives and \r [...]"


id: bc08eb3440e99f0c44887813251fc7a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30317
content:
"[...] plans in diverse climatic and socioeconomic conditions across various \r sub-regions of Asia."


id: a668d63fd46a082a5fcc51a4f7739272
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26497
content:
"AR5 identified a number of adaptation challenges and options \r facing the stakeholders in the wake of climate-change-induced \r vulnerabilities, uncertainties and risks in the freshwater sector, and \r underlined the importance of an integrated management approach as \r well as acknowledging diverse socioeconomic contexts, differentiated \r capacities and the uneven pace of impacts. Further validated by recent \r research in terms of their usefulness, these adaptation options include \r building and improving capital-intensive physical water infrastructure \r such as irrigation channels, flood-control dams and water storage \r (Nusser and Schmidt, 2017). Drawing upon customary institutions \r and combining Indigenous knowledge systems with scientific \r knowledge, innovative structures, including artificial glaciers, ice \r stupas and snow barrier bands, have been built by local communities \r in Ladakh, Zanskar and Himachal Pradesh in India (Hock et al., 2019; \r [...]"


id: caacfabf2025613923484a7b00b180d2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32997
content:
"[...] Nusser et al., 2019). Communities in Solukhumbu, Nepal, in response \r to depleting water flow in snow-fed rivers, have chosen adaptation \r through changing practices by collecting water from distant sources \r for domestic consumption (McDowell et al., 2013). Taking the IPCC \r concept of climate risk as a basis for adaptation planning, a pilot \r study of flood risk in Himachal Pradesh, India (Allen et  al., 2018), \r integrating assessment of hazard, vulnerability and exposure in the \r complementary domains of CCA and DRR, has identified stakeholder \r consultation, knowledge exchange and institutional capacity building \r as key steps in adaptation planning. Aquifer storage and recovery \r has been proposed as an 'alternative climate-proof freshwater \r source' for deltaic regions in Asia, particularly those with a history of \r saline groundwater aquifers (Hoque et al., 2016). It is further argued \r (Hadwen et al., 2015) that water, sanitation and hygiene objectives \r [...]"


id: 91de54b77acd64be9019f1ddc74b7f1f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22881
content:
"[...] would need to be addressed as a component of a wider integrated \r water resource management (IWRM) framework."


id: 2400609ed308162807e455d9eb5af126
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3513
content:
"Asia accounts for 67% of global agricultural production (Mendelsohn, \r 2014) and employs a large portion of the population in many \r developing countries and regions (Briones and Felipe, 2013; ADB, \r 2017b; ILO, 2017a). Since the release of IPCC AR5, more studies \r have reinforced the earlier findings on the spatio-temporal diversity \r of climate-change impacts on food production in Asia depending \r on the geographic location, agroecology and crops grown (Hoegh\u0002Guldberg et al., 2018; Ahmad et al., 2019), recognising that there are \r winners and losers associated with the changing climate across scales \r (Dasgupta et  al., 2013a; Yong-Jian et  al., 2013; Bobojonov and Aw\u0002Hassan, 2014; Hijioka et al., 2014; Li et al., 2014a; Prabnakorn et al., \r 2018; Trisurat et al., 2018; Matsumoto, 2019). Despite the observed \r increase in total food production in terms of crops and food yields \r from 1990 to 2014 in Asia (FAO, 2015), there is high confidence that \r [...]"


id: 6674ddb085ccd8ac3b4771fa8d1d7ae8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15287
content:
"[...] overall, at the regional level, the projected total negative impacts will \r far outweigh the expected benefits, with India emerging as the most \r vulnerable nation in terms of crop production (Figure  10.6). Recent \r evidence also indicates that climate-related risks to agriculture and \r food security in Asia will progressively escalate as global warming \r reaches 1.5degC and higher above pre-industrial levels (IPCC, 2018b) \r with differentiated impacts across the Asian continent."


id: 44c7e2778240c613398174a2c29c1cbb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9325
content:
"There remains a paucity of data for observed climate-change impacts \r on Asian agriculture and food systems since the release of IPCC AR5. \r Most of these impacts have been associated with drought, monsoon \r rain and oceanic oscillations, the frequency and severity of which \r have been linked with the changing climate (Heino et al., 2018; Heino \r et al., 2020). In general, major impacts to agricultural production, such \r as those observed by the farmers in the Philippines and Indonesia, \r include among others delays in crop harvesting, declining crop yields \r and quality of produce, increasing incidence of pests and diseases, \r stunted growth, livestock mortality and low farm income (Stevenson \r et al., 2013). In South Asia, the series of monsoon floods from 2005 to \r 2015 contributed to a high level of loss in agricultural production with \r peaks in 2008 and 2015 (FAO, 2018a). Similarly, in Pakistan, farmers \r are experiencing a decline in crop yields and increasing incidence \r [...]"


id: c26911e08e3bd9a74ff93c4b826246c8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31486
content:
"[...] of crop diseases as a result of climate extremes, particularly floods, \r droughts and heatwaves (Fahad and Wang, 2018; Ahmad et al., 2019)."


id: cf7626c33bb7d08ba85b12c51b01421a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33852
content:
"Like fisheries, Asian aquaculture is highly vulnerable to climate \r change. Shrimp farmers and fry catchers of Bangladesh are \r frequently affected by extreme climatic disruptions like cyclones and \r storm surges that severely damage the entire coastal aquaculture \r (Islam et al., 2016a; Kais and Islam, 2018). The majority of shrimp \r farmers also observed that weather has changed abruptly during \r the past 5  years and that high temperature is most detrimental \r because it lowers growth rate, increases susceptibility to diseases, \r including deformation, and affects production (Islam et al., 2016a). \r Low production in shrimp farming is also attributed to variation and \r intensity of rainfall perceived by the majority of farmers as part of \r climate-change impacts (Ahmed and Diana, 2015; Islam et al., 2016a; \r Henriksson et al., 2019). In Vietnam, small-scale shrimp farmers are \r likewise vulnerable to climate change, although those who practise \r [...]"


id: 85d4bf9fe948aad0e94025842256c6dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20689
content:
"[...] an extensive type of farming with low inputs are more vulnerable \r compared with those who practise a more intensive type with more \r capital investment (Quach et al., 2015; Quach et al., 2017). Seaweed \r farming in Asia is very popular, and the significance of seaweed \r aquaculture beds in capturing carbon is recognised, but most of the \r farmed seaweeds are susceptible to climate change (Chung et  al., \r 2017a; Duarte et al., 2017)."


id: 25303a1c56950f2ab2e3335e7d6716ea
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"There is high agreement in the literature that Asian fisheries and \r aquaculture, including the local communities depending on them for \r livelihoods, are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. \r Asia has been impacted by SLR (Panpeng and Ahmad, 2017), a \r decrease in precipitation in some parts (Salik et  al., 2015) and an \r increase in temperature (Vivekanandan et al., 2016), all of which have \r drastic effects on fisheries and aquaculture (FAO, 2018c). Its coastal \r fishing communities is exposed to disasters, which are predicted to \r increase (Esham et  al., 2018). Fisheries in most of South Asia and \r Southeast Asia involve small-scale fishers who are more vulnerable \r to climate-change impacts compared with commercial fishers (Sonke \r Kreft et al., 2016; Blasiak et al., 2017), although there is a general \r decreasing trend in the number of small units (Fernandez-Llamazares \r et al., 2015; ILO, 2015). A regional study of South Asia forecast large \r [...]"


id: 4fa0c9bf43bdb9a1a832bf811c5f11e0
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"[...] decreases in potential catch of two key commercial fish species (hilsa \r shad and Bombay duck) in the Bay of Bengal (Fernandes et al., 2016), \r which forms a major fishery and food source for coastal communities. \r About 69% of the commercially important species of the Indian "


id: 26d0f3f317c7337a1c000285620d3c5c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"While there is general agreement that CO2 promotes growth and \r productivity of plants through enhanced photosynthesis, there \r remains uncertainty on the extent to which carbon fertilisation will \r influence agricultural production in Asia as it interacts with increasing \r temperatures, changing water availability and the different adaptation \r measures employed (Ju et al., 2013; Jat et al., 2016; ADB, 2017b). As \r global warming compounds beyond 1.5degC, however, the likelihood of \r adverse impacts on agricultural and food security in many parts of \r developing Asia increases (Mendelsohn, 2014; IPCC, 2018b). There \r is a growing trend towards more integrated studies and modelling \r that combines biophysical and socioeconomic variables (including \r management practices) in the context of changing climate to reduce \r uncertainty associated with future impacts of climate change on the \r agriculture sector (see, for instance, Mason-D'Croz et al., 2016; Smeets \r [...]"


id: f99436c9a5f4569be77dc737821295e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"climate. Agricultural management practice in China may also change \r to optimise soil organic carbon sequestration (Zhang et al., 2016a). A \r study on projected irrigation requirements under climate change using \r a soil-moisture model for 29 upland crops in the Republic of Korea \r showed that water scarcity is a major limiting factor for sustainable \r agricultural production (Hong et  al., 2016). In terms of drought, \r despite increasing future precipitation in most scenarios, crop-specific \r agricultural drought is expected to be a significant risk due to rainfall \r variability (Lim et al., 2019a). On the other hand, a projected rise in \r water availability in the Korean Peninsula using multiple regional \r climate models and evapotranspiration methods indicates that it will \r likely increase agricultural productivity for both rice and corn, but \r would decrease significantly in rain-fed conditions (Lim et al., 2017b). \r [...]"


id: 4b312c6be845c4b7ac495b22dcd5b492
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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"[...] Thus, irrigation and soil-water management will be a major factor in \r determining future farming systems and crop areas in the country."


id: 80425de14102ea13e593fdf58da97f21
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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"There is high confidence that agriculture will continue to be among \r the most vulnerable sectors in Asia in light of the changing climate \r (Mendelsohn, 2014; ADB, 2017b). Among the more vulnerable areas \r include mountain agriculture where fluctuation in crop production \r (Poudel and Shaw, 2016; Hussain et al., 2019), and food insufficiency, \r is more widespread than in lowland areas (Poudel and Shaw, 2015; \r Kohler and Maselli, 2009). Also vulnerable are flood-prone areas like \r the Vietnam Mekong River Delta where 39% of the total rice area is \r exposed to sustained flood risks (Wassmann et al., 2019a). Increasing \r temperatures and changing precipitation levels will persist to be \r important vulnerability drivers that will shape agricultural productivity \r particularly in South Asia, Southeast Asia and Central Asia as well \r as in selected areas of the region. With the increasing likelihood of \r extreme weather events, such as strong typhoons in the Philippines, \r [...]"


id: 7c7770e3ab2c7e5481d6efc3d3222945
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] the agriculture sector in the typhoon-prone areas of Southeast and \r East Asia, as well as the Indus Delta, will be more vulnerable to crop \r destruction (Mallari and Ezra, 2016). Projections on increasing SLR \r and flooding, such as those in Bangladesh and the Mekong Delta, \r will submerge and decrease crop production areas and severely affect \r agriculture and fishery sectors, but will also trigger outmigration from \r these areas (ADB, 2017b)."


id: 43a23953fdc0d1646acf929567edf690
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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"Asian farmers and fishers already employ a variety of adaptation \r practices to minimise the adverse impacts of climate change. In a \r recent systematic and comprehensive review of farmers' adaptation \r practices in Asia, Shaffril et  al. (2018) categorised these practices \r into different forms such as crop management, irrigation and water \r management, farm management, financial management, physical \r infrastructure management and social activities. 'Climate-smart \r agriculture'-an integrated approach for developing agricultural \r strategies that address the intertwined challenges of food security \r and climate change-is increasingly being promoted in many parts of \r the region, especially in Southeast and South Asia, with potentially \r promising outcomes (Chandra et al., 2017; Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2017; \r Shirsath et al., 2017; Westermann et al., 2018; Wassmann et al., 2019b). \r Site-specific adaptations, such as those in Pakistan, include farmers' \r [...]"


id: 7fc7bd278d63aa4cba23fe0af18672a
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] utilisation of several adaptation techniques which include changing \r crop type and variety, and improving seed quality; fertiliser application \r and use of pesticides, and planting of shade trees; and water storage \r and farm diversification (Fahad and Wang, 2018), as well as the \r implementation of comprehensive climate information services for \r farming communities (World Meteorological Organization, 2017)."


id: ac418d70de383378de6d2d4c1126b336
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Asia (Japan, China, Republic of Korea, India, the Philippines and Taiwan, \r Province of China) (UNISDR, 2017). As per Gu et al. (2015), 56% of cities \r with populations greater than 300,000 in 2014 are exposed to at least \r one of the six physical hazards (cyclones, floods, droughts, earthquakes, \r landslides and volcanic eruptions). Cities in areas highly exposed and \r vulnerable to multiple hazards were also the ones that grew rapidly in \r population between 1950 and 2014, implying greater infrastructural \r investments in climate-sensitive areas. Among 27 cities highly exposed \r to multiple disasters, 13 cities had a population of 1 million or more in \r 2014. Among them were three megacities, Tokyo (Japan), Osaka (Japan) \r and Manila (the Philippines), with more than 10  million inhabitants \r exposed to three or more hazards. Seven other cities with 1  million \r inhabitants or more in Asia were at high risk of three or more types of \r [...]"


id: cc31051b3929dacd84eb995733f388a0
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"[...] disaster. Manila is highly vulnerable to economic losses and disaster\u0002related mortality from all six types of disasters. Moscow (Russia) is the \r only megacity not exposed to the risk of any of the six types of physical \r hazards analysed (cyclones, floods, droughts, earthquakes, landslides and \r volcano eruptions). Of the eight megacities most vulnerable to disaster\u0002related mortality, seven-Tokyo, Osaka, Karachi, Kolkata, Manila, Tianjin \r and Jakarta, totalling 143 million people-are in Asia (Gu et al., 2015)."


id: c5d17838871862d9043e33ba63604a9b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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"Critically, these projections of higher temperatures will have a significant \r impact on heat-related morbidity and mortality, labour productivity, \r mental health, and health and well-being outcomes across all sub-regions \r of Asia (medium evidence, high confidence) (Pal and Eltahir, 2016; Im \r et al., 2017; Arifwidodo et al., 2019; Arshad et al., 2020). In West Asia and \r the North China Plain especially, extreme wet-bulb temperatures are \r expected to approach, and possibly exceed, the physiological threshold \r for human adaptability (35degC) (Pal and Eltahir, 2016; Kang and Eltahir, \r 2018). By the end of the century, under higher projections (RCP8.5), \r the daily maximum wet-bulb temperature is expected to exceed the \r survivability threshold across most of South Asia (Im et al., 2017). City\u0002specific studies articulate what these regional projections will mean for \r urban populations. For example, at 1.5degC warming, without adaptation, \r [...]"


id: d3855d8909f77661b6fb5de9c6a1ae15
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"[...] annual heat-related mortality in 27 major cities across China is projected \r to increase from 32.1 per million inhabitants annually in 1986-2005 to \r 48.8-67.1 per million. This number increases to 59.2-81.3 per million for \r 2degC warming (Wang et al., 2019a). In the Republic of Korea, deaths from \r heat disorders are expected to increase approximately fivefold under the \r RCP4.5 and 7.2-fold under RCP8.5 by 2060 compared with the current \r baseline value of ~23 people per summer (Kim et al., 2016a). Importantly, \r heat exposure is differentiated within cities: it disproportionally affects \r the poorest populations (Lohrey et  al., 2021) and those with lesser \r access to green spaces (Arifwidodo and Chandrasiri, 2020)."


id: 35ea899ffb7ea550a7a1d70ff748e34f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"Impacts of heatwaves at 1.5degC and 2degC in cities are substantially larger \r than under the present climate (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018). In South \r Asia particularly, more intense heatwaves of longer durations and \r occurring at a higher frequency are projected with medium confidence\r over India (Murari et al., 2015) and Pakistan (IPCC AR6, WGI, Table 11.5; \r Ali et al., 2018; Nasim et al., 2018; Ali et al., 2020; IPCC, 2021). At the city \r level, these projections could translate into significant impacts: at 1.5degC, \r on average, every year Kolkata will experience heat equivalent to the \r 2015 record heatwaves; Karachi about once every 3.6 years; and under \r 2degC warming, both regions could expect such heat annually (Matthews \r et al., 2017). In Pakistan, Hyderabad is likely to be the hottest city by \r 2100 with the highest average temperature reaching 29.9degC (RCP4.5) to \r 32degC (RCP8.5) followed by Jacobabad, Bahawalnagar and Bahawalpur \r [...]"


id: 2ea3e8e2f2f95e97a815829490255dda
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"[...] cities (Ali et  al., 2020). The frequency of heatwave days (HWF) will \r increase by 22.8, 22.3 and 26.5 d yr-1 in northern, eastern and western \r Japan, respectively, with megacities such as Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya \r seeing large increases in HWF and related deaths (Nakano et al., 2013)."


id: ccdc5eaf8d7138c92011c1e666f68cd5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"0.73-2.1 million people by 2100 (Davis et al., 2018). Such migration \r will have direct development implications: for example, destination \r locations could see additional demands on jobs (594,000), housing \r (197,000) and food (783 x 109\r  calories) by mid-century as a result of \r those displaced by SLR (Davis et al., 2018).\r Among the 20 largest coastal cities with the highest flood losses by \r 2050, 13 are in Asia5\r , with a regional concentration in South, Southeast \r and East Asia (Hallegatte et al., 2013). Furthermore, 9 of these cities \r (Guangzhou, Kolkata, Tianjin, Ho Chi Minh City, Jakarta, Zhanjiang, \r Bangkok, Xiamen, Nagoya) also have an additional risk of subsidence \r due to SLR and flooding (Hallegatte et al., 2013). Guangzhou, China, \r is estimated to be the most economically vulnerable city in the world \r to SLR by 2050, with estimated losses of 254 million USD yr-1 under \r 0.2 m SLR (Jevrejeva et al., 2016). With a 2degC warming, Guangzhou \r [...]"


id: 9189ac8471f915b25c71174a5042e7fe
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"[...] is expected to see SLR of 0.34 m; under 5degC warming, this number \r would rise to 1.93 m. A more recent estimate calculates expected \r damage in Guangzhou due to SLR under RCP8.5 to reach 331 billion \r USD by 2050 and 420 billion USD under the high-end scenario with \r figures doubling by 2070. By 2100, expected damage could reach 1.4 \r trillion USD under RCP8.5 and 1.8 trillion USD under the high-end \r scenario. Similarly, in Mumbai (India) SLR damages amount to US$ \r 112-162 billion by 2050 and could increase by a factor of 2.8-2.9 by \r 2070 (Abadie et al., 2020). In coastal cities such as Bangkok and Ho \r Chi Minh City, projected land subsidence rates, mainly due to excessive \r groundwater extraction, are comparable to, or exceed, expected rates \r of SLR, resulting in an additional 0.2 m SLR by 2025 (Jevrejeva et al., \r 2016). In Shanghai, current annual damage by coastal inundation is \r estimated at 0.03% of local GDP; under RCP4.5, this increases to 0.8% \r [...]"


id: 72cf38dfb9ca5158f23e74333448ba8e
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"[...] by 2100 (uncertainty range of 0.4-1.4%) and is further exacerbated by \r land subsidence and socioeconomic development (Du et al., 2020). It \r is important to note that these projections assume (a) no adaptation \r and (b) that damage repairs are undertaken and completed annually. \r Given these assumptions, while these estimates communicate the \r scale of projected impacts, they are indicators of possible damages in \r the absence of adaptation and not actual projections."


id: f2573498ea8cb60df040df8fae50a13b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"Global assessments identify Asia as the most exposed region to SLR \r (see Section CCP2.2.1) in terms of the number of people living in low\u0002elevation coastal zones and the number of people exposed to flooding \r from 1-in-100-years storm surge events (Neumann et al., 2015; Jevrejeva \r et al., 2016; Kulp and Strauss, 2019; Abadie et al., 2020; Haasnoot, 2021). \r Twelve of the top 20 countries exposed to SLR and associated flood events \r are in Asia, and of these, China, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Vietnam \r are estimated to have the highest total coastal population exposure \r (Neumann et  al., 2015; Edmonds et  al., 2020). Critically, regardless of \r the emissions scenario, 70% of the global population exposed to SLR \r and land subsidence are in eight Asian countries: China, Bangladesh, \r India, Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines and Japan (Kulp and \r Strauss, 2019). This is particularly worrisome since in highly populated \r [...]"


id: 8b5fb85be00439d005d10a1667e6a474
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"[...] low-lying coastal cities across Asia, it is estimated that land subsidence \r could be as influential as climate-induced SLR over the 21st century (Cao \r et al., 2021; Nicholls et al., 2021). In East Asia and the Asia-Pacific in \r general (expected to see 0.2-0.5 m SLR), without adaptation, 1 million \r people (range of 0.3-2.2  million) are projected to be affected by \r submergence under RCP8.5 by 2095. Limiting warming will reduce this \r risk, and under RCP4.5, these numbers of people at risk will be reached by \r 2140. However, continuing on RCP8.5 increases risk exposure to 7 million \r (estimated range of 2-24  million people) (Haasnoot, 2021). Notably, \r assuming present-day population and adaptation (in the form of existing \r protection standards), East and South Asia already have a large number \r of people at risk of a 1-in-100-years flooding event (63 million) because \r of relatively lower flood protection (except in China and Malaysia)."


id: 50e86a7b44719f67e27a5069f803650e
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"The SLR affects economic growth, its drivers and welfare outcomes \r (Hallegatte, 2012; Pycroft et al., 2016; Lee and Asuncion, 2020) through \r (a) permanent loss of land and natural capital, (b) loss of infrastructure \r and physical capital, (c) loss of social capital and migration, (d) \r temporary floods, food insecurity and loss of livelihoods and (e) added \r expenditure for coastal protection. Without adaptation, direct damage \r to the GDP by 2080 due to SLR would be highest in Asia (robust \r evidence, medium agreement), with China losing between 64.2 billion \r USD (under A1B of 2.4degC by the 2050s and 3.8degC by the 2090s at \r 0.47 m), 95.8 billion USD (under the RAHM scenario of 1.4 m SLR by \r 2100 at 1.12 m) and 118.4 billion USD (at a high SLR of 2 m by 2100 at \r 1.75 m) in direct damages, and an additional 5.7, 4.5 and 4.5 billion \r USD, respectively, due to migration (Pycroft et al., 2016). Closely after \r [...]"


id: ceb7fb4ad96d7dc2dbf618efe165bf41
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content:
"[...] China will be India, the Republic of Korea, Japan, Indonesia and Russia. \r Overall, Asia can experience direct losses of about 167.6 billion USD \r (at 0.47 m), 272.3  billion USD (at 1.12 m) or 338.1  billion USD (at "


id: ae0d35220260a0cf22cb8c6245362331
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"In Northern Eurasia, observed and projected climate-change impacts \r are especially pronounced. On land, the presence of permafrost, \r which occupies substantial areas of eastern Russia, Mongolia and \r mountain regions of China, creates specific challenges for economic \r development and human activities. By 2050, it is likely that 69% of \r fundamental human infrastructure in the Pan Arctic will be at risk \r (RCP 4.5 scenario)(medium confidence), including more than 1200 \r settlements (Hjort et al., 2018). The majority of the population and \r the absolute majority (85%) of large settlements on permafrost are \r located in Russia, and 44% of those are expected to be profoundly \r affected by permafrost thaw by 2050 (Streletskiy et al., 2019; Ramage \r et al., 2021). Under RCP8.5, the climate-induced decrease of bearing \r capacity and, in regions with ice-rich permafrost, thaw subsidence, \r is projected to affect 54% of all residential buildings on permafrost \r [...]"


id: 1e7ae8730acddc1e58ed022313f550c3
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"[...] with a combined worth of 20.7 billion USD; 20% of commercial and \r industrial structures and 19% in critical infrastructure with a total \r worth of 84.4 billion USD (Streletskiy, 2019). Transport infrastructure \r in Russia and China are impacted by thaw subsidence and, to a lesser \r degree, from frost heave, which add significant operational costs and \r limit accessibility to remote settlements (Porfiriev et  al., 2019; Ni \r et al., 2021)."


id: b873ab11aa2dd55b17035541f3b51d2b
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"Globally, there is high confidence that the proportion of intense \r tropical cyclones is expected to increase despite the total number of \r tropical cyclones being expected to decrease or remain unchanged \r (Arias et  al., 2021), especially in Southeast and East Asia (Knutson \r et al., 2015; Yamamoto et al., 2021). Historical trends from South Asia \r indicate that more lives are lost due to storm surge levels than the \r intensity of the cyclone (Niggol and Bakkensen, 2017). The number of \r people exposed to 1-in-100-years storm surge events is highest in Asia. \r China, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Vietnam have the highest \r numbers of coastal populations exposed (Neumann et al., 2015) with \r Guangzhou, Mumbai, Shenzen, Tianjin, Ho Chi Minh City, Kolkata and \r Jakarta incurring losses of 1520 million USD due to coastal flooding in \r 2005 alone (Dulal, 2019), although Jakarta is exposed to monsoonal \r storm surge. It is projected that by 2050, without adaptation, the \r [...]"


id: 5653ceba2ff0c90cd5bc2c1990d9dc72
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"[...] annual losses incurred in these cities will increase to approximately \r 32 billion USD (Dulal, 2019)."


id: a1a2e29e71455d77514911bcb927006f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Adaptation options include: (a) infrastructural measures such as \r building flood protection measures and sea walls, and climate-resilient \r highways and power infrastructure (Shaw et  al., 2016b; Ho et  al., \r 2017); (b) sustainable land-use planning through zoning, developing \r building codes (Knowlton et  al., 2014; Nahiduzzaman et  al., 2015; \r Rahman et  al., 2016; Ahmed et  al., 2019b); (c) ecosystem-based \r adaptation measures such as protecting urban green spaces, improving \r permeability, mangrove restoration in coastal cities, etc. (Brink et al., \r 2016; Fink, 2016; Yu et al., 2018d); (d) relocation and migration out \r of risk-prone areas (McLeman, 2019; Hauer et  al., 2020; Maharjan \r et al., 2020); and (e) disaster management and contingency planning \r such as through Early warning systems (EWS), improved awareness \r and preparedness measures (Shaw et al., 2016a). Asian cities are also \r focusing on institutional adaptation measures which cut across the \r [...]"


id: 95667fd3be9e3bcb30a4ff34e0e00002
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23484
content:
"[...] five categories mentioned above such as through building capacity and \r local networks (Anguelovski et al., 2014; Friend et al., 2014; Knowlton \r et al., 2014), improving awareness (Knowlton et al., 2014), and putting \r local research and monitoring mechanisms in place (Lee and Painter, \r 2015) to enable adaptation. Figure  10.9 shows the effectiveness of \r select adaptation options in cities across Asia."


id: b62e772190d2c6cb26743c5e05a7c408
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29276
content:
"Land tenure arrangements strongly shape urban dwellers' vulnerability \r and their adaptive capacities (Roy et  al., 2013; Michael et  al., 2018). \r For example, in Khulna (Bangladesh), Roy et al. (2013) found significant \r differences between the adaptive strategies of homeowners and renters \r in low-income settlements, a finding echoed in Bangalore (India) \r (Deshpande et al., 2018) and Phnom Penh (Cambodia) (Mitchell et al., \r 2015). In Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), land-based adaptation strategies \r include land zoning to control population and building density, \r demarcating environmental protection zones, and sub-urbanisation \r (Nahiduzzaman et al., 2015; Rahman et al., 2016). In many Asian cities, \r land subsidence control can serve as an adaptation strategy since it is \r estimated to significantly reduce relative SLR (high confidence). This has \r an important implication in that subsidence control would be a good and \r [...]"


id: 1895c33ff452d1f47505e9d1314e4a94
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vector_id: 1535
content:
"[...] complementary measure to climate mitigation and climate adaptation \r in many coastal urban settings in Asia (Cao et al., 2021; Nicholls et al., \r 2021). Urban land-use planning, if used proactively, can incentivise \r adaptation-mitigation synergies and obviate unintended negative \r consequences of urbanisation as Xu et al. (2019) have shown in Xiamen."


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"Infrastructural measures alone are seldom effective in building urban \r resilience as seen in the examples of the 2011 floods in Bangkok and \r the 2005 typhoon in Manila (Duy et al., 2019), or projected estimates \r by Pervin et  al. (2020) who found that structural interventions in \r existing drainage systems reduce flooding risk by 7-19% in Sylhet \r (Bangladesh) and Bharatpur (Nepal); however, without proper \r solid waste management, areas under flood risk could increase to \r 18.5% in Sylhet and 7.6% in Bharatpur in five  years, rendering the \r infrastructural interventions ineffective over time. While in some cities \r it is estimated that infrastructural adaptation through 'hard' flood \r protection strategies (e.g., storm surge barriers and floodwalls) is more \r effective than institutional or ecosystem-based adaptation by 2100, for \r example, Shanghai. A hybrid approach where hard strategies protect \r from flood risk, and soft strategies reduce residual risk from hard \r [...]"


id: f0f669b7c1d25f5456ff4867ca2d4804
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"[...] strategies, is suggested (Du et al., 2020). In Japan, without adaptation, \r estimated damage costs of floods (caused by tropical cyclones and \r altered precipitation) by 2081-2100 under RCP2.6 will be 28% higher \r (compared with 1981-2000), rising to 57% higher under RCP8.5 \r (Yamamoto et al., 2021). With a combination of adaptation measures \r (such as land-use control, piloti building and flood control measures), \r estimated damage costs can be reduced even below the 1981-2000 \r levels, and with a combination of mitigation and these adaptation \r measures, an estimated 69% reduction in flood damage costs are \r expected-demonstrating the importance of concerted and immediate \r climate action in reducing damage."


id: 2d7d016a437b397ecf2d5226204827f1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"warnings through mobile phones or mobilising relief through social \r media (Carley et al., 2016), are proving effective for disaster prepared\u0002ness, relief and recovery. Community-based DRR is consistently rank\u0002ed as most effective for its role in transforming DRR towards being \r more context relevant and inclusive. Ecosystem-based DRR (EbDRR) \r is also gaining prominence and includes strategies such as mangrove \r plantation and rejuvenation in vulnerable coastal areas. Nature-based \r solutions for flood protection and reducing drought incidence have \r emerged as an alternative to costlier 'hard' infrastructure (UN-Water, \r 2018; Zevenbergen et al., 2018; Rozenberg and Fay, 2019). Some cities \r are also reporting adaptation to heat risk. For example, Ahmedabad \r (India) has pioneered preparedness for extreme temperatures and \r heatwaves by developing annual Heat Action Plans, building regula\u0002tions to minimise trapping heat, advisories about managing heat stress \r [...]"


id: c4b33247cadd75d4852fe3226d590f8c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"There is medium evidence (low agreement) about the effectiveness of \r migration and planned relocation in reducing risk exposure. Evidence \r on climate-driven internal migration shows that moving has mixed \r outcomes on risk reduction and adaptive capacity. On one hand, \r migration can improve adaptive capacity by increasing incomes and \r remittances as well as diversifying livelihoods (Maharjan et al., 2020); \r on the other, migration can expose migrants to new risks. For example, \r in Bangalore (India), migrants often face high exposure to localised \r flooding, insecure and unsafe livelihoods, and social exclusion, which \r collectively shape their vulnerability (Michael et al., 2018; Singh and \r Basu, 2020). In greater Manila (the Philippines) and Chennai (India), \r planned relocations to reduce disaster risk have often exacerbated \r vulnerability, due to relocation sites being in environmentally sensitive \r areas, inadequate livelihood opportunities and exposure to new risks \r [...]"


id: 26e993ab0996599510a36c73affc7441
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"Financing, regulations and institutional processes play a significant \r role in incentivising DRR and resilience in large-scale, city-level built \r infrastructure by the private sector and other actors. Currently there \r are gaps in these mechanisms, leading to infrastructure development \r in disaster-prone areas, increasing exposure to people, property, \r economy and systems (Jain, 2013). Both firms and governments need \r to take disaster risks into consideration in supply-chain management \r to avoid disruptions and subsequent negative effects (Abe and Ye, \r 2013). There are several institutional challenges faced during DRR \r and CCA implementation including overlapping efforts and inefficient \r use of scarce resources due to inappropriate funding mechanisms, \r a lack of coordination and collaboration, a lack of implementation \r and mainstreaming, scale mismatches, poor governance, the social-\r political-cultural structure, competing actors and institutions, and lack \r [...]"


id: 86e23e5561f078ee715c0ecf0296960e
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"[...] of information, communication, knowledge sharing, and community \r involvement, as well as policy gaps (Seidler et al., 2018; Islam et al., \r 2020)."


id: b9aaa493ec9b497541e74ace90590a49
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"There is rich case-based evidence across Asia on urban adaptation \r to extreme events with relatively more evidence on rapid-onset \r events such as cyclones and flooding than slow-onset disasters such \r as drought (see Box  10.6; Ray and Shaw, 2019; UNESCAP, 2019; \r Singh et al., 2021a). Overall, there has been a growing emphasis on \r 'build back better' interventions (Mannakkara and Wilkinson, 2013; \r Hallegatte et al., 2018) that approach disaster management holistically \r through infrastructural solutions such as climate-resilient housing \r or sea walls and soft approaches such as strengthening livelihoods, \r developing EWS11, increasing awareness about disaster risks and \r impacts, and building local capacities to deal with them (Bhowmik \r et al., 2021). Notably, urban disaster management is effective when \r land-use planning processes, including greenfield development, zoning \r and building codes, and urban redevelopment, are leveraged to reduce \r [...]"


id: f1c9930a2f76defbafff96f1be22463a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"High temperatures affect mortality and morbidity in Asia (high \r confidence). In addition to all-cause mortality (Dang et al., 2016; Chen \r et  al., 2018e), deaths related to circulatory, respiratory, diabetic (Li \r et al., 2014b) and infectious diseases (Ingole et al., 2015), as well as \r infant mortality (Son et al., 2017), are increased with high temperature \r (high confidence). Increased hospital admissions (Giang et al., 2014; \r Lin et  al., 2019) and ambulance transport (Onozuka and Hagihara, \r 2015) coincide with increased ambient temperature (high confidence). \r Heatwaves are particularly detrimental to all-cause and cause-specific \r mortality (Chen et al., 2015a; Lee et al., 2016; Guo et al., 2017b; Yin et al., \r 2018). Both rural and urban populations are vulnerable to heat-related \r mortality (Ma et  al., 2015; Chen et  al., 2016a; Wang et  al., 2018a). \r Individuals with lower degrees of education and socioeconomic status, \r [...]"


id: 39ee8390ab5af9276f49ae9f868fba2b
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"[...] older individuals and individuals living in communities with less green \r space are more susceptible to heat-related mortality (high confidence) \r (Yang et al., 2012a; Huang et al., 2015b; Seposo et al., 2015; Son et al., \r 2016; Kim and Kim, 2017). These heat effects have been attenuating \r over recent decades in East Asian countries, although the driving force "


id: cb3e9f81ab97214bb1a5b4f4c3c9bb8d
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"malaria, diarrhoea and heat stress will be approximately 250,000 \r deaths per year in 2030-2050 under the medium-to-high emissions \r scenario, assuming no adaptation (World Health Organization, 2014). \r The impacts are expected to be greatest in South, East and Southeast \r Asia. Another projection showed that the change in heat-related deaths \r is largest in Southeast Asia, which was a 12.7% increase at the end of \r the century under a high-emissions scenario (Gasparrini et al., 2017). As \r the proportion of older individuals in the population rises, the number of \r years lost due to disability increases more steeply (Chung et al., 2017b). In \r the 2080s, the number of annual temperature-related deaths is estimated \r to reach twice that in the 1980s in China (Li et al., 2018c). Over a 20-year \r period in the mid-21st century (2041-2060), the incidence of excess heat\u0002related mortality in 51 cities in China is estimated to reach 37,800 (95% \r [...]"


id: 171e4d064a9e79d81d0253f2b3d391a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"The global estimates for increases in malaria and dengue deaths \r (annual estimates) are approximately 32,700 and 280 additional \r deaths, respectively, in 2050 under the medium-to-high emissions \r scenario (World Health Organization, 2014). Among these additional \r deaths, 9,300 and 200 deaths, respectively, are projected to occur in \r South Asia. The population at risk of malaria infection is estimated to \r increase by 134 million by 2030 in South Asia under the medium-to\u0002high emissions scenario, considering socioeconomic development. If \r no actions are taken, malaria incidence in northern China is projected \r to increase by 69-182% by 2050 (Song et al., 2016). Another study \r suggested a decrease in climate suitability for malaria in northern and \r eastern India, southern Myanmar, southern Thailand, the Malaysia \r border region, Cambodia, eastern Borneo and Indonesia by 2050 \r (Khormi and Kumar, 2016). By contrast, climate suitability for malaria is \r [...]"


id: de45c210ccd4a4ec79c235dcb848b906
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"[...] projected to increase in the southern and southeast mainland of China \r and Taiwan, Province of China (Khormi and Kumar, 2016)."


id: 70487868d16b53570ef0d2b5fb112270
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"The health co-benefits of GHG mitigation measures in energy \r generation have been reported to reduce disease burden. In China, \r the implementation of GHG policies would reduce the air-pollution\u0002associated disease burden by 44% in 2020 under the Integrate Carbon \r Reduction scenario compared with the business-as-usual scenario \r (Liu et al., 2017b). Transition to a half-decarbonised power supply for \r the residential and transport sectors would prevent 55,000-69,000 \r deaths in 2030 compared with the business-as-usual scenario (Peng \r et al., 2018). A shift in travel modes from private motor vehicles to the \r use of mass rapid-transit lines is estimated to reduce CO2-equivalent \r emissions by 6% in greater Kuala Lumpur and bring important health \r co-benefits to the population (Kwan et  al., 2017). The 25 measures \r developed for reducing air pollution levels in Asia and the Asia-\r Pacific in general would reduce CO2 emissions in 2030 by almost \r [...]"


id: 5a136a490c73d7f7169b7bba916235ca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] 20% relative to baseline projections and decrease warming by 0.3degC \r by 2050, which could eventually reduce heat-related excess deaths \r in the region (UNEP, 2019). The 25 measures include conventional "


id: 70fe159aefa3e1b7860c6a4f1b3a80ca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"climate change (Ali and Erenstein, 2017) and that farmers who are \r younger, better educated, belong to joint families and possess more \r landholdings are likely to adapt sooner and better. Correspondingly, \r this category achieved higher levels of income and food security. \r The climate-development nexus suggests that CCA practices at the \r farm level can have significant development outcomes, besides \r reducing risk posed by changing weather patterns. Central to the \r CCA process is the growing recognition of the role that institutions \r play in both the hierarchical setting and across different scales to \r influence implementation of CCA in diverse areas of governance \r across social and political domains. Cuevas (2018) highlights the \r usefulness of mainstreaming CCA into local land-use planning in \r Albay, the Philippines, by involving networks of interacting institutions \r and institutional arrangements for overcoming obstacles that are \r [...]"


id: 81e6365c8622db80dd208c9f30c51a23
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"cost-effective and innovative infrastructure projects. In the absence \r of major investments in resilience, climate change may force up to \r 77  million people into a poverty trap by 2030 (World Bank, 2016). \r As seen in the case of Japan, most of the countries in Asia face the \r challenge of contractual allocation of risks associated with natural \r hazards and climate change between the public and private sectors \r and its long-term management in the face of uncertainty. Risk sharing, \r therefore, could be addressed by clear definition and allocation (World \r Bank, 2017). Given that in Asia, especially Singapore, China, Japan \r and Republic of Korea, where the water sector is a target of industrial \r and technology policy, PPPs could prove to be mutually beneficial. As \r a middle ground, key findings of a study on Indonesia (Yoseph-Paulus \r and Hindmarsh, 2016) underline the importance of building, sustaining \r and augmenting local capacity by addressing inadequacies with regard \r [...]"


id: 673efbcba130fa736bce29c9fabc52db
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content:
"[...] to resource endowment and capacity building, public awareness about \r climate change, government-community partnerships, vulnerability \r assessment and providing inclusive decision-making spaces to \r Indigenous knowledge systems and communities."


id: 819ada94abbb7acc7fa79cd1ee16f782
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"As noted by AR5 (IPCC, 2014a), research on issues related to both \r climate-change impacts on livestock production-demand for which is \r expected to double by 2050 in a world of 10 billion people-and policy \r choices with regard to adaptation, especially at the local scale, is still \r limited but progressing (Rojas-Downing et al., 2017). The promise of \r diversification of livestock animals (within species), crop diversification \r and transition to mixed crop-livestock systems needs to be further \r explored. A study of livestock farmers in Pakistan showed that risk\u0002coping mechanisms, such as purchasing livestock insurance and \r increasing land areas for fodder, are far more rewarding policy options \r in comparison with selling livestock and migrating to another place. \r Relatedly, the association of migration with adaptation measures is \r context specific and involves a number of factors pertaining to the \r socioeconomic circumstances of vulnerable agricultural groups in \r [...]"


id: d4354534faa576ac832add6548187aae
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] countries like India and Bangladesh (Ojha et al., 2014). In the 2010 \r United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change's Cancun \r Adaptation Framework, migration was recognised as a form of \r adaptation that should be included in a country's long-term adaptation \r planning where appropriate (Paragraph 14 f)."


id: 487d6169a5e3ae6e67bb068b76f34855
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"A study on farmers' awareness of, and adaptation to, climate change in \r the dry zones of Myanmar, critically dependent on agriculture, indicates \r how those at the front line of the adverse effects of climate change \r are steadily abandoning the common sesame/groundnut cropping \r pattern, and trying to adapt to risks and uncertainties with the aid \r of conventional agricultural practices such as rainwater collection, \r water-harvesting techniques and even traditional weather forecasting \r techniques for weather prediction. Similarly, a case study of the Gandak \r basin in Nepal showed that incorporation of local knowledge into \r agricultural practices and weather warning systems works best when \r coupled with multiple sources of information based on a method of \r triangulation. This also intersects with gender outcomes, where women \r frequently receive information from the men of their households rather \r than directly from state institutional sources (Acharya and Prakash, \r [...]"


id: 6bed3d5933578d4d4062fb4a31f256c8
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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"[...] 2019). Climate-change adaptive governance is facilitated by improved \r cross-scalar and cross-sectoral cooperation, exchange of information \r and experiences, and best practices (Smith et al., 2014; Watts et al., \r 2015; Gamble et al., 2016; Gilfillan et al., 2017)."


id: 2f31112e23f8527d151e290810e7c94d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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content:
"Furthermore, agricultural climate-adaptation policy targeting livestock \r farmers in rural areas is very likely to benefit from better education and \r awareness as well as increased access to extension services among \r livestock farmers on climate risk-coping choices and strategies (Rahut \r and Ali, 2018). In Myanmar, the lack of adequate agricultural extension \r strategies has had a negative impact on adaptation outcomes in what \r is labelled the 'central dry zone'. Farmers' perceptions of climate change \r contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the context where \r they identify deforestation and related activities as the main culprits. \r Their adaptive methods include agricultural land preparation and crop \r rotation practices in addition to rainwater-harvesting techniques (Swe \r et al., 2015). A study of vulnerable areas in Bangladesh (Alam et al., 2017) \r has shown that with policy support, livestock rearing can prove to be a \r [...]"


id: 4acd7aeaba6c5c1aba72db407fdfee5
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content:
"[...] viable substitute for crop production in areas prone to riverbank erosion. \r Carefully developed partnerships between government organisations \r and NGOs can come to the rescue of poor farmers and their precarious \r households by providing information about best practices for local \r adaptation strategies, including credit options with various institutions \r and creating an enabling environment for the promotion of agro-based \r industries. A study in community forestry in the Indian Himalayan region \r (Gupta and Koontz, 2019) has shown how the synergies and successful "


id: b651d173df7d302a8463a7d69f8f331b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29293
content:
"One of the major knowledge gaps in the domain of climate adaptation \r governance relates to implementation by various stakeholders at \r multiple scales, and sharing of information and experiences in this \r regard. There is a need to assuage the perceptions of distrust in global \r information, through governance methods that engage multiple \r stakeholders in open and lucid channels of communication (Stott \r and Huq, 2014). This is observable in the structure of the New Urban \r Agenda which formed part of the SDGs pertaining to cities and has \r been shaped by a bottom-up process marked by diverse participation \r including communities, experts and activists, rather than the top\u0002down variant that is observable in the Millenium Development Goals \r (Barnett and Parnell, 2016). This approach could also be evidenced \r in the Paris Agreement, which placed the onus of a successful global \r governance regime on the development of efficient systems of regional \r [...]"


id: cc33649668be4ea8dc27d1866fde4b91
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33250
content:
"[...] governance. However, these emerging systems of regional governance \r could equally pose a challenge to the global governance in a way that \r can be witnessed through the development of financial groups such \r as the BRICS (associated economies of Brazil, Russia, India, China and \r South Africa) and Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, which resulted \r from a perception of inadequate institutional transformation at the \r global level. From another perspective, a comprehensive approach \r would require simultaneous implementation of both bottom-up and \r top-down models of governance, retaining flexibility of scale."


id: 575035d129a9fcdbd4bb7600253d88f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 12617
content:
"In an example from Nepal, Clement (2018) showed that deliberative \r governance mechanisms can create the space for alternative framings \r of climate change to take a hold in ways that are cognisant of both the \r local and global contexts; this moves beyond a dependence on techno\u0002managerialism in the construction of solutions, where local governance \r solutions can support institutional changes. The possibilities more \r incorporating deliberative methods into wider governance architecture \r are also expanded through an acknowledgment of the role of social \r learning; this is observable in the multi-stakeholder involvement that \r this approach fosters in regions of South Asia such as the Brahmaputra \r River basin (Varma and Hazarika, 2018). Additionally, recent studies \r have reconfirmed the importance of linking Indigenous knowledge \r with the scientific knowledge of climate change in diverse regions \r of the globe, including Asia and Africa (Hiwasaki et al., 2014; Etchart, \r [...]"


id: 4cef2c29474b9bb1483ccb874b37109a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 10805
content:
"[...] 2017; Taremwa et al., 2017; Vadigi, 2017; Apraku et al., 2018; Inaotombi \r and Mahanta, 2018; Makondo and Thomas, 2018) for building farmers' \r resilience, enhancing CCA, ensuring cross-cultural communication, \r promoting local skills, drawing upon Indigenous Peoples' intuitive \r thinking processes and geographic knowledge of remote areas."


id: 449b642ebabfda56dda87014d6b98c49
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 9303
content:
"For nearly five decades, integrated coastal management (ICM), \r advocated by several international organisations (e.g., IMO, UNEP, \r WHO, FAO) and adopted by over 100 countries, has been acknowledged \r as a holistic coastal governance approach aimed at achieving coastal \r sustainability and reducing the vulnerability of coastal communities \r in the face of multiple environmental impacts (high confidence). In \r view of threats posed to coastal ecological integrity by climate\u0002change-induced tropical storm activity, accelerated SLR and littoral \r erosion and social-ecological impacts on the livelihood security of \r vulnerable coastal communities, the pressing need for approaches that \r innovatively combine coastal zone management and CCA measures \r is widely acknowledged (Rosendo et al., 2018) yet under researched. \r A study focusing on the three coastal cities of Xiamen, Quanzhou and \r Dongying, in China, a country with nearly 12% of its national coastline \r [...]"


id: efa3a8d131e540a764e0d1bc8876219c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 39541
content:
"The vision of BDP is revealed by the foregoing statement from Sheikh Hasina, the prime minister of Bangladesh. The government approved \r BDP 2100 in 2018. Achievement of a safe, climate-resilient and prosperous delta is the aspiration of the delta plan. Ensuring water and \r food security with economic growth, environmental sustainability, climate resilience, vulnerability reduction to natural hazards and \r minimising different challenges of the delta through robust, adaptive and integrated strategies, and equitable water governance, are the \r mission of this mega plan. Under this mission, three higher-level goals and six specific goals have been determined. Three higher-level \r goals include elimination of extreme poverty by 2030, achievement of upper middle-income status by 2030 and becoming a prosperous \r country beyond 2041. Six specific goals of BDP 2100 are fully linked with SDG Goals 2, 6, 13 and 14 and partially linked with Goals 1, \r [...]"


id: 563f8c795c8ddadae66159d0b6f1fe89
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12441
content:
"[...] 5, 8, 9, 11 and 15. These specific goals comprise a wide range of issues, including land and water resources, climate change, disaster, \r wetlands and ecosystems, river systems and estuaries. The vision, mission and goals of BDP 2100 reveal that this mega plan is a holistic \r and integrated approach considering diversified themes and sectors for the whole country. The implementation of the BDP 2100 requires \r total spending of an amount of about 2.5% of the GDP per annum. A series of strategies have been formulated for better implementation \r of the mega plan."


id: f4007c7b4b9de8d2d34765cedc90403e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40300
content:
"Steadily the regional scale of climate adaptive governance is acquiring \r salience in diverse sub-regions of Asia, and more policy-oriented \r empirical research is needed on how various regional forums, agencies \r and multilateral organisations could further contribute by way of in\u0002house expertise and other resources, including financial. A study of \r climate adaptation in the health sector in Southeast Asia (Gilfillan, \r 2018) highlights the growing role of the Asian Development Bank \r (ADB) and the Asia-Pacific Regional Forum on Health and Environment, \r and shows that their mandates and goals could mutually benefit from \r the institutionalisation of coordination mechanism. An example from \r the Maldives shows that the 2014 Tsunami, climate change and the \r risk of extreme weather events have led to the legitimisation of state\u0002led population resettlement programmes. In China, this has occurred \r through the renaming of previously existing resettlement initiatives as \r [...]"


id: cb37965a63b1b195dc9a6ca04a09f2cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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vector_id: 33088
content:
"[...] climate adaptation initiatives; however, the efficacy of resettlement as \r a CCA measure requires further scrutiny (Arnall, 2019). In India, the \r National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change has been instituted in \r order to enable states to implement adaptation programmes; however, \r this does not address the question of mainstreaming CCA into designs \r for development (Prasad and Sud, 2019). This is closely related to the \r development of National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) \r where the mainstreaming of adaptation within countries has been \r an important concern. Insights from developing countries indicate "


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"A distinguishing feature of the case of Japanese apple growers is the co\u0002existence of both top-down and bottom-up adaptation practices. The \r former pertains to farmers who rely on the support of the cooperative \r for agricultural support and follow institutional mechanisms. The \r latter pertains to non-co-op farmers who have been responsible for \r innovative practices of cultivation such as the shift to peaches and \r the sale in the market of apples without leaf-picking. Importantly, \r the non-co-op group also have access to sales channels that may \r not be accessible to the former owing to their direct interactions \r with customers, among other factors (Fujisawa and Kobayashi, 2011; \r Fujisawa et  al., 2015). The significance of this combination of top\u0002down and bottom-up approaches to agricultural adaptation practices \r may be further sharpened by formulating approaches for Asia and \r the Pacific region in ways that contribute to the fortification of food \r [...]"


id: 680267a8df8a81676626b6518eae5b96
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15567
content:
"[...] security objectives and the idea of co-benefits. This may be carried \r out by enhancing the ability of farmers to better manage cultivation \r practices in the context of climatic variability (FAO, 2018d)."


id: 7e37a156c8edf5a19b2ca8219b23083
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19377
content:
"climatic information and its uptake and implementation through \r institutional policy arrangements remain areas of concern (Cuevas, \r 2018). Institutional incentives to agricultural production, for instance, \r are frequently compounded by the negative impacts they have on \r existing bases of natural resources. The disconnected operations of local \r governmental agencies coupled with inadequacies of cross-sectoral \r coordination further highlights the prevalent food-water-energy nexus \r (Rasul, 2016). One possible way of addressing these intersecting sources' \r complexity is by locating emerging CCA measures in educational \r development. The introduction of CCA thinking into land-use planning in \r the Philippines is an example of the successful role of enhancing public \r education and awareness through the dissemination of information \r by institutional channels. The linkages between the strength of local \r leadership and the inclusion of CCA in localised planning activities are \r [...]"


id: 72419e35455288da109bcc4fb5e0d0cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17343
content:
"As shown in the case of Pakistan, level of education shares a positive \r relationship with the implementation of adaptation measures (Ali and \r Erenstein, 2017). However, a closer examination of the educational \r imperatives that drive CCA in ways that improve the representational \r architecture of adaptation actions through a focus on gender is needed. \r Mainstreaming of gender into CCA would involve addressing a host \r of barriers to education and involvement that are often rooted in the \r differential structures of households, social norms and roles, and the \r domestic division of labour (Rao et al., 2019). A study from the Indian \r state of Bihar shows that gender plays a major role in determining \r intra-household decision making and also inhibits the ability of female\u0002headed households to establish access to agricultural extension \r services (Mehar et al., 2016). Even within wider female farmer-operated \r federations, such as the Bangladesh Kishani Sabha (BKS), the barriers \r [...]"


id: e28bdc9c9c9e55d761b30bd1a410c08e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37162
content:
"[...] to participation stem from social factors that include the limitation of \r female mobility through the gendered division of labour and a lack of \r recognition of female agency (Routledge, 2015). Gendered inequalities \r in educational attainment and outcomes viewed through the lens of \r social vulnerability thus intersect with environmental vulnerabilities in \r ways that affect the ability of women to participate in CCA, owing \r also to a lack of access to health and sanitation facilities. These factors \r have a direct impact on the ability of adaptation to be effective in \r the global South, and are especially important in the context of the \r commitments of the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms \r of Discrimination Against Women countries to the objective of gender \r equality (Roy, 2018)."


id: 13d3a02eae739f11f42f120321b6d239
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 703
content:
"A community-based DRR system provides risk investigation, training \r and information analysis (Liu et  al., 2016b). Sharing information \r enhances establishment of such a system and contributes to disaster \r prevention (Nakamura et  al., 2017). One example is an online \r mapping tool, which has been developed by volunteers (Sakurai and \r Thapa, 2017). Social media enables the population to access real\u0002time information on a disaster (Ghosh et al., 2018), raises situation \r awareness (Yin et  al., 2012) and empowers communities towards \r appropriate emergency actions (Leong et  al., 2015). Among the \r various forms of social media, Twitter is widely used as a social sensor \r to detect what is happening in a disaster event (Sakaki et al., 2013). \r Accuracy of information on Twitter has been proved in collecting local \r details about floods (Shi et al., 2019b); however, it has been noticed \r that Twitter generates rumours as well (Ogasahara et  al., 2019). \r [...]"


id: 52a30afa7a628ac2c6207ffbf11c018d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11819
content:
"[...] Artificial intelligence is expected to reduce human error when they \r operate a decision-making system (Lin et al., 2018). Since technologies \r supporting DRR completely depend on electricity, the loss of power \r supply and communication constrains the recovery work in disaster\u0002affected areas (Sakurai et al., 2014)."


id: 89325b5c32722e4ff5cb680b68faf93b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21305
content:
"use efficiency as well as greatly increased soil organic carbon content \r with reduced GHG emissions. It results in a win-win situation in terms \r of enhancing food security and mitigating climate warming (Deng et al., \r 2017). However, usability and application of this technology are still \r not common, especially in data-scarce regions. Integrated numerical \r simulations are efficient tools for estimating the current status and \r predicting the risk and efficiency of the adaptive capabilities of different \r countermeasures for sustainable natural resource management \r such as with water (Kumar, 2019). Similarly, the agent-based model \r is commonly used to estimate risk of food-borne diseases due to \r climate change, using tunable parameters such as hygiene level, the \r microorganism's growth rate and the number of consumers, and hence \r it has the potential to be a useful tool for optimising decision making \r and urban planning strategies related to health and climate change \r [...]"


id: bbb3ae9befb109abe92f827a1d9d2afb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30252
content:
"[...] (Gay Garcia et al., 2017). The integrated assessment model under the \r shared-socioeconomic pathway (SSP) framework is effectively used to \r estimate future energy development and possible mitigation strategies \r to reduce GHG emissions related to the energy sector (Bauer et al., 2017). \r Sound understanding of different drivers, pressures and stress factors, \r such as abnormal temperature, rainfall, insect pests or pathogens and \r their interaction pattern with the genetic makeup of crops, is the key \r to produce high-yielding varieties of wheat with better nutritional \r quality and resistance to major diseases (Goel et al., 2017). Another \r critical point to address this water security is inclusive, polycentric and \r adaptive governance. Polycentric governance is a means by which \r water management plans and policies should be framed and agreed by \r all relevant stakeholders. For adaptive governance, more emphasis will \r [...]"


id: 2a80b3e4b020e1cf43548fe9dcc35011
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4707
content:
"[...] be on finding the best pathways to make robust water management \r plans amid rapid global changes. The benefit of such plans should \r reach the end users in terms of providing clean water, protection from \r hydrological hazards and maintaining the health of the ecosystem. In \r addition, there is urgent need for co-management, which includes the \r cycle of co-design, co-implementation and co-delivery throughout the \r whole water cycle. The best suitable example is using the circulating \r and ecological sphere (CES) approach. The CES is a concept that \r complements and supports regional resources by building broader \r networks, which are composed of natural connections (connections \r among forests; city and countryside; groundwater, rivers and the sea) \r and economic connections (human resources, funds and others), thus \r complementing each other and generating synergy (Mavrodieva and \r Shaw, 2020). Another suitable example for managing water resources is \r [...]"


id: b5ef6683ea19f0f10369a0529a39b010
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29231
content:
"[...] the participatory watershed land-use management (PWLM) approach. \r The PWLM is another very innovative and successful approach for more \r robust water resource management as explained by Kumar et al. (2020). \r It helps to make land-use and CCA policies more effective at the local \r scale. This is an integrative method using both participating tactics and \r computer-simulation modelling for water resource management at the \r regional scale.\r 10.5.2.2.4 Forests and biodiversity"


id: e387d910b554519f8f14b32014b93e79
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37323
content:
"conducting climate risk assessments (Perera and Emmanuel, 2018; \r Bechtel et al., 2019) and/or simulations of future land-use or climate \r changes in urban areas (Bateman et al., 2016; Iizuka et al., 2017; Liu \r et al., 2017c)-AI technologies (e.g., machine-learning algorithms) are \r now being widely adopted (Johnson and Iizuka, 2016; Joshi et  al., \r 2016; Mao et  al., 2017). Thanks to advances in cloud-computing \r technology, which allows for online processing of massive volumes \r of remote sensing data, high-resolution (~30 m) global urban-area \r maps from the late 1990s to 2018 are now available from several \r different sources (Gong et  al., 2020). Using these historical maps, \r researchers have been able to generate maps of future urban land-use \r changes at the global level to 2100 (Chen et al., 2020a), which can \r help to elucidate the potential impacts of this future urban expansion \r and identify adaptation needs. Technology also plays a major role in \r [...]"


id: 13a124eb518066fb58a69f8e9e6553d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 670
content:
"[...] urban planning and design in the context of adaptation. To mitigate \r rising urban temperatures and reduce the impacts of climate-related \r hazards, many new 'grey' infrastructure and 'green' infrastructure \r technologies are being adopted in urban areas in Asia, for example, \r cool (i.e., high solar reflectance) rooftops and pavements as well as \r green (i.e., vegetated) rooftops to mitigate high temperatures; and \r porous pavements to mitigate flooding (Akbari and Kolokotsa, 2016)."


id: 80a4228f9850246e4c4eed532f803352
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19764
content:
"Having scientific knowledge relevant at the local scale through \r placed knowledge is important to identify climate-change risk and \r vulnerability. Moreover, once integrated with socioeconomic attributes, \r it can be useful for natural resource management, agriculture and so \r forth (Leith and Vanclay, 2017). Role of big data and data mining is \r undeniably very huge to get reliable climatic information and hence \r for designing appropriate adaptation measures for natural resource \r measurement. For example, use of big data in terms of EWS and real\u0002time observation data provides more accurate information on hydro\u0002meteorological extreme weather conditions or hazards like drought and \r flood, and will help farmers and local governments to improve their \r perception and hence preparedness for better adaptation (Hou et al., \r 2017; Ong and G.L.B.L., 2017). Using big data, different adaptation \r measures, such as new cultivar breeding, cropping-region adjustment, \r [...]"


id: 5113b16b406df3cfc60507923300f264
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11542
content:
"[...] irrigation-pattern change, crop rotation and cropping-practice \r optimisation, are being designed in the agriculture sector, and these \r practices have greatly increased crop yield, leading to higher resource\u0002"


id: f0a0fcf91e3f7c137294c9926a5f85c1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39710
content:
"adopting infrastructure technologies requires investment, and due to \r the inherent uncertainties of climate projections, the future payoffs of \r these investments are also somewhat uncertain (Ginbo et al., 2020). In \r the water and infrastructure sectors, for example, various options exist \r for conducting cost-benefit analysis considering future uncertainty \r (i.e., so-called robust approaches, which are able to identify adaptation \r projects and infrastructure that can achieve their intended purpose(s) \r across a wide range of climate scenarios) (Dittrich et al., 2016). Despite \r substantial investment and progress in research, development and \r capacity building in the recent past, the majority of the developing \r countries in Asia are struggling to manage both water resources and the \r agriculture sector. Considering the frequent extreme weather conditions, \r progress in management tasks has become even more mammoth and, \r [...]"


id: 458c9c9a346bbb9dcf09be1af910fd62
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9456
content:
"[...] hence, we need a holistic solution, which is currently missing in field \r implementation. This solution should be based on advanced science and \r technology in association with other attributes like social, economic and \r political dynamics, which play a pivotal role in sustainable management \r of water resources and agriculture, as a way forward."


id: 689bc26404a69161ad9d8fed6d87b16e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15672
content:
"(MODIS) series for widespread monitoring of forests and ecological \r resources. These series have provided reliable information on forests \r and ecosystem services at the country level, in difficult terrains, such as \r the mountains, cross-boundaries and otherwise inaccessible areas. For \r instance, Yin et al. (2017) estimated cross-boundary forest resources in \r Central Asia, a region which traditionally suffered from lack of reliable \r forest data, using remote sensing techniques. In a separate study, \r Reddy et al. (2020) used long-term MODIS forest fire data from 2003 \r to 2017 to characterise fire frequency, density and hotspots in South \r Asia. Archives of scientific data, backed by state-of-the art modelling \r techniques, advanced-computing methods and innovations in big-data \r analysis, particularly helped the provisioning of scientific research. \r A number of studies simulated forest futures from the local to the \r [...]"


id: 483a98cf78363f8e4130b637e2bdf007
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9918
content:
"[...] continent scale under different socioeconomic and climate scenarios. \r For instance, at the local scale, Dasgupta et al. (2018) projected the \r future extent of mangroves in the Sundarban Delta under four local \r scenarios, while Estoque et al. (2019) modelled and developed spatial \r maps of regional forest futures in Southeast Asia using the five SSP \r scenarios. Science and technology also helped the monitoring of \r species diversity and abundance, pivotal for sustaining an ecosystem \r and ecosystem-based adaptation. Digital camera traps and radio\u0002collaring methods have largely replaced old film cameras and labour\u0002intensive methods of photo screening to count target species (Pimm \r et al., 2015). This enhanced scientific capacities to monitor biodiversity \r and facilitate better conservation in difficult terrains, control poachers \r and maintain steady ecological balance. Umapathy et al. (2016), for \r example, used VHF radio collars and satellite-based tracking tools to \r [...]"


id: a7a51cd1c6a6ebd318c0a189d97a15d3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26705
content:
"[...] monitor the movement of Bengal tigers over hostile island terrain. \r Photo recognition and other non-invasive techniques for individual \r identification have been rising in Asia. For example, a study by Gray et al. \r (2014) used faecal-DNA samples to estimate the population density \r of the Asian elephant in Cambodia. Furthermore, the advancement of \r citizen science programmes has greatly facilitated better monitoring of \r forest resources, including invasive floral and faunal species (Chandler \r et al., 2017; Johnson et al., 2020). In Asia, citizen science has been used \r effectively in India (Chandler et al., 2017), and also in Malaysia for the \r monitoring urban bird abundance (Puan et al., 2019)."


id: 7ddaeabccb53aaed86bedf07e4a4d8c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19318
content:
"Understanding the motivations and processes underpinning decisions \r to adapt or not is key to enabling adaptation (see Section 17.2.2.1; \r Clayton et  al., 2015; de Coninck et  al., 2018; Taylor, 2019; van \r Valkengoed and Steg, 2019a; van Valkengoed and Steg, 2019b), \r because how and why certain people adapt is shaped by sociocultural \r factors, ways of making sense of risks and uncertainty, and personal \r motivations to undertake action (Nguyen et al., 2016; Mortreux and \r Barnett, 2017; Singh et al., 2018b; van Valkengoed and Steg, 2019b). \r The IPCC's Assessment Report 5 was critiqued for silences on how \r perceptions shape climate action and the behavioural drivers of \r adaptation responses (Lorenzoni and Whitmarsh, 2014). Addressing \r this gap and assessing the growing literature from social sciences, \r notably psychology, behavioural economics and risk perception \r studies, the IPCC Special Report on 1.5degC (de Coninck et  al., 2018) \r [...]"


id: f96a355bacc2816306ef50de9a5aa0cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41242
content:
"[...] comprehensively assessed behavioural dimensions of CCA for the \r first time; however, compared with studies on mitigation behaviour, \r the literature on what motivates adaptation remains incomplete \r (Lorenzoni and Whitmarsh, 2014; Clayton et al., 2015)."


id: 536a7ba55aee88c841e14fed9479188e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11949
content:
"With rapid advances of technologies, the use of appropriate technologies \r generates some degree of management problems. To resolve such \r problems, the enhancement of information science is essential to \r understand design, implementation and adoption of digital tools under \r crisis (Xie et  al., 2020). For example, social media research reveals a \r way of controlling malicious information (Tanaka et al., 2014), and its \r characteristics under COVID-19-showing a plain text message-can be \r more powerful in the context of citizen engagement than media-rich \r communications (Chen et  al., 2020b). Information behaviour needs \r more investigation to understand how people survive and connect in \r the era of information overload (Pan et al., 2020). Moreover, a new set of \r data (e.g., travel history record, personal health data, etc.) becomes an \r important base of DRR (Xie et al., 2020). Analysis of these personal data \r [...]"


id: 84bca2d589330933c867d52af78b0b9d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20498
content:
"[...] requires careful consideration, as it generates ethical issues (Sakurai \r and Chughtai, 2020). Indicators or measurements of technology\u0002enabled crisis response needs to be developed for further risk reduction \r (Akbari and Kolokotsa, 2016; Wong et  al., 2020). On the other hand, "


id: 56187b07ea8b07bf636192c622217f04
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12419
content:
"Belief in climate variability and change significantly shapes adaptation \r decision making (Le Dang et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2016; Khanal et al., \r 2018; Liu et al., 2018a) with those believing in climate change and \r associated impacts tending to engage in adaptation. Crucially, those \r who do not believe in climate change can be influenced by social norms \r (Arunrat et  al., 2017) thereby incentivising adaptation behaviour. \r While risk perception is a critical step in adaptation decision making, \r higher risk perception does not necessarily signal better capacity to \r cope: in Taiwan, Province of China, Sun and Han (2018) highlight \r how perceptions of climate risk as a global problem tends reduce its \r urgency as an individual issue. Providing information on climate risks, \r impacts and possible adaptation options enables adaptation behaviour \r (Piya et al., 2013; Zheng and Dallimer, 2016; Rauf et al., 2017), but \r [...]"


id: 31a516dc0bbe051dbb3d369773036cfa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5980
content:
"[...] information alone is not sufficient to motivate adaptive behaviour. \r Specifically, awareness building on concrete measures and outcomes, \r such as the amount of water saved or number of deaths averted, rather \r than abstract notions of climate change, motivate adaptation (Deng \r et al., 2017; Rauf et al., 2017)."


id: d2d23eb0f5d0b9888be3ceb83fd45a45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34441
content:
"In disaster risk management, risk appraisal (Samaddar et al., 2014; Rauf \r et al., 2017; Hung et al., 2018), previous experience and losses (Said \r et al., 2015; Hung et al., 2018; Walch, 2018)12, perceived probabilities \r and consequences (Reynaud et al., 2013), perceived self-efficacy (Ung \r et al., 2015; Hung et al., 2018) and awareness (Hung et al., 2018; Wu \r et al., 2018a; Alvi and Khayyam, 2020) shape preparedness. Individual \r risk management is nested within public policies, such as those on \r flood management, which shape individual flood risk perception \r and protective behaviours (Reynaud et al., 2013) as well as personal \r factors such as religious beliefs (Alshehri et al., 2013). For example, \r communities often perceive disasters as 'acts of God' (Birkmann \r et  al., 2019) or punishment for wrongdoings (Alshehri et  al., 2013; \r Iqbal et al., 2018), which might constrain adaptive action. However, \r religious faith can also motivate people to prepare for extreme events, \r [...]"


id: 805f4e4dad97f98b4eae22d3c600b66d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19714
content:
"[...] as Alshehri et al. (2013) showed in Saudi Arabia demonstrating how \r 'Islam urges that it is most important to prepare the people to escape \r from disaster' (p.1825)."


id: c2f9a4392acad7432c08e9d401b1639
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31575
content:
"Estimates of adaptation costs and financial needs have evolved \r significantly since the previous IPCC assessments. These developments \r are based on improvements in the understanding of how the hazard \r interacts with the physical and socioeconomic elements, and how \r to capture these interactions in systematic modelling frameworks. \r The developments are also clearly reported especially in the area of \r addressing the underestimates in adaptation costs that the previous \r studies suffered from as the previous studies tended to rely on data \r from wealthy economies (Hochrainer-Stigler et  al., 2014; Carleton \r et  al., 2020). The adaptation cost estimates have also improved \r since the previous IPCC reports due to constant improvements in \r capturing the loss and damages of disaster events (Hochrainer-Stigler \r et al., 2014). The reliance of earlier studies on correlations to derive \r adaptation costs was addressed to some extent by addressing the \r [...]"


id: 2486068a902b41dbdcb52196b3932f83
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3617
content:
"[...] endogeneity of disaster measures (Kousky, 2014), especially by relying \r upon the physical measures of disasters such as wind speed, although \r more work is needed in this area."


id: c356b8fd84590c7a0982ca3680702a4b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31640
content:
"East Asia: Tezuka et al. (2014); Elliott et al. (2015); Lei et al. (2015); Li et al. (2015a); Li et al. (2015b); Kim et al. (2016a); Lee and Kim (2016); Yu (2016); Zhao et al. (2016b); \r Abadie et al. (2017); Chen et al. (2017a); Chen et al. (2017b); Chung et al. (2017b); Lee et al. (2017); Feng et al. (2018a); Lee et al. (2018b); Lee et al. (2018c); Udo and Takeda \r (2018); Yu et al. (2018a); Yu et al. (2018c); Lee et al. (2019); Liu et al. (2019c); Liu et al. (2019d); Wang et al. (2019b); Wu et al. (2019d); Kim and Lee (2020); Liu (2020); Liu and \r Chen (2020); Yu et al. (2020). Southeast Asia: Giuliani et al. (2016); Dau et al. (2017); Vu and Ranzi (2017); Mehvar et al. (2018). South Asia: Wijetunge (2014); Ahmed et al. \r (2016b); Jevrejeva et al. (2016); Patankar and Patwardhan (2016); Abadie et al. (2017); Aslam et al. (2017); Chiba et al. (2017); Mishra et al. (2017); van der Geest (2017); Chhogyel \r [...]"


id: 570244281f7c26cebdaafca2f9878691
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12558
content:
"[...] and Kumar (2018); Jevrejeva et al. (2018); Leng and Hall (2019); Bahinipati (2020); Bahinipati and Patnaik (2020); Khan et al. (2020); Bhowmik et al. (2021). Central Asia: Groll \r et al. (2015); Babagaliyeva et al. (2017); Otto et al. (2017). North Asia: Gleick (2014); Hjort et al. (2018); Tschakert et al. (2019). West Asia: Mantyka-Pringle et al. (2015); Pal and \r Eltahir (2016); Ghomian and Yousefian (2017); Gohari et al. (2017); Ashrafzadeh et al. (2019b); Bierkens and Wada (2019); Houmsi et al. (2019); Mosavi et al. (2020).\r (a) For definitions on losses and damages and limits, see Cross-Chapter Box LOSS in Chapter 1."


id: 59efa4f398c9bf3054d22c0efd498a95
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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"Adaptation cost estimates can vary between various studies due \r to the differences in methodologies they adopt. Some studies have \r conducted cost assessments using a combination of stakeholder \r consultations and quantitative modelling of climate-change impacts \r and adaptation (Ahmed and Suphachalasai, 2014), while others \r depended solely on the quantitative modelling. Studies also differ in \r the coverage of sectors too: they either have focused on the multiple \r vulnerable sectors (Ahmed and Suphachalasai, 2014) or on a single \r sector (Hossain et al., 2019). Studies have differed in their estimates \r depending on their ability to take into consideration the transition \r costs of sudden adaptation (Hossain et  al., 2019), the nature of \r social cost and/or damage functions employed (Arto et al., 2019), the \r discount rates applied (Markandya and Gonzalez-Eguino, 2019) and \r consideration for the effects of GHG mitigation on adaptation needs \r [...]"


id: 940e14a5314860d82f7e1cdb28a08bda
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"[...] (Duan et al., 2019a). In addition, the assumptions made on the pace \r of adaptation in estimating adaptation costs can make a difference \r in adaptation cost estimates. Adaptation at a slow or normal pace \r could require more adaptation finance, as large amounts of damage \r are not eliminated, than when adaptation is implemented at a faster \r rate (Markandya and Gonzalez-Eguino, 2019). Although there have \r been improvements in adaptation cost estimates, there is a need to \r address the issue of endogeneity (Kousky, 2014; Samuel et al., 2019). \r The vast majority of studies that rely on databases, such as EM-DAT, \r tend to suffer from such endogeneity problems due to their inability \r to control the causality between GDP and damages (Kousky, 2014). \r Costs attributable to non-economic losses and damages are the least \r reported and least quantified in the adaptation costs literature due to \r lack of sufficient, robust and accessible methodologies (Chiba et al., \r [...]"


id: f3153f6ef352cfa9e21eaa8809f94da
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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"[...] 2017; Chiba et al., 2019; Serdeczny, 2019). This is a major limitation \r in assessing adaptation costs and financial needs, and it can lead \r to gross underestimation of adaptation costs. A detailed description \r of issues related to non-economic losses and damages, and its \r importance in strengthening adaptation, is provided in Box 10.6 and \r Table 10.5."


id: 53b2aa05b7855cf19424040ef55a733a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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"As against financing post-disaster relief and reconstruction, which \r has been the norm of disaster management for decades in Asia, the \r evolution of ex-ante risk financing in the form of risk insurance has \r seen a steady rise globally and in Asia. The rise in popularity for risk \r financing in general and insurance in specific stem from the observation \r that governments have recognised the burden of mainly financing the \r post-disaster relief and reconstruction only (Juswanto and Nugroho, \r 2017; UNESCAP, 2018c; ADB, 2019), and from the realisation of cost \r savings and efficiency that risk financing for risk mitigation brings \r overall risk reduction (high agreement, medium evidence). As a result, \r a gamut of risk-financing instruments have been introduced to finance \r DRR and CCA initiatives in Asia among which risk insurance has gained \r prominence for it provides a low-cost and easy option for individuals, \r provides an opportunity for the governments to effectively engage \r [...]"


id: 1b919bae55e93c24dcdfccc18dcfbdff
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"[...] the private sector in implementation and has the ability to inculcate \r risk-aware decision making at various levels (high agreement, medium \r evidence) (Hazell and Hess, 2017; UNESCAP, 2018c)."


id: 625b6eb285189743ef03559e8133589
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"To address the issues associated with traditional indemnity insurance, \r efforts have been made to develop weather-index insurance in Asia \r that bases the payouts on the rainfall or temperature index, rather \r than on the direct damage measurements. The parametric insurance \r products help avoid the delays in insurance payouts as they are based \r on modelled risks, rather than actual damage measurements, and \r control the adverse selection and moral hazard, although basis risks \r could be increased due to improper matching of payouts with the \r index (De Leeuw et al., 2014). Index insurance is known to promote \r public-private partnerships that in turn will enhance the efficiency of \r overall programme delivery (Hazell and Hess, 2017). Several countries, \r including India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia, Myanmar and the \r Philippines, either are currently piloting or expanding the weather-index \r insurance (Surminski and Oramas-Dorta, 2014; Tyagi and Joshi, 2019). \r [...]"


id: 18cc8ae9a4424567570f18c147c6eb6b
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"[...] Index insurance is constantly expanding with an estimated 194 million \r farmers already enrolled in China and India, which is much lower than \r the potential number of farmers it can reach (Hazell et al., 2017)."


id: 51fe8420977a3339cf0461759a4476c3
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"Few significant bottlenecks that are limiting the scaling up of weather\u0002index insurance include lack of reliable weather data, low density \r of weather stations leading to high basis risk, and limited data on \r damage and hazard for parametric modelling of the insurance \r (Shirsath et al., 2019). Several innovations are being tried and tested \r to overcome the limitations associated with the index insurance \r which include developing multiscale index insurance, application of \r remote sensing, smartphone-based near-surface remote sensing and \r building insurance based on vegetation indices instead of relying on \r weather data alone (Hufkens et  al., 2019). Alternative indices, such \r as the NDVI, are being tested for their applications in designing \r index-based insurance in India (IFAD, 2017). Agro-meteorology-based \r statistical analysis and crop growth modelling have been suggested \r to calibrate and rectify faulty weather indices (Shirsath et al., 2019; \r [...]"


id: 29dfec0265463ea13d446f8f831fd553
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"[...] Zhu et al., 2019). Establishing automatic weather stations can improve \r data accuracy while preventing the delay in acquiring the weather \r data (Sinha and Tripathi, 2016). These technological applications have \r already started finding space within insurance programmes designed \r by national governments in Asia. For example, the government of India \r has released new operational guidelines for the application of new \r technologies such as drones, remote sensing and mobile phone apps \r in implementation of the national agricultural insurance, which is the \r third largest insurance in the world (Department of Agriculture, 2019)."


id: c12d0ef2bdc61a3192f580a45a7b88fe
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"Social protection programmes assist individuals and families, especially \r the poor and vulnerable, cope with crises and shocks, finds jobs, improve \r productivity, invest in the health and education of their children, and \r protect the ageing population (Bank, 2018b). Social protection that \r is well designed and implemented in a more long-term approach can \r enhance human capital and productivity, reduce inequalities, build \r resilience and empowerment, and end the inter-generational cycle \r of poverty (medium evidence, medium agreement) as indicated from \r various experiences in the region such as (a) cash transfer programmes \r in Indonesia (Kwon and Kim, 2015), (b) the Benazir Income Support \r Programme in Pakistan (Watson et al., 2017), (c) the Chars Livelihoods \r Programme in Bangladesh (Pritchard et  al., 2015) and (d) Minsei-in \r designated volunteer social workers in Japan (Boeckmann, 2016). A \r key consideration in strengthening resilience through SP programmes \r [...]"


id: 6b0010bf77b24512e4f2175a46fe80af
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"[...] is to design with climate and disaster risk considerations in mind \r and implement in close synergy with existing programmes, such as \r on sustainable livelihoods, EWS and financial inclusion (Coirolo et al., \r 2013; Bank, 2018a)."


id: 8b99cfc4da95ced64bceabe896b85bd
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"policies (Canonge, 2016). In order to enhance SP programmes, one of \r the cross-cutting issues is to discuss the linkages between gender roles \r and responsibilities, food security, agricultural productivity and the \r mediating role that SP programmes can have (Jones et al., 2017). Social \r protection has a potentially important role to play in contributing to \r food security and agricultural productivity in a gender-responsive way \r (Holmes and Jones, 2013). As such, experience from Challenging the \r Frontiers of Poverty Reduction: Targeting the Ultra Poor programme \r in Bangladesh has promoted social innovation by creating social and \r economic values, fostering microenterprises, increasing food security \r and fostering inclusive growth, all while empowering ultra-poor \r women (Emran et al., 2014; Mahmuda et al., 2014). Although there is \r increasing evidence that SP programmes are having a positive impact \r in terms of reducing vulnerability in women's everyday lives (Jones \r [...]"


id: ccc4352af894cce366effd0dc7ed6887
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"[...] et al., 2017), the transformative impact of these programmes is rare \r due to limitations in recognising women's access to productive inputs \r and resources (Tanjeela and Rutherford, 2018; Cameron, 2019)."


id: 1973a7eb13dcb224a72e3ed27df83f3b
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"Risks are generally amplified for people without SP or essential \r infrastructure and services, and for people with limited access to land \r and quality housing, especially those in exposed areas and informal \r settlements without secure tenure (ESCAP, 2017). Stateless people are \r disproportionately affected by climate change and disasters as they \r tend to reside in hazard-prone areas and their statues as non-citizens \r often limits access to assistance (Connell, 2015). The three main types \r of SP are: (a) social safety nets (also known as social assistance), \r which include conditional and unconditional cash transfers, public \r work programmes, subsidies and food stamps; (b) social insurance, \r which consists of contributory pensions and contributory health \r insurance; and (c) labour market measures, which include instruments \r such as unemployment compensation (Bank, 2018b). The potential \r for an integrated adaptive SP is not yet harnessed by policymakers \r [...]"


id: 6b7303bae0eb0f9f7e9c07a955bdc6c2
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"[...] in tackling the structural causes of vulnerability to climate change \r (Tenzing, 2019). Public works programmes (i.e., India's Mahatma \r Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, MGNREGA) should \r take into account climate risk in planning and support development of \r community assets to increase collective resilience."


id: 15fdc15bbe13fcd2681d10a7b49aa00d
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"On the other hand, poor governance practices affect delivery of SP \r programmes and the ability of beneficiary households to reap the \r benefits from such support (Sijapati, 2017). In Nepal, a closer look at \r public expenditure shows that about 60% of the SP budget is used \r by social insurance programmes that predominantly consist of public\u0002sector pensions (Babken Babajanian, 2014; Koehler, 2014). Towards \r this end, more effort is needed to improve its existing programmes so \r that there is an equality of opportunities, along with secured human \r rights. The example from Nepal's Child Grant is an indicative of an \r incremental approach to social policy (Garde et al., 2017). Meanwhile, in \r the Philippines, despite the existence of flagship national interventions \r that cover a significant number of people in need and have clear and \r robust implementation rules, there are still many programmes with \r overlapping mandates and target population, and several gaps in their \r [...]"


id: df84f5f5e17f8d89924f5b6d7ebcf936
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"Having an integrated SP information system would allow policymakers \r to better monitor inputs, outputs and outcomes (e.g., who the \r beneficiaries are, what they are receiving, at what frequency, what the \r existing gaps are) (OECD, 2017a; Samad and Shahid, 2018). Based on \r evidence from the assessments of three countries (Mongolia, Nepal and \r Vietnam), the political and institutional arrangements (i.e., the software) \r is as important as the technical fixes (i.e., the hardware) in the success \r of using information and communication technology for delivering SP \r programmes (ADB, 2016). By 2050, climate-induced migration will \r likely be a major policy aspect of the rural-urban nexus as slow-onset \r impacts of climate change in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and Latin \r America will likely force over 143  million people to migrate within \r their national borders (Kumari Rigaud, 2018). This will have major \r implications for SP systems, and therefore national SP strategies should \r [...]"


id: c18f93f1186a265c4f2ab2efd6dfe2d0
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"[...] be designed to anticipate and address climate-induced internal mobility \r (Schwan and Yu, 2017). For instance, it does not offer a solution for \r maintaining Indigenous cultures which are often strongly affected by, \r or even disrupted by, climate change (Olsson, 2014). Hence, an effective \r approach needs to combine different policy instruments to support \r protection, adaptation and migration (O'Brien et al., 2018)."


id: 43df54f35aadf94db031a4fe731d7b0c
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"The need to develop tailored climate communication and education \r strategies for individual nations as public awareness and risk \r perceptions towards climate change vary greatly (medium evidence, \r high agreement) (Lee et al., 2015a). Improving on, and investing in, \r basic education, climate literacy and location-based strategies of \r climate change are vital to enhance public engagement, societies' \r adaptive capacity and support for climate action (Lutz et al., 2014c; \r Hu and Chen, 2016). As stated in the IPCC Special Report 1.5degC, \r sustainable development has the potential to significantly reduce \r systemic vulnerability, enhance adaptive capacity and promote \r livelihood security for poor and disadvantaged populations (Roy et al., \r 2018). Hence, various concepts are introduced to foster awareness, \r understanding, knowledge, participation as well as commitment \r towards managing climate change in a sustainable manner. One such \r [...]"


id: 1828765fabca8e72dc8e72b73d1116a
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"[...] concept is education for sustainable development (ESD), which is aimed \r at integrating the principles and practices of sustainable development \r in all aspects of education, and training individuals who will contribute \r to the realisation of a more sustainable society (Kitamura, 2017)."


id: a69a1fd473aad1ed421838ad9b449a5a
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"Government SP can attenuate the negative impacts in facing disasters, \r depending on the differences in political systems and the focus put \r on sociopolitical measures (medium evidence, medium agreement), \r not only in restoring livelihoods but also in easing mental burdens \r faced by rural households in developing countries (Dalton et al., 2016; \r Kosec and Mo, 2017; Liebenehm, 2018). However, limited government \r capacities and fiscal feasibility may impede the expansion and effective \r implementation of SP as developing countries need further support to \r design, adjust and implement SP schemes effectively (Klonner, 2014; \r Schwan and Yu, 2017). Most countries have comprehensive strategies \r for both SP and climate change, but few have attempted to align them, \r as in practice they remain in separate institutional homes, governed \r by their own intra-sector coordination groups and funding channels \r (Steinbach et  al., 2016; Bank, 2018b). Thus, significant knowledge \r [...]"


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"[...] gaps remain in terms of understanding the potential of SP to build \r long-term resilience to climate change (Ulrichs et  al., 2019). Future \r efforts should be geared to develop climate-responsive SP policies that \r consider a broad range of issues including urbanisation and migration, \r the impact of green policies on the poor, access to essential health care \r and risks to socially marginalised groups (Aleksandrova, 2019). Along \r with strengthening links to climate information and EWS, finance for \r enabling SP systems to address climate-related shocks and stresses \r dynamically needs to be scaled up (Kuriakose et al., 2013; Ulrichs et al., \r 2019)."


id: a70f19896b90707d688f58cc7c5494a1
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"Climate-change education (CCE) is also now addressed in the \r context of ESD and allows for learners to understand the causes and \r consequences of climate change, and teaches them how to take action \r (Mochizuki and Bryan, 2015). Both ESD and CCE are gaining broader \r attention, for instance, in China (Han, 2015) and the Republic of Korea \r (Sung, 2015); however, development of policies and implementation \r of initiatives regarding ESD and CCE still face a handful of challenges \r which require a strong political will and consensus of key stakeholders \r (Laessoe and Mochizuki, 2015). Effective communication on CCE \r particularly for younger-generation engagement is also essential, as \r they are our future leaders as climate change is an inter-generational \r equity issue (Corner et al., 2015). Action for Climate Empowerment of \r Article 6 of the UNFCCC target youth as a major group for effective \r engagement in the formulation and implementation of decisions on \r [...]"


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"[...] climate change (UNFCCC, 2015). Increasing attention from countries \r in Asia, such as Thailand and India, will encourage innovative ways \r to provide adequately in educating and engaging youth in climate\u0002change issues (Narksompong and Limjirakan, 2015; Dur and Keller, \r 2018)."


id: f36b27c65017f9c95cfdc8c8c067823c
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"most vulnerable group to climate change (Magni, 2017). Second, they \r have a specialised ecological and traditional knowledge relevant to \r finding the best solutions to climate change (Rautela and Karki, 2015). \r Indigenous knowledge systems and resource management practices \r are important tools for both mitigating and adapting to climate \r change (Fernandez-Llamazares et al., 2015). Indigenous knowledge is \r increasingly recognised as a powerful tool for compiling evidence of \r climate change over time (Ahmed et al., 2016a). Knowledge of CCA \r and DRR provide a range of complementary approaches in building \r resilience and reducing the vulnerability of natural and human systems \r to the impacts of climate change and environmental hazards (Mall \r et al., 2019). The adaptation dimension involves developing knowledge \r and utilising existing IKLK, skills and dispositions to better cope with \r already evident and looming climate impacts (Aghaei et al., 2018). It \r [...]"


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"[...] is also important to ensure inclusive efforts in DRR across different \r nations and communities as well as increasing skills and capacities of \r women towards DRR efforts (Alam and Rahman, 2014; Drolet et al., \r 2015; Islam et  al., 2016b; Reyes and Lu, 2016; Hemachandra et  al., \r 2018). More effective and efficient teaching and learning strategies, as \r well as collaborative networks, are needed to increase preparedness \r and DRR activities across various levels of community (Oktari et al., \r 2015; Takahashi et  al., 2015; Tuladhar et  al., 2015b; Shiwaku et  al., \r 2016; Gampell et al., 2017)."


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"Capacity building at national and local levels still needs to address \r gaps in research and practice, such as impacts and results of different \r preparedness measures (Alcayna et  al., 2016). Ad-hoc and localised \r documentations and monitoring of efforts to build adaptive capacities \r has rendered it difficult to assess success (Cinner et  al., 2018). \r Recommendations for strengthened capacity building are sometimes \r made or understood in isolation from the underlying structural issues \r shaping vulnerability, or without adequately recognising the political \r relationships that mediate the ways in which particular technical \r interventions result in differentiated outcomes for different groups \r (Archer and Dodman, 2015). Thus, design- and decision-based tools, \r such as rapid assessment for community resilience to climate change \r as well as rapid approach to monitor the effectiveness of aid projects, \r support the community-based adaptation to climate change to analyse \r [...]"


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"[...] using a multi-dimensional approach, procedural, distributional, rights \r and responsibilities (Nkoana et al., 2018; Jacobson et al., 2019)."


id: 2728445c89f23f3729fec1a6f22163f4
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"Risk assessments have been undertaken for different hazards such as \r flood (Al Saud, 2015; Al-Amin et al., 2019; Jha and Gundimeda, 2019; \r Mahmood et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019e), drought (Guo et al., 2019; \r Mainali et al., 2019), rainfall-induced landslide (Li et al., 2019b), SLR \r (Imaduddina and Subagyo, 2014; Suroso and Firman, 2018) and heat \r stress (Onosuka et al., 2019), among others, as well as environmental \r assessment, for example, in coastal zones (Islam and Zhang, 2019). \r Different types of strategies for climate risk management have also \r been studied including: (a) in situ adaptation through ecosystem- and \r community-based adaptation (Jamero et al., 2017); (b) managed retreat \r or relocation (Buchori et al., 2018; Doberstein et al., 2020); (c) planned \r sheltering in flood zones (Wu et al., 2019c); (d) sustainable livelihoods \r that consider long-term CCA measures of farmers and fishermen \r [...]"


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"[...] (Nizami et  al., 2019; Shaffril et  al., 2019); (e) coastal afforestation \r through mangrove plantation (Rahman et al., 2018); (f) management \r of ecosystem services to mitigate the effects of droughts (Tran and \r Brown, 2019); (g) pre-investments, including holistic assessment of the \r basin (Inaoka et al., 2019); (h) institutionalisation, where entry points \r are identified in efforts to build resilience (Lassa, 2019) and adaptive \r governance (Walch, 2019); and (i) linking science and local knowledge \r (Mehta et al., 2019; van Gevelt et al., 2019)."


id: b045e2f42f43dbcd98c8842db8ff0569
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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"There is growing evidence on the interconnectedness of extreme \r weather, climate change and disaster impacts (Asia, 2017; Reyer, \r 2017). In Asia, climate-related disasters have become more recurrent \r and destructive in terms of both economic and social impacts (Bhatt \r et al., 2015; Aich et al., 2017; Vij et al., 2017). Projections of increasing \r frequency, intensity and severity of climate-related disasters call for \r better integration of CCA and DRR (Sapountzaki, 2018) in policy \r development to address risks efficiently (Rahman et al., 2018) and to \r promote sustainable development pathways for reduced vulnerability \r and increased resilience (Seidler et  al., 2018). Connecting CCA and \r DRR efforts in both policy and practice continue to be a challenge, \r however, because the convergence of national policy and planning \r processes on CCA and DRR within Asia is in its early stages (Cousins, \r 2014) and structural barriers persist (Mall et  al., 2019). Both CCA \r [...]"


id: 896d002f0232fa342f93f96cda7ac8ea
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"[...] and DRR have developed as separate policy domains because of the \r different temporal and spatial scales considered, the diversity of actors \r involved, the policies and institutional frameworks adopted and the \r differences in tools and methodological approaches used. This has \r resulted in the CCA and DRR communities, and the knowledge and \r research they produce to support planning and decision making, not \r always being well connected (Street et al., 2019)."


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"The sectors to which CCA and DRR have been linked are varied. For \r example, Filho et al. (2019) assessed adaptive capacity and resilience to \r climate change based on urban poverty, infrastructure and community \r facilities; Mabon et  al. (2019) looked at adaptation via the built \r environment, green roofs, and citizen and private-sector involvement \r in smaller-scale greening actions; Lama and Becker (2019) focused on \r adaptation to reduce risk in conflicts; Banwell et al. (2018) studied the \r link between health, CCA and DRR; and Izumi et al. (2019) surveyed \r science, technology and innovation for DRR. Vulnerable groups have \r been given much attention, such as farmers (Afroz, 2017; Gupta \r et al., 2019; Jawid and Khadjavi, 2019; Khanal et al., 2019; Shi et al., \r 2019a), women (Goodrich et al., 2019; Hossain et al., 2019; Udas et al., \r 2019), and children, elderly and refugees (Asia, 2017). Finally, issues \r [...]"


id: 47c96f82205497a790a7668948f8c881
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] identified include water resource management (Bhatta et al., 2019; Sen \r et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019a); food security (Aleksandrova et al., \r 2016; Le, 2016); disaster governance (Blanco, 2015); climate boundary \r shifting wherein impacts of climate change are significant for crop \r production, soil management and DRR (Talchabhadel and Karki, 2019); \r and institutional dimensions of CCA (Cuevas, 2018; Islam et al., 2020)."


id: bd4c88b796c3daff6c82e4dcb16ddb81
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30552
content:
"Case studies on climate risk management and integrated CCA and \r DRR actions highlight some key lessons including: an integrated \r and transformative approach to CCA, which focuses on long-term \r changes in addressing climate impacts (Filho et al., 2019); adoption \r of an adaptive flood risk management framework incorporating \r both risk observation and public perceptions (Al-Amin et  al., 2019); \r a holistic approach and non-structural and technological measures \r in flood control management (Chan, 2014); monitoring of changes in \r urban surface water in relation to changes in seasons, land covers, \r anthropogenic activities and topographic characteristics for managing \r watersheds and urban planning (Faridatul et  al., 2019); removing \r 'gender blindness' in agrobiodiversity conservation and adaptation \r policies (Ravera et al., 2019); understanding uncertainties in CCA and \r DRR at the local level (van der Keur et al., 2016; Djalante and Lassa, \r [...]"


id: 458999929bc423473dbda004cbcf3ee3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Several studies also have identified enabling conditions to effectively \r implement CCA and DRR actions. In the Arab region of Asia (ARA), \r the following are critical: capacity building to develop knowledge and \r awareness; mainstreaming CCA and DRR in the national strategies \r and policies (e.g., water and environmental strategies); empowering \r the role of CCA and DRR actors, notably women and rural societies; \r adopting lessons learned from regions with physical characteristics \r similar to those of ARA; establishing forecasting and prediction \r platforms that are supported by advanced monitoring technologies \r (e.g., remote sensing); and encouraging universities and research \r centres to develop studies on CCA and DRR. In Southeast Asia, laws \r and policies, institutional and financial arrangements, risk assessment, \r capacity building, and planning and implementation are entry points in \r integrating CCA and DRR (Lassa and Sembiring, 2017; Agency, 2018). \r [...]"


id: 54e2a5f80c12a9e7605c1d2328f8906a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] According to Cutter et  al. (2015), holistic solutions and integrated \r approaches, rigorous risk research that shows coherent science-based \r assessment and knowledge transfer from research to practice, and \r aligned targets on disaster risk management, climate change and \r sustainable development targets, are critical. Social capital and SP \r measures could promote pro-poor and gender-responsive adaptation \r as well as socially inclusive policies (Dilshad et al., 2019; Yari et al., \r 2019). Community-based approaches could allow local perceptions of \r climate change and experience of place to be included in planning \r (Dujardin et  al., 2018; Dwirahmadi et  al., 2019; Widiati and Irianto, \r 2019), and multi-stakeholder participation could engage various \r actors such as the private sector in CCA and DRR. Furthermore, multi\u0002level climate governance could benefit from vertical and horizontal \r interactions at different levels and layers in the city (Zen et al., 2019). \r [...]"


id: c5b2fe79ba6b534237b84034800ef06b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32087
content:
"[...] To mainstream and secure funding commitments, CCA and DRR could \r be integrated into national development plans and sectoral long-term \r plans (Ishiwatari and Surjan, 2020; Rahayu et  al., 2020; Rani et  al., \r 2020b)."


id: 70df61adc10c3b0d31e71756460bbbef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17122
content:
"Food, energy, water and land are vital elements for sustainable \r development as well as enhancing resilience to both climatic and non\u0002climatic shocks. All these resources are highly vulnerable to climate \r change (Sections  10.3.1, 10.3.4). Poor people are most affected due \r to changes in resources availability and accessibility. Food, water and \r energy security are interconnected (Bizikova et al., 2013; Ringler et al., \r 2013; Rasul, 2014; Chang et al., 2016; Ringler et al., 2016). Although \r adapting to climate change is one of the core components of the global, \r regional, national and subnational agendas, the focus of adaptation \r action has remained sectoral. Undermining the interlinkages of food, \r energy and water security may increase trade-offs between sectors or \r places, which may lead to maladaptation (Barnett and O'Neill, 2010; \r Howells et  al., 2013; Lele et  al., 2013). Therefore, focusing on the \r [...]"


id: ecd9482ca1b169a9504618dda2f7a965
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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content:
"[...] nature of trade-offs and synergies across the food-water-energy nexus \r for integrated management of resources is a potential strategy for \r adaptation to both climatic and non-climatic challenges (Bhaduri et al., \r 2015; Zaman et al., 2017). Due to its importance to the Paris Agreement \r and SDGs, the food-water-energy nexus approach has gotten \r increasing attention in terms of capturing synergies and minimising \r trade-offs in this interconnected system, which is also critical for \r enhancing adaptation together (Bazilian et  al., 2011; Lawford et  al., \r 2013; UNESCAP, 2013; FAO, 2014; Rasul and Sharma, 2014; Taniguchi \r et al., 2017a; Sukhwani et al., 2019; Sukhwani et al., 2020)."


id: 87ab49b28f65e7f1e82e9a7fd67612d2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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content:
"The food-water-energy nexus can be evaluated in the two-way \r interactions between water-food, water-energy and food-energy \r (Taniguchi et  al., 2017a). The water-energy nexus includes water \r for energy and energy for water (Rothausen and Conway, 2011; \r Hussey and Pittock, 2012; Byers et al., 2014), the water-food nexus \r includes water for food and the impact of food production on water \r (Hoekstra and Mekonnen, 2012) and the energy-food nexus includes \r energy consumption for food production and food crops for biofuel \r production (Tilman et al., 2009). The food-water-energy-land nexus \r has diverse implications at the sub-regional level in Asia. The increase \r in the water-supply gap raises questions about the sustainability of \r the main mode of electricity generation in South Asia. Thermal power \r generation and hydropower generation are both threatened by water \r shortages in South Asia (Luo, 2018b; Mitra et al., 2021). Furthermore, \r [...]"


id: 64ae3782aad6ac11874cad59c9eea293
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] policy-mismatch-driven anthropogenic causes lead to unsustainable \r water use for food production in India. For example, subsidised \r electricity supply for watering agriculture plays a key role in losing \r groundwater's buffer capacity against the various changes including \r climate variabilities (Badiani et al., 2012; Mitra, 2017). In the Mekong \r River basin of Southeast Asia, massive and rapid export-oriented "


id: 89e99353542afaa4e16a019084064409
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21436
content:
"Adaptation follows knowledge on risks, and literature exists that \r systematically identifies and characterises exposure and vulnerability, \r but gaps still exist. Decision making under uncertainty is challenged by \r the lack of data for adapting to current and uncertain future climate, \r the different perceptions of risk, and the potential solutions across \r different cultures and languages (van der Keur et  al., 2016). Lack of \r downscaled climatic data, diverse institutional structures, and missing \r links in policies, are among the challenges in South Asia (Mall et al., \r 2019). In agriculture, there are gaps in the use of advanced farming \r techniques such as drought-resistant crops, and information on climate \r change to support farming households in making adaptation decisions \r (Akhtar et  al., 2019; Khanal et  al., 2019; Ullah et  al., 2019). Better \r understanding of effective water management is crucial due to conflicts \r [...]"


id: 1496ac4b5d7aef68fe3b10b475bcaa2f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 851
content:
"[...] for shared water in ARA (Shaban and Hamze, 2017; UNDP, 2018). For \r delta regions, gaps identified are methodologies and approaches \r appropriate for understanding social vulnerability at various scales, \r pathways required for adaptation policy and response in the deltas that \r transcend development, and the lessons from implemented policy and "


id: df9ea42f28b7b7fdef3ab542c0415da9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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content:
"such approaches in order to respond to the climate-change challenge \r in a socially just manner (Mayrhofer and Gupta, 2016). These non\u0002conflicting aims are described as co-benefits as reiterated in the \r IPCC reports as a central concept that refers to 'the positive effects \r that a policy or measure aimed at one objective might have on other \r objectives, irrespective of the net effect on overall social welfare' \r (IPCC, 2014b). Better understanding of how social justice affects, \r and is affected by, efforts to build adaptive capacity will be crucial \r to avoiding unintended, and even perverse, outcomes. For example, \r on the Andaman coast of Thailand, responses to climate-change \r trends and events tended to be reactive rather than proactive, making \r already vulnerable people even more vulnerable and undermining \r their capacity to adapt in the future (Bennett et al., 2014). Different \r forms of inequality, moreover, render some groups more vulnerable \r [...]"


id: e7598c96375334ea10b0336934e4fb74
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37997
content:
"[...] than others to damage from climate hazards. In Mumbai, India, for \r example, the houses of poorer families required repeated repairs to \r secure them against flood damage, and the cumulative cost of those \r repairs consumed a greater proportion of their income than for richer \r populations (UN, 2016). Building the resilience of vulnerable groups \r requires strong community and government institutions that can \r support efforts to cope with devastating events, offering SP and social \r development initiatives to support at-risk or vulnerable groups (Drolet \r et al., 2015). In addition, agencies need to consider how they can best \r work in ways which potentially support longer-term positive change \r to gender roles and relations. For example, post-disaster activities \r must build and resource women's resilience and adaptive capacity \r in practice and challenge the constraints that impinge on their lives \r (Sadia et al., 2016; Sohrabizadeh et al., 2016; Hadiyanto et al., 2018; \r [...]"


id: 819c545d6646e108ec26ca3cacc34011
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19932
content:
"Many challenges remain in both scientific research and policy \r actions at the global, regional, national and subnational levels. The \r scientific challenges include data, information and knowledge gaps \r in understanding the food, energy, water and land interlinkages, \r and lack of systematic tools to address trade-offs (Liu et al., 2017a). \r Until very recently, implementation of the food-energy-water nexus \r focused primarily on technical solutions, whereas governance (i.e., the \r institutions and processes governing the food-energy-water nexus) \r has not received much consideration (Scheyvens and Shivakoti, 2019). \r At the policy end, the common challenges for implementation of the \r water-energy-food-land nexus are absence of sectoral coordination \r (Pahl-Wostl, 2019), the influence of political priorities on decisions and \r lack of processes for scientific knowledge to shape decisions, lack of \r [...]"


id: 245dc49c751803ab890b74af52c68ac1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3589
content:
"[...] capacity to understand interlinkages between sectors, lack of multi\u0002stakeholder engagement in planning and decision-making processes, \r and lack of incentive mechanisms and adequate finance to support the \r approach (Bao et al., 2018; Scheyvens and Shivakoti, 2019)."


id: b89d7fffeb2a115aa0aa45705fd21a6e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29691
content:
"Social justice focuses on the justice-related implications of social and \r economic institutions, examined in different ways such as distributional \r justice (distribution of benefits and burdens across different societal \r groups), procedural justice (the design of just institutions and processes \r for decision making), inter-generational justice (duties of justice to \r future generations) and recognitional justice (recognition of historical \r inequality) (Thaler et  al., 2017). Climate change is affecting every \r aspect of our society and economy; thus, it is pertinent to understand \r the interactions between social justice and climate-change impacts \r (Tol, 2018), in particular, focusing on how vulnerability to various \r impacts is created, maintained and distributed across geographic, \r social, demographic and economic dimensions (Bulkeley et al., 2014; \r Schlosberg and Collins, 2014; Van de Vliert, 2014; Burke et al., 2016). \r [...]"


id: b69bd06d7a67623a84dade39e6bae5bf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29330
content:
"[...] For instance, environmental and health consequences of climate \r change, which disproportionately affect low-income countries and \r poor people in high-income countries, profoundly affect human rights \r and social justice (Levy and Patz, 2015). Furthermore, great concern is \r expressed about the plight of the poor, disadvantaged and vulnerable \r populations when it comes to climate, but not in other policy domains \r (Winters, 2014)."


id: 84c3db1896ba7ba44ec7710910a48271
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20502
content:
"Climatologically, the summer surface air temperature in South, Southeast and Southwest Asia is high, and its coastal \r area is very humid. In these regions, heat stress is already a medium risk for humans. Large cities are warmer by more \r than 2degC compared with the surroundings due to heat island effects, exacerbating heat stress conditions. Future \r warming will cause more frequent temperature extremes and heatwaves especially in densely populated South \r Asian cities, where working conditions will be exacerbated and daytime outdoor work will become dangerous. For \r example, incidence of excess heat-related mortality in 51 cities in China is estimated to reach 37,800 deaths per year \r over a 20-year period in the mid-21st century (2041-2060) under the RCP8.5 scenario.\r Asian glaciers are the water resources for local and adjacent regions. Glaciers are decreasing in Central, Southwest, \r [...]"


id: 3b2fd7abadfcd138e4c307d846c2cddf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7598
content:
"[...] Southeast and North Asia, but are stable or increased in some parts of the Hindu Kush Himalaya region. The glacier \r melt water in the southern Tibetan Plateau increased during 1998-2007, and the total amount and area of glacier \r lakes has increased during recent decades. In the future, maximum glacial runoff is projected in High Mountain \r Asia. Glacier collapses and surges, together with glacier lake outburst flood due to the expansion of glacier lakes, \r will threaten the securities of the local and down streaming societies.\r With much of the Asian population living in drought-prone areas, water scarcity is a prevailing risk across Asia \r through water and food shortage leading to malnutrition. Populations vulnerable to impacts related to water are \r going to increase progressively at 1.5degC, 2degC and 3degC of global warming. Aggravating drought condition is projected \r in Central Asia. Water quality degradation also has profound impact on human health."


id: f6369c2dae6db84c996f4f19fb549e49
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40678
content:
"Currently and in the future, Asia is identified as one of regions most vulnerable to climate change, especially \r on extreme heat, flooding, sea level rise and erratic rainfall. All these climatic risks, when overlaid on existing \r development deficits, show us that incremental adaptation will not be enough; transformational change is \r required. Recognising this, at subnational and national levels, government and non-governmental actors are also \r prioritising planned adaptation strategies which include interventions like 'climate-smart agriculture' as seen in South \r and Southeast Asian countries, or changing labour laws to reduce exposure to heat as seen in West Asia. These are \r often sectoral priorities governments lay out through national or subnational policies and projects, drawing on \r various sources of funding: domestic, bilateral and international. Apart from these planned adaptation strategies in \r [...]"


id: b8f2802f63f12b0e3a09e753366f3447
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29746
content:
"[...] social systems, Asian countries also report and invest in adaptation measures in natural systems such as expanding \r nature reserves to enable species conservation or setting up habitat corridors to facilitate landscape connectivity \r and species movements across climatic gradients."


id: ff62308841acd39c6877cf5fd09b22f2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42333
content:
"Some examples of innovative adaptation actions are China's 'Sponge Cities' which are trying to protect ecosystems \r while reducing risk for people, now and in the future. Another example is India's Heat Action Plans that are using \r 'cool roofs' technologies and awareness-building campaigns to reduce the impacts of extreme heat. Across South \r and Southeast Asia, climate-smart agriculture programmes are reducing GHG emissions associated with farming \r while helping farmers adapt to changing risks. Each country is experimenting with infrastructural, nature-based, \r technological, institutional and behavioural strategies to adapt to current and future climate change with local \r contexts shaping both the possibility of undertaking such actions as well as the effectiveness of these actions to \r reduce risk. What works for ageing cities in Japan exposed to heatwaves and floods may not work for pastoral \r [...]"


id: 887de969702678cd0bc7a3e2310fa376
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21176
content:
"[...] communities in the highlands of Central Asia, but there is progress on understanding what actions work and for \r whom. The challenge is to scale current adaptation action, especially in the most exposed areas and for the most \r vulnerable populations, as well as move beyond adapting to single risks alone (i.e., adapt to multiple coinciding \r risks such as flooding and water scarcity in coastal cities across South Asia or extreme heat and flash floods in \r West Asia). In this context, funding and implementing adaptation is essential, and while Asian countries are \r experimenting with a range of autonomous and planned adaptation actions to deal with these multiple and often \r concurrent challenges, making current development pathways climate resilient is necessary and, some might argue, \r unavoidable."


id: 778e70dd30c53ae8e97e654842cbbdf6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18238
content:
"In order to achieve the multiple goals of CCA, mitigation and sustainable development, critical are rapid, system \r transitions across (a) energy systems, (b) land and ecosystems and (c) urban and infrastructural systems. This is \r especially important across Asia, which has the largest population exposed to current climate risks and high \r sub-regional diversity, and where risks are expected to rise significantly and unevenly under higher levels of global \r warming. However, such transformational change is deeply challenging because of variable national development \r imperatives; differing capacities and requirements of large, highly unequal and vulnerable populations; and \r socioeconomic and ecological diversity that requires very contextual solutions. Furthermore, issues such as growing \r transboundary risks, inadequate data for long-term adaptation planning, finance barriers, uneven institutional \r [...]"


id: f615956bcbab8b709006c064187d86b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40653
content:
"[...] capacity and non-climatic issues, such as increasing conflict, political instability and polarization, constrain rapid, \r transformational action across systems."


id: f0f73b6f25508d18bebf913727f538dd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39764
content:
"Contributing Authors: Jason Alexandra (Australia), Anne-Gaelle Ausseil (New Zealand), Shaun \r Awatere (New Zealand), Douglas Bardsley (Australia), Rob Bell (New Zealand), Paula Blackett (New \r Zealand/UK), Sarah Boulter (Australia), Daniel Collins (New Zealand), Nicholas Cradock-Henry \r (New Zealand/UK/Canada), Sandra Creamer (Australia), Rebecca Darbyshire (Australia), Sam \r Dean (New Zealand), Alejandro Di Luca (Canada/Argentina), Andrew Dowdy (Australia), Joanna \r Fountain (New Zealand), Michael Grose (Australia), Stefan Hajkowicz (Australia), David Hall (New \r Zealand), Sarah Harris (Australia), Peter Hayman (Australia), Jane Hodgkinson (Australia), Karen \r Hussey (Australia), Rhys Jones (New Zealand), Darren King (New Zealand), Martina Linnenluecke \r (Australia), Erich Livengood (New Zealand), Mary Livingston (New Zealand), Cate Macinnis-Ng \r (New Zealand), Belinda McFadgen (New Zealand), Celia McMichael (Australia), Taciano, Milfont \r [...]"


id: d99624489fc9a5bb12c7412e77cbbd74
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35580
content:
"[...] (New Zealand/Brazil), Bradley Moggridge (Australia), Adrian Monks (New Zealand), Sandy \r Morrison (New Zealand), Vinnitta Mosby (Australia), Esther Onyango (Australia/Kenya), Sharanjit \r Paddam (Australia), Grant Pearce (New Zealand), Petra Pearce (New Zealand), Rosh Ranasinghe \r (The Netherlands/Sri Lanka/Australia), David Schoeman (Australia), Rodger Tomlinson (Australia), \r Susan Walker (New Zealand), Michael Watt (New Zealand), Seth Westra (Australia), Russell Wise \r (Australia), Christian Zammit (New Zealand/France/Australia)."


id: 8a8f14103a77b60939118b22bd5fb4d2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21553
content:
"Ongoing climate trends have exacerbated many extreme \r events (very high confidence). The Australian trends include further \r warming and sea level rise sea level rise (SLR), with more hot days and \r heatwaves, less snow, more rainfall in the north, less April-October \r rainfall in the southwest and southeast and more extreme fire weather \r days in the south and east. The New Zealand trends include further \r warming and sea level rise (SLR), more hot days and heatwaves, less \r snow, more rainfall in the south, less rainfall in the north and more \r extreme fire weather in the east. There have been fewer tropical \r cyclones and cold days in the region. Extreme events include Australia's \r hottest and driest year in 2019 with a record-breaking number of days \r over 39degC, New Zealand's hottest year in 2016, three widespread \r marine heatwaves during 2016-2020, Category 4 Cyclone Debbie in \r 2017, seven major hailstorms over eastern Australia and two over New \r [...]"


id: 9d7e1da29a7a904b7faef27582f68feb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24948
content:
"[...] Zealand from 2014-2020, three major floods in eastern Australia and \r three over New Zealand during 2019-2021 and major fires in southern \r and eastern Australia during 2019-2020. {11.2.1, Table 11.2, 11.3.8}"


id: 7c2c6d8c67568952130867e9d20f4711
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19060
content:
"Climate trends and extreme events have combined with exposure \r and vulnerabilities to cause major impacts for many natural \r systems, with some experiencing or at risk of irreversible change \r in Australia (very high confidence) and in New Zealand (high \r confidence). For example, warmer conditions with more heatwaves, \r droughts and catastrophic wildfires have negatively impacted terrestrial \r and freshwater ecosystems. The Bramble Cay melomys, an endemic \r mammal species, became extinct due to loss of habitat associated with \r sea level rise (SLR) and storm surges in the Torres Strait. Marine species \r abundance and distributions have shifted polewards, and extensive \r coral bleaching events and loss of temperate kelp forests have occurred \r due to ocean warming and marine heatwaves across the region. In New \r Zealand's southern Alps, from 1978 to 2016, the area of 14 glaciers \r declined 21%, and extreme glacier mass loss was at least 6 times more \r [...]"


id: ba598912a321bf76cc7d9122f84a2c9a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30003
content:
"[...] likely in 2011 and 10 times more likely in 2018 due to climate change. \r The end-of-summer snowline elevation for 50 glaciers rose 300 m from \r 1949 to 2019. {11.3.1.1, 11.3.2.1, Table 11.2b, Table 11.4, Table 11.6, \r Table 11.9}"


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"Further climate change is inevitable, with the rate and \r magnitude largely dependent on the emission pathway (very \r high confidence1\r ). Ongoing warming is projected, with more hot \r days and fewer cold days (very high confidence). Further sea level rise \r (SLR), ocean warming and ocean acidification are projected (very high \r confidence). Less winter and spring rainfall is projected in southern \r Australia, with more winter rainfall in Tasmania, less autumn rainfall \r in southwestern Victoria and less summer rainfall in western Tasmania \r (medium confidence), with uncertain rainfall changes in northern \r Australia. In New Zealand, more winter and spring rainfall is projected \r in the west and less in the east and north, with more summer rainfall \r in the east and less in the west and central North Island (medium \r confidence). In New Zealand, ongoing glacier retreat is projected (very \r high confidence). More extreme fire weather is projected in southern and \r [...]"


id: 73f2a7d460c475a427ada375e2881482
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"[...] eastern Australia (high confidence) and over northern and eastern New \r Zealand (medium confidence). Increased drought frequency is projected \r for southern and eastern Australia and northern New Zealand (medium \r confidence). Increased heavy rainfall intensity is projected, with fewer \r tropical cyclones and a greater proportion of severe cyclones (medium \r confidence). {11.2.2, Table 11.3, Box 11.6}"


id: 7d12dc5ac79d7197388218e700348f5b
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"Changes to the composition and location of different demographic \r groups in the region contribute to increased exposure or vulnerability \r to climate change (medium confidence). Australia's population reached \r 25 million in 2018 and is projected to grow to 37.4-49.2 million by 2066, \r with most growth in major cities (accounting for 81% of Australia's \r population growth from 2016 to 2017) (ABS, 2018), although COVID-19 \r is expected to slow the growth rate (CoA, 2020c). The highest growth \r rates outside of major cities occurred mostly in coastal regions (ABS, \r 2017), which have built assets exposed to sea level rise (SLR). New \r Zealand's population was 5.1 million at the end of 2020 and is projected \r to increase to 6.0-6.5 million by 2068, assuming no marked changes \r in migration patterns (Stats NZ, 2016; Stats NZ, 2021). Although the \r population densities of both countries are much lower than other OECD \r countries, they are highly urbanised with over 86% living in urban \r [...]"


id: 2797cdaa6574ab290d74a590bb84d62b
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"[...] areas in both countries (Productivity Commission, 2017; World Bank, \r 2018). This proportion is projected to increase to over 90% by 2050 (UN \r DESA, 2019) mostly in coastal areas (Rouse et al., 2017). Consideration \r of climate change impacts when planning and managing such growth \r and associated infrastructure could help avoid new vulnerabilities being \r created, particularly from wildfires, sea level rise (SLR), heat stress and \r flooding."


id: 32084eec03a7108ccfa376a48c7cac12
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"Widespread and severe impacts on ecosystems and species are \r now evident across the region (very high confidence) (Table  11.4). \r Climate impacts reflect both ongoing change and discrete extreme \r weather events (Harris et  al., 2018), and the climatic change signal \r is emerging despite confounding influences (Hoffmann et al., 2019). \r Fundamental shifts are observed in the structure and composition \r of some ecosystems and associated services (Table  11.4). Impacts \r documented for species include global and local extinctions, severe \r regional population declines and phenotypic responses (Table 11.4). In \r terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, land use impacts are interacting \r with climate, resulting in significant changes to ecosystem structure, \r composition and function (Bergstrom et  al., 2021), with some \r landscapes experiencing catastrophic impacts (Table  11.4). Some of \r the observed changes may be irreversible where projected impacts \r [...]"


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"[...] on ecosystems and species persist (Table 11.5). Of note is the global \r extinction of an endemic mammal species, the Bramble Cay melomys \r (Melomys rubicola), from the loss of habitat attributable in part to sea \r level rise (SLR) and storm surges in the Torres Strait (Table 11.4)."


id: a0722e42434238c4cde395218bd26047
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"Natural forest and woodland ecosystem processes are experiencing \r differing impacts and responses depending on the climate zone (high \r confidence). In Australia, an overall increase in the forest fire danger \r index, associated with warming and drying trends (Table  11.2a), \r has been observed particularly for southern and eastern Australia in \r recent decades (Box  11.1). The 2019-2020 mega wildfires of south \r eastern Australia burnt between 5.8 and 8.1 million hectares of mainly \r temperate broadleaf forest and woodland, but with substantial areas of \r rainforest also impacted, and were unprecedented in their geographic \r location, spatial extent and forest types burnt (Boer et al., 2020; Nolan \r et  al., 2020; Abram et  al., 2021; Collins et  al., 2021; Godfree et  al., \r 2021). The human influence on these events is evident (Abram et al., \r 2021; van Oldenborgh et al., 2021) (Box 11.1). The fires had significant \r [...]"


id: d90c4cbddfc1db150fdb6bf2ecf845c5
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"[...] consequences for wildlife (Hyman et al., 2020; Nolan et al., 2020; Ward \r et al., 2020) (Box 11.1) and flow-on impacts for aquatic fauna (Silva \r et al., 2020). In southern Australia, deeply rooted native tree species can \r access soil and groundwater resources during drought, providing a level \r of natural resilience (Bell and Nikolaus Callow, 2020; Liu et al., 2020). \r However, the Northern Jarrah forests of south western Australia have \r experienced tree mortality and dieback from long-term precipitation \r decline and acute heatwave-compounded drought (Wardell-Johnson \r et al., 2015; Matusick et al., 2018). While there is limited information \r on observed impacts for New Zealand, increased mast seeding events \r in beech forest ecosystems that stimulate invasive population irruptions \r have been recorded (Schauber et al., 2002; Tompkins et al., 2013)."


id: efa4fc78c1ec00e8bb3b39a98abe99b6
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"New Zealand climate projections are quantified with references in \r Table 11.3b. Further warming is projected, with more hot days, fewer \r cold days, less snow and glacial ice, ongoing sea level rise (SLR) \r and ocean acidification (very high confidence). Increases in winter \r and spring rainfall are projected in the west of the North and South \r Islands, with drier conditions in the east and north, caused by stronger \r westerly winds (medium confidence). In summer, wetter conditions are \r projected in the east of both islands, with drier conditions in the west \r and central North Island (medium confidence). Fire weather indices \r are projected to increase over northern and eastern New Zealand \r (medium confidence). Heavy rainfall intensity is projected to increase \r over most regions, with increased extreme wind speeds in eastern \r regions, especially in Marlborough and Canterbury, and reduced \r relative humidity almost everywhere, except for the west coast in \r [...]"


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"[...] winter (medium confidence). Drought frequency may increase in the \r north (medium confidence)."


id: a42108abbd4a7124cd286f8f34d4d410
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"including population declines, heat-related mortalities, extinctions \r and disruptions for many species and ecosystems (high confidence) \r (Table  11.5). These include inadequate allocation of environmental \r flows for freshwater fish (Vertessy et al., 2019), native forest logging \r for old-growth-forest-dependent fauna (Lindenmayer et  al., 2015; \r Lindenmayer and Taylor, 2020a; Lindenmayer and Taylor, 2020b), and \r invasive species (Scott et al., 2018). Climate change has synergistic and \r compounding impacts, particularly in bioregions already experiencing \r ecosystem degradation, threatened endemics and collapse of keystone \r species, including those of value to Indigenous Peoples, and high \r extinction rates as a consequence of human activities (Table  11.4) \r (Gordon, 2009; Australia SoE, 2016; Weeks et al., 2016; Cresswell and \r Murphy, 2017; Hare et al., 2019; MfE, 2019; Lindenmayer and Taylor, \r 2020a; Lindenmayer and Taylor, 2020b; Bergstrom et al., 2021). Some \r [...]"


id: 83bb9337175c624f579bc5aa24e909df
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"[...] native species are projected to have potentially greater geographic \r range if they can colonise new areas, while other species may be \r resilient to projected climate change impacts (Bulgarella et al., 2014; \r K.E. Lawrence et al., 2017; Conroy et al., 2019; Rizvanovic et al., 2019)."


id: 4731ee6abc01fafde6135d38251ffc59
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"The impacts on species from projected global warming depend on their \r physiological and ecological responses for which knowledge is limited \r (Table 11.5) (Bulgarella et al., 2014; Carter et al., 2018; Green et al., \r 2021). Knowledge of projected impacts is constrained by uncertainties \r about the influence of physiological limits, barriers to dispersal, \r competition, the availability of habitat resources (Worth et al., 2014) \r and disruptions to ecological interactions (Lakeman-Fraser and Ewers, \r 2013; Parida et  al., 2015; Porfirio et  al., 2016). Gaps in ecological \r modelling of future climate impacts include consideration of long-term \r rainfall and temperature changes (Grimm-Seyfarth et al., 2017; Grimm\u0002Seyfarth et al., 2018), species dispersal rates, evolutionary capacity and \r phenotypic plasticity and the thresholds at which they are considered \r adequate to counter the impacts of climate change (Ofori et al., 2017b), \r [...]"


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"[...] as well as indirect effects including sea level rise (SLR) and altered fire \r regimes (Shoo et al., 2014; Cadenhead et al., 2016; He et al., 2016)."


id: d6cbb6cfd684e2f5a67130cff9f54384
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"Adaptation planning for ecosystems and species requires monitoring \r and evaluation to identify trigger points and thresholds for new actions \r to be implemented (high confidence) (Tanner-McAllister et al., 2017; \r Williams et al., 2020). Best planning practice includes keeping options \r open (Barnett et al., 2015; Dunlop et al., 2016; Finlayson et al., 2017) \r and updating management plans in light of new information. New \r insights are emerging into how species' natural adaptive capacities \r can inform adaptation planning (Llewelyn et al., 2016; Steane et al., \r 2017; Hoeppner and Hughes, 2019). Physiological limits to adaptation \r in some species are being identified (Barnett et  al., 2015; Sorensen \r et al., 2016), and where natural responses are not feasible, human\u0002assisted translocations may be warranted (Becker et  al., 2013; \r Chauvenet et  al., 2013; Innes et  al., 2019) for some species (Ofori \r et al., 2017a; Ofori et al., 2017b). Legal reform may be needed to better \r [...]"


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"[...] enable climate adaptation for biodiversity conservation that recognises \r species' natural adjustments to their distributions and the difficulties \r encountered in predicting the consequences for ecological interactions \r and ecosystem services (McCormack, 2018; McDonald et al., 2019)."


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"Fire weather is projected to increase in frequency, severity and duration for southern and eastern Australia (high confidence) and most of \r New Zealand (medium confidence) (11.2.2), with projected increases in pyro-convection risk for parts of southern Australia (Dowdy et al., \r 2019) and increased dry-lightning and fire ignition for southeast Australia (Mariani et al., 2019; Dowdy, 2020). Increased fire risk in spring \r may reduce opportunities for prescribed fuel-reduction burning in some regions (Harris and Lucas, 2019; Di Virgilio et al., 2020). Fuel \r dryness is a key constraint on wildfire occurrence (Ruthrof et al., 2016). Vegetation change will affect fuel load and fire risk in different \r areas in complex ways (Watt et al., 2019; Alexandra and Max Finlayson, 2020; Clarke et al., 2020; Sanderson and Fisher, 2020).\r Direct effects of wildfire include death and injury to people and animals and damage to ecosystems, property, agriculture, water supplies \r [...]"


id: 8262fcb0279904d50bfc1c4aada5d1be
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"[...] and other infrastructure (Brodison, 2013; Pearce, 2018; de Jesus et al., 2020; Johnston et al., 2020; Maybery et al., 2020). Indirect effects \r include electricity and communication blackouts leading to cascading impacts on services, infrastructure and communities (Bowman, \r 2012; Schavemaker and van der Sluis, 2017)."


id: 61b794a572908ad9a6539c1c77e0ed22
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"The Australian wildfires of 2019-2020 resulted in 33 deaths, over 3000 houses destroyed, AUD$2.3  billion in insured losses and \r AUD$3.6 billion in losses for tourism, hospitality, agriculture and forestry (CoA, 2020e; Filkov et al., 2020) (Figure Box 11.1.2). Smoke caused \r a further 429 deaths and 3230 hospitalisations as a result of respiratory distress and illness, with health costs totalling AUD$1.95 billion \r (Johnston et al., 2020). These fires burnt about 5.8 to 8.1 million hectares of forest in eastern Australia (Ward et al., 2020; Godfree et al., \r 2021), resulting in the loss or displacement of nearly 3 billion vertebrate animals (CoA, 2020e; Wintle et al., 2020). Further, 114 listed \r threatened species lost at least 50% of their habitat, and 49 lost 80% (Wintle et al., 2020), among other severe ecological impacts \r (Hyman et al., 2020). Smoke carried over 4000 km to New Zealand, where it increased snow/glacier melt through darkening surfaces \r [...]"


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"[...] and produced a detectable odour (Pu et al. 2021;(Filkov et al., 2020). The fire season of 2019-2020 was at least 30% more likely than \r a century ago due to the influence of climate change (van Oldenborgh et  al., 2021). Following the fires, a Royal Commission into \r National Natural Disaster Arrangements made 80 recommendations, most of which were accepted by government, including establishing \r a disaster advisory body and a resilience and recovery agency (11.5.2.3) (CoA, 2020e)."


id: 72dc3f4961fe16bff1a2bbebd15f5fa5
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"In 2016 and 2017, the GBR experienced consecutive occurrences \r of the most severe coral bleaching in recorded history (very high \r confidence) (Box 11.2), with shallow-water reef in the top two-thirds \r of the GBR affected and the severity of bleaching on individual reefs \r tightly correlated with the level of local heat exposure (Hughes et al., \r 2018b; Hughes et al., 2019c). Mass mortality of corals from these two \r unprecedented events resulted in larval recruitment in 2018 declining \r by 89% compared to historical levels (Hughes et al., 2019b). southern \r reefs were also affected by warming, although significantly less than \r in the north (Kennedy et  al., 2018). Coral reefs in Australia are at \r very high risk of continued negative effects on ecosystem structure \r and function (very high confidence) (Hughes et  al., 2019b), cultural \r well-being (very high confidence) (Goldberg et al., 2016; Lyons et al., \r 2019), food provision (medium confidence) (Hoegh-Guldberg et  al., \r [...]"


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"[...] 2017), coastal protection (high confidence) (Ferrario et al., 2014) and \r tourism (high confidence) (Deloitte Access Economics, 2017; Prideaux \r and Pabel, 2018; GBRMPA, 2019). If bleaching persists, an estimated \r 10,000 jobs and AUD$1 billion in revenue would be lost per year from \r declines in tourism alone (Swann and Campbell, 2016)."


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"Future ocean warming, coupled with periodic extreme heat events, \r is projected to lead to the continued loss of ecosystem services and \r ecological functions (high confidence) (Smale et al., 2019) as species \r further shift their distributions and/or decline in abundance (Day et al., \r 2018). Compounding climate-driven changes in the distribution of \r habitat-forming species, invasive macroalgae are predicted to exhibit \r higher growth under all higher pCO2 and lower pH conditions (Roth\u0002Schulze et al., 2018). Corals and mangroves around northern Australia \r and kelp and seagrass around southern Australia are of critical \r importance for ecosystem structure and function, fishery productivity, \r coastal protection and carbon sequestration; these ecosystem services \r are therefore extremely likely2\r  to decline with continued warming. \r Equally, many species provide important ecosystem structure and \r function in New Zealand's seas including in the deep sea (Tracey \r [...]"


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"[...] and Hjorvarsdottir, 2019). The future level of sustainable exploitation \r of fisheries is dependent on how climate change impacts these \r ecosystems. Native kelp is projected to further decline in southeastern \r New Zealand with warming seas (Table 11.6). Climate change could \r affect New Zealand fisheries' productivity (Cummings et  al., 2021), \r and both ocean warming and acidification may directly affect shellfish \r culture (Cunningham et al., 2016; Cummings et al., 2019) and indirectly \r through changes in phytoplankton production (Pinkerton, 2017)."


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"(Table 11.3) (Law et al., 2016; Tait et al., 2016; Mikaloff-Fletcher et al., \r 2017). Acidification may alter sex determination (e.g., in the oyster \r Saccostrea glomerate), resulting in changes in sex ratios (Parker et al., \r 2018), and may thus affect reproductive success (low confidence). \r Decreasing river flows (Chiew et  al., 2017) are projected to cause \r periodically open estuaries across southwest Australia to remain closed \r for longer periods, inhibiting the extent to which marine taxa can \r access these systems (Hallett et al., 2017) and with warming predicted \r to constrain activity in some large fish (Scott et  al., 2019b). Major \r knowledge gaps include environmental tolerances of key life stages, \r sources of recruitment, population linkages, critical ecological (e.g., \r predator-prey interactions) or phenological relationships and projected \r responses to lowered pH (Fleming et al., 2014; Fogarty et al., 2019).\r [...]"


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"[...] Black-browed albatrosses breeding on Macquarie Island may be more \r vulnerable to future climate-driven changes to weather patterns in the \r Southern Ocean and potential latitudinal shifts in the sub-Antarctic \r Front (Cleeland et  al., 2019). New Zealand coastal ecosystems face \r risks from sea level rise (SLR) and extreme weather events (MfE, \r 2020a)."


id: 6ad1a4057a3a123a4e23306b38101e0c
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"The GBR is already severely impacted by climate change, particularly ocean warming, through more frequent and severe coral bleaching \r (very high confidence) (Hughes et al., 2018b; Hughes et al., 2019c). The worst coral bleaching event on record affected over 90% of reefs \r in 2016 (Hughes et al., 2018b). In the most northern 700-km-long section of the GBR in which the heat exposure was the most extreme, \r 50% of the coral cover on reef crests was lost within 8 months (Hughes et al., 2018c). Throughout the entire GBR, including the southern \r third where heat exposure was minimal, the cover of corals declined by 30% between March and November 2016 (Hughes et al., 2018b). \r In 2017, the central third of the reef was the most severely affected and the back-to-back regional-scale bleaching events has led to an \r unprecedented shift in the composition of GBR coral assemblages, transforming the northern and middle sections of the reef system \r [...]"


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"[...] (Hughes et al., 2018c) to a highly degraded state (very high confidence). Coral recruitment to the GBR in 2018 was reduced to only 11% \r of the long-term average (Hughes et al., 2019b). A mass bleaching event also occurred in 2020, making it the third event in 5 years (BoM, \r 2020) (Figure Boxes 11.2.1 and 11.2.2)."


id: e0d1b24ed9cb2621a189807083e9015d
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"Climate change adaptation opportunities and pathways have been \r identified across aquaculture, fisheries, conservation and tourism \r sectors in the region (MacDiarmid et  al., 2013; Fleming et  al., \r 2014; MPI, 2015; Jennings et al., 2016; MfE, 2016; Royal Society Te \r Aparangi, 2017; Ling and Hobday, 2019), and some stakeholders \r are already autonomously adapting (Pecl et al., 2019). Some fishing \r and aquaculture industries use seasonal forecasts of environmental \r conditions to improve decision-making, risk management and business \r planning (Hobday et  al., 2016), with the potential to use 5-yearly \r forecasts similarly (Champion et al., 2019). Shifts in the distribution \r and availability of target species (e.g., oceanic tuna) would impact \r the ability of domestic fishing vessels to continue current fishing \r practices, with potential social and economic adjustment costs (Dell \r et  al., 2015), including disruption to supply chains (Fleming et  al., \r [...]"


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"[...] 2014; Plaganyi et  al., 2014) (Cross-Chapter Box  MOVING SPECIES \r in Chapter 5). Species abundance data are insufficient to enable \r projections of climate impacts on fishery productivity. However, fishery \r and aquaculture industries are considering adaptation strategies, \r such as changing harvests and relocating farms (Pinkerton, 2017). \r Thus, while climate change is extremely likely to affect the abundance \r and distribution of marine species around New Zealand, insufficient \r monitoring means there is limited evidence of ecosystem level change \r in biodiversity to date and no quantitative projections of which species \r may win and lose to climate change (Table 11.6) (Law et al., 2018a; \r Law et al., 2018b)."


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"Streamflow has generally increased in northern Australia and decreased \r in southern Australia since the mid-1970s (high confidence) (Zhang \r et al., 2016). Declining river flows since the mid-1970s in southwest \r Australia have led to changed water management (WA Government, \r 2012; WA Government, 2016). The large decline in river flows during \r the so-called 1997-2009 Millennium drought in southeast Australia \r resulted in low irrigation water allocations, severe water restrictions \r and major environmental impacts (Potter et  al., 2010; Chiew and \r Prosser, 2011; Leblanc et al., 2012; van Dijk et al., 2013). The drying in \r southern Australia highlighted the need for hydrological models that \r adequately account for climate change (Vaze et al., 2010; Chiew et al., \r 2014; Saft et al., 2016; Fowler et al., 2018). The decline in streamflow \r was largely due to the decline in cool-season rainfall (which has been \r partly attributed to climate change) (Figure 11.2) (Timbal and Hendon, \r [...]"


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"[...] 2011; Post et al., 2014; Hope et al., 2017; DELWP, 2020), when most of \r the runoff in southern Australia occurs."


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"The widespread 2017-2019 drought across eastern Australia (BoM, \r 2021b) has led to the Australian government establishing a Future \r Drought Fund (Australian Government, 2019) to enhance drought \r resilience and a National Water Grid Authority to develop regional \r water infrastructure to support agriculture. Nevertheless, the ability to \r adapt to climate change is compounded by uncertainties in future water \r projections, complex interactions between science, policy, community \r values and political voice, and competition between different sectors \r dependent on water (Boxes 11.3 and 11.5). The impact of declining \r water resources on agricultural, ecosystems and communities in \r southeastern Australia would escalate with ongoing climate change \r (medium confidence) (Hart, 2016; Moyle et  al., 2017), highlighting \r the importance of more ambitious, anticipatory, participatory and \r integrated adaptation responses (Bettini et al., 2015; Abel et al., 2016; \r [...]"


id: 831e954d23e8d9b202ad19290609ede6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20193
content:
"The economic, environmental and social impacts of the 1997-2009 Millennium Drought in the MDB (Chiew and Prosser, 2011; Leblanc \r et al., 2012; van Dijk et al., 2013) and projections of a drier future under climate change have accelerated significant water policy reforms \r costing more than AUD$12 billion (Bark et al., 2014; Docker and Robinson, 2014; Hart, 2016). These reforms included the development \r of a Basin Plan (MDBA, 2011; MDBA, 2012) requiring consistent regional water resource plans (MDBA, 2011; MDBA, 2012; MDBA, \r 2013) and environmental watering strategies (MDBA, 2014) across the MDB. Despite contestation, the reforms have resulted in some \r substantive achievements, including returning an equivalent of about one-fifth of consumptive water to the environment through the \r purchase of irrigation water entitlements and infrastructure projects (medium confidence) (Hart, 2016; Gawne et al., 2020; MDBA, 2020). \r [...]"


id: 606756f8f7bcba56df55d6681d11ed48
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] However, the overall impacts of these water management initiatives are difficult to measure due to hydroclimatic variability, time lags \r and environmental, social and institutional complexity (Crase, 2011; Bark et al., 2014; Docker and Robinson, 2014; MDBA, 2020)."


id: 1da2d6d87e179346aab1c1d12ee851f6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2399
content:
"Adapting MDB management to climate risks is an escalating challenge, with the projected decline in runoff being potentially greater than \r the water recovered for the environment (Chiew et al., 2017). While the Basin Plan includes mechanisms for climate risk management \r (Neave et al., 2015), it does not require altering pre-existing rules that distribute the impacts of anticipated reductions in water resources \r between users (Hart, 2016; Capon and Capon, 2017; Alexandra, 2020). The intense drought conditions in 2017-2019 (BoM, 2021b), the \r South Australian Royal Commission investigation into the MDB reforms (SA Government, 2019b) and major fish kills in the lower Darling \r River in the summer of 2018/2019 (AAS, 2019; Vertessy et al., 2019) have increased concerns about the Basin Plan's climate adaptation \r deficit (medium confidence). Consequently, the MDB Authority (MDBA) is undertaking an assessment of climate change risks and \r [...]"


id: 852f99df0e9b090bc8c898a3a1b287fa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20573
content:
"[...] developing adaptation mechanisms (MDBA, 2019) that can feed into the revisions to the Basin Plan scheduled for 2026. The MDB reforms \r to date illustrate the difficulties in integrating climate change science and projections into management (Alexandra, 2018; Alexandra, \r 2020). Anticipatory and participatory governance and adaptive management approaches supported by structural and institutional \r reforms would support the effectiveness of the reforms (Abel et al., 2016; Alexandra, 2019; Hassenforder and Barone, 2019; Marshall and \r Lobry de Bruyn, 2021)."


id: 2eda3721d1a5174862292837d4cdea89
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5515
content:
"In non-urban areas, where the flood response is also dependent on antecedent catchment conditions (Johnson et al., 2016; Sharma et al., \r 2018), there is no evidence of increasing flood magnitudes in Australia (Ishak et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2016; Bennett et al., 2018), except \r for the most extreme events (Sharma et al., 2018; Wasko and Nathan, 2019). Modelling studies project increases in flood magnitudes in \r northern and eastern Australia and in western and northern New Zealand (high confidence) (Hirabayashi et al., 2013; Collins et al., 2018a; \r Do et al., 2020). The change in flood magnitude in southern Australia is uncertain because of the compensating effect of more intense \r extreme rainfall versus projected drier antecedent conditions (Johnson et al., 2016; Pedruco et al., 2018; Wasko and Nathan, 2019). Higher \r rainfall intensity and peak flows also increase erosion and sediment and nutrient loads in waterways (Lough et al., 2015) and exacerbate \r [...]"


id: 1384ec56ccb7e078906b6e97be773989
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 646
content:
"[...] problems from ageing stormwater and wastewater infrastructure (Jollands et al., 2007; WSAA, 2016; Hughes et al., 2021)."


id: 92498b50d5d20684147f49cd6178f3e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22958
content:
"Drought, heat and frost in recent decades have shown the vulnerability \r of Australian field crops and horticulture to climate change (Cai \r et  al., 2014; Howden et  al., 2014; CSIRO and BOM, 2015; Lobell \r et  al., 2015; Hughes and Lawson, 2017; King et  al., 2017; Webb \r et al., 2017; Harris et al., 2020) as recognised by policymakers (CoA, \r 2019a) (high confidence). Northern Australia's agricultural output \r losses are on average 19% each year due to drought (Thi Tran et al., \r 2016). In southern Australia, the frequency of frost has been relatively \r unchanged since the 1980s (Dittus et  al., 2014; Pepler et  al., 2018; \r BoM and CSIRO, 2020). Drier winters have increased the irrigation \r requirement for wine grapes (Bonada et al., 2020), while smoke from \r the 2019/20 fires, which occurred early in the season, caused significant \r taint damage (Jiang et al., 2021). In New Zealand, reduced winter chill \r has a compounded impact on the kiwifruit industry, resulting in early \r [...]"


id: ca24d1f112008f00cdf3687c8d241593
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32904
content:
"[...] harvest and increased energy demand for refrigeration and port access \r problems (Cradock-Henry et al., 2019) (11.5)."


id: c7bb8bd32a42d40d9e1634c3e0eb32b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32447
content:
"Some farmers are adapting to drier and warmer conditions through \r more effective capture of non-growing-season rainfall (e.g., stubble \r retention to store soil water), improved water use efficiency and \r matching sowing times and cultivars to the environment (high \r confidence) (Kirkegaard and Hunt, 2011; Fitzer et al., 2019; Haensch \r et  al., 2021). Observed adaptations include new technologies that \r improve resource efficiencies, professional knowledge and skills \r development, new farmer and community networks and diversification \r of business and household income (Ghahramani et  al., 2015; De \r et al., 2016). For Australian wheat, earlier sowing and longer-season \r cultivars may increase yield by 2-4% by 2050, with a range of -7 to \r +2% by 2090 (Wang et al., 2018a). In the wheat industry, breeding \r for improved reproductive frost tolerance remains a priority (Lobell \r et al., 2015). Modelling suggests that, since 1990, farm management \r [...]"


id: 6ae64c76362f5025aceb29feec19be52
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16093
content:
"[...] has held Australian wheat yields constant, but declining rainfall and \r increasing temperature may have contributed to a 27% decline in \r simulated potential Australian wheat yield (Hochman et al., 2017)."


id: ff098f1049d0f1718321c075d7f8236
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42271
content:
"Other climate-change-related factors complicate crop climate \r responses. When CO2 was elevated from present-day levels of 400 to \r 550 ppm in trials, yields of rainfed wheat, field pea and lentil increased \r approximately 25% (0-70%). However, there was a 6% reduction in \r wheat protein that could not be offset by additional nitrogen fertilizer \r (O'Leary et al., 2015; Fitzgerald et al., 2016; Tausz et al., 2017). Elevated \r CO2 will worsen some pest and disease pressures, for example, \r barley yellow dwarf virus impacts on wheat (Trebicki et  al., 2015). \r Warmer temperatures are also expanding the potential range of the \r Queensland fruit fly, including into New Zealand (Aguilar et al., 2015a), \r threatening the horticulture industry (Sultana et  al., 2017; Sultana \r et al., 2020). Some crop pests (e.g., the oat aphid) are projected to be \r negatively affected by climate change (Macfadyen et al., 2018), but \r [...]"


id: c71d26d253a83b515f00add8fa313498
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32350
content:
"[...] so too are beneficial insects. There is large uncertainty in rainfall and \r crop projections for northern Australia (Table 11.3). For sugarcane, an \r impact assessment for CO2 at 734 ppm using the A2 emission scenario \r at Ayr in Queensland projected modest yield increases (Singels et al., \r 2014). Climate change is projected to adversely impact tropical fruit \r crops such as mangoes through higher minimum and maximum \r temperatures, reducing the number of inductive days for flowering \r (Clonan et al., 2020)."


id: a368068f8224469d0dd32c0784f85156
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25958
content:
"Adaptations in both grazing and confined beef cattle systems require \r enhanced decision-making skills capable of integrating biophysical, \r social and economic considerations (high confidence). Social learning \r networks that support integration of lessons learned from early \r adopters and involvement with science-based organisations can help \r enhance decision-making and climate adaptation planning (Derner \r et al., 2018). Pasture management adaptations for livestock production \r include deeper rooted pasture species in higher rainfall regions \r (Cullen et  al., 2014) and drought-tolerant species (Mathew et  al., \r 2018). Soil and land management practices are important in ensuring \r soils maintain their supporting and regulating services (Orwin et al., \r 2015). Adaptations in the primary sector in New Zealand are now \r positioned within the requirements of the National Policy Statement \r on Freshwater (MfE, 2020b). Adaptations to manage heat stress in \r [...]"


id: f81da4008317269413701aa93939378d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41026
content:
"[...] livestock include altering the breeding calendar, providing shade and \r sprinklers, altering nutrition and feeding times and more heat-tolerant \r animal breeds (Chang-Fung-Martel et al., 2017; Lees et al., 2019; van \r Wettere et al., 2021)."


id: 9ec7e88557557559396712419121b0d8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25155
content:
"Extreme climatic events (droughts, floods and heatwaves) are \r projected to adversely impact productivity for livestock systems \r (medium confidence). This includes reduced pasture growth rates \r between 3-23% by 2070 from late spring to autumn and elevated \r growth in winter and early spring (Cullen et al., 2009; Hennessy et al., \r 2016; Chang-Fung-Martel et al., 2017). Heavy rainfall and storms are \r projected to lead to increased erosion, particularly in extensively grazed \r systems on steeper land, reducing productivity for decades, reducing \r soil carbon (Orwin et al., 2015) and increasing sedimentation. Increased \r heat stress in livestock is projected to decrease milk production and \r livestock reproduction rates (high confidence) (Nidumolu et al., 2014; \r Ausseil et al., 2019b; Lees et al., 2019). In Australia, the average number \r of moderate to severe heat stress days for livestock is projected to \r increase 12-15 d by 2025 and 31-42 d by 2050 compared to 1970-\r [...]"


id: be4c4c51383837056c35215ff6ba5427
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30747
content:
"[...] 2000 (Nidumolu et al., 2014). In New Zealand, an extra 5 (RCP2.6) to \r 7 (RCP8.5) moderate heat stress days per year are projected for 2046-\r 2060 (high confidence) (Ausseil et al., 2019b), which would especially \r affect animals transported long distances (Zhang and Phillips, 2019) and \r strain the cold chains needed to deliver meat and dairy products safely. \r The distribution of existing and new pests and diseases are projected to "


id: 122b69decbed57bf8c8626d60e2e73d6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 387
content:
"Aquaculture is projected to be more easily adapted than wild fisheries \r to avoid excessive exposure to the physio-chemical stresses from \r acidification, warming and extreme events (Richards et al., 2015). In \r New Zealand, wild and cultured shellfish are identified as being most \r at risk from climate change (Capson and Guinotte, 2014). Changes \r in ocean temperature and acidification and the downstream impacts \r on species distribution, productivity and catch are projected concerns \r (medium confidence) (Law et al., 2016) that impact Maori harvesting \r of traditional seafood and the social, cultural and educational \r elements of food gathering (mahinga kai) (MfE, 2016). Warm \r temperate hatchery-based finfish species (yellowtail kingfish Seriola \r lalandi) are projected to be the least at risk, because of well-controlled \r environmental conditions in hatcheries and temperature increases, \r which are expected to increase growth rates and productivity during \r [...]"


id: 9daa79adab27befd75c244539476428
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24971
content:
"[...] the grow-out stage (Doubleday et al., 2013). For wild fisheries, multi\u0002model projections suggest temperate and demersal systems, especially \r invertebrate shallow-water species, would be more strongly affected by \r climate change than tropical and pelagic systems (medium confidence) \r (Pecl et al., 2014; Fulton et al., 2018; Pethybridge et al., 2020). In New \r Zealand waters, available habitat for both albacore tuna and oceanic \r tuna (Cummings et al., 2021) is expected to widen and shift."


id: 5f818eb56ca67f5e55013e0901c028d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14112
content:
"Combined impacts from heavy rainfall, soil erosion, drought, fire and \r pest incursions are projected to increase risks to the permanence of \r carbon offset and removal strategies in New Zealand for meeting its \r climate change targets (PCE, 2019; Watt et al., 2019; Anderegg et al., \r 2020; Schenuit et al., 2021). Effective management of the interactions \r between mitigation and adaptation policies can be achieved through \r governance and institutions, including Maori tribal organisations \r and sectoral adaptation, to ensure effective and continued carbon \r sequestration and storage as the climate changes (medium confidence) \r (Lawrence et al., 2020b) (11.4.2) (Box 11.5). The productivity of radiata \r pine (P. radiata D. Don) in New Zealand due to higher CO2 is projected to \r increase by 19% by 2040 and 37% by 2090, but greater wind damage \r to trees is expected (Watt et  al., 2019). Changes in the distribution \r of existing weeds, pests and diseases with potential establishment \r [...]"


id: baa79d9ddfd87482e3a8c065d0e5b62d
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vector_id: 30054
content:
"[...] of new sub-tropical pests and seasonal invasions are projected (Kean \r et al., 2015; Watt et al., 2019; MfE, 2020a). Increased pathogens such \r as pitch canker, red needle cast and North American bark beetles could \r damage plantations (Hauraki Gulf Forum, 2017; Lantschner, 2017; \r Watt et al., 2019)."


id: 7b2daab6e51b4e807853043919b68b3f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18865
content:
"Furthermore, overallocation raises further tensions from competing uses of water such as for horticulture and urban water supplies, \r as well as for ecological requirements. The deterioration of water quality and loss of places of social, economic, cultural and spiritual \r significance creates increasing tension for Maori in particular (Harmsworth et al., 2016; Salmon, 2019; MfE and Stats NZ, 2021). Public \r concern has increased over the deterioration of New Zealand's waterways and the profiting of some land uses at the expense of \r environmental quality and human health--tensions that make adaptation to climate change more challenging (Duncan, 2014; Foote \r et al., 2015; Scarsbrook and Melland, 2015; McDowell et al., 2016; McKergow et al., 2016; Greenhalgh and Samarasinghe, 2018). A lack \r of precautionary governance of water resources linked to unsustainable land use practices degrading water quality (Scarsbrook and \r [...]"


id: 295bfb8c9473d066ecfbe0ad4a9bea1d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4494
content:
"[...] Melland, 2015; Salmon, 2019) highlights the role that foresight could play in managing the nexus between land, water and people in a \r changing climate (11.3.3). Adaptive planning holds potential for navigating these multi-dimensional challenges (Sharma-Wallace et al., \r 2018; Cradock-Henry and Fountain, 2019; Hurlbert et al., 2019) (11.7)."


id: e8785736d62174bd0fe8611e1b86eab3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38237
content:
"Furthermore, land and, in particular, plantation and native forests play a critical role in meeting New Zealand's emissions reduction goals. \r However, the persistence of land and forests as a carbon sink is uncertain, and the sequestered carbon is at risk from future loss resulting \r from climate change impacts, including from increased fire, drought and pest incursions, storms and wind (IPCC, 2019a; PCE, 2019; Watt \r et al., 2019; Anderegg et al., 2020) (11.3.4.3), underlining the importance of interactions between mitigation and adaptation policy and \r implementation. Integrated climate change policies across biodiversity, water quality, water availability, land use and forestry for mitigation \r can support the management of land use, water and people conflicts, but there is little evidence of such coordinated policies (Cradock-Henry \r et al., 2018b; Wreford et al., 2019). Implementation of the National Policy Statement for Freshwater Management 2020 (MfE, 2020b) and the \r [...]"


id: fadff857b222c7f8b516bb12fecfd11e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41519
content:
"[...] National Adaptation Plan (due out in August 2022) present opportunities for such interconnections and diverse values to be addressed, as \r well as enabling sector and community benefits to be realised across New Zealand (Awatere et al., 2018; Lawrence et al., 2020b)."


id: 8fac001aa88afd259251e6cb37690ad7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22488
content:
"Extreme heat risks are projected to exacerbate existing heat-related \r impacts on human health, vegetation and infrastructure (Tapper et al., \r 2014; Tapper, 2021) (11.3.6). In Australia, the annual frequency of days \r over 35degC is projected to increase 20-70% by 2030 (RCP4.5), and \r 25-85% (RCP2.6) to 80-350% (RCP8.5) by 2090 (Table  11.3a). For \r example, Perth may average 36 d over 35degC by 2030 (RCP4.5). In New \r Zealand, the annual frequency of days over 25degC may increase 20-\r 60% (RCP2.6) to 50-100% (RCP8.5) by 2040 and 20-60% (RCP2.6) to \r 130-350% (RCP8.5) by 2090 (Table 11.3b). For example, Auckland may \r average 39 d over 25degC by 2040 (RCP8.5). Unprecedented extreme \r temperatures, as high as 50degC in Sydney or Melbourne, could occur \r with global warming of 2.0degC (Lewis et al., 2017). Heat-related costs \r for Melbourne during 2012-2051 are estimated at AUD$1.9  billion, \r of which AUD$1.6  billion is human health/mortality costs (AECOM, \r [...]"


id: 79976dc75d9c90d6175991ddb8400966
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18596
content:
"[...] 2012). Extreme heat is threatening liveability in some rural areas in \r Australia (Turton, 2017), particularly given their reliance on outside \r physical work and older populations."


id: 5bc48f4077f3d071f5d8c059f8f73635
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13404
content:
"settlements and infrastructure (very high confidence) (Table  11.15a \r and Table  11.15b; Supplementary Material Tables SM11.1a and \r SM11.1b). There is increasing awareness of the need to move from \r incremental coping and defensive coastal strategies (Jongejan et al., \r 2016) to transformational adaptation, for example managed retreat \r (Torabi et al., 2018; Hanna, 2019), and to consider the flow-on effects \r (e.g., for housing and employment) (Fatoric et al., 2017; Torabi et al., \r 2018). Strategies limited to building household and community self\u0002reliance (Astill and Miller, 2018) are increasingly inadequate given sys\u0002temic and interconnected stressors and cascading impacts across in\u0002terdependent systems (Lawrence et al., 2020b). Integrated approaches \r to climate change adaptation and emissions reduction have potential \r for addressing interdependent systems (e.g., nature-based approaches, \r [...]"


id: 126dfef000ed1179cebb390b761218d0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 443
content:
"[...] climate-sensitive urban design, energy and transport systems) (Nor\u0002man et al., 2021). Climate risk assessment and adaptation guidelines \r have been prepared for transport infrastructure authorities and organ\u0002isations (Finlayson et al., 2017; Byett et al., 2019; Yenneti et al., 2020)."


id: 2efdd7b5857848de941af564460cdb13
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5542
content:
"mitigation goals (e.g., current energy efficiency standards in Australian \r buildings can worsen their heat resistance and increase dependence \r on air-conditioning) (Hatvani-Kovacs et al., 2018). Where there is a lack \r of coordination between jurisdictions, there can be flow-on effects \r from failure to adapt, for example in coastal local government areas \r (Dedekorkut-Howes et al., 2020) (Box 11.6). There is limited information \r across the region on climate change impacts and adaptation options for \r telecommunications (NCCARF, 2013) (Table 11.7). There is an emerging \r recognition that implementing and evaluating the adaptation process \r (vulnerability and risk assessments, identification of options, planning, \r implementation, monitoring, evaluation and review) in local contexts \r can advance more effective adaptation (Moloney and McClaren, 2018). \r For example, the Victorian state government has built monitoring, \r evaluation and adaptation components into its adaptation plan \r [...]"


id: 9249f51b3c2d1f935f07667b67bceb8d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22959
content:
"In Australia, adaptation to SLR remains uneven across jurisdictions in the absence of clear federal or state guidance, rendering Australia \r unprepared for flooding from SLR (Dedekorkut-Howes et al., 2020). Risk-averse coastal governance at the local level has led to shifts in \r liabilities to other actors and to future generations (Jozaei et al., 2020). Managed retreat has emerged as an adaptation option in New \r Zealand (Rouse et al., 2017; Hanna, 2019; Kool et al., 2020; Lawrence et al., 2020c), where protective measures are transitional (DoC \r NZ, 2010) and where managed retreat has arisen from collaborative governance (Owen et al., 2018). Remaining adaptation barriers are \r social or cultural (the absence of licence and legitimacy) and institutional (the absence of regulations, policies and processes that support \r changes to existing property rights and the funding of retreat) (high confidence) (O'Donnell and Gates, 2013; Tombs et al., 2018; Grace \r [...]"


id: 4cdfd10936e3b92e152306de2a63566e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10798
content:
"Legacy development, competing public and private interests, trade-offs among development and conservation objectives, policy \r inconsistencies, short- and long-term objectives and the timing and scale of impacts compound to create contestation over \r implementation of coastal adaptation (high confidence) (Mills et al., 2016b; McClure and Baker, 2018; Dedekorkut-Howes et al., 2020; \r McDonald, 2020; Schneider et al., 2020). Legal barriers to coastal adaptation remain (Schumacher, 2020) with a risk that the courts will \r become decision makers (Iorns Magallanes et al., 2018) due to legislative fragmentation, status quo leadership, lack of coordination \r between governance levels and agreement about who pays for what adaptation (very high confidence) (Waters et al., 2014; Boston and \r Lawrence, 2018; Palutikof et al., 2019a; Noy, 2020). The nexus of climate, law, place and property rights continues to expose people and \r [...]"


id: e955e8b73134d2c6936bac13cf1952a8
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"[...] assets to ongoing SLR (Johnston and France-Hudson, 2019; O'Donnell, 2019), especially where the risks of SLR are not being reflected \r in property valuations (Cradduck et al., 2020). Risk signalling through land use planning, flooding events and changes in insurance \r availability and costs is projected to increase recognition of coastal risks (medium confidence) (Storey and Noy, 2017; CCATWG, 2018; \r Lawrence et al., 2018a; Harvey and Clarke, 2019; Steffen et al., 2019; Cradduck et al., 2020; ICNZ, 2021). Proactive local-led engagement \r and strategy are key to effective adaptation and incentivising and supporting communities to act (Gibbs, 2020; Schneider et al., 2020). \r Adopting 'fit for purpose' decision tools that are flexible as sea levels rise (11.7.3) can build adaptive capacity in communities and \r institutions (high confidence)."


id: 93cb19e94e93ff19ca5f196349d7edf8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23210
content:
"There is ample evidence of health loss due to extreme weather in \r Australia and New Zealand, and rising temperatures, changing \r rainfall patterns and increasing fire weather have been attributed to \r anthropogenic climate change (11.2.1). Extreme heat leads to excess \r deaths and increased rates of many illnesses (Hales et  al., 2000; \r Nitschke et al., 2011; Lu et al., 2020). Between 1991 and 2011 it is \r estimated that 35-36% of heat-related mortality in Brisbane, Sydney \r and Melbourne was attributable to climate change, amounting to \r about 106 deaths a year on average over the study period (Vicedo\u0002Cabrera et  al., 2021). Exposure to high temperatures at work is \r common in Australia, and the health consequences may include more \r accidents, acute heat stroke and chronic disease (Kjellstrom et  al., \r 2016).  Long-term rise in temperatures is changing the balance of \r summer and winter mortality in Australia (Hanigan et al., 2021). The \r [...]"


id: 90ffafba2c8f7cc8cd22047c68b79fd0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22715
content:
"[...] Black Summer wildfires in Australia in 2019/2020 (Box 11.1) caused \r 33 deaths directly (Davey and Sarre, 2020) and exposed millions of \r people to heavy particulate pollution (Vardoulakis et  al., 2020). In \r the Australian states most heavily affected by the fires, 417 deaths, \r 3151 hospital admissions for cardiovascular or respiratory conditions \r and about 1300 emergency department presentations for asthma are \r attributed to wildfire smoke exposure (Borchers Arriagada et al., 2020). \r Immediate smoke-related health costs from the 2019-2020 fires are \r estimated at AUD$1.95 billion (Johnston et al., 2020)."


id: a0e478bdb247ef6247dc294b10e0a940
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25531
content:
"Extreme heat is associated with decreased mental well-being, more \r marked in women than men (Ding et  al., 2016). Changing climatic \r patterns in western Australia have undermined farmers' sense of \r identity and place, heightened anxiety and increased self-perceived \r risks of depression and suicide (Ellis and Albrecht, 2017). Following the \r Black Saturday wildfires in Victoria in 2009, 10-15% of the population \r in the most severely affected areas reported persistent fire-related \r post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and psychological distress \r (Bryant et al., 2014). Repeated exposure to the threat of wildfires in \r Australia, either directly (Box 11.1) or through media coverage (Looi \r et al., 2020), may compound effects on mental health. In March 2017, \r 31,000 people in New South Wales and Queensland were displaced \r by Tropical Cyclone Debbie. Six months post-cyclone, adverse mental \r health outcomes were more common among those whose access to \r [...]"


id: cf821322e073ecb0788939b992a46143
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33869
content:
"Widespread impacts from projected climate change are very likely\r across the tourism sector. The World Heritage listed Kakadu National \r Park in Australia is projected to experience increasing severity of \r cyclones (Turton, 2014), and sea level rise (SLR) is projected to affect \r freshwater wetlands (11.3.1.2; Table 11.5) (McInnes et al., 2015) and \r Indigenous rock art (Higham et al., 2016; Hughes et al., 2018a). The \r projected increase in the number of hot days in northern and inland \r Australia may impact the attractiveness of the region for tourists \r (Amelung and Nicholls, 2014; Webb and Hennessy, 2015). Coastal \r erosion and flooding of Australasian beaches due to sea level rise (SLR) \r and intensifying storm activity are estimated to increase by 60% on \r the Sunshine Coast by 2030, causing significant damage to tourist\u0002related infrastructure (Hughes et al., 2018a). Urgent 'hard' and 'soft' \r adaptation strategies are projected to help reduce sea level rise (SLR) \r [...]"


id: 772b4d2a32642cf446ddbbc050451b90
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18169
content:
"Impacts of climate change are being observed across the tourism \r system (high confidence) (Scott et al., 2019a), most notably the GBR \r (Box  11.2) (Ma and Kirilenko, 2019). Australia's ski industry is very \r sensitive to climatic change, due to reductions in snow depth and \r snow season length (Table  11.2) (Steiger et  al., 2019; Knowles and \r Scott, 2020). The 2019-2020 summer wildfires (Box  11.1) impacted \r tourism and travel infrastructure, affecting air quality, vineyards and \r wineries (CoA, 2020e; Filkov et al., 2020). Global media coverage of \r the wildfires, alongside Australia's climate change policy response, \r profoundly and negatively, affected Australia's destination image \r (Schweinsberg et al., 2020; Wen et al., 2020). In New Zealand's South \r Island, Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers have retreated approximately \r 700 m since 2008, with ice melt and retreat resulting in increased \r rock fall risks and negatively affecting the tourist experience (Purdie, \r [...]"


id: b144cfae4504049067c59142b52636bf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28417
content:
"[...] 2013; Stewart et al., 2016; Wang and Zhou, 2019). The west coast of \r New Zealand is extremely prone to flooding events, impacting amenity \r values and access (Paulik et al., 2019a). Damage to tracks, huts and "


id: 4dce7948626f19d9147d23a0078d7268
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10959
content:
"Risks for the finance sector are projected to increase (medium \r confidence). The potential impact of increased coastal and inland \r flooding, soil desiccation and contraction, fire and wind could lead to \r higher insurance costs, reduced property values and difficulties for some \r customers to service loans (CBA, 2018). Under a high-emissions scenario \r (RCP8.5), estimated annual losses to home-lending customers may \r increase 27% by 2060, and the proportion of properties with high credit \r risk may rise from 0.01% in 2020 to 1% in 2060, assuming no portfolio \r changes (CBA, 2018). In New Zealand, weather-related insurance claims \r between 2000 and 2017 totalled NZD$450 million, 40% of which was \r due to extreme rainfall. Using six climate model projections of extreme \r rainfall, the insured damage is projected to increase by 7% (RCP2.6) \r to 8% (RCP8.5) by 2020-2040 and 9% (RCP2.6) to 25% (RCP8.5) by \r 2080-2100, relative to 2000-2017 (Pastor-Paz et al., 2020). By 2050-\r [...]"


id: e345551c14cb9be4023f5d3e6b463769
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37282
content:
"[...] 2070, tropical cyclone risk for properties not in flood plains or storm \r surge zones in south-east Queensland may increase by 33% under a \r 2degC scenario and by 317% under a 3degC scenario for properties in flood \r plains and storm surge zones (IAG, 2019)."


id: c30be326bff9edd928c449555ff194fc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31589
content:
"Banks, insurers and investors increasingly recognise the risks posed \r by climate change to their businesses (high confidence) (Paddam \r and Wong, 2017). Collaborations between banks, insurers and \r superannuation funds in Australia and New Zealand are driving \r efforts aimed at achieving the Paris Agreement goals, including \r the New Zealand Centre for Sustainable Finance and Australian \r Sustainable Finance Initiative (AFSI, 2020; TAO, 2020; NZCFSF, 2021). \r Company directors, including superannuation fund directors, have \r legal obligations to disclose and appropriately manage material \r financial risks (Barker et al., 2016; Hutley and Davis, 2019). Financial \r regulators are aware of climate risks for financial stability and financial \r institutions (RBNZ, 2018; RBA, 2019) and are closely supervising \r climate risk disclosure practices (TCFD, 2017; RBNZ, 2018; APRA, \r 2019; CMSI, 2020; IGCC, 2021b). In Australia, regulatory action (APRA, \r [...]"


