# document

id: cb54790e4206ed3754127652a3960a08
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33103
content:
"[...] 2021) includes issuing prudential guidelines for financial institutions \r on managing climate risk, aligned with guidelines developed by the \r Climate Measurement Standards Initiative (NESP ESCC, 2020). In New \r Zealand, the financial sector (climate-related disclosure and other \r matters) amendment bill aims to ensure that the effects of climate \r change are routinely considered in business, investment, lending and \r insurance underwriting decisions (NZ Government, 2021)."


id: 335f89400cf46edf0f28371fb01240ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6291
content:
"Aggregated insured losses from weather-related hazard events \r from 2013 to 2020 were almost AUD$15 billion for Australia (1.2% \r of GDP) and almost NZD$1  billion for New Zealand (0.4% of GDP) \r (NIWA, 2020; ICA, 2021) (ICA, 2020a; NIWA, 2020). However, there is \r no trend in normalised losses because the rising insurance costs are \r being driven by more people living in vulnerable locations with more \r to lose (McAneney et al., 2019). In New Zealand, two major hailstorms \r during 2014-2020 and three major floods during 2019-2021 caused \r significant insurance losses (ICNZ, 2021). Insured losses exceeded \r NZD$472  million for the 12 costliest floods from 2007 to 2017, of \r which NZD$140 million could be attributed to anthropogenic climate \r change (Frame et al., 2020). In Australia, insured damage was almost \r AUD$1.0 billion for the Queensland hailstorm in 2020, AUD$1.7 billion \r for east coast flooding in 2020, AUD$2.3 billion for the 2019-2020 fires, \r [...]"


id: 6a4a30dcb8e79fc4e22e91bb84f1058a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15981
content:
"[...] AUD$2.3 billion for the Queensland hailstorm in 2019, AUD$1.2 billion \r for the North Queensland floods in 2019, AUD$1.4 billion for the NSW \r hailstorm in 2018, AUD$1.8  billion for Cyclone Debbie in 2017 and \r AUD$1.5 billion for the Brisbane hailstorm in 2014 (ICA, 2020b). The \r insured loss from the seven costliest hailstorms in Australia from 2014 \r to 2021 totalled AUD$7.6 billion (ICA, 2021)."


id: 26ecf1f61552194188b0f9ae8c87252b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4007
content:
"Current and future insurance affordability pressures could be addressed \r by increased mitigation, revisions to building codes and standards \r and better land use planning (ACCC, 2020; Actuaries Institute, 2020). \r In New Zealand, insurance signals are motivating the government \r to address adaptation funding mechanisms (Boston and Lawrence, \r 2018; CCATWG, 2018). Some insurers offer premium discounts to \r customers with reduced risk (Drill et  al., 2016), with increasing \r premiums reflecting known risk and no cover for some hazards in risky \r locations (CCATWG, 2017). Special excess payments are available for \r flood hazard so customers take responsibility for part of the claim, \r with increasing premiums to reflect known and foreseeable risk and \r downgrading cover from replacement value to market value (Bruyere \r et  al., 2020). Retreat by private insurers from risky locations could \r increase the unfunded fiscal risk to the government (Storey and \r [...]"


id: 86aae0c317acb65d1da5df399a35b537
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20860
content:
"[...] Noy, 2017), creating moral hazard (Boston and Lawrence, 2018). The \r litigation risk from failing to take adaptation action (Hodder, 2019) \r could affect financial markets and government policy settings, creating \r cascading impacts across society (Lawrence et al., 2020b) CRO Forum, \r 2019). For some climate risks, national governments act as 'last resort' \r insurers (CCATWG, 2017), but this could become unsustainable (CRO \r Forum, 2019)."


id: 3ea3daae709e1812c4e235ed196eca8f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8209
content:
"The energy sector is highly vulnerable to climate change (high \r confidence). Oil and gas systems are vulnerable to storms, fires, \r drought, floods, sea level rise (SLR), extreme heat and fires, which can \r damage infrastructure, slow production and add to operational costs \r (Smith, 2013). The electricity system is vulnerable to high temperatures \r reducing generator and network capacity and increasing failure \r rates and maintenance costs (AEMO, 2020a). Fires (including those \r sparked by electrical distribution lines) pose risks to assets. Smoke \r can cause electricity transmission to trip, and high winds reduce wind\u0002energy capacity and threaten the integrity of transmission lines. Low \r rainfall reduces hydro-energy capacity and increases the demand \r for desalination energy. Higher sea level may affect some low-lying \r generation, distribution and transmission assets, and compound \r extreme weather events can cause outages (Vose and Applequist, \r [...]"


id: 4203f4989ba32cb62eebbec0b8be562
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8813
content:
"[...] 2014; Lawrence et al., 2016; AEMO, 2020b; AEMO, 2020a; ESCI, 2021). \r For example, in September 2016, a major windstorm in South Australia \r damaged 23 transmission towers and cut power to over 900,000 \r households. In February 2017, the South Australian energy system \r failed to cope with a heatwave-related jump in demand, causing power \r cuts to 40,000 homes (Steffen et  al., 2017). In April 2018, a storm \r over Auckland, New Zealand left 182,000 properties without power \r (Bell, 2018). The 2019/2020 Australian heatwaves and fires caused \r widespread blackouts that disrupted communications, transport and \r emergency response capacity (Box 11.1)."


id: de68a218dc6dc367ee75f9989172e21f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36397
content:
"Climate-related impacts on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander \r Peoples, countries (traditional estates) and cultures have been observed \r across Australia and are pervasive, complex and compounding (high \r confidence) (Green et  al., 2009) (11.5.1), for example, the loss of \r biocultural diversity, nutritional changes through the availability of \r traditional foods and forced diet change, water security and loss of land \r and cultural resources through erosion and SLR (Table 11.10) (TSRA, \r 2018). Moreover, these impacts are being experienced now particularly \r in low-lying geographical areas--especially in the Torres Strait Islands \r (Mosby, 2012; Kelly, 2014; Murphy, 2019; Hall et al., 2021). Estimates \r of the loss from fire impacts on ecosystem services that contribute to \r the well-being of remotely located Indigenous Australians were found \r to be higher than the financial impacts from the same fires on pastoral \r [...]"


id: 4cb5abed19b95898b5b0e2dec5435b90
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10760
content:
"[...] and conservation lands (Sangha et al., 2020) and could increase with \r both financial and non-financial impacts (Box 11.1)."


id: ea66402b843d2a326b3d9fd8a7a9dbad
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38600
content:
"Recognition of the role of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples \r in identifying solutions to the impacts of climate change is slowly \r emerging (UN, 2018), having been largely excluded from meaningful \r representation from the conception of climate change dialogue through \r to debate and decision-making (Nursey-Bray et  al., 2019). Honouring \r the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and \r social justice values would support self-determination and the associated \r opportunity for Indigenous Australians to develop adaptation responses \r to climate change (Langton et al., 2012; Nursey-Bray and Palmer, 2018; \r Nursey-Bray et al., 2019), including the adaptive capacity opportunities \r available through Indigenous knowledge (Liedloff et al., 2013; Petheram \r et al., 2015; Stewart et al., 2019) (Cross-Chapter Box INDIG in Chapter \r 18). The Uluru Statement from the Heart proposes a pathway and \r [...]"


id: 6cfe65d86812235de06e3f1afb8c85f7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16458
content:
"[...] roadmap forward for enhanced representation of Aboriginal and Torres \r Strait Islander Peoples in decision-making in Australia (Ululru Statement, \r 2017). Table 11.11 provides examples of traditional Indigenous practices \r of adaptation to a changing climate. However, due to Indigenous \r methods of knowledge sharing and knowledge holding, such knowledge \r relies disproportionately on elders and seniors, who form a very small \r portion of the total Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples of \r Australia, and is limited in the formal literature (ABS, 2016)."


id: d31125eb47426a59cd454191b86888d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34476
content:
"Climate impacts are cascading, compounding and aggregating across \r sectors and systems due to complex interactions (high confidence) \r (Pescaroli and Alexander, 2016; Challinor et  al., 2018; Zscheischler \r et al., 2018; Steffen et al., 2019; AghaKouchak et al., 2020; CoA, 2020e; \r Lawrence et al., 2020b; Simpson et al., 2021) (Boxes 11.1, 11.3, 11.4, \r 11.5 and 11.6). Cascading impacts propagate via interconnections \r and systemic factors, including supply chains, shared reliance on \r connected biophysical systems (e.g., water catchments and ecosystems), \r infrastructure, essential goods and services and the exercise of \r governance, leadership, regulation, resources and standard practices \r (e.g., in planning and building codes), including lock-in of past decisions \r and experience (CSIRO, 2018; Lawrence et al., 2020b). The capacity of \r critical systems such as information, communication and technology, \r water infrastructure, health care, electricity and transport networks, is \r [...]"


id: 2fb49dc2dc311b36b13de15635f244d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5651
content:
"[...] being stretched, with impacts cascading to other systems and places, \r exacerbating existing hazards and generating new risks (Cradock\u0002Henry, 2017) (11.3.6; 11.3.10; Box 11.1). Temporal or spatial overlap \r of hazards (e.g., drought, extreme heat and fire; drought followed by \r extreme rainfall) are compounding impacts (Zscheischler et al., 2018) \r and affecting multiple sectors."


id: f44c4cbf9d2d0b384dc8087f9472789c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40354
content:
"In New Zealand, the emphasis has been on rebuilding after climate \r disasters, rather than anticipatory adaptation (Boston and Lawrence, \r 2018). Australia is similarly focused on disaster response and recovery, \r even though investment in disaster resilience can provide a cost:benefit \r ratio of 1:2 to 1:11 through reduced post-disaster recovery and \r reconstruction (GCA, 2019). Recent Australian and state government \r spending on direct recovery from disasters was around AUD$2.75 billion \r per year, compared to funding for natural disaster resilience of \r approximately AUD$0.1 billion per year(Deloitte, 2017b). The Australian \r government is supporting most of the 80 recommendations from the \r Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster Arrangements, \r including establishing a disaster advisory body and a resilience and \r recovery agency (CoA, 2020e; CoA, 2020b). Australia and New Zealand \r provide humanitarian and disaster assistance across the Pacific, which \r [...]"


id: 29e5a407f0705299c939266aa0abdb1f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4596
content:
"[...] is increasingly focused on climate adaptation and the SDGs (Brolan \r et  al., 2019) as cyclones and floods become amplified by climate \r change (Fletcher et al., 2013) (Table 11.3). Climate change may increase \r current migration flows to and impacts on diaspora in Australia and "


id: ac9eca83ad76ba9cf94a1827e35ae317
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27612
content:
"There is growing awareness of the need for more proactive adaptation \r planning at multiple scales and across sectors, and a better \r understanding of future risks and limits to adaptation is emerging \r (medium confidence) (Evans et al., 2014; Archie et al., 2018; Christie \r et al., 2020; MfE, 2020a). Disaster risk reduction is being positioned as \r part of climate change adaptation (Forino et al., 2017; CDEM, 2019; \r Forino et al., 2019; CoA, 2020e; CSIRO, 2020). Public and private climate \r adaptation services are informing climate risk assessments, but they \r are characterised by fragmentation, duplication, inconsistencies, poor \r governance and inadequate funding; addressing these gaps presents \r adaptation opportunities (CCATWG, 2018; Webb et  al., 2019; NESP \r ESCC, 2021) (Table 11.15a, Table 11.15b). Large infrastructure asset \r planning is starting to factor in climate risks, but implementation is \r uneven (Gibbs, 2020). Local governments in Australia are increasingly \r [...]"


id: 5777574bd7dd3d91fd023b2532459d95
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12655
content:
"[...] implementing adaptation plans, but few monitor or evaluate actual \r outcomes or know how to (Scott and Moloney, 2021)."


id: 3a542764f6b47990092af29a070c9472
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7466
content:
"Australia has a National Climate Resilience and Adaptation Strategy, \r a National Recovery and Resilience Agency (11.5.2.3), and the First \r National Action Plan to implement the National Disaster Risk Reduction \r Framework which acknowledges climate change as a disaster risk \r driver (Home Affairs, 2020). States and territories have climate change \r adaptation strategies with plans to address them (Table 11.15a), with \r some adaptation implementation at the state level and, increasingly, at \r the local government level (Jacobs et al., 2016; Warnken and Mosadeghi, \r 2018) (Table 11.15a). In coastal zones, however, few local government \r planning instruments are being applied (Warnken and Mosadeghi, \r 2018; Harvey, 2019; Robb et  al., 2019; Elrick-Barr and Smith, 2021). \r Some businesses and industry sectors are recognising climate-related \r risks and adaptation planning (11.3.4; 11.3.7; 11.3.10) (Harris et al., \r 2016; Hennessy et al., 2016; CBA, 2019). There is an opportunity for \r [...]"


id: 5adb76266a2cfc3491a94f4fadbf94a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13234
content:
"[...] Australia to undertake a national risk assessment and to develop a \r national climate adaptation implementation plan that is aligned with \r Paris Agreement expectations of a national-level system for adaptation \r planning, monitoring and reporting (Morgan et al., 2019)."


id: 3b7c94ad4add660b7c54ff33c08d7a2c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7651
content:
"There are many barriers to starting adaptation pre-emptively (very \r high confidence) (CCATWG, 2018) (Table 11.16). Recent institutional \r changes in New Zealand indicate that this is changing (11.7.1; \r Table 15b). Many groups are yet to engage deeply with climate change \r adaptation (Kench et al., 2018), and some adaptation processes are \r being blocked (Pearce et al., 2018; Garmestani et al., 2019; Alexandra, \r 2020) or exploited to deflect from mitigation responsibilities (Smith \r and Lawrence, 2018; Nyberg and Wright, 2020). Some actors \r are resistant to using climate change information (Tangney and \r Howes, 2016; Alexandra, 2020). Fear of litigation and demands for \r compensation can contribute to this reluctance (Tombs et al., 2018; \r O'Donnell et al., 2019)and is increasingly inviting litigation and other \r costs (Hodder, 2019; Bell-James and Collins, 2020). Jurisprudence \r is evolving from cases on projects to cases about decision-making \r [...]"


id: 9a550df1bc9a8d93b700ff2ad74add3d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24397
content:
"[...] accountability in the public and private sectors (Bell-James and Collins, \r 2020; Peel et  al., 2020) and rights-based cases (Peel and Osofsky, \r 2018). National and sub-national governments may become exposed \r to unsustainable fiscal risk as insurers of last resort, which can lead \r to inequitable outcomes for vulnerable groups and future generations \r (11.3.8), path dependencies and negative effects on physical, social, \r economic and cultural systems (Hamin and Gurran, 2015; Boston and \r Lawrence, 2018). Cross-scale governance tensions can prevent local \r adaptation initiatives from performing as intended (Tschakert et al., \r 2016; Piggott-McKellar et al., 2019). Adaptation that draws on Maori \r cultural understanding in partnership with local government in New \r Zealand can lead to more effective and equitable adaptation outcomes \r (MfE, 2020a)."


id: fd91efac148b2ceea34a3258d1e1e12a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41962
content:
"Decision makers face the challenge of how to adapt when there are \r ongoing knowledge gaps and uncertainties about when some climate \r change impacts will occur and their scale, for example coastal flooding \r (Box  11.6) or extreme rainfall events and their cascading effects \r (Box  11.4) (very high confidence). No-regrets decisions are likely to \r be insufficient (Hallegatte et al., 2012). A perception exists in some \r sectors that all climate risks are manageable based on past experience \r (CCATWG, 2017). Projected impacts, however, are outside the range \r experienced, meaning that decisions must be made now for long-lived \r assets, land uses and communities exposed to the key risks (Paulik \r et  al., 2019a; Paulik et  al., 2020) often under contested conditions \r where adaptation competes with other public expenditures (Kwakkel \r et al., 2016). New planning approaches being used across the region \r can enable more effective adaptation, for example continual iterative \r [...]"


id: dddf386995d97fff9f7de66b0b3cceb7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36294
content:
"[...] adaptation (Khan et  al., 2015), rapid deployment of decision tools \r appropriate for addressing uncertainties (Marchau et  al., 2019) \r and transformation of governance and institutional arrangements \r (Boston and Lawrence, 2018) (Table 11.17). Recognising co-benefits \r for mitigation and sustainable development can help incentivise \r adaptation (11.3.5.3, 11.8.2)."


id: 8042ba2ffc41d235f9d7842e887c4f99
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19696
content:
"Communities' vulnerabilities are dynamic and uneven (high confidence). \r In Australia, 435,000 people in remote areas face particular challenges \r (CoA, 2020e). Some groups do not have the time, resources or oppor\u0002tunity to participate in formal adaptation planning as it is currently or\u0002ganised (Victorian Council of Social Service, 2016; Tschakert et al., 2017; \r Mathew et al., 2018). Linguistically diverse groups can be disadvantaged \r by social isolation, language barriers and others' ignorance of the knowl\u0002edge and skills they can bring to adaptation (Shepherd and van Vuuren, \r 2014; Dun et al., 2018) (11.1.2). Social, cultural and economic vulnerabil\u0002ities, biases and injustices, such as those faced by many women (Eriksen, \r 2014; Parkinson, 2019) and non-heterosexual groups and gender mi\u0002norities (Dominey-Howes et al., 2016; Gorman-Murray et al., 2017), can \r [...]"


id: f107f519982842b7c2f8650c9c4282d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39780
content:
"[...] deepen impacts and impede adaptation; (Fitzgerald et al., 2019; Mar\u0002shall et al., 2019) (Cross-Chapter Box GENDER in Chapter 18)."


id: c6168490b131e6f1169094357999419c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32161
content:
"to prioritise and how adaptation should be implemented (Kwakkel \r et al., 2016) (Colliar and Blackett, 2018). Participatory climate change \r scenario planning can test assumptions about the present and the \r future (Mitchell et  al., 2017; Serrao-Neumann and Choy, 2018; \r Chambers et al., 2019; Serrao-Neumann et al., 2019c) and help envision \r people-centred, place-based adaptation (Barnett et al., 2014; Lindsay \r et  al., 2019). Social network analysis can inform engagement and \r communication of adaptation (Cunningham et al., 2017). Knowledge \r brokers, information portals and alliances can help communities, \r governments and sector groups to better access and use climate \r change information (Shaw et al., 2013; Funfgeld, 2015; Lawrence and \r Haasnoot, 2017). Novel approaches to building climate change literacy \r and adaptation capability go hand in hand with dedicated expert \r organisational support (Stevens and O'Connor, 2015; CCATWG, 2018; \r [...]"


id: 97747383499001138ee12d9e0bc016d6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23857
content:
"[...] Palutikof et al., 2019c; Salmon, 2019). All of these approaches depend \r on adequate resourcing (very high confidence)."


id: 58f6e036f90ebd2fa0503060621fde27
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12891
content:
"Adaptation to climate risks and global mitigation of greenhouse \r emissions determine whether development pathways are climate\u0002resilient (Chapter 18). In the near term, progress towards climate resilient \r development can be monitored by progress on the SDGs. According to \r government reports (Figure 11.6) (OECD, 2019a), current and projected \r trajectories fall short of meeting all targets (Allen et  al., 2019). Key \r climate risks for the region (11.6, Table 11.14) affect all of the SDGs, \r and pre-existing societal inequalities exacerbate climate risks (11.3.5). \r Projected climate risks combined with underlying SDG indicators will \r increasingly impede the region's capacity to achieve and maintain a \r number of SDGs, including sustainable agriculture, affordable and clean \r energy, sustainable cities and communities, life below water and life on \r land (OECD, 2019a). Reducing these risks would require significant and \r [...]"


id: cc19aed0cfab1804aec1b749b67de119
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33226
content:
"[...] rapid emission reductions to keep global warming to 1.5degC-2.0degC and \r robust and timely adaptation (IPCC, 2018)."


id: dcf0e98b5a423875cc4c1945da53246c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36135
content:
"Current global emissions reduction policies are projected to lead to a \r global warming of 2.1degC-3.9degC by 2100 (Liu and Raftery, 2021), leaving \r many of the region's human and natural systems at very high risk and \r beyond adaptation limits (high confidence). With higher levels of warming, \r adaptation costs increase, loss and damages grow, and governance and \r institutional responses reduce adaptive capacity. Underlying social and \r economic vulnerabilities and injustices further reduce adaptive capacity, \r exacerbating disadvantage in particular groups in society. Sustainable \r development across and beyond the region will help reduce shared \r adaptation challenges (11.5.1.2). Effective adaptation avoids lock-in and \r path dependency, reduces vulnerabilities, increases flexibility to change, \r builds adaptive capacity and advances SDGs, thereby improving intra\u0002and intergenerational justice (11.5, 11.6, 11.7). Reducing greenhouse \r [...]"


id: 67bba101109d1761d7afd32af6f3d2c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15519
content:
"[...] gas emissions and structural inequalities is key to achieving the SDGs \r and contributing to climate resilient development."


id: 1bee402d08e02bda8072ad8aa564feb6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2096
content:
"Integrated and inclusive adaptation decision-making can contribute to \r climate resilient development by better mediating competing values, \r interests and priorities and helping to reconcile short- and long\u0002term objectives, as well as public and private costs and benefits, in \r the face of rapidly and continuously changing risk profiles (very high \r confidence) (Gorddard et al., 2016; MfE, 2017a; Schlosberg et al., 2017) \r (11.5.2). Use of new tools and approaches (Table 11.18) to address \r system interactions that match the scale and scope of the problem \r can result in more effective adaptation, including proactive and \r anticipatory governance and institutional enablers (11.7, Table 11.17) \r (Schlosberg et al., 2017; Boston and Lawrence, 2018). Building cities \r and settlements that are resilient to the impacts of climate change \r requires the simultaneous consideration of infrastructural, ecological, \r social, economic, institutional and political dimensions of resilience, \r [...]"


id: 74902dcd64b8e01e53f59c7ff1fd396b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17743
content:
"[...] including political will, leadership, commitment, community support, \r multi-level governance and policy continuity (Torabi et al., 2021)."


id: 137a25163ca1c8d8adaade38be044163
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 634
content:
"main sources of income for the area (Salazar et al., 2016) (Figure 12.2c). \r Additional pressure on the land comes from illegal activities, pollution \r and induced fires. These changes exacerbate the impacts of climate \r change and make the region a key player in the future of the world \r economy and food production (IPBES, 2018a). The region boasts the \r largest tropical forest on the planet and other important biomes of high \r biodiversity on mountains, lowlands and coastal areas. It can potentially \r continue its agricultural expansion and development at the expense of \r substantially reducing the areas of natural biomes. Indigenous Peoples \r and smallholder families are lacking adequate climate policies combined \r with institutions to protect their property rights; this could result in a \r more sustainable process of agricultural expansion, without substantially \r increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the vulnerability of \r [...]"


id: ae2b0bd1409037b47ff25bdad0ebf963
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27877
content:
"Central and South America (CSA) is a highly diverse region, both \r culturally and biologically. It has one of the highest levels of biodiversity \r on the planet (Hoorn et al., 2010; Zador et al., 2015; IPBES, 2018a) \r (Cross-Chapter Paper [CCP] 1: Biodiversity Hotspots) and a wealth of \r cultural diversity resulting from more than 800 Indigenous Peoples \r who share the territory with European and African descendants and \r more recent Asian migrants (CEPAL, 2014). Moreover, it is one of the \r most urbanised regions in the world, with some of the most populated \r metropolitan areas (UNDESA, 2019). Several countries in the region \r have experienced sustained economic growth in recent decades, \r making important advances in reducing poverty in the area. Yet it is a \r region of substantial social inequality including the highest inequality \r in land tenure, where a large percentage of the population remains \r below the poverty line, unequally distributed between rural and \r [...]"


id: 58a5ff3e0816a54f3b01374c9047079d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12840
content:
"[...] urban areas and along aspects like gender and race; these groups are \r highly vulnerable to climate change and natural extreme events that \r frequently affect the region (high confidence) (ECLAC, 2019b; Busso \r and Messina, 2020; Poveda et al., 2020)."


id: 5e13d1fec3828ceea9a724b50f4291b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13848
content:
"Climate projections indicate increases in temperature for the entire \r region by 2100 for RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, but rainfall changes will vary \r geographically, with a notable reduction of -22% in northeastern Brazil \r and an increase of +25% in SES. Significant dependency on rainfed \r agriculture (>30% in Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua) indicates \r high sensitivity to climatic variability and change and represents a \r challenge for food security (high confidence) (SRCCL Chapter 5, Mbow \r et al., 2019). Undernutrition has worsened since 2014 in CSA (SRCCL \r Chapter 5, Mbow et  al., 2019). Evidence of climate-change impacts \r on food security is emerging from IKLK studies in SA. Municipalities \r in CA with a high proportion of subsistence crops tend to have fewer \r resources for adaptation and more vulnerable to climate change (SRCCL \r Chapter 5, Mbow et  al., 2019). Rising temperature and decreased \r rainfall could reduce agricultural productivity by 2030, threatening the \r [...]"


id: c30d6d589dfeda6875a0f2580433eb87
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31590
content:
"[...] food security of the poorest populations (WGII AR5 Chapter 27, Magrin \r et  al., 2014). Though reduced suitability and yield for beans, coffee, \r maize, plantain and rice are expected in CA (SRCCL Chapter 5, Mbow \r et al., 2019), limiting the warming to 1.5degC, compared with 2degC, are \r projected to result in smaller net reductions in yields of maize, rice, \r wheat and other cereal crops for CSA (high confidence) (SR15 Chapter \r 3, Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018). The heat stress is expected to reduce \r the suitability of Arabica coffee in Mesoamerica, but it can improve \r in high-latitude areas in SA (SRCCL Chapter 4, Olsson et  al., 2019). \r There is limited evidence that these declines in crop yields may result in \r significant population displacement from the tropics to the sub-tropics \r (SR15 Chapter 3, Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018)."


id: 2008dbc693ec8b9490f2c2ac80561b9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2850
content:
"The combination of continued anthropogenic disturbance, particularly \r deforestation, with global warming may result in dieback of forest in \r the region (medium confidence) (SR15 Chapter 3, Hoegh-Guldberg \r et al., 2018). Losses of biomass as high as 40% are projected in CA \r with a warming of 3degC-4degC, and the Amazon may experience a \r significant dieback at similar warming levels (SR15 Chapter 3, Hoegh\u0002Guldberg et  al., 2018). Advances in second-generation bioethanol \r from sugarcane and other feedstock will be important for mitigation. \r However, agricultural expansion results in large conversions in tropical \r dry woodlands and savannahs in SA (Brazilian Cerrado, Caatinga and \r Chaco) (high confidence) (SRCCL Chapter 1, Arneth et al., 2019). The \r expansion of soybean plantations in the Amazonian state of Mato \r Grosso in Brazil reached 16.8% yr-1 from 2000 to 2005; and oil palm, a \r significant biofuel crop, is also linked to recent deforestation in tropical \r [...]"


id: 7c9fb627842a178cca1667aa0f5fa944
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19124
content:
"[...] CA (Costa Rica and Honduras) and SA (Colombia and Ecuador), \r although lower in magnitude compared to deforestation from soybean \r and cattle ranching (WGII AR5 Chapter 27, Magrin et al., 2014)."


id: 8f2fccb05903882352457c7ade770331
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22392
content:
"temperature and rainfall (high confidence) (Figure 12.4; Table 12.1). \r In Honduras, rainfall and relative humidity were positively correlated \r with the occurrence of haemorrhagic dengue cases (Zambrano et al., \r 2012). In Costa Rica, temperature and rainfall were correlated to \r cattle rabies outbreaks and mortality during 1985-2016 (Hutter et al., \r 2018); incidence of leishmaniasis showed cycles of 3  years related \r to temperature changes (Chaves and Pascual, 2006); and snakebites \r were more likely to occur at high temperatures and were significantly \r reduced after the rainy season for the period 2005-2013 (Chaves \r et  al., 2015). In Panama, rainfall was associated with an increased \r number of malaria cases among the Gunas, an Indigenous People \r with high vulnerability living in poverty conditions on small islands \r affected by SLR (Hurtado et al., 2018). These correlations point to a \r possible change in disease incidence with climate change; evidence of \r [...]"


id: de8e2008fd0e1b2f60fd375f9cd900de
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36419
content:
"[...] that change is yet to be reported in the literature because longitudinal \r studies are lacking in the region."


id: 5d97827f5a7babd32723fff01e056b58
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13751
content:
"Food insecurity is a serious impact of climate change in a region where \r 10% of the GDP depends on agriculture, livestock and fisheries (very \r high confidence) (ECLAC et al., 2015; CEPAL et al., 2018; Harvey et al., \r 2018; BCIE, 2020). Crop losses largely result from highly variable \r rainfall and seasonal droughts, which have increased significantly in \r recent decades (Table 12.3) (CEPAL and CAC-SICA, 2020), particularly \r the observed changes in the MSD that reduces rainfall at the onset \r of the rainy season (May-June) (Anderson et  al., 2019). Small and \r subsistence farmers experience the highest impact because they \r practice rainfed agriculture (Imbach et  al., 2017), along with poor \r neighbourhoods, which face socioeconomic and physical barriers for \r adapting to climate change (Kongsager, 2017). In 2015, precipitation \r diminished between 50% and 70% of its historic average, causing \r a loss of up to 80% of beans and 60% of maize, leaving 2.5 million \r [...]"


id: 42759af152a58e6285b44a4704f0aba1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8884
content:
"[...] people food insecure, 1.6 million of whom were in the Dry Corridor of \r CA (ECLAC et al., 2015; FAO, 2016a). In 2019, the region entered its \r fifth consecutive drought year, with 1.4 million people in need of food \r aid. Seasonal-scale droughts are projected to lengthen by 12-30%, \r intensify by 17-42% and increase in frequency by 21-42% in RCP4.5 \r and RCP8.5 scenarios by the end of the century (Depsky and Pons, \r 2021)."


id: 4805bf7449a390111e6f0e89b8f24131
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9888
content:
"Impacts on rural livelihoods, particularly for small and medium-sized \r farmers and Indigenous Peoples in mountains, include an overall \r reduction in production, yield (Table 12.4), suitable farming area and \r water availability (high confidence) (Walshe and Argumedo, 2016; \r Bouroncle et al., 2017; Hannah et al., 2017; Imbach et al., 2017; Harvey \r et al., 2018; Batzin, 2019; Donatti et al., 2019). Bean production in El \r Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras and Guatemala, is projected to decrease, \r using the Decision Support for Agro-Technology Transfer (DSSAT) \r under the A2 scenario, by 19% for 2050, whereas maize production, \r depending on the water retention capacity of soils, will drop between \r 4% and 21% by 2050 (CEPAL et al., 2018). In Guatemala, the yield of \r rainfed maize is expected to decrease by 16% by 2050 under RCP8.5 \r using the Global Gridded Crop Model Intercomparison GGCMI; yields \r for rainfed sugarcane are expected to drop by 44% and irrigated \r [...]"


id: eafa7da96a704ee710491a2cc7cb2073
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38703
content:
"[...] sugarcane by 36% under the same modelling conditions (Castellanos \r et al., 2018). Rice production is expected to decrease by 23% under \r scenario A2 by 2050 (CEPAL and CAC/SICA, 2013)."


id: 8b92ba9253c294354f153d3fc68c3d38
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21726
content:
"a 35% reduction of cultivated area expected by 2100 under the A2 \r scenario. The area suitable for beans is expected to shrink by 2050. \r Projections show that suitable areas with excellent capacity under \r current conditions will decrease by 14%, mainly in Panama (41%) Costa \r Rica (21%) and El Salvador (20%). The Species Distribution Model, \r using the IPSL GCM, projects that the suitable zones for cacao and \r coffee will shrink between 25% and 75% under RCP6.0 (Fernandez\u0002Manjarres, 2018; Fernandez Kolb et al., 2019). Warmer and dryer lower \r areas will become unsuitable for coffee and will drive its production \r to higher land (Laderach et al., 2013; Bunn et al., 2015). Under the \r A2 climate-change scenario, areas with excellent capacity for Arabica \r coffee will decrease by 12% in CA; coffee yield will decrease in suitable \r zones whereby the extent of high yield (>0.8 T ha-1) zones is projected \r to shrink from 34% to 12%, whereas low-yield (<0.3 T ha-1) zones will \r [...]"


id: dcdf787f14d74e48e9ecfb6085d716fc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36120
content:
"Warming and drier conditions are projected through the reduction \r of total annual precipitation, extreme precipitation and consecutive \r wet days and an increase in consecutive dry days (Chou et al., 2014). \r Heatwaves will increase in frequency and severity in places close to \r the equator like Colombia (Guo et al., 2018; Feron et al., 2019), with \r a decrease but strong wetting in coastal areas, pluvial and river flood \r and mean wind increase (Mora et al., 2014). Models project a very likely\r 2degC GWL increase in the intensity and frequency of hot extremes and \r decrease in the intensity and frequency of cold extremes. Nevertheless, \r models project inconsistent changes in the region for extreme \r precipitation (low confidence) (Figure  12.6; WGI AR6 Table  12.14) \r (Ranasinghe et  al., 2021). The main climate impact drivers in the \r region, like extreme heat, mean precipitation and coastal and oceanic \r drivers, will increase and snow, ice and permafrost will decrease with \r [...]"


id: bc1d3ec3e32956df8059c2671bb8c73c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30333
content:
"Increases in vector-borne diseases can be related to increases in \r rainfall and minimum temperatures during ENSO events (Stewart\u0002Ibarra and Lowe, 2013) and the expansion of the diseases' altitudinal \r distribution (high confidence) (Lowe et  al., 2017; Lippi et  al., 2019; \r Portilla Cabrera and Selvaraj, 2020). ENSO events have been related \r to such diseases as dengue and leptospirosis (Quintero-Herrera et al., \r 2015; Sanchez et  al., 2017; Arias-Monsalve and Builes-Jaramillo, \r 2019); they can also lead to an increased incidence of chikungunya \r (Sections  7.2.2.1 and 7.3.1.3). Precipitation, relative humidity and \r temperature have influenced dengue incidence in recent years (Mattar \r et  al., 2013) (Table  12.1). Dengue cases are predicted to increase \r in the 1.5degC and the 3.7degC warming scenarios by 2050 and 2100, \r with increases ranging from 28,900 to 88,800 in Peru, 34,600 to \r 110,000 in Ecuador, and 97,400 to 317,000 in Colombia, although \r [...]"


id: 18b03c0614f6eab7d930ce0780e213c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1559
content:
"[...] these scenarios do not consider the potential effects of vaccines or \r socioeconomic trajectories (Colon-Gonzalez et al., 2018). Other studies \r found that Aedes aegypti (arbovirus vector) will shift into higher \r elevations, increasing the populations at risk (Figure 12.5) (Lippi et al., \r 2019). Climate change will contribute to increased malaria vectorial \r capacity (high confidence) (Section  7.2.2.1) (Laporta et  al., 2015). \r Increases in minimum temperature were associated with historical \r malaria transmission when taking into consideration disease control \r interventions and climate factors (Fletcher et  al., 2020). Figure  12.4 \r shows mixed changes in the number of months suitable for malaria \r transmission, with low-lying areas in coastal regions becoming \r more suitable. Zoonotic tick-borne diseases and the epidemiology \r of tuberculosis are also influenced (Garcia-Solorzano et  al., 2019; \r Rodriguez-Morales et al., 2019)."


id: 8fd8c30f42876648ce9820e92cafcdd4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22517
content:
"increased recruitment and growth of lowland species migrating \r upslope. Water scarcity can enhance tree mortality and decrease \r above-ground carbon stocks (Alvarez-Davila et  al., 2017; McDowell \r et  al., 2020). The agricultural frontier of crops, such as potatoes or \r maize, is moving upwards (high confidence), following the freezing \r level height upward displacement (Morueta-Holme et  al., 2015; \r Skarbo and VanderMolen, 2016; Schauwecker et al., 2017; Vuille et al., \r 2018). Modelling exercises agree with the observed impacts in species, \r ecosystem processes, crop impacts and related pests and diseases \r (high confidence) (Cernusak et al., 2013; Tovar et al., 2013; Ramirez\u0002Villegas et al., 2014; Ovalle-Rivera et al., 2015; van der Sleen et al., \r 2015; Lowe et al., 2017). Agricultural options are changing as a result \r of intra-seasonal temperature variation (Ponce, 2020). Changes in the \r timing and amount of precipitation are also impacting agriculture \r [...]"


id: 4b08941b64a2996b3dbe8cd11ca98a17
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10442
content:
"Water flow has decreased in several basins, such as the Shullcas River \r in the Cordillera Huaytapallana in Peru, and is expected to decrease \r in the near future in places such as the Cordillera Blanca in Peru (very \r high confidence) (Baraer et al., 2012; Vuille et al., 2018; Somers et al., \r 2019; Molina et al., 2020). Disruptions in water flows will significantly \r degrade or eliminate high-elevation wetlands (high confidence) (Bury \r et al., 2013; Dangles et al., 2017; Mark et al., 2017; Polk et al., 2017; \r Cuesta et  al., 2019). Impacts on wetlands are affecting the wild \r vicuna and the domesticated alpaca (Duchicela et  al., 2019). New \r lakes represent a source of future hazards and water scarcity, as well \r as opportunities to serve as water reservoirs (Colonia et  al., 2017; \r Drenkhan et al., 2019). The timing and extent of peak water due to \r glacier shrinkage is spatially highly variable and has passed for a large \r [...]"


id: 74255ce48d9f98b489ba39ba91d1d9ec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17670
content:
"[...] number of tropical Andes glaciers (Hock et al., 2019). Cities dependent \r on glacier melt have experienced high variability in domestic water \r supply (Chevallier et al., 2011; Soruco et al., 2015; Mark et al., 2017), as \r shown in Case Study 2.7.3, but an increase in demand may also have \r an effect (Buytaert and De Bievre, 2012). Water provision is related to \r socioeconomic issues (Drenkhan et al., 2015). Glacier retreat impacts \r Andean pastoralists (high confidence), as shown in Case Study 2.6.5.4."


id: 8d63ab2a256d3838764e09e74595ffa9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22058
content:
"NWS houses several global priority areas for biodiversity conservation, \r including the Tropical Andes and Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena terrestrial \r biodiversity hotspots (Section CCP1.2.2; Manes et  al., 2021). \r Biodiversity in the Tropical Andes and Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena is \r projected to suffer negative impacts (medium confidence: medium \r evidence, high agreement) (Figure  12.9). Invasive plant species \r might benefit from climate change in these hotspots (Wang et  al., \r 2017a). Species distribution is changing upslope due to increasing \r air temperature, leading to range contraction and local extinctions \r of highland species, whereas lowland species are experiencing range \r contractions at the rear end and expansions in the front end, including \r vectors of diseases (high confidence) (Crespo-Perez et al., 2015; Duque \r et al., 2015; Morueta-Holme et al., 2015; Moret et al., 2016; Aguirre \r et al., 2017; Cuesta et al., 2017a; Seimon et al., 2017; Fadrique et al., \r [...]"


id: 5d8bcb758312ce6e95e39a8ac0414c06
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13744
content:
"[...] 2018; Tito et al., 2018; Zimmer et al., 2018; Cauvy-Fraunie and Dangles, \r 2019; Cuesta et  al., 2019; Moret et  al., 2020; Rosero et  al., 2021). \r Vegetation in summits of the northern Andes is particularly vulnerable \r because of a high abundance of endemic species with narrow thermal \r niches and lowland dispersal capacity in comparison to the central \r Andes (Cuesta et al., 2020)."


id: 4a19d6189d28f3893cc69270b6d75cfa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10278
content:
"Migration by Indigenous Peoples and rural resource-dependent \r communities to cities has increased due to urbanisation, development \r of extractive activities, agroindustry and infrastructure. Upon \r migrating, they are forced to abandon their livelihoods in order to \r acquire temporary jobs and to live in poverty and exclusion conditions \r on the periphery of the city (Cardoso et al., 2018). Between 60% and \r 90% of the population in the urban centres of ADE live in conditions \r of moderate to high degree of vulnerability (Mansur et  al., 2016) \r (Figure  12.7). Amazon populations located in remote urban centres \r with limited or non-existent roads are more vulnerable to extreme \r events in relation to more connected urban centres (Parry et al., 2018). \r These highly risky circumstances reduce the adaptive capacity of these \r populations (Cardoso et al., 2018). Nevertheless, the dynamics of the \r adaptive capacity of Indigenous Peoples and rural resource-dependent \r [...]"


id: 205b4d65c008cb676f88966140e11508
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2912
content:
"Several vector-driven diseases such as malaria and leishmaniasis \r are endemic in the Amazon region; however, socio-environmental \r changes are altering their natural dynamics (Confalonieri et  al., \r 2014b). An important relationship between the outbreak of infectious \r diseases and changes in climatic events (e.g., droughts, floods, heat \r waves, ENSO) or environmental events (e.g., deforestation, dam \r construction and habitat fragmentation) has been found to exist for \r the Brazilian Amazon (medium confidence: medium evidence, high \r agreement) (Pan et  al., 2014; Filho et  al., 2016; Nava et  al., 2017; \r Ellwanger et  al., 2020). These impacts are more severe in poor \r populations with limited access to health services (Pan et al., 2014; \r WHO and UNFCCC, 2020). In the case of Venezuela, the impact of \r climate change on the epidemiology of malaria has been studied, \r showing significant influence on transmission in the Amazonia area \r [...]"


id: 2806c60cebf89ae7f13e0e8d3cb2e3ea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4241
content:
"[...] of the country (Figure 12.4) (Laguna et al., 2017). Other studies from \r Venezuela have documented the role of ENSO in dengue outbreaks \r (Vincenti-Gonzalez et  al., 2018). Table  12.1 shows the changes \r observed in reproduction potential for dengue in the different sub\u0002regions due to changes in rainfall and temperature. Forest fires pose \r a major threat to public health in the region because they relate \r to an increase in hospital admissions due to respiratory problems, \r mainly among children and the elderly (Figure  12.5). The amount \r of air pollutants detected is sometimes higher than that observed \r in large urban areas, especially during dry seasons when biomass \r burning increases (Aragao et al., 2016; de Oliveira Alves et al., 2017; \r Paralovo et al., 2019)."


id: 26cf4333b1a37954adf96c1fd1d88363
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3986
content:
"The Amazon has been identified as one of the areas of persistent and \r emergent regional climate-change hotspots in response to various \r representative concentration pathways (Diffenbaugh and Giorgi, \r 2012). In Bolivia, CMIP3/5 models projected an increase in temperature \r (2.5degC-5.9degC), with seasonal and regional differences. In the lowlands, \r both ensembles agreed on less rainfall (-19%) during drier months \r (June-August and September-November), with significant changes in \r interannual rainfall variability, but disagreed on changes during wetter \r months (January-March) (Seiler et  al., 2013). As a consequence of \r higher temperatures and reduced rainfall, an increased water deficit \r would be expected in the Brazilian Pantanal (Marengo et  al., 2016; \r Bergier et  al., 2018; Llopart et  al., 2020) with high confidence. The \r largest increases in warmer days and nights, and aridity, drought and \r significant increases in fire occurrence are calculated over the Amazon \r [...]"


id: abee5ff7f85873b5c19692f7c145e6fd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27487
content:
"[...] area (Huang et  al., 2016). Over the entire region, by mid-century \r (RCP4.5) there is medium confidence of increases in river and pluvial \r floods, aridity and mean wind speed, and extreme heat, fire weather \r and drought are projected to increase with high confidence (WGI AR6 \r Table 12.6; Ranasinghe et al., 2021)."


id: 1ad19a21a51236310f699b7a091fcf50
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1917
content:
"Droughts in 2009/2010 and 2015/2016 increased tree mortality rate \r in Amazon forests (Doughty et  al., 2015; Feldpausch et  al., 2016; \r Anderson et  al., 2018b), while productivity showed no consistent \r change; some authors reported a drop in productivity (Feldpausch \r et al., 2016), while others found no significant changes (Brienen et al., \r 2015; Doughty et  al., 2015). Nevertheless, the combined effect of \r increasing tree mortality with variations in growth results in a long\u0002term decrease in C stocks in forest biomass, compromising the role \r of these forests as a C sink (high confidence) (Brienen et  al., 2015; \r Rammig, 2020; Sullivan et al., 2020) (Figure 12.9). Under the RCP8.5 \r scenario for 2070, drought will increase the conversion of rainforest \r to savannah (medium confidence: medium evidence, high agreement) \r (Anadon et al., 2014; Olivares et al., 2015; Sampaio et al., 2019). The \r transformation of rainforest into savannah will bring forth biodiversity \r [...]"


id: 50aaec2ac3c68313579eefb31c2bb287
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11467
content:
"[...] loss and alterations in ecosystem functions and services (medium \r confidence: medium evidence, high agreement) (Anadon et al., 2014; \r Olivares et al., 2015; Sampaio et al., 2019). In the Amazon basin, the \r synergistic effects of deforestation, fire, expansion of the agricultural \r frontier, infrastructure development, extractive activities, climate \r change and extreme events may exacerbate the risk of savannisation \r (medium confidence: medium evidence, high agreement) (Nobre et al., \r 2016b; Bebbington et al., 2019; Sampaio et al., 2019; Rammig, 2020)."


id: 55e91bb9d74076b1ce939220f24f525
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12387
content:
"A large expansion in cropland area (soybean, corn and sugarcane) was \r observed in the past two decades in SAM, in response to increased \r local and global demand for biofuels and agricultural commodities \r (high confidence) (Lapola et al., 2014; Cohn et al., 2016). Feedbacks \r to the climate system resulting from such land use changes are \r intricate. The clear-cutting of Amazon forest and Cerrado savannah in \r the region led to a local warming due to an increase in the energy \r balance and evapotranspiration (Malhado et  al., 2010); in contrast, \r the replacement of pasture by agriculture have led to a local cooling \r effect, due to changes in the surface albedo (medium confidence: \r medium evidence, medium agreement). Deforestation of the Amazon \r for pastures and soybean have decreased evapotranspiration during \r drought months and caused a localised lengthening of the dry season \r in northwestern SAM by 6.5 (+- 2.5) d since 1979 (medium confidence: \r [...]"


id: 45aa75d9ac67f68616b15429ec0ad1a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9473
content:
"It is not surprising, therefore, that while SAM is the region in CSA that \r experienced the highest temperature increase in the last century, it is \r where most of the fire spots in the sub-continent are located, owing \r also to the prevalent use of fires in pasturelands (medium confidence: \r medium evidence, high agreement) (Bowman et al., 2009). Recently, \r da Silva Junior et al. (2020) reported 6,708,350 and 6,188,606 fire foci \r in Cerrado and Amazonia, between 1999 and 2018, corresponding to \r 80% of the total observed in Brazil. The occurrence of extreme droughts \r has affected the carbon and water cycles in large areas of the Amazon \r rainforest (high confidence) (Lapola et al., 2014; Agudelo et al., 2019), \r in particular in its southern and eastern portions, where deforestation \r rates are higher. The loss of carbon in the Amazon region considering \r the combined effect of land use change in the southern portion of the \r [...]"


id: c4f4bc1f38d1d466ac1409a646d21fc4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31961
content:
"[...] region bordering Cerrado and Pantanal and global carbon emission \r scenarios can be as high as 38% at 4degC of warming, but limited to 8% \r if the Paris Agreement limit of 1.5degC is achieved (medium confidence, \r medium evidence, high agreement) (Burton et al., 2021), driving the \r region to be a net carbon source to the atmosphere (Gatti et al., 2021). \r A recent extreme drought was estimated to affect the photosynthetic "


id: 6041396cdd8c5e262aa239e2cb3cdd1a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14236
content:
"Temperature extremes have likely increased in the intensity and \r frequency of hot extremes and decreased in the intensity and frequency \r of cold extremes (Donat et  al., 2013; Bitencourt et  al., 2016) (WGI \r AR6 Table  11.13, Seneviratne et  al., 2021). In a vast transition zone \r between the Amazon and the Cerrado Biomes within the region, \r analysis of seasonal precipitation trends suggested that almost \r 90% of the observational sites showed a reduction in the length of \r the rainy season in the region (Debortoli et  al., 2015), in the period \r 1971-2014 (Marengo et al., 2018), confirming the growth in length of \r the dry season. Changes in the hydrological and precipitation regimes, \r characterised by a reduction in rainfall in southern Amazonia, in \r contrast to an increase in northwestern Amazonia, and overall increases \r in extreme precipitation and in the frequency of consecutive dry days \r have been reported by several authors (Fu et al., 2013; Almeida et al., \r [...]"


id: d0f5a78cd0d70f9d7b2fe1b2704a10ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34106
content:
"[...] 2017; Marengo et al., 2018; Espinoza et al., 2019a) with low confidence\r (WGI AR6 Table 11.14) ( Seneviratne et al., 2021) due to insufficient \r data coverage and trends in available data generally not significant."


id: c3b1e0f465dd9d725c3faae8453b2430
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31705
content:
"The largest expanses of remaining vegetation in the Cerrado biome \r are located in SAM, but the region has a small number of protected \r areas (only 7.5% of Cerrado vegetation occurs inside protected areas), \r which will leave fauna and flora with little room for moving across the \r landscape in the face of climate change. Protected areas--Indigenous \r lands included--have significantly reduced forest clear-cutting in \r the Amazon deforestation arc (most of which is inside SAM) (high \r confidence) (Nolte et al., 2013). However nearly 100 protected areas \r in the Amazon, Cerrado and Pantanal biomes inside SAM have been \r identified as highly or moderately vulnerable to future climate change \r and demand serious adaptation interventions (medium confidence: \r medium evidence, high agreement) (Feeley and Silman, 2016; Lapola \r et al., 2019b). Yet the maintenance of these protected areas or even the \r halting of deforestation may do little to impede a large-scale persistent \r [...]"


id: 24404fc4bba654cffef10886f6384906
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3570
content:
"[...] ecosystem shift to an alternative state (crossing a tipping point) of \r the Amazon rainforest or even more subtle changes caused by climate \r change in the region (medium confidence: medium evidence, high \r agreement) (Aguiar et al., 2016a; Boers et al., 2017; Lapola et al., 2018; \r Lovejoy and Nobre, 2018)."


id: da9c9a53287728ec5f285ea8b73b2f37
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35757
content:
"The Amazon and the Cerrado are among the largest and unique \r phytogeographical domains in SA. The Brazilian Cerrado is one of the \r most diverse savannah in the world, with more than 12,600 plant \r species, with 35% being endemic (high confidence) (Forzza et  al., \r 2012). Historic land cover change and concurrent climate change in \r the region strongly impacted the biodiversity and led to the extinction \r of 657 plant species for the Cerrado, which is more than four times the \r global recorded plant extinctions (high confidence) (Strassburg et al., \r 2017; Green et al., 2019). The effects of climate change, expressed by \r drought and heatwaves, lead to plant stress, compromising growth \r and increasing mortality (Yu et  al., 2019). The fauna dependent on \r dew water was strongly impacted by the 1.6degC temperature rise that \r occurred from 1961 to 2019 (medium confidence: medium evidence, \r medium agreement) (Hofmann et  al., 2021). Modelling outcomes \r [...]"


id: caec70545350131dc5be00ca2f83b09c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33038
content:
"[...] project impacts in forest ecosystems in the region, with persistent \r warming and significant moisture reduction (Anjos et al., 2021), leading \r to a potential change in the ecosystem structure and distribution in the \r region (medium confidence: medium evidence, medium agreement) \r (Government of Brazil, 2020)."


id: 979d938c8d147584fe30234a53890f73
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23890
content:
"Observations from recent past droughts in SAM indicate how the \r incidence of respiratory diseases may worsen under a drier and warmer \r climate. Northwest SAM had an approximately 54% increase in the \r incidence of respiratory diseases associated with forest fires during \r the 2005 drought compared to a no-drought 10-year mean (high \r confidence) (Ignotti et al., 2010; Pereira et al., 2011; Smith et al., 2014). \r It is estimated that more than 10 million people are exposed to forest \r fires in the deforestation arc, a region comprising several Brazilian \r states in the southern and western parts of the Amazon rainforest, with \r several impacts on human health including potential exacerbation of the \r COVID-19 crisis in Amazonia (medium confidence: medium evidence, \r high agreement) (de Oliveira et  al., 2020) (Table  12.5). Increases in \r hospital admissions, asthma, DNA damage and lung cell death due to \r the inhalation of fine particulate matter represent an increase in public \r [...]"


id: 86d2a1c8d2f2b122e90804d23c60ab76
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20885
content:
"[...] health system costs (high confidence) (Ignotti et al., 2010; Silva et al., \r 2013; de Oliveira Alves et  al., 2017; Machin et  al., 2019). The patchy \r landscape created by forest clearing contributes to a rising risk of \r zoonotic disease emergence by increasing interactions between wildlife, \r livestock and humans (medium confidence: low evidence, medium \r agreement) (Dobson et al., 2020; Tollefson, 2020). Recent studies also \r suggest an influence of climate change in zoonotic diseases, such as \r Orthohantavirus and Chapare viral infections, rodent-borne diseases, \r in some areas of Bolivia (Escalera-Antezana et  al., 2020a; Escalera\u0002Antezana et  al., 2020b). Extreme fluctuations in Amazon River levels \r were associated with a significant increase in the incidence of diarrhoea, \r leptospirosis and dermatitis (de Souza Hacon et al., 2019; Government \r of Brazil, 2020). According to a comprehensive characterisation of future \r [...]"


id: 72f4bc5b81eb2b3ca50cd21414953f7f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17472
content:
"[...] heatwaves and alternative RCPs scenarios, Brazilian urban areas in \r the SAM region are projected to face increasing related mortality from \r 400% to 500% in the period 2031-2080 compared to the period 1971-\r 2020, under the highest emission scenario and high-variant population \r scenario (medium confidence: low evidence, medium agreement) (Guo \r et  al., 2018). Table  12.2 shows the increase in days of exposure to \r heatwaves already observed in the region.\r The high risk of floods (high-frequency and costly damage) is centred \r in the Brazilian states of Acre, Rondonia, Southern Amazonas and Para "


id: cb52746c21b3a522d7b2d092f25ba955
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33102
content:
"climate change is expressed differently in several sub-regions. Extreme \r floods in the southern Amazon and Bolivian Amazon floodplains were \r described and related to the exceptionally warm sub-tropical South \r Atlantic ocean (high confidence) (Espinoza et  al., 2014), causing \r high economic impacts (losses in crop and livestock production and \r infrastructure) and number of fatalities (very high confidence) (Ovando \r et al., 2016). In contrast, declines in stream flow, particularly in the dry \r season, expressed by the ratio of runoff to rainfall, are observed for \r the southern part of the Amazon basin (high evidence) (Molina-Carpio \r et al., 2017; Espinoza et al., 2019b; Heerspink et al., 2020). Observed \r precipitation reduction in the Cerrado region impacted main water supply \r reservoirs for important cities in the Brazilian central region, leading to \r a water crisis in 2016/2017 (Government of Brazil, 2020) and affecting \r [...]"


id: c3f91ce1d14133ae7af48feb7a752c4c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31761
content:
"[...] hydropower energy generation (Ribeiro Neto et al., 2016). Modelling \r studies project decreases in the river discharge rate on the order of 27% \r for the Tapajos basin and 53% for the Tocantins-Araguaia basin for the \r end of the century, which may affect freshwater biodiversity, navigation \r and generation of hydroelectric power (medium confidence: medium \r evidence, high agreement) (Marcovitch et al., 2010; Mohor et al., 2015). \r This region also holds one of the largest floodplains in the world, the \r Pantanal. The climatic connection of Pantanal regions to the Amazon, \r and the influence of deforestation in local precipitation (Marengo et al., \r 2018) has implications for conservation of ecosystem services and water \r security in Pantanal (high confidence) (Bergier et al., 2018). Impacts of \r extreme drought, with increasing numbers of dry days and the peak of "


id: c11605050581609a8ee8ec890fdf1a3e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31273
content:
"Natural systems in NES are also exposed to climate change. In \r terrestrial ecosystems, 913,000 km2\r  of NES' dry forest Caatinga \r vegetation (Silva et  al., 2017) is exposed to predicted increases in \r dryness. Despite what has been previously suggested, the Caatinga has \r high biodiversity and endemism (Silva et al., 2017), which vulnerable \r to habitat reduction due to climate change and agricultural expansion \r (Silva et  al., 2019b). Fifty-two percent of the freshwater fish (203 \r species) are endemic (Lima et al., 2017) and are exposed to predicted \r reduction in river flow due to climate change (Marengo et al., 2017; \r de Jong et al., 2018). The coastal waters contain a separate marine \r ecoregion due to its uniqueness (Spalding et al., 2007). The region is \r responsible for 99% of Brazilian shrimp production, which is exposed \r to SLR and increases in ocean temperature and acidification (Gasalla \r et  al., 2017). Most coral reefs in the Southern Atlantic Ocean are \r [...]"


id: ea6caf9bb4dc276454097038c62fd2e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38606
content:
"[...] along NES's coast (Leao et al., 2016), increasing its conservation and \r touristic value. The 685 km2\r  of coral reefs along NES's coast (likely \r an underestimate [Moura et al. 2013; UNEP-WCMC et al. 2018]) are \r exposed to increased sea temperatures."


id: 6675a94b8cdd05b0f05ee16720716911
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15289
content:
"The projected warming for the extreme annual maximum temperatures \r (TXx) over NES is +2degC for the 1.5degC scenario and about +2.5degC \r for the 2degC scenario (Hoegh-Guldberg et  al., 2018). An increased \r number of tropical nights with minimum temperatures exceeding \r the 20degC threshold is projected (Orlowsky and Seneviratne, 2012). \r In general, extreme heat will increase and cold spells decrease with \r high confidence. A decrease in total precipitation is projected with \r high confidence, with an increase in heavy precipitation events and an \r increase in dryness (medium confidence). Increases in drought severity \r due to the combination of increased temperatures, less rainfall and \r lower atmospheric humidity (5 to 15% relative humidity reduction) \r create water deficits, which are projected for the entire region after \r 2041 (3-4 mm d-1 reduction), particularly over western NES and over \r the semiarid region (Marengo and Bernasconi, 2015; Marengo et al., \r [...]"


id: 78fe2027b7d7096de26449f58b19dd4b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18475
content:
"Recent studies predict strong negative impacts of climate change on \r NES's agriculture (high confidence) (Ferreira Filho and Moraes, 2015; \r Nabout et al., 2016; Gateau-Rey et al., 2018) (Figure 12.9; Table 12.4). \r NES concentrates the bulk of the predicted loss of regional gross \r domestic product (GDP) associated with agriculture in Brazil (Ferreira \r Filho and Moraes, 2015; Forcella et  al., 2015). Although agriculture \r makes a modest contribution to the region's economy, its drop could \r have a severe impact on the poorest rural household by shrinking the \r agricultural labour market and increasing food prices (Ferreira Filho \r and Moraes, 2015; Government of Brazil, 2020). The expected increase \r in dryness is also predicted to impact the region's hydroelectric power \r generation (Marengo et al., 2017; de Jong et al., 2018). SLR has also \r been reported to impact coastal cities such as Salvador, destroying \r urban constructions (Government of Brazil, 2020). SLR, increased \r [...]"


id: d3272d4c4e4f3325a0dd3fbb4a4938a8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34494
content:
"[...] ocean temperature and acidification may also negatively impact NES's \r shrimp aquaculture production (Figure  12.8) (Gasalla et  al., 2017). \r Along with climate change, overfishing has driven exploited marine \r fish species to collapse (Verba et al., 2020)."


id: 3e7b85565fd599828054821d9aacc5ed
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8175
content:
"Biodiversity in NES is severely threatened by climate change in \r terrestrial (medium confidence: medium evidence, high agreement)\r and freshwater (low confidence: low evidence, high agreement)\r ecosystems (Figure 12.9). There are few studies projecting the likely \r impact of climate change on NES's biodiversity, especially its endemic \r freshwater fish. Recent studies have already reported the reduction in \r several endemic plant species affecting pollination and seed dispersal \r (Bech Gaivizzo et al., 2019; Cavalcante and Duarte, 2019; Silva et al., \r 2019b). Studies with terrestrial animals predict that most groups will \r be negatively impacted by climate change (de Oliveira et  al., 2012; \r Arnan et al., 2018; da Silva et al., 2018b; Montero et al., 2018). Changes \r in the abundance of coral reef community and extreme reduction in \r coral cover have been observed in NES (de Moraes et al., 2019; Duarte \r et al., 2020). A number of observed coral bleaching events associated \r [...]"


id: 51a801a8ee7745d963b0891d0b4dbfef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11649
content:
"[...] with an abnormal increase in sea temperatures have occurred in NES \r (Krug et al., 2013; Leao et al., 2016; de Oliveira Soares et al., 2019) \r (Figure  12.8), but thus far mortality has remained low and corals \r have been able return to normal values or remain stable following \r sea water temperature rise (medium confidence: medium evidence, \r high agreement) (Leao et  al., 2016). Mangroves in the region have \r shown increased mortality, but they have also expanded their range \r inland (Figure 12.6) (Godoy and Lacerda, 2015; Cohen et al., 2018). \r Future projections include mangrove landward expansion and lower \r migration rates by 2100 (Cohen et al., 2018)."


id: 99e3d1a7ce25e41b5ec5645ab3d3883c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24304
content:
"The impacts of intense drought have been reported in NES since 1780, \r with severe losses in agricultural production, livestock death, increase \r in agricultural prices and human death (Figure 12.9) (Marengo et al., \r 2017, 2020c; Martins et al., 2019; Government of Brazil, 2020; Silva \r et al., 2020). The rural population already suffers from natural water \r scarcity in the countryside. The drought in 2012 was responsible for \r reducing up to 99% of the corn production in Pernambuco state \r (Government of Brazil, 2020). A predicted increase in drought, coupled \r with inadequate soil management practices by small farmers and \r agribusiness, increases the region's susceptibility to desertification \r (Spinoni et al., 2015; Vieira et al., 2015; Mariano et al., 2018; Tomasella \r et al., 2018; Marengo et al., 2020c). In NES, 70,000 km2\r  have reached a \r point at which agriculture is no longer possible (Government of Brazil, \r [...]"


id: 264e63cc1af9413ddd0a5486976c3b4a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3908
content:
"[...] 2020). Intense droughts have triggered migration to urban centres \r within and outside NES (Confalonieri et  al., 2014a; Government of \r Brazil, 2020). More than 10 million people have been impacted by the \r drought of 2012/2014 in the region, which was responsible for water \r shortage and contamination, increasing death by diarrhoea (Marengo \r and Bernasconi, 2015; Government of Brazil, 2020)."


id: 5dd0e7ec069c0cd7c828e4e62ee0ee5d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13804
content:
"Higher temperatures and SLR, changes in rainfall patterns, and an \r increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events could \r generate risks to the energy and infrastructure sectors and to the \r mining and metals industry. In the River Plate basin, urban floods \r have become more frequent, causing infrastructure damage and \r sometimes substantial mortality (high confidence) (Barros et  al., \r 2015; Zambrano et al., 2017; Nagy et al., 2019; Mettler-Grove, 2020; \r Morales-Yokobori, 2021; Oyedotun and Ally, 2021). A large increase \r in landslides and flash floods is also predicted for the Brazilian \r portion of SES, where they are responsible for the majority of deaths \r related to disasters in the country (high confidence) (Debortoli \r et al., 2017; Haque et al., 2019; Saito et al., 2019; Marengo et al., \r 2020d; da Fonseca Aguiar and Cataldi, 2021). Due to uncontrolled \r urban growth, 21.5  million people living in the large Brazilian \r [...]"


id: cc7b8633622327d039ddf922b6c6122c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33294
content:
"[...] cities of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Belo Horizonte (estimate \r for 2019 fromIBGE [2020]]) are expected to be exposed to water \r scarcity, despite widespread water availability in the region (medium \r evidence, medium agreement) (Marengo et al., 2017, Marengo et al., \r 2020b; Lima and Magana Rueda, 2018)."


id: c4415c761459178e5b9bbcfc32983545
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31814
content:
"The expected increase in temperature will also expose the populations \r in large cities to extreme heat. Urban heat islands are already a reality \r in large cities in the region, such as Buenos Aires (high confidence) \r (Wong et al., 2013; Sarricolea and Meseguer-Ruiz, 2019; Wu et al., 2019; \r Mettler-Grove, 2020), Rio de Janeiro (high confidence) (Ceccherini \r et al., 2016; Neiva et al., 2017; Geirinhas et al., 2018; Peres et al., 2018; \r Sarricolea and Meseguer-Ruiz, 2019; Wu et al., 2019; de Farias et al., \r 2021) and Sao Paulo (high confidence) (Mishra et  al., 2015; Barros \r and Lombardo, 2016; Ceccherini et al., 2016; Vemado and Pereira Filho, \r 2016; de Azevedo et al., 2018; Lima and Magana Rueda, 2018; Ferreira \r and Duarte, 2019; Lapola et al., 2019a; Sarricolea and Meseguer-Ruiz, \r 2019; Wu et al., 2019), with reported impact on human health in the \r latter (medium confidence: medium evidence, medium agreement) \r [...]"


id: e7333a572fba88605c802f1eff768c52
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37975
content:
"[...] (e.g., Araujo et al. 2015; Son et al. 2016; Diniz et al. 2020). These cities \r alone represent 22 million people exposed to increased heat (estimate \r for 2019 fromIBGE [2020]] and from INDEC [2010])."


id: a98f13710c2f93e82fe526190c1845b2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27052
content:
"Despite the observed increase in rainfall in the region, between 2014 \r and 2016 Brazil endured a water crisis that affected the population and \r economy of major capital cities in the SES region (Blunden and Arndt, \r 2014; Nobre et al., 2016a). Extremely long dry spells have become more \r frequent in southeastern Brazil, affecting 40  million people and the \r economies in cities such as Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Belo Horizonte, \r which are the industrial centres of the country (medium confidence: \r medium evidence, medium agreement) (PBMC, 2014; Nobre et  al., \r 2016a; Cunningham et al., 2017; Marengo et al., 2017, 2020b; Lima and \r Magana Rueda, 2018). They have also impacted agriculture, affecting \r food supply and rural livelihoods, especially in Minas Gerais (Nehren \r et al., 2019). Agricultural prices increased by 30% in some cases, and \r harvest yields of sugar cane, coffee and fruits suffered a reduction of 15-\r [...]"


id: f8101c5dcec98ee97252fbb86e8b12e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41014
content:
"[...] 40% in the region. The number of fires increased by 150%, and energy \r prices increased by 20-25%, as most electricity comes from hydroelectric \r power (Nobre et  al., 2016a). In Argentina, projected changes in the \r hydrology of Andean rivers associated with glacier retreat are predicted \r to have negative impacts on the region's fruit production (low evidence, \r medium agreement) (Barros et al., 2015)."


id: 377c7ec2f5bb95b22f29d55e7079022b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6974
content:
"SES is a global priority for terrestrial biodiversity conservation and \r is home to two important biodiversity hotspots--the Atlantic Forest \r and Cerrado--which are among the world's most studied biodiversity \r hotspots in connection with climate-change impact on biodiversity, \r especially for terrestrial vertebrates (Section CCP1.2.2; Manes et al., \r 2021). An increasing number of studies show that the Atlantic Forest \r and Cerrado are at risk of biodiversity loss, largely due to projected \r reductions of species' geographic distributions in many different \r taxa (e.g., Loyola et al. 2012, 2014; Ferro et al. 2014; Hoffmann et al. \r 2015; Martins et al. 2015; Aguiar et al. 2016b; Vale et al. 2018; Borges \r et al. 2019; Braz et al. 2019; Vale et al. 2021). Cerrado savannahs are \r projected to be the hotspot most negatively impacted by climate \r change within SA, mostly though range contraction of plant species \r (very high confidence), while the Atlantic Forest is projected to be \r [...]"


id: dfb990ca3d4c3824152632ce5db8966d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36608
content:
"[...] highly impacted especially though the contraction of the distribution of \r endemic species (very likely) (Section CCP1.2.2; Figure 12.10) (Manes \r et al., 2021). Reductions in species' distribution are also projected in \r the River Plate basin for sub-tropical amphibians (Schivo et al., 2019) \r and the river tiger (Salminus brasiliensis), a keystone fish of economic \r value (Ruaro et al., 2019). Farming of mussels and oysters in the region \r is predicted to be negatively impacted by climate change, particularly \r SLR, and ocean warming and acidification (Gasalla et al., 2017). Some \r more localised habitats are also at risk of losing area due to climate "


id: 59d110bbf82066a67812d367b4c63eb6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13044
content:
"Four sets of downscaling simulations based on the Eta Regional \r Climate Model forced by two global climate models (Chou et al., 2014) \r projected warmer conditions (more than 1degC) for the entire sub-region \r by 2050 under the RCP4.5 scenario (medium confidence). Extremely \r warm December-January-February days as well as the number of \r heatwaves per season are expected to increase by 5-10  times in \r northern Chile (Feron et al., 2019), likely increasing in the intensity and \r frequency of hot extremes over the entire region (WGI AR6 Table 11.13) \r (Seneviratne et  al., 2021). Drier conditions (medium confidence), by \r means of a decrease in total annual and extreme precipitation, are \r expected to increase for southern Chile, but inconsistent changes are \r expected in the sub-region (low confidence) (Chou et al., 2014) (WGI \r AR6 Table 11.14) (Seneviratne et al., 2021) with high confidence upon \r an increase in fire weather and a decrease in permafrost and snow \r [...]"


id: 683245bba53c637a5001195aef70e2bf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15600
content:
"Rapid changes in temperature and precipitation regimes make \r terrestrial ecosystems highly vulnerable to climate change (high \r confidence) (Salas et  al., 2016; Fuentes-Castillo et  al., 2020) \r (Figure 12.7). Terrestrial ecosystems dominated by exotic species (e.g., \r pine) with lower landscape heterogeneity and degraded soils and that \r are close to settlements and roads are highly vulnerable to wildfires \r in comparison to forests dominated by native trees (high confidence) \r (Altamirano et al., 2013; Castillo-Soto et al., 2013; Cobar-Carranza et al., \r 2014; Salas et al., 2016; Banales-Seguel et al., 2018; Gomez-Gonzalez \r et  al., 2018; Sarricolea et  al., 2020). Changes in land use, artificial \r forestation, deforestation, agricultural abandonment and urbanisation \r have provoked a permanent degradation of old-growth forests, \r putting at risk the biodiversity, recreation and ecotourism (medium \r confidence: medium evidence, high agreement) (Rojas et  al., 2013; \r [...]"


id: d74fa078a47a83de73637f9c42ca97e7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35184
content:
"[...] Nahuelhual et al., 2014). Marine coastal ecosystems such as dunes, \r sandy beaches and wetlands show high deterioration, decreasing their \r ability to mitigate extreme events (medium confidence: low evidence, \r high agreement) (Gonzalez and Holtmann-Ahumada, 2017; Ministerio \r de Medio Ambiente de Chile, 2019)."


id: bf90d1e326aef29ebb8b94618225a89f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30966
content:
"The water sector shows a very high vulnerability (high confidence) \r (Figure 12.7) mainly due to weak water governance focused on market \r aspects (e.g., inter-sectoral water transactions, setting rates, granting \r concessions, waiving the water right) (high confidence) (Hurlbert and \r Diaz, 2013; Valdes-Pineda et al., 2014; Barria et al., 2019; Hurlbert and \r Gupta, 2019; Munoz et al., 2020a; Urquiza and Billi, 2020b). Potable \r water and adequate sanitation are available in SWS; however, water \r availability in Chile is unevenly distributed in rural communities (high \r confidence) (Valdes-Pineda et  al., 2014; Nelson-Nunez et  al., 2019). \r Spatial differences in water availability are enhanced by strong \r population growth, economic development, mining activities and \r the high dependence of agriculture on irrigation (high confidence) \r (Stathatou et  al., 2016; Northey et  al., 2017; Fercovic et  al., 2019). \r Droughts in SWS are a major threat to water security (high confidence) \r [...]"


id: c6335d6c3f9a2b19715b7f0036e262b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32180
content:
"[...] (Aitken et  al., 2016; Nunez et  al., 2017) as river streamflows are \r highly dependent on the interannual to decadal climate conditions, \r snow melting processes and rainfall events (Boisier et al., 2016) and \r impacted by land uses and changes in irrigated agriculture (medium \r confidence: medium evidence, high agreement) (Vicuna et al., 2013; \r Fuentes et al., 2021)."


id: 86fa9262729ec1455914cce0c56c34a2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20911
content:
"Large-scale agricultural growth has increased vulnerability to climate \r change by disfavouring traditional agriculture, the homogenisation \r of the biophysical landscape and the replacement of traditional \r crops and native forests with exotic species like pines and eucalyptus \r (high confidence) (Torres et al., 2015), where farmers' perceptions of \r climate change are highly dependent on educational level and access \r to meteorological information (low confidence) (Roco et  al., 2015). \r Agricultural systems owned by Indigenous Peoples (i.e., Mapuche, \r Quechua and Aymara farmers) seem to pose a lower level of vulnerability \r to drought and higher response capacity than non-Indigenous farmers \r thanks to the use of the traditional knowledge of specific management \r techniques and the tendency to conserve species or varieties of crops \r tolerant to water scarcity (low confidence) (Montalba et  al., 2015; \r [...]"


id: e10a2899e5a8359ca09f177fc43cd4ef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36854
content:
"[...] Saylor et al., 2017; Meldrum et al., 2018). Fishery- and aquaculture\u0002related livelihoods are vulnerable to climate and non-climate drivers \r (medium confidence: medium evidence, high agreement), such as \r sea surface warming and precipitation reduction (Handisyde et  al., \r 2017; Soto et al., 2019; Gonzalez et al., 2021), changes in upwelling \r intensity (low confidence) (Oyarzun and Brierley, 2019; Ramajo et al., \r 2020), eutrophication and harmful algal bloom (HAB) events (Almanza \r et al., 2019), a lack of observational elements and data management \r (Garcon et al., 2019) and events such as earthquakes and tsunamis \r (Marin, 2019)."


id: cd028abdecb23cd3d63dc0822a365920
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33410
content:
"Changes in temperature and droughts have impacted crops \r significantly (medium confidence: medium evidence, high agreement) \r (Ray et al., 2015; Zambrano et al., 2016; Lesjak and Calderini, 2017; \r Ferrero et al., 2018; Piticar, 2018; Haddad et al., 2019; Zuniga et al., \r 2021). Table 12.4 shows the changes in crop growth duration, which \r affects yields. Higher negative numbers then indicate yield reduction \r for the crop. Increasing temperatures and decreasing precipitation are \r expected to impact the agriculture sector (i.e., fruits crops and forests) \r across the entire sub-region, with the largest impacts in the northern \r and central zone (high confidence) (Mera et al., 2015; Zhang et al., \r 2015; Silva et al., 2016; Lizana et al., 2017; Reyer et al., 2017; Toro\u0002Mujica et  al., 2017; Beya-Marshall et  al., 2018; Lobos et  al., 2018; \r O'Leary et al., 2018; Aggarwal et al., 2019; Avila-Valdes et al., 2020; \r Fernandez et al., 2020; Melo and Foster, 2021). Observed impacts and \r [...]"


id: 998ba0d458eba6868269e7e5a5467490
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24242
content:
"[...] future projections warn that increasing temperatures and decreasing \r precipitation will largely impact water demand by agricultural sectors \r (high confidence) (Novoa et  al., 2019; Pena-Guerrero et  al., 2020; \r Webb et al., 2020). Extreme climate events have caused Indigenous \r Peoples (e.g., Mapuche, Uru and Aymara) to experience water \r scarcity, a reduction in agricultural production and a displacement of \r their traditional knowledge and practices (medium confidence: low \r evidence, high agreement) (Parraguez-Vergara et al., 2016; Meldrum \r et al., 2018; Perreault, 2020)."


id: 51d34e19e2850d8eb6e011a415557de1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11683
content:
"There is low evidence on shoreline retreat attributed to climate change \r (Martinez et al., 2018; Ministerio de Medio Ambiente de Chile, 2019), \r although increasing wind intensity along the central Chilean coast has \r caused serious damage in coastal infrastructure and buildings (Winckler \r et al., 2017) and changes in seawater properties and processes (low \r confidence) (Schneider et  al., 2017; Aguirre et  al., 2018). Ocean and \r coastal ecosystems in SWS are sensitive to upwelling intensity, which \r affects the abundance, diversity, physiology and survivorship of coastal \r species (high confidence) (Anabalon et  al., 2016; Jacob et  al., 2018; \r Ramajo et al., 2020) (Figure 12.8). Increasing radiation and temperatures \r and reduced precipitation, in conjunction with increased nutrient load, \r have increased HAB events, producing massive fauna mortalities (high \r confidence) (Leon-Munoz et al., 2018; IPCC, 2019b, SPM A8.2 and B8.3; \r [...]"


id: 1e6da2501e161eb0577f5e3f7bad4049
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2555
content:
"[...] Quinones et al., 2019; Soto et al., 2019; Armijo et al., 2020). Multiple \r resources subjected to fisheries and aquaculture are highly vulnerable \r to storms, alluvial disasters, ocean warming, ocean acidification, \r increasing ENSO extreme events and lower oxygen availability (high \r confidence) (Figure 12.8; Garcia-Reyes et al., 2015; Silva et al., 2015; \r Duarte et al., 2016, 2018; Lagos et al., 2016; Navarro et al., 2016; Lardies \r et  al., 2017; IPCC, 2019b; Mellado et  al., 2019; Ramajo et  al., 2019; \r Silva et al., 2019a; Bertrand et al., 2020). Ocean and coastal ecosystems, \r especially EEZs, will be highly impacted by climate change in the near \r and long term (high confidence) (Figure 12.8; Table SM12.3; Silva et al., \r 2015; Silva et al., 2019a)."


id: 45112795a0669693a96cd9cbf27eda73
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9377
content:
"Grasslands make a significant contribution to food security in \r Patagonia by providing part of the feed requirements of ruminants \r used for meat, wool and milk production. There is a lack of information \r regarding the combined effects of climate change and overgrazing and \r the consequences for pastoral livelihoods that depend on rangelands. \r Temperature and the amount and seasonal distribution of precipitation \r were important controls of vegetation structure in Patagonian \r rangelands (Gaitan et al., 2014). They found that over two-thirds of the \r total effect of precipitation on above-ground net primary production \r (ANPP) was direct, and the other third was indirect (via the effects \r of precipitation on vegetation structure). Thus, if evapotranspiration \r and drought stress increase as temperature increases and rainfall \r decreases in water-limited ecosystems, a greater exposure of ranchers \r to a reduction in stocking rate and, therefore, family income would be \r [...]"


id: d210cfd3f9f40c707520fb4f51703472
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34313
content:
"[...] expected (medium confidence). The number of farmers (mainly family \r enterprises) exposed to climatic hazards (drought) is approximately \r 70,000-80,000, who have 14-15  million sheep in Argentina (Peri \r et al., 2021)."


id: e7cd515564448d4fd9e0a46fb41a6114
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38088
content:
"There were inconsistent trends and insufficient data coverage on \r extreme temperatures and precipitation (low confidence), but an \r increase in the frequency of meteorological droughts was observed \r with medium confidence (Dereczynski et al., 2020; Dunn et al., 2020; \r WGI AR6 Tables 11.13, 11.14, 11.15, Seneviratne et al., 2021; WGI AR6 \r Table  12.3, Ranasinghe et  al., 2021). An increase in precipitation in \r Trelew, no change for Comodoro Rivadavia, both stations located in \r eastern Patagonia, and negative trends in austral summer rainfall in \r the southern Andes were observed (Vera and Diaz, 2015; Saurral et al., \r 2017). Chile's wildfires in Patagonia (fire frequency and intensity) have \r grown at an alarming rate (Ubeda and Sarricolea, 2016). Decreasing \r rainfall patterns in Punta Arenas is closely associated with variability \r at interannual to inter-decadal time scales of the main forcing system \r of climate in Patagonia. Snow cover extension (SCE) and snow cover \r [...]"


id: 96f3a7afb163421aef76130cdea1d0f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23749
content:
"[...] duration decreased by an average of approximately 13 +- 2% and \r 43 +- 20 d respectively from 2000 to 2016, due to warming rather \r than drying (Rasmussen et al., 2007). In particular, analysis of spatial \r patterns of SCE indicates a slightly greater reduction on the eastern \r side (approximately 14 +- 2%) of the Andes Cordillera compared to \r the western side (approximately 12 +- 3%). According to the longest \r time series of glacier mass balance data in the Southern Hemisphere, \r the Echaurren Norte glacier lost 65% of its original area in the period \r 1955-2015 and disaggregated into two ice bodies in the late 1990s \r (Malmros et al., 2018; Perez et al., 2018)."


id: a527597a8ad0156bc36b75f2203557d5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26287
content:
"There are reports related to a decrease in survival, growth and higher \r vulnerability to drought and fire severity for species of native forests \r due to climate change and wildfires (high confidence) (Mundo et al., \r 2010; Landesmann et  al., 2015; Whitlock et  al., 2015; Jump et  al., \r 2017; Camarero et  al., 2018; Venegas-Gonzalez et  al., 2018a). A \r coincidence has been reported between major changes in regional \r decline in the growth of forests with severe droughts due to climatic \r variations over northern Patagonia (Rodriguez-Caton et  al., 2016). \r Once the forest decline begins, other contributing factors, such as \r insects (e.g., defoliator outbreaks), increase forest vulnerability or \r accelerate the loss of forest health of previously stressed trees (Piper \r et  al., 2015). This region hosts unique temperate rainforests, which \r are particularly rich in endemic and long-lived conifer species (e.g., \r [...]"


id: c1ae437a839f0bf3aff790da4c141a73
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31376
content:
"[...] Fitzroya cupressoides) and which may be vulnerable to declines in soil \r moisture availability (Camarero and Fajardo, 2017). Patagonia will "


id: ef80bed86cc4f8a2f3140fe7404e73d0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39513
content:
"Panel (b) indicates the references used and the level of vulnerability by sub-region. The numbers within the table indicate the reference used for the assessment in the following \r order: (1) Aitken et al. (2016); (2) Anderson et al. (2018b); (3) Banales-Seguel et al. (2018); (4) Bouroncle et al. (2017); (5) CAF (2014); (6) Carrao et al. (2016); (7) Donatti et al. (2019); \r (8) Eguiguren-Velepucha et al. (2016); (9) FAO (2020a); (10) FAO (2020b); (11) FAO (2021a); (12) FAO (2021b); (13) FAO (2021c); (14) FAO et al. (2021); (15) FAO and ECLAC (2020); \r (16) Ferreira Filho and Moraes (2015); (17) Filho et al. (2016); (18) Fuentes-Castillo et al. (2020); (19) FSIN and Global Network Against Food Crisis (2021); (20) Global Health Security \r Index (2019); (21) Godber and Wall (2014); (22) Handisyde et al. (2017); (23) Hannah et al. (2017); (24) Immerzeel et al. (2020); (25) Inform Risk Index (2021); (26) Koutroulis et al. \r [...]"


id: 4b3e571623f4099aa880744136bd5037
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10487
content:
"[...] (2019); (27) Krishnamurthy et al. (2014); (28) Lapola et al. (2019a); (29) Li et al. (2018); (30) Lin et al. (2020); (31) Mansur et al. (2016); (32) Martins et al. (2017); (33) Menezes et al. \r (2018); (34) Nagy et al. (2018);35) ND-Gain (2020); (36) Northey et al. (2017); (37) Olivares et al. (2015); (38) Pacifici et al. (2015); (39) Qin et al. (2020); (40) Romeo et al. (2020); (41) \r Liu and Chen (2021); (42) Silva et al. (2019b); (43) Soto Winckler and Del Castillo Pantoja (2019); (44) Soto et al. (2019); (45) Tomby and Zhang (2019); (46) Venegas-Gonzalez et al. \r (2018b); (47) Yeni and Alpas (2017); (48) Marengo et al. (2017); (49) Bedran-Martins et al. (2018); (50) Confalonieri et al. (2014a). Detailed methodology can be found in SM12.2."


id: f8a402e7fd0bc04444270f1fa9a17f10
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41110
content:
"systems and components for the corresponding sector (Figure 12.9). \r This assessment is consistent with and complementary to the \r assessment in Section 12.3. A synthesis of these impacts (Figure 12.10) \r indicates the following: Climate change has or will have a major \r impact on the observed and future decline of Andean glaciers and \r snow (high confidence) and lead to the degradation of permafrost \r and destabilisation of related landscapes (medium evidence, high \r agreement). Water quality is a major concern across the region, but \r there is limited evidence of impacts of climate change on water quality \r as well as on groundwater. Climate change has had a significant \r impact on terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems in the NWS, SES and \r SWS sub-regions and a medium impact in the other sub-regions, but \r the level of confidence varies across sub-regions. Projections indicate \r a strong impact of climate change on these ecosystems for the future \r [...]"


id: 37a5f930e831280b28d042853e40d4b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6999
content:
"[...] (medium confidence: medium evidence, high agreement). Many \r aspects and assets of ocean and coastal ecosystems (e.g., mangroves, \r coral reefs, saltmarshes) were identified as being strongly impacted by \r climate change, both for observed and future periods (high confidence) \r (Section 12.5.2; Figure 12.9)."


id: 721125ac9d4a38a777525125ef15f025
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17314
content:
"Assessment of key observed and projected impacts and risks shows \r that in the CSA region several systems are already approaching critical \r thresholds under current warming levels, in particular glaciers in the \r Andes, coral reefs in CA (high confidence) and ocean and coastal \r ecosystems in virtually all sub-regions (medium confidence: medium \r evidence, high agreement). Some systems could cross these thresholds \r with different levels of reversibility depending on the degree of future \r warming, that is, glaciers in the Andes and coral reefs in CA, which will \r show partial but irreversible loss already under low levels of warming \r (RCP2.6) (high confidence). The risk of large-scale ecological changes \r and biome shifts of the Amazon rainforest, that is, a transition from \r tropical forest into other biomes such as seasonal forest or savannah, \r is now assessed with medium confidence, with the extent of the \r changes depending on the level of future warming and non-climatic \r [...]"


id: e07abaaacba22c1f2ab6368810a97f90
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36744
content:
"CSA is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world, hosting \r unique socioecosystems that will be strongly impacted by climate \r change (high confidence) (Section 12.3; Cross-Chapter Paper 1; CAF, \r 2014; Camacho Guerreiro et al., 2016; IPBES, 2018a; Li et al., 2018; \r Retsa et  al., 2020). Warming has generated extreme heat events in \r many parts of CSA (IPCC, 2019a) that, together with droughts and \r floods, will seriously affect the integrity of terrestrial and freshwater \r ecosystems in the entire region (Section 12.3; CAF, 2014). A reduction \r in net primary productivity in tropical forests and glacier retreat in \r the Andes, for example, are expected to cause significant negative \r socioecological impacts (Feldpausch et  al., 2016; Lyra et  al., 2017; \r Cuesta et al., 2019) (Case Study, 12.7.1). Biodiversity hotspots in the \r region are well assessed in the literature compared to other regions \r of the world, especially the Atlantic Forest, Mesoamerica and Cerrado \r [...]"


id: ee8754af6b0c3401d74c96f0a9b08243
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39342
content:
"[...] (Section CCP1.2.2; Manes et  al., 2021). Up to 85% of evaluated \r natural systems (species, habitats and communities) in the literature \r for biodiversity hotspots since AR5 were projected to be negatively "


id: b2621322424544c1e73b987eed0d2dac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28621
content:
"Investing in actions aimed at protection, restoration and the \r sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems represents a good \r approach to maintaining critical ecosystem services and constitutes \r part of a common strategy for adaptation, mitigation and disaster \r risk reduction in the region (high confidence) (Kabisch et  al., 2016; \r Scarano et al., 2018). These strategies also satisfy international forest \r and water conservation agendas in terms of optimising resources and \r solutions (Strassburg et al., 2019). Global conservation and sustainable \r development commitments, such as the Aichi Targets (Convention on \r Biological Diversity [CBD]), Sustainable Development Goals (UN), \r the NDCs under the Paris Agreement and the New York Declaration \r on Forests, strongly rely on nature-based solutions (NbS) to achieve \r their objectives (Brancalion et al., 2019) (Figure 12.12). The COVID-19 \r outbreak also brought attention to the need to preserve tropical \r [...]"


id: 93a5852339dcca4370d43fd1e0958d84
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23186
content:
"[...] forests as a means of preventing spillover of viruses from wildlife \r to humans, with concerns over that risk in the Amazon (Allen et al., \r 2017b; Dobson et al., 2020; IPBES, 2020; Ferreira et al., 2021). These \r represent an important opportunity for ecosystem-based adaptation \r (EbA) to be at the core of NbS for climate change, access finance and \r promote climate resilient development pathways in CSA."


id: af56db12ed9fb8b334df32b9ea8f1d4a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28081
content:
"The conversion of natural ecosystems to agriculture, pasture and other \r land uses in CSA has been identified as a major challenge to climate\u0002change adaptation in the region (high confidence) (Scarano et  al., \r 2018; IPCC, 2019a). In the last three decades, SA has been a significant \r contributor to the growth of agricultural production worldwide (OECD/\r Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2015), driven \r partly by increased international demand for commodities, especially \r soybeans and meat (IPCC, 2019a). Between 2001 and 2015 about 65% \r of all forest disturbance in the region was associated with commodity\u0002driven deforestation (Curtis et al., 2018). High rates of native vegetation \r conversion in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay \r and Peru threaten important ecosystems (Amazon, Cerrado, Chacos and \r Llanos savannahs, Atlantic rainforest, Caatinga and Yungas) (Graesser \r et al., 2015; FAO, 2016c). Almost two-thirds of soy consumed in EU+ \r [...]"


id: 31922087432a0c772bd5b7891fa51411
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5966
content:
"[...] comes from Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay (IDH, 2020), increasing \r conversion risk in the Amazon, Cerrado and Gran Chaco. Despite "


id: 47d5d6c39ebe9c342deceaf7178a20f8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9849
content:
"The Declaration on Protected Areas and Climate Change, presented by \r 18 CSA countries during the United Nations Framework Convention \r on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties 21 (COP21), \r highlights the fundamental role of protected areas in providing the \r so-called GI needed to implement climate-change mitigation and \r adaptation and safeguard the provision of essential ecosystem services \r and the livelihoods of Indigenous Peoples and local communities \r (Gross et  al., 2016). Protected area in CSA are underfunded (very \r high confidence). Latin American (including Mexico) governments \r allocate just about 1% of their national environmental budgets on \r protected areas (about USD 1.18 ha-1 on average). This figure only \r covers 54% of their basic needs, resulting in insufficient management. \r The financing gap to achieve optimal needs for protected areas in \r CSA is approximately USD 700  million yr-1 (Bovarnick et  al., 2010). \r [...]"


id: c0f2f7bf32ac4b2a8c987697da6030da
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31251
content:
"[...] This seriously compromises the management and delivery capacity \r of protected areas for climate-change adaptation and preparedness \r for ongoing ecological transformation (van Kerkhoff et  al., 2019). \r Furthermore, to become a relevant mechanism for resilience, \r protected areas need to be managed for this purpose (Mansourian \r et  al., 2009). About 40% of protected areas in Latin America and \r the Caribbean (including Mexico) have undertaken management \r effectiveness evaluations (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2020a). This is \r hardly representative of Aichi's Target 11, although far better than \r the 11% global average. Collaborations with Indigenous Peoples and \r local communities are also an important issue to consolidate protected \r areas (Gross et al., 2016). In addition to protected areas as solutions \r for climate-change adaptation and mitigation, there is also a need to \r protect or restore ecosystems outside the protected areas, as illustrated \r [...]"


id: 3885c0ef28cfb069658a16d19623eb7e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7155
content:
"most profitable Amazon crop (Hansen et  al., 2013; Nepstad et  al., \r 2014). Policies included territorial planning (protected areas, Indigenous \r territories and land tenure), satellite monitoring and market and credit \r restrictions on high-deforesting municipalities, plus some incentives to \r small farmers (Boucher et al., 2013; Hansen et al., 2013; Nepstad et al., \r 2014; Castelo, 2015; Cunha et al., 2016a). It is important to highlight the \r important role of Indigenous territories, in addition to protected areas, in \r forest conservation in the Amazon (high evidence, medium agreement) \r (Schwartzman et  al., 2013; Barber et  al., 2014; Nepstad et  al., 2014; \r Walker et al., 2014b). These policies were partially funded by results\u0002based compensation through the Amazon Fund. Since 2012, however, \r policies and institutions have weakened, and Amazon deforestation \r rates have started to rise (Carvalho et al., 2019), becoming more acute \r [...]"


id: a35befa68d998dd7ff5e7911569f4a17
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25946
content:
"[...] in recent years (Silva Junior et al., 2021). Conservation incentives, a new \r complementary and allegedly cost-effective approach, is increasingly \r being implemented in the region (Magrin et al., 2014). They include PES, \r REDD+, environmental certification and conservation easements, but \r remain controversial, and more research is needed on their effectiveness, \r possible negative side effects, participatory management systems \r and collective decision-making processes (Larson and Petkova, 2011; \r Locatelli et al., 2011; Pinho et al., 2014; Strassburg et al., 2014; Mistry \r et al., 2016; Gebara and Agrawal, 2017; Scarano et al., 2018; Ruggiero \r et al., 2019; To and Dressler, 2019; Vallet et al., 2019)."


id: f5f548dc820dc5f3e567421c1828d096
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40625
content:
"Protected areas have become an important component as enablers \r of national climate-change adaptation strategies. They increase \r ecosystems' adaptive potential, reducing climate risk and delivering \r numerous ecosystem services and sustainable development benefits \r while playing an important role in climate-change mitigation (high \r confidence) (Mackey et  al., 2008; Dudley et  al., 2010; Gross et  al., \r 2016; Bebber and Butt, 2017; Dinerstein et  al., 2019; IPCC, 2019a). \r CSA already has a greater percentage of land (24.1%) under protected \r status than the world average (14.7%) (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, \r 2020b). Some countries, including Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala, \r Nicaragua and Venezuela, have already met or surpassed the 30% CDB \r and IUCN goal (Dinerstein et al., 2019), and others, like Costa Rica and \r Honduras, are very close to doing so. In some cases, the establishment \r of protected areas not accompanied by collective decision-making \r [...]"


id: 323881209ad851236d65b2a44edcdc33
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6091
content:
"[...] processes has displaced local people or denied them access to natural \r resources, increasing their vulnerability to climate change (Brockington \r and Wilkie, 2015)."


id: fae63bd12b4d15a149a984b99fa07552
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41525
content:
"(high confidence) (NCs, NDCs and NAPs, https://unfccc.int). IKLK can \r be very detailed and usually relates to people's priorities as identified \r by collective decision-making (Box 7.1) (Hurlbert et al., 2019, SRCCL \r Section 7.6.4; SRCCL Cross-Chapter Box 13 ILK; de Coninck et al., 2018, \r SR1.5 Section 4.3.5.5). In Manaus, central Amazon, fishermen perceive \r reductions in fish size, diversity and capture levels caused by droughts, \r while recognising that floods hinder access to fishing grounds \r (Keenan, 2015; Camacho Guerreiro et  al., 2016). In the Amazon \r floodplains, small-scale fisher and farmer communities incorporate \r their knowledge on natural hydrologic and ecological processes into \r management systems that reduce climate-change risk and impacts \r (Oviedo et  al., 2016). Smallholder grain farmers in Guatemala and \r Honduras implement EbA practices based on local knowledge (e.g., \r live fences, home gardens, shade trees in coffee plantations, dispersed \r [...]"


id: 8e2d65ffb2e190b84c2fa422fffe8544
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22207
content:
"[...] trees in corn fields and other food insecurity risk reduction practices) \r (Harvey et al., 2017; Chain-Guadarrama et al., 2018). There is, therefore, \r great potential for terrestrial and freshwater ecosystem adaptation to \r climate change in CSA, provided the right incentives and sociocultural \r protective measures are in place (high confidence) (Section 12.5.10.4; \r Table SM12.7)."


id: 2697a58c92c2fd9e69173557884f0b54
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3953
content:
"Ocean and coastal ecosystems provide suitable habitats for a high \r number of species that support important local fisheries, the tourism \r sector and the regional economy (high confidence) (Section  3.5; \r Table  3.9; Gonzalez and Holtmann-Ahumada, 2017; Venerus and \r Cedrola, 2017; CEPAL, 2018; Carvache-Franco et  al., 2019; SROCC \r Section 5.4, Bindoff et al., 2019). There is high confidence that CSA ocean \r and coastal ecosystems are already being impacted by climate change \r (Figure 12.9, 12.10; Table SM12.3; Section 3.4; Section 5.4 in SROCC, \r Bindoff et al., 2019) and are highly sensitive to non-climatic stressors \r (Figure  12.8; Table  SM12.3; Section  3.4). Projections for CSA ocean \r and coastal ecosystems warn about significant and negative impacts \r (high confidence), which include major loss of ecosystem structure and \r functionality, changes in the distributional range of several species \r and ecosystems, major mortality rates and increasing numbers of coral \r [...]"


id: c9dcd824a90039f332a1534825339f0c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32842
content:
"[...] bleaching events (Figure 12.9; Figure 12.10; Table SM12.3; Section 3.4; \r SROCC Sections 5.3, 5.4, Bindoff et al., 2019)."


id: f6fad756cbcbe97313ca4badf796952a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40822
content:
"The use of territorial planning tools, the promotion of sustainable \r resource exploitation, the adherence to certification schemes and the \r implementation of management instruments, such as ecosystem-based \r management (EbM), followed by the use of an integrated coastal zone \r management, coastal marine spatial planning and capacity building, \r ecological risk assessments, have been the main strategies used to \r ensure the sustainability of marine resources in fisheries across EEZs \r of CSA (high confidence) (Hellebrandt et al., 2014; Gelcich et al., 2015; \r Singh-Renton and McIvor, 2015; Gutierrez et  al., 2016a; Karlsson \r and Bryceson, 2016; Oyanedel et al., 2016; Debels et al., 2017; Isaac \r and Ferrari, 2017; Mariano Gutierrez et  al., 2017; Barragan and \r Lazo, 2018; Bertrand et al., 2018; Lluch-Cota et al., 2018; Guerrero\u0002Gatica et al., 2020). Other strategies include the application of local \r regulations (e.g., closed seasons) (Fontoura et al., 2016) and the use of \r [...]"


id: 3f6fd2c829e21ead07f65653962965e9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8346
content:
"[...] participative programmes (Hellebrandt et al., 2014; Arroyo Mina et al., \r 2016; Matera, 2016)."


id: 9400903a4cb590e7a260cd422faa927
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23244
content:
"There is low evidence about how the strategies and actions taken and \r implemented in ocean and coastal systems of CSA have contributed \r to advance in the protection and conservation of ocean and coastal \r ecosystems. However, some important advances are visible in \r Colombian Pacific areas with coral reefs (new conservation plans, \r research monitoring and conservation practices) (low confidence) \r (Cruz-Garcia and Peters, 2015; Alvarado et al., 2017; Bayraktarov et al., \r 2020). In Panama, actions taken have allowed the protection of a high \r number of marine areas with coral reefs, as well as the incorporation of \r management approaches that include several sectors such as fisheries, \r tourism, coral protection and coral conservation (low confidence) \r (Alvarado et al., 2017). In the case of Costa Rica, 80% of coral habitats \r are located inside of MPAs, multiple research coral-related activities \r have been performed, and several training activities have favoured the \r [...]"


id: a1d6c31721d4da64403ad506452950a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25693
content:
"[...] engagement of the local community in their protection against climate \r and non-climate hazards (low confidence) (Alvarado et al., 2017)."


id: e4f2e39ae1c9637f77916c2507682522
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37573
content:
"There is medium confidence that EbA is the main strategy used in \r CSA coral reef ecosystems. The set of strategies applied include the \r protection, restoration (e.g., coral gardening, larval propagation) and \r conservation of coral reef areas through the application of spatial \r ocean zoning schemes such as marine protected areas (MPAs), marine \r managed areas (MMAs), national parks, wildlife refuges, special zones \r of marine protection, special management zones, responsible fishing \r areas and the establishment of management plans with some level \r of participatory processes. These strategies are complemented by \r actions that promote the development of research and education \r programmes, recreational and cultural activities, the use of community\u0002based approaches and the creation of national specific laws (Graham, \r 2017) and the adherence to international treaties (e.g., Convention \r on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora \r [...]"


id: 11f7226f67465ca3f5c02135f033cadf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 350
content:
"[...] [CITIES], AGENDA 21, United Nations Convention on the Law of the \r Sea (UNCLOS), Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International \r Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat) (Cruz-Garcia and Peters, \r 2015; Gopal et al., 2015; Graham, 2017; Bayraktarov et al., 2020)."


id: b667a029247ebdf6f6f68cae587bd536
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29305
content:
"There is low confidence about how measures adopted are ensuring \r the sustainability of marine resources used by fisheries. In Peru, \r industrial fisheries follow an adaptive management approach (i.e., \r stock assessments, catch limits), while in Chile, small-scale fisheries \r of benthic-demersal resources is managed through the granting of \r exclusive territorial use rights (called TURFS) with established quotas \r defined by the central authority (Bertrand et  al., 2018). In addition, \r MPAs in Chile play a key role in climate-change adaptation for fisheries \r (medium confidence) (Gelcich et al., 2015; Petit et al., 2018), and an \r increasing amount of funds have been invested in initiatives to reduce \r the vulnerability of fishery and aquaculture sectors to climate change \r (OECD, 2017). Since 2016, Argentina has been developing a strategy to \r implement EbM on fisheries with support from the Global Environment \r Facility (GEF) programme. Also, Argentina and Chile are promoting \r [...]"


id: 4c1f889d22dea555cbfe2367591db0d3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10652
content:
"[...] the local consumption of seafood and the certification of its fishery \r products (OECD, 2017), while Brazil and Chile have advanced in their \r response to climate change through the development of new research \r studies and methodologies incorporating research institutions (Nagy \r et  al., 2015). Uruguay is incorporating stakeholders in its climate\u0002change adaptation strategies (low confidence) (Nagy et  al., 2015), \r while Colombia is supporting the capacity building of fishers, promoting \r livelihood diversification to increase the resilience of the sector (medium \r confidence: medium evidence, high agreement) (Hellebrandt et al., 2014; \r Arroyo Mina et  al., 2016; Matera, 2016). Chile and Peru have made \r certain advances in the development of guidelines for the management \r of the coast line and the implementation of the EbM, which has \r favoured the collaboration of diverse and multiple stakeholders (fishers, \r [...]"


id: d57503c3d2634d4b2d97b40410230afe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34870
content:
"[...] academics, municipal institutions), the development of outreach and \r educational activities, the creation of networks and the interests of other \r fishery communities to implement EbM (medium confidence: medium \r evidence, high agreement) (Hellebrandt et al., 2014; Gelcich et al., 2015; "


id: f453c54aeefddd366b6ecf0b351ecf1e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40359
content:
"References: 1(Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible de la Republica de \r Argentina, 2019) 2\r (Ministry of Environment of Brazil, 2016a) 3(Ministry of Environment \r of Brazil, 2016b) 4(Ministerio de Medio Ambiente de Chile, 2014b) 5(Ministerio de Medio \r Ambiente de Chile, 2014a) 6(Ministerio de Economia Fomento y Turismo de Chile, 2015) 7\r (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente de Chile, 2017) 8(Ministerio de Salud de Chile, 2017) 9\r (Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible de Colombia, 2016) 10(Ministerio de \r Ambiente y Energia de la Republica de Costa Rica, 2018) 11(Gobierno Nacional de la \r Republica del Ecuador, 2015) 12(Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales \r de El Salvador, 2015) 13(Consejo Nacional de Cambio Climatico y la Secretaria de \r Planificacion y Programacion de la Presidencia de Guatemala, 2018) 14(National Ozone \r Action Unit of Guyana, 2016) 15(Secretaria de Recursos Naturales y Ambiente del \r [...]"


id: f95e24f32084e2ed548764a359a8cf9f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41233
content:
"[...] Gobierno de la Republica de Honduras, 2018) 16(Ministerio Agropecuario y Forestal de \r Nicaragua, 2013) 17(Ministerio del Ambiente Gobierno del Peru, 2021) 18(Government of \r Suriname, 2019) 19(Ministerio de Vivienda Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente \r de la Republica de Uruguay, 2010)"


id: 445d2bfa7497b2413fe7e382c2e4d58a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9265
content:
"Although current NAPs and many other actions and strategies focus \r on improving the conservation and restoration of ocean and coastal \r ecosystems, as well as the suitability of marine resources throughout \r CSA, these measures are still not able to reduce the vulnerability \r and sensitivity of these ecosystems to climate-change hazards (high \r confidence) (Figure 12.6; Table SM12.3; Leal Filho, 2018; Nagy et al., \r 2019). There is high confidence that sandy beach ecosystems of CSA \r countries have suffered significant losses of dunes as a consequence \r of the construction of infrastructures that have caused interruptions \r in the natural dynamic of beaches, reducing protection against tides, \r waves, extreme events or tsunamis (high confidence) (Amaral et  al., \r 2016; Bernardino et al., 2016; Gonzalez and Holtmann-Ahumada, 2017; \r Obraczka et  al., 2017). Also, adaptation measures to cope with SLR \r and coastal extreme events sometimes fail because they exacerbate \r [...]"


id: ecf576e107161be7c100587f87f2571a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39059
content:
"[...] coastal erosion and damage (medium confidence: medium evidence, \r high agreement) (Spalding et  al., 2014; Lins-de-Barros and Parente\u0002Ribeiro, 2018). There is medium evidence but high agreement that the \r most serious barriers limiting the success of adaptation strategies in \r ocean and coastal systems in CSA stem from a lack of coordination \r (e.g., absence of participatory processes, overlapping among fishing \r and protection activities), lack of knowledge (e.g., poor monitoring, \r poor control and surveillance, no long-term studies) and lack of \r adequate metrics for evaluating adaptation actions informing decision \r makers hinder the continuity and adjustment of measures and lead to \r weak governance (e.g., perverse incentives, resource overexploitation, "


id: dded5e9986c3aaa4a3a57a040ecb80cd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36306
content:
"Current goals in national and sectoral adaptation plans attempt \r to promote research and monitoring (e.g., new research actions, \r modelling, knowledge management), the development of new \r legislative tools and policies (e.g., inter-institutional and territorial \r coordination, improvement of public policies), the conservation of \r ocean and coastal ecosystems and their biodiversity (e.g., creation \r of new MPAs, protection tools), the management of climate risks \r (e.g., warning systems), the management of productive activities \r (e.g., diversification of resources), the promotion of the construction \r of new infrastructure and technology (e.g., grey-green infrastructure \r [GGI]), the creation of new financial tools (e.g., types of insurance), \r improved the capacity building (e.g., education, awareness), water \r and residue management (e.g., sewage and freshwater availability), \r social inclusion (e.g., strategies to support vulnerable sectors, gender \r [...]"


id: 7b86d3ea5469ed425a516d6ecc6a4b36
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18941
content:
"[...] inclusion) and the incorporation of traditional practices (e.g., restoring \r traditional practices including Indigenous knowledge [IK]). However, \r the amount and type of adaptation goals differ enormously from \r country to country (Figure 12.12)."


id: 4cee6b3014f2d6626c7311d06d803419
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10804
content:
"Some important limits and barriers have been detected for productive \r systems such as fisheries and tourism in CSA (medium confidence: \r medium evidence, high agreement). Major Brazilian fisheries do not \r follow an ecosystem approach to management, although some small\u0002scale fisheries apply a precautionary approach (Singh-Renton and \r McIvor, 2015). The management of Peruvian artisanal (medium and \r small-scale) fisheries is minimal and is governed by a lack of regulations, \r control and management actions (Bertrand et al., 2018). In Argentina, \r recreational marine fisheries have been largely unregulated, and there \r exists a lack of monitoring programmes, which has contributed to the \r overexploitation of some key coastal stocks (Venerus and Cedrola, \r 2017). Moreover, womenfisher in CSA are excluded of the decision\u0002making processes (FAO, 2016b; Bruguere and Williams, 2017). Due to \r the lack of monitoring programmes, it is unknown how this tourist \r [...]"


id: f8b97f333a47e8f22b071f04f387e5e3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41119
content:
"[...] industry will respond to long-term changes driven by climate change \r (Weatherdon et al., 2016)."


id: 8407053b52d69653a91e14fc42bce91f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20381
content:
"In several regions of CSA, water scarcity is a serious challenge to local \r livelihoods and economic activities. Regions that are (seasonally) dry, \r partly with large populations and increasing water demand, exhibit \r particularly significant water stress. These include the Dry Corridor in \r CA, coastal areas of Peru (SWS) and northern Chile (SWS), the Bolivian\u0002Peruvian Altiplano (NWS, SAM), the Dry Andes of Central Chile (SWS), \r Western Argentina and Chaco in northwestern Paraguay (SES) and Sertao \r in northeastern Brazil (NES) (high confidence) (Kummu et  al., 2016; \r Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2016; Schoolmeester et al., 2018). In NWS and \r SWS, downstream areas are increasingly affected by decreasing and \r unreliable river runoff due to rapid glacier shrinkage (high confidence) \r (Table SM12.6; Carey et al., 2014; Drenkhan et al., 2015; Buytaert et al., \r 2017). Many regions in CSA rely heavily on hydroelectric energy, and \r [...]"


id: 1499fc376d7aecc5271f0a40e006a3ef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 852
content:
"[...] as a result of rising energy demand, hydropower capacity is constantly \r being extended (Schoolmeester et al., 2018). Worldwide, SA features \r the second-fastest growth rate, with about 5.2 GW additional annual \r capacity installed in 2019 (IHA, 2020). This development requires \r additional water storage options, which entail the construction of large \r dams and reservoirs with important social-ecological implications. \r River fragmentation and corresponding loss of habitat connectivity \r due to dam constructions have been described for, for example, the \r NSA, SAM, NES and SES (high confidence) (Grill et al., 2015; Anderson \r et al., 2018a), with important implications for freshwater biota, such \r as fish migration (medium confidence) (Pelicice et al., 2015; Herrera-R \r et al., 2020). Furthermore, examples in, for instance, NWS (Carey et al., \r 2012; Duarte-Abadia et  al., 2015; Hommes and Boelens, 2018) and \r [...]"


id: 51744472b52fb7dd2dbd9f2bea934e47
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11612
content:
"[...] SWS (Munoz et al., 2019b) showcase unresolved water-related conflicts \r between local villagers, peasant communities, hydropower operators \r and governmental institutions in a context of distrust and lack of water \r governance (high confidence)."


id: c0b7888a6ac54aa8f5ced02b2913ca7e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31204
content:
"There is low evidence and high agreement that empowering local \r stakeholders (e.g., multi-lateral fisheries agreements) improves public \r awareness and simplifies regulations and increases the flexibility and \r sustainability of marine resources managed in fisheries under future \r scenarios (Weatherdon et al., 2016; Kalikoski et al., 2019). Ecosystem\u0002based fisheries management (EBFM) has emerged as a suitable tool to \r minimise the risk to climate change, avoid ecosystem degradation and \r related services (Gullestad et al., 2017). Further, when EBFM includes \r climate complexity and the relationships among species within the \r ecological systems it contributes to maintain long-term socioeconomic \r benefits (Long et al., 2015). There is high confidence that EbA is more \r successful and feasible than hard coastal defences for the protection, \r management and restoration of ocean and coastal ecosystems and \r [...]"


id: 9997a173c68c33c60ef37b6ee6008dd6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24257
content:
"[...] their resources (Spalding et  al., 2014; Gonzalez and Holtmann\u0002Ahumada, 2017; Scarano, 2017)."


id: 5c641b26a6883f92ed17b0a290730694
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13509
content:
"Most adaptive water management approaches in CSA centre around \r extending the water supply side, including large infrastructure projects. \r However, 'hard path' interventions are now strongly contested \r because negative effects exacerbate local water conflicts (Carey et al., \r 2012; Boelens et al., 2019; Drenkhan et al., 2019), potentially leading \r to increasing water demand, vulnerabilities and water shortage risks \r (Di Baldassarre et al., 2018), thereby limiting adaptive capacity (high \r confidence) (Ochoa-Tocachi et al., 2019). More integrated approaches \r focus on multiple uses of water storage with shared stakeholder vision, \r responsibilities, rights and costs, as well as risks and benefits, and often \r integrating water and risk management (Branche, 2017; Haeberli et al., \r 2017; Drenkhan et al., 2019). In this chapter, a feasibility assessment \r was carried out for six major dimensions of multi-use water storage \r [...]"


id: c937753ebaaecd5612ae224ae8cb218
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32728
content:
"[...] for the entire CSA (Table  12.11). While geophysical and economic \r aspects allow for the implementation of water storage projects under \r a multi-use approach, the institutional, social and environmental \r dimensions pose a major barrier (Section  12.5.3). Further demand\u0002oriented approaches focus on incentives for the reduction of water \r use through changes in people's habits, efficiency increase and smart \r water management (Gleick, 2002). These are promoted in some \r regions, such as in CA and NWS (e.g., Colombia, Ecuador and Peru), \r to foster a sustainable water culture (Bremer et al., 2016; Paerregaard \r et al., 2016)."


id: 145ccada03f2920aaee202ca27ddb021
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 802
content:
"Major emphasis has been placed on NbS, that is, catchment \r interventions that are inspired and supported by nature and leverage \r natural processes and ecosystem services to contribute to the improved \r management of water. NbS potentially enhance water infiltration, \r groundwater recharge and surface storage, contribute to disaster risk \r reduction and can replace or complement grey (i.e., conventionally \r built) infrastructure that is often socioenvironmentally contested \r (WWAP, 2018). Some examples include the reactivation of ancestral \r infiltration enhancement systems in the Peruvian Andes (NWS) \r (Ochoa-Tocachi et al., 2019), the use of erosion control structures in \r the Bolivian Altiplano (SAM) (Hartman et al., 2016) and the potential \r improvement of drinking water quality and flood risk reduction in urban \r areas of CSA (Tellman et al., 2018) (Section 12.5.5.3.2). Additionally, \r NbS in combination with ecosystem and community-based adaptation \r [...]"


id: c4f4bbcbd0f72317aaf0001b3bf7a95c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31960
content:
"[...] potentially generate important co-benefits, including increasing water \r security and the attenuation of social conflicts in Chile (SWS) (Reid \r et  al., 2018), water conservation in coastal Peru (NWS) and flood \r protection in Guyana (NSA) (medium confidence: medium evidence, \r medium agreement) (Spencer et al., 2017). However, the evaluation of \r implementation success of NbS is often hampered by limited evidence \r on actual benefits (WWAP, 2018)."


id: 738e205299b414146411ba492d0f049f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17585
content:
"National policies on climate change, water protection, regulation \r and management laws are important focal areas of adaptation \r in the water sector (Section  4.7). Notable in the jurisdiction field is \r the Glacier Protection Law in place in Argentina (2010-2019) and \r under construction in Chile (since 2005). This first glacier law in \r the world represents a milestone for high-mountain conservation \r but is also criticised for hindering effective disaster risk adaptation \r measures and excluding local socioeconomic needs (Anacona et al., \r 2018). Furthermore, the first Framework Law on Climate Change was \r implemented in Peru (2018) and is under way in Colombia, Chile \r and Venezuela (Figure  12.13; Table  SM12.6). Overarching regional \r institutions (e.g., OAS [2016]) and most countries in CSA promote a \r move towards more integrative and sustainable management of water \r resources through new legislation and financing mechanisms. For \r [...]"


id: bd6e83ab02f1817dc929c31ef34f52ed
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30586
content:
"[...] instance, new water laws that include principles of integrated water \r resource management (IWRM) have entered into force, for example, \r in Nicaragua (2007), Peru (2009), Ecuador (2014) and Costa Rica \r (2014), or are under way, such as in Colombia (since 2009). However, \r current realities in all regions show major challenges in implementing \r IWRM mechanisms and policies, related but not limited to political and \r institutional instabilities, governance structures, fragmented service \r provision, lack of economies of scale and scope, corruption and social \r conflicts (high confidence) (WWAP, 2020)."


id: f8c97e15442bbdfeffb9d04ee4c66151
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41131
content:
"Although a growing body of adaptation initiatives exists for CSA, \r evidence on their effectiveness is scarce. In many parts of CSA the level \r of success of adaptation measures depends largely on the governance \r of projects and stakeholder-based processes and is closely related to \r their effectiveness, efficiency, social equity and sociopolitical legitimacy \r (high confidence) (Adger et  al., 2005; Rasmussen, 2016b; Moulton \r et al., 2021). Several PES experiences across CSA have been described \r as successful measures for watershed conservation and adaptation \r (high confidence). An example of success is the Quito water fund in \r Ecuador, which aims to improve the city's water quality by integrating \r public and private stakeholder interests with ecosystem conservation \r and local community development since the 2000s (Bremer et  al., \r 2016; Grima et  al., 2016) (Case Study 12.6.1). At the same time, in \r Moyobamba in Peru, the development of a watershed protection \r [...]"


id: 588660d1d2c05ec27926f4b62dae0a50
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12819
content:
"[...] programme was leveraged by a multi-stakeholder platform process \r that enabled deep social learning (Lindsay, 2018). In turn, initiatives \r that do not consider the entire set of social-ecological dimensions and \r dynamics of adaptation or unintentionally increase vulnerabilities of \r human or natural systems are at risk of leading to reduced outcomes \r (McDowell et al., 2021) or maladaptation (Reid et al., 2018; McDowell \r et al., 2019; Eriksen et al., 2021). However, systematic assessments of \r maladaptation in the water sector have barely been provided for CSA."


id: 6052aba89ecdcbd2cc920ea711a475a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14249
content:
"Most barriers to advance adaptation in CSA correspond to soft limits \r associated with missing links of science-society-policy processes, \r institutional fragilities, pronounced hierarchies, unequal power \r relations and top-down water governance regimes (high confidence). \r One example is the abandonment of long-term hydrological monitoring \r sites within tropical Andean ecosystems (paramo) in Venezuela \r (Rodriguez-Morales et  al., 2019) due to the lack of governmental \r support during the political crisis. In that regard, the collection and \r availability of consistent hydroclimatic and socioeconomic data at \r adequate scales represent an important challenge in CSA. Major \r adaptation barriers are furthermore reported from central Chile in \r the context of a mega-drought since 2010, related to socioeconomic \r factors and a deficient bottom-up approach to informing and \r developing public policy (Aldunce et al., 2017). These gaps could be \r [...]"


id: b4967d66c7299c02f9b9eae3471714be
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29020
content:
"The CSA region globally has the greatest agricultural land and water \r availability per capita. With 15% of the world's land area, it receives 29% \r of global precipitation and has 33% of globally available renewable \r resources (Flachsbarth et al., 2015). Agricultural commodities (coffee, \r bananas, sugar, soybean, corn, sugarcane, beef livestock) are some of \r the highest users of ecosystem resources such as land, water, nutrients \r and technology. These exports have gained importance in the past \r two decades as international trade and globalisation of markets have \r shaped the global agri-food system. However continuous overuse of \r the environment might account for resource depletion (deforestation, \r land degradation, nutrient depletion, pollution), affecting the natural \r capital base. The effects of climate change on humans, via ecological \r systems, exacerbate the impact related to the depletion of ecosystem \r [...]"


id: a721e94a85526f46e882b7ba26a9b184
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26620
content:
"[...] services (Scholes, 2016; IPBES, 2018b; Castaneda Sanchez et al., 2019; \r Clerici et al., 2019; Tellman et al., 2020; Pacheco et al., 2021)."


id: fa04f7f2924236fc115775e270a0ba1f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41352
content:
"Even though several regions have seen significant improvements in \r food availability, many countries are also experiencing a declining \r trend in food self-sufficiency (Porkka et al., 2013; Rolando et al., 2017). \r Drought conditions in CA and the Caribbean increased in line with \r climate model predictions (Herrera et al., 2018a). The direct social and \r economic consequences for the sector are evident in CA's so-called \r Dry Corridor, with a growing dependence on food imports (Porkka \r et al., 2013), and these degrees of dependency make the region more \r vulnerable to price variability, climatic conditions (Bren d'Amour et al., \r 2016; ECLAC, 2018) and, therefore, to food insecurity in the absence \r of adaptation actions (high confidence) (Porkka et  al., 2013; Bren \r d'Amour et  al., 2016; Lopez Feldman and Hernandez Cortes, 2016; \r Eitzinger et al., 2017; Imbach et al., 2017; Lachaud et al., 2017; Harvey \r [...]"


id: ce9a2721b550515421d685aaa673656b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33688
content:
"[...] et al., 2018; Niles and Salerno, 2018; del Pozo et al., 2019; Alpizar et al., \r 2020; Anaya et al., 2020)."


id: 7afded201bd51fb0fdccb79791d49138
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18839
content:
"In Brazil, the Low-Carbon Agriculture (LCA) programme (Programa ABC) \r funds practices for reducing GHG emissions in the sector (Government \r of Brazil, 2012), accounting for about 15% of the total agriculture \r official finance portfolio, although it faces challenges to advance (Souza \r Piao et al., 2021). Costa Rica offers an example on how reforestation \r can help achieve Paris Agreement objectives. Reforestation through \r natural regeneration on abandoned pastures boosted forest cover from \r 48% in 2005 to 53.4% in 2010 (Reid et al., 2019; Cardenas et al., 2021). \r Some key success factors included a strong institutional context, fiscal \r and financial incentives for reforestation, conservation measures such \r as payment for environmental services, cattle ranch subsidy reform and \r a historically strong enforcement and focus on land titles that favoured \r the restoration of lands. Uruguay offers another example, with the farm \r [...]"


id: 4cd79abf19d8816e265f68db920bd6df
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10790
content:
"[...] sector contribution of 32.8% of all exports and 73.8% of the country's \r emissions, so decarbonisation is not just an environmental issue but \r an economic competitiveness one as well. In the Intended Nationally \r Determined Contributions (INDCs) submitted to the UNFCCC in 2015, \r Uruguay set a specific target for the agriculture sector to reduce enteric \r methane emissions intensity per kilogram of beef (live weight) by \r 33% to 46% in 2030 by improving efficiency of beef production by \r controlling the grazing intensity to increase animal intake, reproductive \r efficiency and daily weight gain (Picasso et al., 2014)."


id: ed629595401986130dbc84e9877c5020
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39133
content:
"Climate information services has an important role in climate-change \r adaptation and there is a recognised gap between climate science \r and farmers (high confidence) (Vaughan et  al., 2017; Loboguerrero \r et  al., 2018; Tall et  al., 2018; Thornton et  al., 2018; Ewbank et  al., \r 2019). Such services should address the challenges of ensuring that \r climate information and advisory services are relevant to the decisions \r of smallholder and family farmers, providing timely climate service \r access to remote rural communities with marginal infrastructure and \r ensuring that farmers own climate services and shape their design \r and delivery. An interesting case facing this gap is the implementation \r of local technical agro-climatic committees in Colombia, which make \r it possible to share and validate climatic and weather forecasts, as \r well as crop model results for seasonal drought events (Loboguerrero \r et al., 2018). Another example is the web service AdaptaBrasil-MCTI, \r [...]"


id: d1b3bb777826a44bfc4eb0a1b6cb6ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34244
content:
"[...] which forecasts the risk of climate-change impacts on strategic sectors \r (e.g., food, energy, water) in Brazil (Government of Brazil and Ministry \r of Science Technology and Innovation Secretariat of Policies and \r Programs, 2021)."


id: 89b59b6454ccf00b991ac28cf503ea8e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21402
content:
"The main adaptation options for climate change in the region include \r preventive measures against soil erosion; climate-smart agriculture, \r which provides a framework for synergies between adaptation, \r mitigation and improved food security; climate information systems; \r land use planning; shifting plantations at high altitudes to avoid \r temperature increases and plagues; and improved varieties of pastures \r and cattle (Lee et  al., 2014; Jat et  al., 2016; Crumpler et  al., 2020; \r Moreno et al., 2020a; Aragon et al., 2021). Agricultural technologies \r are not necessarily changing, but the economic activity is shifting to \r accommodate increasing climate variation and adapt to changes in \r water availability and ideal growing conditions (high confidence), as \r is observed in Argentina, Colombia and Brazil (McMartin et al., 2018; \r Rolla et al., 2018; Sloat et al., 2020; Gori Maia et al., 2021). Coffee \r plantations are moving further up mountain regions, with the land at \r [...]"


id: e9d74a4a29e116ec2e8eb81e61cf8a8e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38486
content:
"[...] lower elevations converted for other uses. In Brazil, crop modelling \r suggests the need for the development of new cultivars, with a longer \r crop cycle and with higher tolerance to high temperatures, a necessary \r technological advance for maize, an essential staple crop, to be \r produced in the future. Additionally, irrigation becomes essential for \r sustaining productivity in adverse climate-change scenarios in several \r regions of CSA (McMartin et al., 2018; Lyons, 2019; Reay, 2019)."


id: 7dbc4aff136c262464ffe0dbe64369c1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19296
content:
"Barriers to financial access are present in the region, restricting effective \r adaptation to extreme weather events (high confidence) (Chen et al., \r 2018; Fisher et  al., 2019; Piggott-McKellar et  al., 2019; Vidal Merino \r et al., 2019; de Souza Filho et al., 2021). In 2014, the penetration rate \r of this type of insurance in the region averaged 0.03% of GDP, and a \r few countries dominate the market (Brazil, Argentina). Beyond these \r countries, some initiatives also exist in Uruguay, Paraguay, Chile and \r Ecuador. In most Latin American and Caribbean countries, the public \r sector plays an important role in providing insurance or reinsurance \r and coexists with private-sector companies (Cardenas et  al., 2021). \r Insurance protections represent a strategy to transfer climate risk \r to protect the well-being of vulnerable small farmers and accelerate \r uptake (recovery) after a climate-related extreme weather event. \r [...]"


id: 39c01b9b51dba5c7d41a14baf52d13eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7373
content:
"[...] Lack of finance and proper infrastructure is compounded by limited \r knowledge of sustainable farming practices and high rates of financial \r illiteracy (high confidence) (Hurlbert and Gupta, 2017; Piggott-McKellar \r et al., 2019)."


id: 20bf4f3924abbccd0e87cf808fcc7976
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2981
content:
"alter the growing trend of land use and land use change emissions, \r and at the same time, it can increase meat production by 55 Mt for \r the entire period (2016-2050). The restoration of degraded pasture \r and livestock intensification account for 71.2% and integrated crop-\r livestock-forestry system contributes 28.8% of total meat production \r for the entire period. These results indicate that combined actions \r in agricultural management systems in SA can result in synergistic \r responses that can be used to make agriculture and livestock \r production an important part of the solution of global climate \r change and advance food security (medium confidence: insufficient \r evidence and high agreement) (Zu Ermgassen et  al., 2018; Pompeu \r et al., 2021). Crop-livestock-forestry systems are also important for \r climate-change adaptation as they provide multiple benefits, including \r the coproduction of food, animal feed, organic fertilizers and soil \r [...]"


id: fc45419e15de50d8c78cc17430b3a92d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41751
content:
"[...] organic carbon sequestration (Sharma et al., 2016; Rodriguez et al., \r 2021), achieving mitigation and adaptation goals (high confidence) \r (Picasso et al., 2014; Modernel et al., 2016, 2019; Rolla et al., 2019; \r Locatelli et  al., 2020). A recent analysis of agroforestry in Brazil \r showed positive and relevant impacts on the heads/pasture area rate \r in livestock production and that the system may have also stimulated \r a shift towards other production activities with higher gross added \r value (Gori Maia et al., 2021). Agroforestry has also proven to have \r protective benefits to obtain more stable, less fluctuating yields due \r to climate-related damage in coffee production (high confidence) \r (Bacon et al., 2017; Durand-Bessart et al., 2020; Ovalle-Rivera et al., \r 2020). In the same way, the production of plant-based fibre can be \r less vulnerable to economic and climatic variability through farming \r [...]"


id: 2bb3c2aceca693b2bfbc8026bda36773
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4950
content:
"[...] system diversification. Textile fibre crops for the case of cotton include \r crop rotation, agroecological intercropping and agroforestry (Oliveira \r Duarte et al., 2019)."


id: 56ee5ef28fa62ce3b95858f12bc30a47
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12543
content:
"CSA is the second most urbanised region of the world, with 5 \r megacities and half of the urban population in 129 secondary cities \r (UNDESA, 2019), huge metropolitan areas concentrated on the coast \r and an increasing number of small cities by the sea (Barragan and \r de Andres, 2016). Besides the many climatic events threatening urban \r areas in the region (extreme heat, droughts, heavy storms, floods, \r landslides), cities by the coast are also exposed to SLR (Section 12.3; \r Figure  12.6; Dawson et  al., 2018; Leal Filho et  al., 2018; Le, 2020). \r The main determinants of urban vulnerability assessed in the region \r are poor and unevenly distributed infrastructure, housing deficits and \r informality, poverty and the occupation of risk areas, including LECZs \r (Section 12.3). Those features of urban systems increase the risks to \r health, ecosystems and its services, water, food and energy supplies \r (Section  12.4). Impacts of climate events on urban water supply, \r [...]"


id: 906b8feb87130573e036e2e085a0fff0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22611
content:
"[...] drainage and sewer infrastructures are the most frequently reported in \r the region (Section 12.3; Figure 12.9)."


id: 205d917f0513e7685155e25eb194f5a7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2913
content:
"social challenges and the existing development deficits (e.g., build \r or improve infrastructure and housing applying climate-adapted \r patterns) can go hand in hand with adaptation and mitigation (medium \r confidence: high agreement, medium evidence) (Section  12.5.7.3; \r Creutzig et al., 2016; Le, 2020; Satterthwaite et al., 2020). Over 20% of \r the urban population in Latin America and the Caribbean live in slums \r and many other forms of precarious and segregated neighbourhoods, \r settled in risk areas and lacking infrastructure (Rasch, 2017; UN\u0002Habitat, 2018; Rojas, 2019). This vulnerable condition is boosted by \r unstable political and governmental institutions, which suffer from \r ongoing corruption, weak governance and reduced capacity to finance \r adaptation (Rasch, 2016). Facing governance challenges by including \r diverse stakeholders and encouraging and learning from community\u0002based experiences has also presented the opportunity to improve \r [...]"


id: a95137b01b0dae9b6c1fed81a7042895
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27010
content:
"[...] adaptation strategies (Archer et al., 2014). An example of this is the \r Regional Climate Change Adaptation Plan of Santiago (Krellenberg \r and Katrin, 2014)."


id: df8cfe8ba4164c9bc00d3dd2c170e4b3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36577
content:
"Lima's Climate Action Strategy is an example (Metropolitan \r Municipality of Lima, 2014). It was approved following a participatory \r and consultative process with the technical group on climate change \r from the Metropolitan Environmental Commission, focusing on the \r reduction of water vulnerabilities to drought and heavy rain, on the \r basis of which 10 (out of 51 with Callao) Lima district municipalities \r are developing and starting to implement adaptation measures (Foro \r Ciudades Para la Vida, 2021). In 2021 the municipality of Lima also \r approved its Local Climate Change Plan (Metropolitan Municipality of \r Lima, 2021) under a similar process. The engagement of local players \r was central to spreading and mobilising different types of knowledge \r and creating networks able to support adaptation (Section  12.6.3; \r Miranda Sara and Baud, 2014; Miranda Sara et al., 2017). The inclusive \r process is also a goal based on the example of Chile Municipalities \r [...]"


id: c7d6063fbab6c2aab0e17b58059afbd3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32464
content:
"[...] Network Facing Climate Change (RedMuniCC) engaged in developing \r participatory strategic plans for climate adaptation and mitigation \r (RedMuniCC, 2021)."


id: 9d1268be898c92268fe1983da1ed56ae
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24874
content:
"Hybrid solutions, combining green and grey infrastructure (GGI), have \r been adopted for better efficiency in flood control (Ahmed et al., 2019; \r Drosou et  al., 2019; Romero-Duque et  al., 2020), sanitation, water \r scarcity, landslide prevention and coastal protection (high confidence) \r (Section 12.5.6.4; Mangone, 2016; Depietri and McPhearson, 2017; Leal \r Filho et al., 2018; McPhearson et al., 2018). The adoption of NbS, which \r embraces well-known approaches such as GI and EbA (Pauleit et al., \r 2017; Le, 2020), has increased (Box 1.3). The Fund for the Protection \r of Water (FONAG) and the Participative Urban Agriculture (AGRUPAR) \r are initiatives using NbS in Quito (Section 12.6.1). An example of GGI \r is a stormwater detention pond as a water storage solution to flood \r prevention, allowing multiple uses of an urban space, and adapting \r and revitalising a degraded area in Mesquita, Rio's metropolitan \r [...]"


id: 75dfc02cc34cbe6c3129658c3e0859c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17965
content:
"[...] region (Jacob et al., 2019). These systemic and holistic solutions still \r need to overcome governance and sectorial barriers to be more widely \r adopted (Herzog and Rozado, 2019; Wamsler et al., 2020; Valente de \r Macedo et al., 2021)."


id: 1aef97c634b3dbd2542da12e36046f38
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1934
content:
"Housing programmes and initiatives that consider resilient construction \r and site selection strategies are still in their nascent stages (Martin \r et al., 2013). Initiatives in slum upgrading, social housing improvement \r and regularising land tenure, associated with infrastructure provision, \r do not usually focus on adaptation, although they often focus on \r risk reduction. Those initiatives, associated with a housing policy \r that guarantees access to land and decent housing, represent a \r comprehensive intervention in vulnerable neighbourhoods for their \r adaptation to climate change, and CbA (community-based adaptation) \r strategies, including housing self-management and the participation \r of cooperatives, demonstrate the need and opportunity to transition \r to a transformative urban agenda that encompasses sustainable \r development, poverty reduction, disaster-risk reduction, climate\u0002change adaptation and climate-change mitigation (high confidence) \r [...]"


id: 740adccb6132eaea03f380b6db5b7fdf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17656
content:
"[...] (Munto, 2018; UN-Habitat, 2018; Valadares and Cunha, 2018; Barcena \r et  al., 2020b; Nunez Collado and Wang, 2020; Satterthwaite et  al., \r 2020)."


id: 152ba3a0519b2cdc8699f584b1e287ac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 938
content:
"Managing water in cities in an adaptive way has been central to \r reducing impacts such as floods and contributes to water security (high \r confidence) (Van Leeuwen et al., 2016; Okumura et al., 2021). Many \r cities facing frequent heavy storms that impact mostly underprivileged \r communities, slums and vulnerable areas could benefit from integrated \r NbS for disaster risk reduction and adaptation (high confidence) \r (Sandholz et al., 2018; Ronchi and Arcidiacono, 2019). A study covering \r 70 Latin American cities estimated that 96  million people would \r benefit from improving main watersheds with GI (Tellman et al., 2018). \r In several municipal climate plans, NbSs were introduced mainly to \r enhance rainwater management, reduce energy consumption and \r urban heat areas, improve water quality, prevent landslides and set \r aside green areas (high confidence) (Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos \r Aires, 2015; Municipio del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito, 2020; \r [...]"


id: b263f7a676a3bf3a15f300d02a7419bb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28624
content:
"[...] Prefeitura Municipal de Curitiba, 2020; Alcaldia de Medellin, 2021; \r Municipalidad de Lima, 2021; Prefeitura da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro, \r 2021; Prefeitura do Municipio de Sao Paulo, 2021). Sao Paulo's project \r for Jaguare River proposes a large-scale landscape transformation \r applying innovative multi-functional NbSs instead of exclusively large, \r expensive and monofunctional hard-engineered solutions to manage \r stormwater (Marques et  al., 2018; Herzog and Rozado, 2019). In \r Bogota, the Humedales Foundation has restored wetlands to enhance \r areas near the Van Der Hammen reserve to improve water quality and \r quantity, restore habitat for biodiversity and provide flood protection \r (Portugal Del Pino et  al., 2020). In Petropolis, a medium-sized city \r in the hills of Rio de Janeiro state, the water service company has \r implemented 10 NbS multi-functional micro wastewater treatment \r plants in low-income areas, helping to reduce cascading impacts of \r [...]"


id: a43f3030ff6052f87b690a3894aa892e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26090
content:
"[...] storms, floods and epidemics (Herzog and Rozado, 2019). In Costanera \r Sur, Buenos Aires, a public initiative to protect an auto-regenerated \r River Plate bank, which had received demolition material to create \r land, currently offers numerous ecosystem services for residents and \r attract visitors, activating the tourist industry and helping reducing \r riverine floods (Bertonatti, 2021; OICS, 2021).\r A hybrid solution to water management that merges traditional \r interventions in urban areas with sustainable urban drainage systems "


id: 377a2bfe976dbeadcb8f715f37d0952a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6971
content:
"Several large cities are implementing municipal risk management \r plans and management and restoration plans for hydrologically \r relevant areas, considering threats of drought and heat waves, \r integrated watershed management and flood control programmes \r (high confidence) (Municipio del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito, 2020; \r Prefeitura Municipal do Salvador, 2020; Municipalidad de Lima, 2021; \r Prefeitura da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro, 2021; Prefeitura do Municipio \r de Sao Paulo, 2021). Quito and Rio de Janeiro are two examples of \r comprehensive and effective city-level climate action that includes \r creating environmental protected areas, managing appropriate land \r use, household relocation and EWSs in areas vulnerable to high levels \r of precipitation associated with EbA, such as reforestation projects, to \r address natural hazards (ELLA, 2013; Anguelovski et al., 2014; Calvello \r et al., 2015; Alcaldia de Quito, 2017; Sandholz et al., 2018; Prefeitura \r [...]"


id: b331aefa915240759af42c805d30b177
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28767
content:
"[...] da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro, 2021) (Section 12.6.1). EWS and the use \r of mapping tools as undertaken in La Paz proved to be an effective \r adaptation measure in the face of increasing hydro-climatic extreme \r events (Aparicio-Effen et al., 2018)."


id: 5a4f12511d909484bdf7eaede0f61024
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13139
content:
"(SUDSs) (Davis and Naumann, 2017), considering small-scale low\u0002impact development (LID) measures scattered over the watershed \r instead of concentrate huge hydraulic grey structures, can help reduce \r the risk and damage of flooding (high confidence) (Miguez et al., 2014, \r 2015a; Depietri and McPhearson, 2017; Da Silva et  al., 2018a; de \r Macedo et al., 2018). Quito's climate plan explicitly cites the strategy \r for implementing blue and grey infrastructure to reduce risk due to \r extreme precipitation and its associated impacts such as flooding \r and landslides and the possible impact of water scarcity (Municipio \r del Distrito Metropolitano de Quito, 2020). The Integrated Iguacu\u0002Sarapui River Basin Flood Control Master Plan, in Rio's metropolitan \r area, combines different solutions to flood protection, focusing on \r river restoration by retrofitting levee systems combined with adapting \r land use to provide a multi-functional landscape as an alternative \r [...]"


id: a57227fb3ed49a417f389f887ccde3ef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26337
content:
"[...] to bring together green and grey solutions, creating urban parks to \r prevent further paving and avoid irregular occupation of riverbanks \r and provide storage capacity for damping flood peaks (Miguez et al., \r 2015b)."


id: 394804a3e3ec6fc5d87e1fc127e75fb1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7293
content:
"The integration of transport and land use planning and the \r improvement of public transport, also as important mitigation \r actions, has emerged as a consensus in countries' adaptation plans; \r nevertheless, emphasis on mobility and transport systems in the many \r published NAPs is low (medium confidence: medium evidence, high \r agreement). The NAPs of Honduras, Costa Rica and El Salvador do \r not approach adaptation or mitigation in the sector, while those of \r Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala and Paraguay focus on mitigation only. \r The NAPs of Chile, Colombia and Brazil focus on both mitigation and \r adaptation of mobility and transport systems. Chile's and Colombia's \r plans dedicate specific action lines to adapting mobility and transport \r systems to climate change, while Brazil published a complementary \r volume to accompany its NAP that is dedicated exclusively to sectoral \r strategies, although it presents only general guidelines (Government \r [...]"


id: 36f63c01c70dcbae212025daea0f47fd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6894
content:
"[...] of Peru, 2010; Government of Chile, 2014; Government of Ecuador, \r 2015; Government of Brazil, 2016; Government of Colombia, 2016; \r Government of Guatemala, 2016; Government of Paraguay, 2017; \r Government of Costa Rica, 2018; Government of Honduras, 2018; \r Government of El Salvador, 2019)."


id: f8dc0de81d304067efa2892b4aff7be0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41147
content:
"Many cities are implementing adaptation measures on integrated \r water and flood management systems (Sarkodie and Strezov, 2019), \r improving basic sanitation services (medium confidence: medium \r evidence, high agreement). The main strategies are established by \r NAPs periodically focusing on improving water distribution network \r and reservoir systems, as in Honduras (Government of Honduras, \r 2018) and Ecuador (Mills-Novoa et al., 2020), sewage and effluent \r treatment, as in Guatemala, Brazil and Paraguay (Government \r of Brazil, 2007; Government of Guatemala, 2016; Government of \r Paraguay, 2017), facing water scarcity and environmental degradation. \r Local authorities follow this guideline in an effort to maintain and \r upgrade existing drainage systems in Georgetown (Mycoo, 2014) \r or in Medellin, focusing on improving drainage systems to prevent \r landslides or flooding (Nunez Collado and Wang, 2020; Alcaldia de \r [...]"


id: ccd470d72cc17321890cf89484e7dabe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33366
content:
"[...] Medellin, 2021). Rio de Janeiro has constructed three large stormwater \r detention reservoirs to deal with frequent flood, (Prefeitura da Cidade \r do Rio de Janeiro, 2015), adopting a set of exclusively grey solutions, \r not combined into a NbS that could improve urban flood resilience \r (Rezende et  al., 2019). The main proposed actions still consider \r the traditional approach in improving the hydraulic capacity of \r urban drainage systems as an adaptive measure (high confidence) \r (Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, 2020; Prefeitura Municipal \r do Salvador, 2020; Municipalidad de Lima, 2021; Prefeitura da Cidade \r do Rio de Janeiro, 2021). In addition to this strategy, several local \r plans propose actions for the retention and storage of rainwater, both \r in urban drainage networks on a smaller intervention scale (Prefeitura \r Municipal de Curitiba, 2020) and along rivers and canals with large\u0002scale works (medium confidence: medium evidence, high agreement) \r [...]"


id: 59fc3dbebe9901864de10425c68e58e3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13078
content:
"[...] (Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, 2020; Prefeitura Municipal \r de Curitiba, 2020; Alcaldia de Medellin, 2021; Prefeitura da Cidade do \r Rio de Janeiro, 2021)."


id: e60a873132ad2a2edf76ddd974781423
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37768
content:
"Integrated climate-health surveillance systems are another key \r adaptation strategy (medium confidence). This information can be \r used by the health sector to inform decision-making about when \r and where to deploy a public health intervention. It can also feed \r into an EWS, particularly if the data are compatible in format and \r spatiotemporal scales. An integrated climate-health surveillance \r system for vector-borne disease control was developed in southern \r coastal Ecuador through a partnership among the climate and health \r sectors and academia (Borbor-Cordova et al., 2016; Lowe et al., 2017). \r Additionally, an interdisciplinary multi-national team working at \r the border of Ecuador and Peru created a cooperation network for \r climate-informed dengue surveillance (Quichi et al., 2016), and their \r successful binational collaboration resulted in the local elimination of \r [...]"


id: 79d7f59a74a1776be0aa615b22266e93
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18641
content:
"[...] malaria (Krisher et al., 2016). A similar tool is innovative community\u0002based data collection to understand and find solutions to rainfall\u0002related diarrheal diseases in Ecuador (Palacios et al., 2016)."


id: 1ddd1f892013125eec99c8b8351ecd4e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2445
content:
"Epidemic forecast tools are an example of an adaptation measure \r being developed and/or implemented in this region (high confidence). \r Climate-driven forecast models have been developed for dengue in \r Ecuador, Puerto Rico, Peru, Brazil, Mexico, Dominican Republic, and \r Colombia (Lowe et al., 2013; Eastin et al., 2014; Johansson et al., 2016; \r Lowe et al., 2017; Johansson et al., 2019); for Zika virus infections across \r the Americas (Munoz et al., 2017); for cutaneous leishmaniasis in Costa \r Rica and Brazil (Chaves and Pascual, 2006; Lewnard et al., 2014); for \r Aedes-borne diseases across the Americas (Munoz et al., 2020b); and \r a nowcast model for chikungunya virus infections across the Americas \r (Johansson et  al., 2014). In Ecuador, a prototype system utilised \r forecasts of seasonal climate and ENSO forecasts of to predict dengue \r transmission, providing the health sector with warnings of increased \r transmission several months ahead of time (Stewart-Ibarra and Lowe, \r [...]"


id: 451d09a709d0f1d011e6dec7dce8ec69
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9383
content:
"[...] 2013; Lowe et  al., 2017). Despite these advances, few tools have \r become operational and mainstreamed in decision making processes. \r However, Brazil and Panama have been able to operationalise an EWS \r for the surveillance of dengue fever transmission (Codeco et al., 2016; \r McDonald et al., 2016)."


id: c68a6109e47bdb8cd70b665ca168116a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32231
content:
"Vulnerability and risk maps for climate disasters have been developed \r at the city level, for example in Bogota, Cartagena de Indias and Mocoa \r in Colombia (Yamin et al., 2013; Guzman Torres and Barrera Arciniegas, \r 2014; Tehelen and Pacha, 2017; Zamora, 2018), and for the metropolitan \r district of Quito in Ecuador (Tehelen and Pacha, 2017). In addition, \r vulnerability maps were created for the primary road network of \r Colombia (Tehelen and Pacha, 2017). At the regional level, vulnerability \r maps using climate-change probability, disaster risk and food insecurity \r variables have been produced for the Andean region (WFP, 2014). In \r Brazil, vulnerability maps that consider exposure, sensitivity and adaptive \r capacity, coupled with climate scenarios, were designed to support the \r NAP on a municipal scale (Chang and Garcia, 2018; Duval et al., 2018; \r Marinho and Silva, 2018; Menezes, 2018; Santos and Marinho, 2018; \r [...]"


id: 53cdf724b09c838b37e15b391ca1c960
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12014
content:
"[...] Silva et al., 2018). A Climate Change Vulnerability Index was used to \r generate vulnerability maps for countries of the Latin American and \r Caribbean region (Vorosmarty et al., 2013; CAF, 2014)."


id: 9b9b5526ffcc0ea20f1401effe1f32a9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24632
content:
"Another example of a public adaptation measure is the protection and \r restoration of natural areas, which have the potential to decrease the \r transmission of water- and vector-borne infectious diseases (medium \r confidence: robust evidence, low agreement). Studies have shown that \r these measures can diminish the cases of malaria and diarrhoea in \r Brazil and cases of diarrhoea in children in Colombia (Bauch et  al., \r 2015; Herrera et al., 2017; Chaves et al., 2018). However, deforestation \r and malaria have a complex relationship that relies on local context \r interactions, where land use and land cover changes play an important \r role due to vector ecology alterations and social conditions of human \r settlements (Rubio-Palis et al., 2013). Forest conservation can improve \r hydrological cycle control and soil erosion that can help to improve \r water quality and reduce the burden of water-borne diseases. In \r addition, forest cover can help to diminish the habitat for larval \r [...]"


id: 34d592097bd3887e3b6d2fca35eaa350
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6537
content:
"[...] mosquitoes that transmit malaria. These measures can help to design \r policies at sites where these problems do not currently exist but can \r emerge as a consequence of climate change and the increase in the \r frequency of weather extreme events."


id: c890984e234ee3cd0dd7679cb5c165da
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32596
content:
"Some countries have developed national plans on health including the \r role of climate. Chile has a Climate Change Adaptation Plan of the \r Health Sector that proposes several actions to enhance monitoring, \r institutions and citizen information and education (Ministry of \r Health of Chile and Ministry of Environment of Chile, 2016). Based \r on the identification of vulnerability to climate change, Colombia has \r developed 11 regional adaptation plans to strengthen institutional \r capacities, climate-change education for behavioural changes and cost \r estimation to promote health resilience (WHO and UNFCCC, 2015). \r In addition, El Salvador implemented actions to strengthen health \r infrastructure using high latrines for housing in flood communities, as \r well as other measures focused on water supply and quality based \r on an education and awareness programme (Ministry of Environment \r and Natural Resources of El Salvador, 2013). Only Brazil and Peru have \r [...]"


id: 4c1c163dcc0357ba1cb71f057b905d4c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10648
content:
"[...] implemented actions so far in the region derived from national health \r adaptation plans, and only Brazil completed a national assessment of \r impacts, vulnerability and adaptation for health (Watts et al., 2018). \r Some countries include health as a priority sector in their NAPs, as \r in the case of Ecuador and Costa Rica, which has a national plan \r addressing the prevention and care of climate-sensitive diseases \r coupled with a National Health Plan (2016-2020) (Ministry of Health \r Costa Rica, 2016; Jimenez, n. d.)."


id: b9372e8ad81dadfdbf830b775fbbec90
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29791
content:
"With respect to the development of climate-driven epidemic forecasts, \r efforts are needed to improve the utility of such forecasts for the \r health sector. Few such forecasts have been operationalised to inform \r health-sector decision-making. A review of 73  studies that predicted \r and forecasted Zika virus infections (42% from the Americas) identified \r a high degree of variation in access, reproducibility, timeliness and \r incorporation of uncertainty (Kobres et al., 2019). A recent systematic \r review of epidemic forecasting and prediction studies found that no \r reporting guidelines exist; the development of guidance to improve the \r transparency, quality and implementation of forecast models in the public \r health sector was recommended (Pollett et al., 2020). An earlier review of \r dengue early-warning models found that few models incorporated both \r spatial and temporal aspects of disease risk (Racloz et al., 2012), limiting \r [...]"


id: b12b9adc4fa7f22410d6f73c3a6d312c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28395
content:
"[...] their potential application as an adaptation strategy by the health sector. \r Advances have been made in the last decade with respect to modelling \r and computing tools, increasing access to digital climate information "


id: b73e5b1df6c995c940986d354c99fd6f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29451
content:
"Inequality is growing, a CSA structural characteristic; the Gini index \r average for Latin American countries (including Mexico) decreased to \r 0.466 in 2017, where 1% of the richest got 22  times more income \r than 10% of the poorest (ECLAC, 2019b; Busso and Messina, 2020), \r but in 2018, 29.6% of Latin American populations were poor (which \r increased to 182 million) and 10.2% were living in extreme poverty; \r in 2018 (increased to 63  million) (ECLAC, 2019b) and in 2020, due \r to the COVID crisis, the Gini coefficient projection of increases range \r from 1.1% to 7.8% (ECLAC and PAHO, 2020), with poverty increasing \r to 33.7% (209 millions) and extreme poverty to 12.5% (78 millions) \r (ECLAC and PAHO, 2020; ECLAC, 2021). Those poverty and extreme \r poverty rates are higher among children, young people, women, \r Indigenous Peoples (Reckien et al., 2017; Busso and Messina, 2020), \r migrants (Dodman et al., 2019) and rural populations. Climate change \r [...]"


id: b60d592612dbe62d6bfb3906d210e043
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29253
content:
"[...] has differential impacts, and even within a household there may be \r important differences in relation to age, gender, health and disability; \r these factors may intersect with one another (high confidence) \r (Reckien et al., 2017; Busso and Messina, 2020)."


id: 4e3eba28681bf6f3aef6089df0ec9cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11036
content:
"CSA is highly urbanised, and the vast majority of the region's poor live \r in urban areas (except in CA), while urban extreme poverty is becoming \r more pronounced (Rosenzweig et  al., 2018; Dodman et  al., 2019; \r Almansi et al., 2020; Sette Whitaker Ferreira et al., 2020), with those \r living in informal settlements and working within informal economy \r being critical factors in each city's economy (Satterthwaite et  al., \r 2018, 2020). Many households in the region's cities live in precarious \r neighbourhoods with insufficient infrastructure and substandard \r housing (Adler et al., 2018; Rojas, 2019). On average, between 21% \r and 25% of urban populations live in informal settlements (Jaitman, \r 2015; UN-Habitat, 2015; Rojas, 2019; Sandoval and Sarmiento, 2019). \r This hides important disparities: Habitat III reports, by individual \r countries, the percentage of urban population living in informal \r settlements, which ranged from 5% to 60% and in absolute terms \r [...]"


id: 7467cbbf3d21856c2422ed3c320f53a1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17712
content:
"[...] means 105 million people living in precarious conditions (106 million \r estimated in 1990) (Section 12.5.5; Sandoval and Sarmiento, 2019)."


id: e44ea722334ef27ce8c6b10a18cda60e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37464
content:
"In IPCC's Third Assessment Report (TAR), AR4 and AR5, WGII recognised \r higher risks associated with poor living conditions, substandard housing, \r inadequate services, location of hazardous sites stemming from a lack \r of alternatives and the need to work more seriously on strengthening \r governance structures involving residents and community organisations, \r among others (Wilbanks et al., 2007; Revi et al., 2014). The AR5 CSA \r chapter stated that poverty levels remained high (45% for CA and 30% \r for SA in 2010) despite years of sustained economic growth. Poor and \r vulnerable groups are disproportionately affected in negative ways by \r climate change (Section 8.2.1.4; Section 8.2.2.3; SR15 Section 5.2 and \r Section 5.2.1, Roy et al., 2018) due to physical exposure derived from \r their place of residence or work, illiteracy, low income and skills, political \r and institutional marginalisation tied to a lack of recognition of informal \r [...]"


id: 144e99ed051c55f9b577ef972932acc0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 790
content:
"[...] settlements and employment, poor access to good-quality services and \r infrastructure, resources and information and other factors (very high \r confidence) (UN-Habitat, 2018; SR15 Sections 5.2.1, 5.6.2, 5.6.3, 5.6.4, \r Roy et al., 2018)."


id: 3f3763a30c23c12f1bcb9fdae191d978
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8308
content:
"Adaptation, social policies, poverty reduction and inequality are weakly \r articulated to daily or chronic risk reduction. Poor residents are often \r caught in 'risk traps', accumulated cycles of everyday risks and small\u0002scale disasters (medium confidence: medium evidence, high agreement) \r (Bartlett and Satterthwaite, 2016; Mansur et al., 2016; Allen et al., 2017a; \r Leal Filho et al., 2021), which are exacerbated by climate risks and COVID \r pandemic with the most vulnerable populations suffering. Chronic and \r everyday risks (poor access to infrastructure, services, incomes, housing, \r land tenure, education, security, location and poor-quality environment \r and networks and lack of a voice) are often exacerbated and \r generate new unknown risks by climate change (medium confidence: \r medium evidence, high agreement) (Bartlett and Satterthwaite, 2016; \r Mansur et al., 2016; Satterthwaite et al., 2018; Leal Filho et al., 2021), \r [...]"


id: ef6d4677862abfa72f24248dfab84627
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39496
content:
"[...] extreme events and risks related to ENSO oscillation. All these risks \r need to be considered simultaneously (UN-Habitat, 2018). Risks are \r seldom distributed equally, highlighting socioeconomic inequalities \r and governance failures (high confidence) (IPCC, 2014; Bartlett and \r Satterthwaite, 2016; Rasch, 2016; Romero-Lankao et al., 2018)."


id: c68277f112bb0c35b30f957efd36649c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32230
content:
"CSA adaptation initiatives to reduce poverty, improve livelihoods and \r achieve sustainable development in scale and scope, from planned and \r collective interventions to autonomous and individual actions. Many of \r them are bottom-up, community-led initiatives together with civil society \r organisations; others are government-led, including local governments, \r or a combination of them (McNamara and Buggy, 2017; Berrang-Ford \r et al., 2021). Vulnerable groups are a focus to achieve equity at planning \r and as a target including mainly rural low-income, Indigenous Peoples \r and women and migrants in most references. Responses detected were \r focused on behavioural and cultural followed by ecosystem-based \r responses, institutional, and technological/infrastructural responses. \r Out of 55  articles analysed from CSA (Berrang-Ford et  al., 2021) \r about poverty, equity and adaptation options, half covered adaptation \r planning and early implementation, but only 2% could show evidence \r [...]"


id: a7709e4d592aef7fbd00afdf0c893e96
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26675
content:
"more exposed and vulnerable people. The participation of experts, \r communities and citizens has shown to be effective (FAO and Fundacion \r Futuro Latinoamericano, 2019), particularly through partnerships \r between grassroots organisations and impoverished communities, \r providing valued expertise and capacities to support the implementation \r of government climate resilience strategies (World Bank Group, 2015). \r More inclusive planning processes correspond to higher climate equity \r and justice outcomes in the short term, but an emphasis on building \r dedicated multi-sector governance institutions may also enhance long\u0002term programmes' stability while ensuring civil society has a voice in \r adaptation planning and implementation (Chu et al., 2016). Some local \r organisations and people have succeeded when they were in charge of \r their own resiliency efforts, where international projects and protocols \r proved less effective (Doughty, 2016). Some decentralised governmental \r [...]"


id: ff308a762842f17a3987cecde45682ce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42301
content:
"[...] programmes have tried to increase public responsiveness to the \r adaptation needs of the people, but such programmes have proven to \r be only mildly successful and provoke the mobilisation of communities \r against existing governance structures (Thompson, 2016)."


id: 3ad72127075f9fc83b92317fff3c0f9c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7551
content:
"IKLK participation is thought to be more considered in adaptation \r policies because it yields good results (high confidence) (Nagy et al., \r 2014b; Jurt et  al., 2015; Arias et  al., 2016; Stensrud, 2016). IK has \r been adaptive for long periods in the Andes (Cuvi, 2018), but there \r might be limits to adaptation in the face of present climatic and other \r environmental and socioeconomic drivers (Postigo, 2019). Approaches \r integrating IK with more formal sciences, to address research and \r policies, have improved adaptation processes, but they carry their own \r complications (high confidence) (Doswald et  al., 2014; Metternicht \r et  al., 2014; Tengo et  al., 2014; Drenkhan et  al., 2015; Keenan, \r 2015; Lasage et  al., 2015; Camacho Guerreiro et  al., 2016; Hurlbert \r and Gupta, 2016; Roco et al., 2016; Santos et al., 2016; Walshe and \r Argumedo, 2016; Uribe Rivera et  al., 2017; Kasecker et  al., 2018; \r Cuesta et  al., 2019; Ulloa, 2019; Ariza-Montobbio and Cuvi, 2020). \r [...]"


id: 6e651c0d7b1dcd144e8caa53401b7069
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16686
content:
"[...] More interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research will help to \r better understand and manage the relationships among governance, \r implementation, management priorities, wealth distribution and trade\u0002offs between adaptation, mitigation and the SDGs."


id: e19740ee2fa77af842b0ed05de9c975c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36959
content:
"Representations of climate change can also emerge as critiques \r and resistances that reveal that climate-change-labelled politics or \r interventions have posed even greater risks or do not address poverty \r issues (medium confidence: medium evidence, high agreement) \r (Lampis, 2013; Pokorny et  al., 2013; Ojeda, 2014). Indigenous and \r social movements have joined with climate justice activists, calling \r for action to address climate change (Hicks and Fabricant, 2016; \r Ruiz-Mallen et al., 2017; Charles, 2021). The Bolivian Platform against \r Climate Change, a coalition of civil society and social movement \r organisations working to address the effects of global warming in \r Bolivia and to influence the broader global community, reflects an \r innovative dimension that, though at times conflictual, has shown how \r increasing climate variability hinders the right of Indigenous Peoples \r to the conservation of their culture and practices and illustrates how \r [...]"


id: eb6605cf3ecf13e0a19f2ec45d5f3a8c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38770
content:
"[...] grassroots movements are increasingly taking over climate-change \r policy in the region (Hicks and Fabricant, 2016). Social movements \r have engaged with international networks, such as Blokadia, which \r surged after COP 23, whose claims try to go beyond the protection "


id: 49d25c70c81ee3bc8928f628f06ac46a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10225
content:
"with age (Funatsu et al., 2019). In Mediterranean Chile, younger, more \r educated producers and those who own their land tend to have clearer \r perceptions than older, less educated or tenant farmers, but they do not \r have a clear perception or how it may affect their yields and farming \r operation (Roco et  al., 2015). In some dry and humid Ecuadorian \r montane forests, peasantss perceptions are in line with the scientific \r data, but they have a lot of difficulties to predict the changes and believe \r that they may not be prepared and can only be reactive (Herrador\u0002Valencia and Paredes, 2016). In an Andean community, perceptions of \r climate change are homogeneous and do not vary according to gender, \r age or ethnicity (Caceres-Arteaga et al., 2020). Among representatives \r of five municipalities of Lima, it was found that climate change is not \r well understood and residents have trouble distinguishing it from \r [...]"


id: e607b72363faf5a321bade14f82bae4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37765
content:
"[...] other environmental issues (Sina et al., 2016). In an Amazonian region, \r farmers provided a more accurate description than regional institutions \r of how it affects the local livelihood system (Altea, 2020). In Cuenca \r Auqui peasants attribute recently experienced challenges in agricultural \r production mainly to perceived changes in precipitation patterns, but \r statistical analyses of daily precipitation records at nearby stations do \r not corroborate those perceived changes (Gurgiser et al., 2016)."


id: 76817ea1822c6aea1fabf07ba936dbb8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:59
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18068
content:
"There is ample empirical evidence that the impacts of climate change \r are not of equal scope for men and women. Women, particularly \r the poorest, are more vulnerable and are impacted in greater \r proportion. Often, for several economic and social reasons, women \r have less capacity to adapt, further widening structural gender gaps \r (high confidence) (Box 7.4; Arana Zegarra, 2017; Casas Varez, 2017; \r Segnestam, 2017; Acosta et al., 2019; Aldunce Ide et al., 2020; Olivera \r et al., 2021; Silva Rodriguez de San Miguel et al., 2021). Gender equity \r is deemed to be central to discussions on climate-change adaptation \r policies. In issues such as drinking water, energy, disasters, impacts on \r health and agriculture and capacity to migrate, women (poor women \r in particular) are affected in greater proportion, further widening \r structural gender gaps. In a rural community vulnerable to drought, \r short-term coping was more common among the women, especially \r [...]"


id: dc21c38b1bba438125c95f31f6ba7fd8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36004
content:
"[...] among female heads of household, while adaptive actions were more \r common among the men; there are gendered inequalities in access \r to and control over different forms of capital that lead to a gender\u0002differentiated capacity to adapt, where men are better able to adapt \r and women experience a downward spiral in their capacity to adapt \r and increasing vulnerability to drought (Segnestam, 2017)."


id: 2e21b29a1fe00ab02fab9f8b04af03da
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5390
content:
"Perception and understanding of climate change can be seen as an \r adaptive feature. In CSA, the awareness of climate change as a threat \r is increasing, a situation related to growth in climate justice activism \r and to the occurrence of extreme weather events of all kinds (high \r confidence) (Forero et al., 2014; Magrin et al., 2014; Capstick et al., 2015). \r Perception of climate change is positively associated across countries \r with the HDI and ND-Gain Readiness Index and negatively associated \r with the Vulnerability Index and, within countries, with education level, \r while perception is negatively associated with the degree of political \r affinity for the market economy (Azocar et al., 2021). However, some \r communities do not associate their problems with the scientific concept \r of climate change, so discussions on whether it is human induced and \r its causes or relationship with other problems can become irrelevant \r [...]"


id: 8f3c018a7044c0af3b38515269162258
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22404
content:
"[...] (Sapiains Arrue and Ugarte Caviedes, 2017). Even communities affected \r by the same changes do not necessarily perceive them in the same way \r (Bonatti et al., 2016). The interpretations of change, as well as its causes \r and effects, can vary widely (Paerregaard, 2018; Scoville-Simonds, 2018). \r Rather than adapting to climate change, some people adapt climate \r change to their social worlds (Rasmussen, 2016a)."


id: 12ff56ee0c992a931c3d7a8892d32a70
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 549
content:
"Migration to cities can mean opportunities for migrants and for urban \r areas, but it can also worsen existing problems, as urban poor people \r can become even more exposed and vulnerable, and the pressure on \r urban capacities may not be well absorbed (high confidence) (Chisari \r and Miller, 2016; Gemenne et al., 2020). Internal migration to cities is \r likely to exacerbate pre-existing vulnerabilities related to inequality, \r poverty, indigence and informal activities and housing (Warn and \r Adamo, 2014). Immigration can make cities/residents more vulnerable \r to climate-change risks (Sections 12.5.5 and 12.5.7). Groups such as \r children, Indigenous Peoples and the poor are usually among the most \r vulnerable in migrations and displacements, which poses challenges \r to national policies and international aid (Sedeh, 2014; Gamez, 2016; \r Ulla, 2016; Priotto and Salvador Aruj, 2017; Ramos and de Salles \r Cavedon-Capdeville, 2017; Amar-Amar et  al., 2019; Gemenne et  al., \r [...]"


id: d34b74392d3c9833c188f54931321d81
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34518
content:
"[...] 2020). In migration or displacement driven by climate effects, women \r are prone to lose their leadership, autonomy and voice, especially in \r new organisational structures imposed by authorities. This is especially \r the case in temporary accommodation camps created after disasters, \r exacerbating existing differentiated vulnerabilities (Aldunce Ide et al., \r 2020). International migration has become more dangerous and \r difficult as border controls have become stricter, but programmes \r such as one to help temporary agricultural workers from Guatemala \r to Canada have proven successful (Gabriel and Macdonald, 2018). At \r the same time, emigration may lead to the loss of IKLK for adaptation \r (Moreno et al., 2020b)."


id: b1db691caabda7b2eb4bbe314d1df6f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28517
content:
"Migration and displacements are multi-causal phenomena, and climate \r may exacerbate political, social, economic or other environmental \r drivers (high confidence) (Kaenzig and Piguet, 2014; Brandt et  al., \r 2016; Priotto and Salvador Aruj, 2017; Sudmeier-Rieux et  al., 2017; \r Radel et  al., 2018; Heslin et  al., 2019; Hoffmann et  al., 2020; Silva \r Rodriguez de San Miguel et al., 2021). Many case studies have been \r conducted on the region, but data to assess and monitor precisely \r the effects of climate- and weather-related disasters in migration and \r displacements from a broad perspective remain inaccurate (Priotto and \r Salvador Aruj, 2017; Abeldano Zuniga and Fanta Garrido, 2020). The \r most common climatic drivers include tropical storms and hurricanes, \r heavy rains, floods and droughts (Kaenzig and Piguet, 2014). Positive \r climatic conditions also can facilitate migration (Gray and Bilsborrow, \r 2013). Peru, Colombia and Guatemala are among the countries with \r [...]"


id: 93496f3f1d31c7c53ea9913d7b2608c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23113
content:
"[...] the largest average displacements caused by hydro-meteorological \r causes; Brazil had 295,000 people displaced because of disasters in \r 2019 (Global Internal Displacement Database, https://www.internal\u0002displacement.org/database/displacement-data)."


id: de75478460322327e86cc9888d3aa850
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36405
content:
"These processes can be interpreted as impacts on vulnerable peoples, \r but also as adaptation strategies to manage risks and reduce exposure \r when people continue with their lives, temporarily or permanently, \r in a different but stable situationor when family members send \r remittances to those that remain in the affected areas (Section 7.4.3.2; \r Cross-Chapter Box  MIGRATE in Chapter 7). The remittances create \r opportunities for adaptive capacity building because they reduce some \r vulnerabilities in the form of infrastructures, agricultural supplies, food, \r education or health, as in northern CA (NU CEPAL, 2018). Anyhow, \r migration as adaptation is not available to everyone (Kaenzig and \r Piguet, 2014), and the idea has also been contested because it may \r not help to overcome structural problems or point to in situ options \r (Radel et  al., 2018; Ruiz-de-Ona et  al., 2019). The causal processes \r are complex. Surveys of migrants usually find that the main reported \r [...]"


id: a76989b95aeb9672d94c14271f1bae04
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26668
content:
"[...] reason for migration is to find a job or to increase household income \r (Wrathall and Suckall, 2016; OIM, 2017; Radel et al., 2018), but the "


id: a54a1b47b5d97427359b7c2f2f1aab7d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26309
content:
"since the scope of this chapter does not include Mexico, so we must \r rely on the raw data included in the data dashboard mentioned in \r the link (see also Guzman et al. [2016]). According to the data, 76% \r of climate-related financing went to mitigation projects, with the \r remaining 24% going to adaptation. Of the total financing provided \r by the multilateral climate funds to the region, 51% took the form of \r concessional loans, while 47% was provided as grants. For the region, \r approvals in the 2015-2016 period were concentrated in Argentina, \r Chile, Brazil and Colombia, where large-scale mitigation projects \r were launched supported by the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and the \r Clean Technology Fund (CTF). For the period 2003-2019, the total \r contribution of climate financing to SA and the Caribbean is about \r USD 3558 million. The largest contributors to climate financing in the \r region come from the GCF, which approved USD 824.2 million for 23 \r [...]"


id: 98214866e38c0e5ec723e1cfc96a2cdd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23976
content:
"[...] projects. Brazil is the top recipient with USD 195 million, followed by \r Argentina with about USD 162  million. The second provider is the \r Amazon Fund with USD 717 million allocated to 102 projects in Brazil. \r In 2018, the CTF became the third largest source of financing, with USD \r 483 million dollars approved for 24 projects; the main recipient is Chile \r with USD 16,207 million, followed by Colombia with USD 170 million. \r The five largest projects approved in the region in 2018 were through \r the GCF. Brazil (USD 195 million) received support for reducing energy \r consumption across Brazilian cities, while Argentina (USD 103 million) \r received support to scale up investments by small and medium-sized \r enterprises (SMEs) in renewable energy and energy efficiency. In both \r cases, financing is predominantly provided as concessional loans."


id: f4860b6293ae59998e9ba470e4c83fab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40394
content:
"floods or droughts can hinder population mobility, immobilising them \r in their localities (Thiede et al., 2016). These immobilised populations \r are supposed to face a double set of risks: they are unable to move \r away from environmental threats, and their lack of capital makes them \r especially vulnerable to environmental changes (Black et al., 2011). In \r CSA, migrating to the US is becoming dangerous and expensive because \r that country is restricting entry; these trends expose local populations to \r the risk of becoming immobile in the near future in a place where they \r are extremely vulnerable (Ruano and Milan, 2014; McLeman, 2019). A \r survey in Guatemala found no correlation between migration to the US \r and severe food insecurity in households, but the correlation became \r significant if the level of food insecurity was moderate, suggesting that \r families in extreme hardship did not have the resources to migrate \r [...]"


id: 81573ea2acccbf43134af20f7b5bc7c6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19885
content:
"[...] (Aguilar et  al., 2019). At the same time, some populations just have \r chosen not to move, as in Peru, where immobility among dissatisfied \r people is more likely to be caused by attachment to place than resource \r constraints (Adams, 2016; Correia and Ojima, 2017). Some populations \r have chosen to adapt relying on their IKLK (Boillat and Berkes, 2013)."


id: ed855b309af1bd0374f2a4f4f42c6f0d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39147
content:
"Climate-change financing is unequally distributed among CSA \r countries (high confidence). Financing of climate-change adaptation \r remains very much delegated to multilateral and bilateral cooperation, \r and the governments in the region have heavily relied on it. Still, there \r are some concerns regarding justice in the distribution of these funds \r (Khan et al., 2020). The UNFCCC has created financing mechanisms \r throughout its functioning years, but a wide range of issues that \r present challenges for access by recipients (Hickmann et  al., 2019). \r These include a lack of technical capacity, difficulties in following \r the procedures established by the various financial entities and low \r levels of awareness about the need for action, as well as the different \r sources of funds available. The fiscal policies of various countries \r have contributed to government financing in the fight against climate \r change (World Bank, 2021). Since the Paris Agreement, countries \r [...]"


id: 43c864b5eb0671973a6a581f0e6ec143
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9151
content:
"[...] have pledged NDCs that introduce the need to design and implement \r carbon budgets with a corresponding consideration of the efficiency \r and costs and benefits involved in each mitigation or adaptation to \r climate-change projects (Fragkos, 2020)."


id: 80a0676fb1daeac454fdda9aba4c381f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19760
content:
"Climate financing in the region is concentrated in Brazil, which receives \r a third of the region's funding, with 41 mitigation activities receiving \r more than 6 times that of adaptation from multilateral climate funds. By \r the size of its GDP, Brazil receives the largest amount of financing; this \r leaves the poorest countries with little or no financing and therefore \r reinforces a vicious circle of poverty and vulnerability. Whether this is \r due to Brazil's being more successful at presenting eligible projects, a \r lack of commitment from other developing countries or some other \r structural factors is an open question. In any case, compensation \r schemes for the most vulnerable countries appear as needed, given \r the differences in vulnerability to climate-related damage (Antimiani \r et  al., 2017). This is aggravated by the fact that fund management \r is in the hands of supranational entities while inequalities remain in \r [...]"


id: bfdff5bd6d79b3d29e9598ca89f3b12a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31048
content:
"[...] regions within a country, particularly in highly centralised countries, as \r is the case for countries in the region."


id: d2e6923892f4036fd666aea28c6d9b88
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34453
content:
"key decision point for adaptation will be how the world responds to \r the pandemic. The global recovery can serve as a catalyst to increased \r and more equitable climate financing. Globally, recovery packages \r will likely have the power to change the global trajectory towards \r meeting the targets of the Paris Agreement and building a more just \r future (Forster et al., 2020). Several factors are relevant to the design \r of economic recovery packages: the long-run economic multiplier, \r contributions to the productive asset base and national wealth, speed \r of implementation, affordability, simplicity, impact on inequality and \r various political considerations (Hepburn et al., 2020). A key objective of \r any recovery package is to stabilise expectations, restore confidence and \r channel desired surplus savings into productive investment. However, \r 'business as usual' implies temperature increases over 3degC, implying \r [...]"


id: e28831048b3c90e3163d25d75874a84b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37154
content:
"[...] great future uncertainty, instability and climate damage. An alternative \r way to restore confidence is to steer investment towards a productive \r and balanced portfolio of sustainable physical capital, human capital, "


id: 3ea1888a0a3a6949813fd3027316367b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8206
content:
"Mean air temperature and annual rainfall (measured by instruments \r since 1891 and inferred through historical records of rogation \r ceremonies since 1600), are increasing, combined with an increase \r in seasonality (i.e., longer periods of drought) and extreme weather \r events, particularly higher levels of precipitation (Serrano Vincenti \r et  al., 2017; Dominguez-Castro et  al., 2018). Two impacts related \r to warmer air conditions are the displacement of the freezing \r line currently placed at 5100 MASL (Basantes-Serrano et  al., \r 2016), followed by glacier retreat and the upward displacement \r of mountainous ecosystems (very high confidence) (Vuille et  al., \r 2018; Cuesta et al., 2019). The key ecosystem that regulates water \r provision for the city is the paramo, and only about 5% of this \r process is related to glaciers, so the combined effects of climate \r change on both systems, coupled with land use change and fires, can \r [...]"


id: c5a61ef8a769f7f923c867c55b196c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32080
content:
"[...] reduce the availability of water for agriculture, human consumption \r and hydropower. Other important climatic hazards and impacts \r are the increase of solar radiation, the heat island effect and fires \r (high confidence) (Anderson et  al., 2011; Armenteras et  al., 2020; \r Ranasinghe et al., 2021). On almost half of the days of each year, \r Quito's population is exposed to levels of UV radiation above 11 \r according to the World Health Organization scale (Municipio del \r Distrito Metropolitano de Quito, 2016)."


id: d817f04a3283fb99dae58df791d08214
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35319
content:
"Various policies, programmes and projects have been created for \r the promotion of urban green spaces, protected areas, water source \r and watershed monitoring, conservation and ecosystem restoration, \r air pollution monitoring and control and urban agriculture. Among \r those actions, three recent ones are commonly highlighted. The first \r is the FONAG, established in 2000 with funds from national and \r international organisations to promote the protection of the water \r basins that supply most of the drinking water. It is a PES scheme \r enabled through a public-private escrow. The projects include \r conservation, ecological restoration and environmental education for \r a new culture of water, in a context opposed to the commodification \r of natural resources (Kauffman, 2014; Bremer et al., 2016; Coronel T, \r 2019). FONAG was innovative in the use of trust funds in a voluntary, \r decentralised mechanism and has inspired more than 21 other water \r [...]"


id: a4cbce0166079d6a03bd4956581b2743
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26222
content:
"[...] funds in the region; nevertheless, its narrative of success has also \r been said to oversimplify and misrepresent some complex interactions \r between stakeholders as well as within communities and their land \r management practices (Joslin, 2019)."


id: acb7fed8a2f747e29d2e330582f142ff
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27633
content:
"A third initiative is the creation of a municipal system of protected \r areas, locally named Areas de Conservacion y Uso Sustentable (ACUS). \r This system covers an area of 1320 km2, nearly a third of the Municipal \r Quito District. Half of this landscape (680 km2\r ) is covered by montane \r forests and paramos (Torres and Peralvo, 2019). These forests provide \r direct water, food and fibres for about 20,000 people and indirectly a \r rural landscape for a growing number of urban citizens and foreign \r tourists that practice ecotourism and look for fresh and healthy \r food. During the last three decades, this area has witnessed a high \r density of public and private conservation and restoration efforts that \r aim to regain ecological integrity and improve human well-being in \r deforested and degraded landscapes (Mansourian, 2017; Zalles, 2018; \r Wiegant et al., 2020). Quito's system of protected areas constitutes a \r primary strategy for fostering links between urban and rural citizens \r [...]"


id: 9aff76a06710a65ba19096d9b42dcb4b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24516
content:
"[...] as a means of understanding the ecological dependence of urban \r metropolises to their surrounding natural landscapes. Along the same \r lines, these areas constitute a key element to increase the adaptive \r capacity of rural livelihoods and contribute to mitigating climate \r change through landscape restoration, sustainable production and \r forest conservation (high confidence)."


id: b6bf8d5d0dd5a82e34e43c3ebbf0167c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29352
content:
"ADEs are the result of the accumulation and incomplete combustion of \r waste materials such as ceramic artefacts and organic residues from \r harvesting, weeding, food processing (including cooking) and other \r activities (Lima et al., 2002; Hecht, 2003; Kampf et al., 2003). ADEs are \r characterised by their increased fertility in relation to adjacent soils, \r with high contents of organic carbon (C) (mainly as charcoal) as well \r as inorganic nutrients, especially phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca) and \r high carbon/nitrogen ratios (high confidence) (Moline and Coutinho, \r 2015; Alho et al., 2019; Barbosa et al., 2020; Pandey et al., 2020; Soares \r et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021). They also exhibit a high cation exchange \r capacity and moisture retention, among other properties (Hecht, 2003; \r Kampf et  al., 2003; Falcao et  al., 2009). Charcoal content is a key \r indicator of pre-Hispanic fire activity and sedentary occupation, which \r [...]"


id: 91adc2067e268489896367c47a64179c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22860
content:
"[...] is evidence of the anthropic origin of these soils (high confidence)\r (Hecht, 2017; Maezumi et al., 2018b; Alho et al., 2019; Barbosa et al., \r 2020; Iriarte et al., 2020; Montoya et al., 2020; Shepard et al., 2020)."


id: 58d7452dd6ee6c77b177b335abac4c26
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12873
content:
"Other NbS actions include the restoration of small basins, locally \r called quebradas, under different schemes of management and \r participation (medium evidence, very high agreement) (da Cruz e \r Sousa and Rios-Touma, 2018) and the transformation since 2013 \r of a large portion of the old Quito airport into an urban park. \r Nevertheless, Quito city continues to face challenges in the social, \r economic, infrastructural and environmental spheres. A major \r pending environmental issue is air pollution; a high level of pollutants \r affects the city in general and especially the most vulnerable groups \r (high confidence) (Zalakeviciute et al., 2018; Alvarez-Mendoza et al., \r 2019; Estrella et al., 2019; Hernandez et al., 2019; Rodriguez-Guerra \r and Cuvi, 2019). Another major issue is the continuous sprawl of new \r neighbourhoods, mainly through informal processes, that diminish \r urban resilience because of the destruction of conservation and food \r [...]"


id: fdd58bf7ab1e9cec20ad04aeafc070d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42019
content:
"[...] production areas, sources of water and the dispersion of settlements \r without primary services, among other consequences (Gomez Salazar \r and Cuvi, 2016)."


id: 9f931e9cf60c2f5f7e6db7e911ce2ccd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25288
content:
"As the second driest city in the world, Lima is highly vulnerable to \r drought and heavy rainfall in the nearby Andean highlands (Schutze \r et al., 2019). Located on the Pacific coast with more than 10 million \r inhabitants, it suffers from flooding, mudslide disasters and water \r stress, and is more frequently affected by heavy rain peak events \r (1970, 1987, 1998, 2012, 2014, 2015 and 2017) (very high confidence) \r (Mesclier et al., 2015; Miranda Sara et al., 2016; French and Mechler, \r 2017; Vazquez-Rowe et  al., 2017; Escalante Estrada and Miranda, \r 2020). In addition to unequal water distribution in quantity and \r pricing, one million inhabitants lack water connections (Ioris, 2016; \r Miranda Sara et al., 2017; Vazquez-Rowe et al., 2017) as a result of a \r lack of long-term city planning and lack of integration with water and \r risk management. Climate-change scenarios were ignored or denied, \r particularly when budget allocations for preventive actions were \r [...]"


id: d18cafb6f8d135e1222006b56a971b1c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34217
content:
"At present, ADEs are estimated to cover up to 3.2% of the Amazon \r basin and are highly valued for their persistent fertility, and they \r have become a key resource for sustainable agriculture for Amazon \r communities in a climate-change context (Altieri and Nicholls, \r 2013; Maezumi et  al., 2018a; de Souza et  al., 2019). Based on the \r lessons learned from the Terras Pretas de Indio, some researchers \r have proposed the development of technologies to promote a new \r generation of anthropogenic soils (e.g., Kern et  al. 2009; Lehmann \r 2009; Schmidt et al. 2014; Bezerra et al. 2016; Kern et al. 2019). Among \r the technologies based on ADE findings, biochar, obtained by the slow \r pyrolysis of agricultural residues, is the most explored application found \r in the literature (Mohan et al., 2018; Matoso et al., 2019; Amoah-Antwi \r et al., 2020). The dual purpose of increased soil fertility and carbon \r sequestration is considered an important goal in connection with \r [...]"


id: a4619b48a21e2432a8418a1984707def
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26124
content:
"Lima-Callao Metropolitan Area, capital of Peru, is facing recurrent \r climate disasters providing lessons on water-related climate-proof \r governance reconfiguration. The first lesson is that when disasters \r affect poor and rich populations, dominant actors prioritise the integral \r city's resilience and development and coordinate and collaborate \r within a concertation framework across institutional levels and \r geographical scales (Hommes and Boelens, 2017; Miranda Sara, 2021), \r even having different ideas, discourses, and power, recognising that no \r single actor has enough power. Second, water-related climate-change \r scenarios require comprehensive, transverse, multi-sectoral, multi\u0002scalar, multiple types of actor knowledge (expert, tacit, codified and \r contextual embedded) (Pfeffer, 2018) and transparent information to \r manage the tensions and even conflicts when some knowledge is not \r shared or restricted, particularly when lower risk perception and higher \r [...]"


id: de9b67ba744a6933b786134ac3e1e940
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36427
content:
"[...] risk tolerance are present. Finally, a concertative (processes involving \r a variety of actors, which has become mandatory in Peru) strategy to \r localise climate-changed-related action shows quicker, more effective \r and more transparent results (medium confidence, robust evidence, "


id: 5df00c72787793cd23023b7dc86470fc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13828
content:
"Roundtables were set up to foster dialogue between numerous \r stakeholders, including communities, agri-export companies, \r governmental organisations and municipalities, all led by the local \r governor (Gobernacion de Escuintla et  al., 2017). Agreements \r included keeping a minimum river flow all the way to the sea, setting \r up a monitoring and verification system for levels of river flow and \r restoring riparian forests. A system was set up to monitor river \r flow at different points along the rivers on a daily basis in the dry \r season using a simple WhatsApp-based system to communicate the \r warnings and monitor compliance. Four years on, the rivers had not \r dried out and conflict was kept to a minimum. Rural communities \r can use rivers for recreational purposes and for fishing all year round, \r while plantations (large and small) can use water for irrigation \r (rationally) and keep producing. Similar schemes and interactions \r [...]"


id: b46abea4166cdb94a4f802b3dfa7ec04
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28980
content:
"[...] started happening in other rivers in the Pacific coast of Guatemala, \r with positive results, in particular, rivers kept flowing all through the \r dry season, as can be seen in the report of river flows for the years \r 2017, 2018 and 2019 (ICC, 2019b)."


id: b6853109641d0f46f49e6841c883f5f3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29321
content:
"Local governance was also essential for the implementation of flood \r risk management actions (high confidence). Guerra et  al. (2017) \r explained how impacts were significantly reduced in the Coyolate \r River watershed, as well as on the Pacific coast of Guatemala, \r thanks to flood protection that was designed and implemented in a \r technical and integrated manner. This was a result of the strong and \r active participation of local communities, companies and the local \r municipality, which demanded that the central government invest \r effectively. The stakeholders provided some resources (financial \r and in-kind) and inspected the works. Some flat areas of the lower \r Coyolate watershed used to flood annually, causing economic damage \r in communities. The areas covered by flood risk measures have not \r flooded and so have avoided losses and created conditions that \r attract investment and create jobs, improving living conditions for the \r [...]"


id: 82b530978fa0f1460a6c7e613610114a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20128
content:
"[...] locals. Other processes of participation and interaction between the \r authorities, the private sector and communities have taken place in \r other watersheds for planning, action and investment in connection \r with flood risk management. The ICC has played a role by studying \r flood-prone areas, building capacities in communities, fostering "


id: ef363e98b6703f01b92a3d193cf8e1eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39455
content:
"There is a knowledge gap about the likely impact of climate change \r on NES biodiversity, soil degradation and best adaptation measures. \r SES is the most urbanised sub-region of CSA, but there are severe \r knowledge deficits related to the design, implementation and \r evaluation of adaptation policy plans with respect to climate change. \r Forecasts related to risk prevention require new studies that address \r down-scaled climate-change models with concrete solutions to \r increase cities' resilience. In SWS, there is a lack of long-term studies \r addressing climate-change impacts on terrestrial, freshwater and \r marine ecosystems, which is mainly due to the lack of integrated \r observational systems. There is a lack of studies projecting future \r impacts of climate change on the cryosphere, water resources, hazards, \r risks and disasters on natural and human systems. This is mainly due \r to the lack of systematic documentation, analysis and evaluation of \r [...]"


id: 91ef725ea25ecd3ea9c5c9f564e513a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22895
content:
"[...] adaptation strategies adopted, as well as their limitations and the \r lessons learned from maladaptation processes. There is scant evidence \r about transformational adaptation to climate change and system \r resilience. In SSA, there is a need for information related to the cities' \r vulnerability to climate change and the impacts of the direct effects \r of future climate change on cities, energy infrastructure and health. \r Also, there is a knowledge gap about the financing of climate-change \r adaptation in SSA."


id: e881cc34dd335568ce45120e63660b22
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38243
content:
"There is an important lack of knowledge about the state of health of the \r ocean and coastal ecosystems along CSA (i.e., social-ecological data \r integration, poor sampling efforts, lack of information about the value \r of ecosystem services, lack of information about ecosystems cover \r and distribution, lack of studies about climate-change perceptions \r and social concerns), including marine fisheries (i.e., landing statistics \r not available, lack of reliable information on the scope of resource \r extraction, among others). Poor or absent monitoring programmes \r (physical, environmental and biological variables) that feed alert and \r surveillance systems are lacking in CSA. There is a general absence of a \r continuous line of scientific research or adequate baseline information \r about the impacts of climate change, as well as continuous monitoring \r of the adaptation plans adopted in ocean and coastal ecosystems \r that limit the formulation of adequate conservation and management \r [...]"


id: 897e4933f38e758c290684702da18691
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21367
content:
"[...] programmes. When studies are performed, inadequate access to \r data limits the analyses of the existing information, making difficult \r to detect climate-change trends and impacts and develop effective \r adaptation strategies."


id: a6237ebf53473271efb76c9b5a6daf5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26450
content:
"Despite the high level of urbanisation in the region, studies on urban \r adaptation initiatives are still underreported by municipalities, and \r several practical results have not yet been demonstrated (Araos et al., \r 2016). This issue is particularly relevant to medium-sized cities because \r most of the literature and data available on adaptation refer to the \r major capital cities. The potential of applying new resilient parameters \r in building and land use regulations for adaptation is underreported. \r The same can be said about the impact of housing improvement and \r slum upgrading on climate resilience, even when initiatives are focused \r on reducing environmental and climate risk. Also relevant in the region \r is a gap in research about NbS applied to urban area adaptation, as in \r the case of the urban forestry potential for adaptation (Barona et al., \r 2020). Even though the importance of urban ecological infrastructure \r [...]"


id: e4e68e772903ff6314437d41572c7a0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37558
content:
"[...] in providing ecosystem services, such as flood control, is reasonably \r well documented, its practical application in urban planning in CSA \r remains limited (Romero-Duque et al., 2020). Added to this is the lack of \r monitoring data on adaptation initiatives in general and, in particular, \r on adaptation initiatives in water systems that have already been \r implemented and their effects on risk reduction. A lack of monitoring \r data contributes to the lack of information about maladaptation in \r urban areas and its consequences. Mobility and transport system \r adaptation options remained virtually entirely unexplored, while \r mitigation options receive significant attention."


id: e28c7cd9ff59644b96277b7274d84535
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37163
content:
"CSA is a broadly heterogeneous region with respect to topography, \r ecosystems, urban and rural territories, demography, economy, \r cultures and climates. The region relies on a strong agrarian economy \r in which small producers and large industries participate, but also \r large industrialised urban centres, oil production and mining. The \r region is one of the most urbanised areas of the world and home to \r many Indigenous Peoples, some still in isolation, and exhibits one \r of the highest rates of inequality, which is a structural and growing \r feature of CSA. Poverty and extreme poverty rates are higher among \r children, young people, women, Indigenous Peoples and migrant and \r rural populations, but urban extreme poverty is also growing (very high \r confidence). Socioeconomic challenges are being intensified by the \r COVID crisis. Most countries in CA are already ranked as the highest \r risk level worldwide due to the region's high vulnerability to climate \r [...]"


id: 7d0aeaf0e4353221e91916adcd76c641
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19185
content:
"[...] change and low adaptive capacity; the lack of climate data and proper \r downscaling are challenging the adaptation process (high confidence)."


id: 671890cfc6f40d02254e9bfc2cf9ec36
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15409
content:
"Many extreme events are already impacting the region and are \r projected to intensify; such events include warming temperatures \r and dryness, SLR, coastal erosion and ocean and lake acidification, \r resulting in coral bleaching and an increasing frequency and severity \r of droughts in some regions, with a concomitant decrease in water \r supply, which impact agricultural production, traditional fishing, food \r security and human health (high confidence). In CA, 10.5  million \r people are living in the so-called Dry Corridor, a region with an \r extended dry season and, now, more erratic rainfall patterns. A water \r crisis in Brazil affected the major cities of the country between 2014 \r and 2016, having become more frequent since then. Severe droughts \r have also been reported in Paraguay and Argentina. In contrast, the \r urbanised areas of NSA are highly exposed to extreme floods (41% of \r urban population in the Amazon Delta and Estuary). Urban areas in the \r [...]"


id: 42625bf7a95fc6fa9372b040f18fa27d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8875
content:
"[...] region are vulnerable for many reasons, notably high rates of poverty \r and informality, poor and unevenly distributed infrastructure, housing \r deficits and the recurrent occupation of risk areas (high confidence)."


id: d0e2009c7ecc17aae235df4dc0bdedc3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34097
content:
"recovery of already impacted ecosystems. Another battery of measures \r is focused on the management and sustainability of marine resources \r managed in fisheries; however, these measures do not assess current \r and future climate-change impacts but rather focus on decreasing the \r impact of other non-climate factors, such as overfishing or pollution. \r To date, throughout CSA there is an important lack of long-term \r research addressing ocean and coastal ecosystem health and their \r species through continuous monitoring, which is one of the main \r barriers to adaptation. The number and type of adaptation measures \r for ocean and coastal ecosystems and their contributions to humans \r are very different among CSA countries, which highlights the number \r of measures related to increasing scientific research and monitoring \r followed by the conservation of biodiversity and changes in legislation \r (high confidence). On the other hand, those measures that include \r [...]"


id: a34adce5a706979f3ca8e1ec907e80b3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25938
content:
"[...] changes in financing (an important barrier) or the incorporation of \r traditional knowledge are not always considered in NAPs by CSA \r countries."


id: 55e017168716830354441501ca840980
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12378
content:
"Urban adaptation is limited by financing constraints, weak \r intersectoral and multi-level governance and deficits in the housing \r and infrastructure sectors, the overcoming of which represents an \r opportunity for transformative adaptation (high confidence). Short\u0002term interventions are more common than long-term planning \r (high confidence). Adaptation has taken place throughout the \r region in planning, land use and building regulation, urban control \r systems and risk management. Initiatives in social housing focus on \r reducing risk and overcoming urgent deficits but also adding to a \r transformative adaptation pathway (high confidence). Hybrid (green\u0002grey) infrastructure has been adopted for better efficiency in flood \r control, sanitation, water scarcity and landslide prevention and coastal \r protection (high confidence). NbS, including GI and EbA, are increasing \r in urban areas (high confidence), although isolated engineering \r [...]"


id: 54fffc3f407bad6bc98aa565725899cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12225
content:
"[...] solutions are still widely practiced. The integration of transport and \r land use plans and the improvement of public transport are key to \r urban adaptation; mitigation prevails over adaptation in the sector \r (high confidence)."


id: 44e2fbc82c64ade2a1b47e122b824078
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9350
content:
"Low government spending on social infrastructure (e.g., health, education), ethnic discrimination and social \r exclusion reduce healthcare access, leaving poor people in entire regions mostly undiagnosed or untreated. In \r a context of privatisation policies of healthcare systems, research shows that marginal people lack identifying \r documents needed to access public services in Buenos Aires (Argentina), Mexico City (Mexico) and Santiago de Chile \r (Chile), some of the most developed cities in the region. The consequences of this situation are underreporting, \r low diagnosis and low treatment of diseases such as vector-borne diseases such as dengue and risk of diarrhoeal \r diseases originating from frequent flooding in Amazonian riverine communities. Bias in reporting on access to \r healthcare and the incidence of diseases in marginal populations is usually region-dependent. For example, in \r [...]"


id: eb429697561e04cef00d28576b9d1c04
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38745
content:
"[...] Brazil's Amazonian north in 2018, there were 2.2 medical doctors per 1000 inhabitants, while 4.95 medical doctors \r per 1000 inhabitants and 9.52 doctors in Sao Paulo and Santa Catarina respectively. Another example is pregnant \r women in remote Amazonian municipalities, who receive less prenatal care than women in urban areas. These social \r inequities underlie systemic biases in health data quality, hindering reliable estimation of disease burdens such as \r the distribution of disease or birth and death registrations. For example, in Guatemala, alternative Indigenous \r healthcare systems are responding to local needs in Mayan communities. However, this remains unrecognised. The \r existence of health institutions based on IK can reinforce the lack of universal coverage by central government \r healthcare, addressing the miscalculation of morbidity, mortality and cause of death among disadvantaged groups."


id: 4b4db3c61693fc983b2f292c486128d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10494
content:
"Cities struggle to address the immediate needs of their population while addressing longer-term needs associated \r with climate adaptation, emissions reduction and sustainable development. Some cities are moving forward to \r transformative adaptation, addressing drivers of vulnerability, building robust systems and anticipating impacts. \r Besides government-led adaptation planning and action, individuals, communities and enterprises have been \r incrementally adapting to climate change autonomously over time. Municipalities from Argentina, Peru, Chile, \r Equator, Brazil and Costa Rica are developing and implementing their Local Climate Action Plans, experimenting \r with and revealing best practices in adaptation. Both anticipatory adaptation measures--choosing safe locations, \r building structurally safe houses, choosing elevated places to store valuables, building on stilts--and reactive \r [...]"


id: de4f313e48e87192a320487c5900ccc9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36371
content:
"[...] adaptation measures are used, the latter incorporating measures such as relocation, slope stabilisation, afforestation \r and greening of riverbanks. With variations, these cities have included mechanisms to work across sectors and \r actors on the understanding that it is collective planning and actions that will ensure that long-term programmes \r continue independently of particular city administrations."


id: 63ce18eb35db3888658d97ee1d5fae24
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14850
content:
"Cities are interconnected systems operating beyond administrative boundaries. Improved collaboration and \r coordination are needed for integrated responses. Aside from good planning, cities need access to external \r adaptation funds. Climate-change adaptation requires long-term funding and investments, which are beyond \r cyclical political considerations. It is crucial to rethink how to ensure that international adaptation funds will reach \r cities and innovate. For example, member cities of Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate & Energy in the region, \r together with Cities for Life Forum in Peru, the Red Argentina de Municipios por el Cambio Climatico (RAMCC), the \r Capital Cities of the Americas facing Climate Change (CC35) and others, are pursuing this goal and applying directly \r for international grants. New funding sources are required to help local governments and civil society. Cities and \r [...]"


id: 73edab9872cca55f5b35444d2856bd23
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17642
content:
"[...] locally driven adaptation initiatives can be funded by national governments and international organisations."


id: 368eb142fa62ee3093f8d51f045e435e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6831
content:
"Climate-smart practices provide a framework to operationalise actions aimed at understanding synergies \r among productivity, adaptation and mitigation. A significant amount of evidence supports the potential for \r climate-smart-practice technologies to produce such triple wins as natural pastoral systems in the southern \r region of SA. Such systems allow for the combination of food production and environmental sustainability. The \r production of meat based on native grasslands with grazing management that optimises forage allowance can \r achieve high production levels while providing multiple ecosystem benefits. Optimal forage allowance means \r offering animals enough forage in order to meet requirements while avoiding overgrazing. This management \r practice simultaneously increases productivity, reduces GHG emissions while improving soil carbon sequestration \r and minimises other environmental impacts such as excess of nutrients, fossil-based energy use and biodiversity loss. \r [...]"


id: 3630b563fb698c2d73c9d16e8f2b089b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6782
content:
"[...] Pastoral farming systems that manage grazing and feeding efficiently are an example of the integration of food \r security, environmental conservation and nature-based adaptation to climate change."


id: c568e853a0910f42ef31b8c61ed7106a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32039
content:
"Agroforestry systems are present in the tropical region of CSA. Trees are present in a large part of the agricultural \r landscape of this region, either dispersed or in lines, supporting the production of coffee, cocoa, fruits, pastures and \r livestock in various agroforestry configurations. In CA, shade-grown coffee reduces weed control and improves the \r quality and taste of the product. Agroforestry uses nitrogen-fixing trees (Leguminosae), such as Leucaena in Colombia \r and Inga in Brazil, to restore soil nitrogen fertility. Tropical forest soils are generally nutrient-poor and unsuited to \r long-term agricultural use. Land converted to agriculture by cutting and burning natural vegetation tends to \r remain productive for only a few years. Agroforestry and so-called silvopastoral systems, which incorporate trees \r into crop and livestock systems, have been shown to have a dramatic impact on the maintenance and restoration \r [...]"


id: a643b98e8b9cca06a80657194da4cb05
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26468
content:
"[...] of long-term productivity in agricultural landscapes, including degraded and abandoned land. Agroforestry systems \r can provide major benefits through enhanced food security, stronger local economies and increased ecosystem \r services such as carbon storage, regulation of climate and water cycles, control of pests and diseases and maintenance \r of soil fertility. Because of these multiple goods and services, agroforestry practices are considered one of the key \r strategies for the development of climate-smart agriculture."


id: 722c9ed95799ddfc721ff435b7de60f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17331
content:
"There are 28 million Indigenous Peoples in CSA (around 6.6% of the total population of the region). They belong \r to more than 800  groups living in territories covering a wide range of ecosystems--from drylands to tropical \r rainforests to savannahs, coasts to mountains--and that share the land with many other cultural and ethnic groups. \r In the region, Indigenous Peoples are often categorised as groups that are highly vulnerable to climate change \r because they are frequently affected by socioeconomic inequalities and the dominance of external powers. They \r often experience internal and external pressures on their communal lands in the forms of pollution, oil and mining, \r industrial agriculture and urbanisation. On the other hand, it is important to recognise that Indigenous Peoples \r have knowledge systems and practices that allow them to adapt to many climatic changes. Increasing scientific \r [...]"


id: d5f4aac721cb333b735539d574b32e75
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34957
content:
"[...] evidence shows that adaptation initiatives based on Indigenous knowledge and practices are more sustainable and \r legitimate among local communities."


id: 9168ad095b85bfdee1332963ad59254d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22794
content:
"There are a growing range of adaptation options available today \r to deal with future climate risks (high confidence). Examples of \r adaptation to the key risks include: behavioural change combined with \r building interventions, space cooling and urban planning to manage \r heat risks (KR1); restoration, expansion and connection of protected \r areas for ecosystems, while generating adaptation and mitigation \r benefits for people (KR1: heat); irrigation, vegetation cover, changes \r in farming practices, crop and animal species, and shifting planting \r (KR2: agriculture); efficiency improvements, water storage, water reuse, \r early warning systems and land-use change (KR3: water scarcity); \r early warning systems, reserving space for water and ecosystem\u0002based adaptation, sediment or engineering-based options, land-use \r change and managed retreat (KR4: flooding). Nature-based Solutions \r for flood protection and heat alleviation are themselves under threat \r [...]"


id: 918ed94053697b78ec90f3d182d7c4fd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22832
content:
"[...] from warming, extreme heat, drought and SLR (high confidence) \r {13.2.2;13.3.2;13.4.2;13.5.2;13.6.2;13.7.2;13.8.2;13.9.4;13.10.2;13.11}."


id: a15ba95ea755c364e12aef9d3f87a01
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25606
content:
"Projections indicate a continuation of the observed trends of river \r flood hazards in WCE (high confidence) of 10% at 2degC GWL and 18% \r at 4.4degC GWL, and a decrease in NEU and SEU (medium confidence) \r with, respectively, 5 and 11% in NEU and SEU for a 100-year peak \r flow, making Europe one of the regions with the largest projected \r increase in flood risk (Di Sante et al., 2021; Ranasinghe et al., 2021). \r While there is disagreement on the magnitude of economic losses \r and people affected, there is high agreement on direction of change, \r particularly in WCE (Alfieri et  al., 2018). New research increases \r confidence in AR5 statements that without adaptation measures, \r increases in extreme rainfall will substantially increase direct flood \r damages (e.g., Madsen et al., 2014; Alfieri et al., 2015a; Alfieri et al., \r 2015b; Bloschl et al., 2017; Dottori et al., 2020; Mentaschi et al., 2020). \r With low adaptation, damages from river flooding are projected to be \r [...]"


id: 2ffb1ea7aef305cd19b75d6baac972f7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5699
content:
"[...] three times higher at 1.5degC GWL, four times at 2degC GWL and six times \r at 3degC GWL (Alfieri et al., 2018; Dottori et al., 2020). At 2degC GWL, the \r incidence of summer floods is expected to decrease across the whole \r alpine region, whereas winter and spring floods will increase due \r to extreme precipitation (Gobiet et  al., 2014) and snowmelt-driven \r runoff (Coppola et al., 2018)."


id: 7d8f49b616885b0a23b1a774137cb8f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19260
content:
"Almost 50  million Europeans live within 10 m above mean sea \r level (Vousdoukas et  al., 2020; McEvoy et  al., 2021). Without further \r adaptation (Section 13.2.2), flood risks along Europe's low-lying coasts \r and estuaries will increase due to SLR compounded by storm surges, \r rainfall and river runoff (high confidence) (Mokrech et al., 2015; Arns \r et al., 2017; Sayol and Marcos, 2018; Vousdoukas et al., 2018a; Bevacqua \r et al., 2019; Couasnon et al., 2020). The population at risk of a 100-year \r flood event starts to rapidly increase beyond 2040 (Vousdoukas et al., \r 2018a) reaching 10 million people under RCP8.5 by 2100, but it stays just \r below 10 million people under RCP2.6 by 2150 (Figure 13.5; Haasnoot \r et al., 2021b) assuming present population and protection. The number \r of people at risk is projected to increase and risk to materialise earlier \r especially in response to increasing population under SSP5 (Vousdoukas \r [...]"


id: c8c00d4832d950102fe4861fadace09a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32639
content:
"[...] et al., 2018a; Haasnoot et al., 2021b). Under high rates of SLR resulting \r from rapid ice sheet loss from Antarctica, risks may increase by a third by \r 2150 (Haasnoot et al., 2021b). Expected annual (direct) damages due to \r coastal flooding are projected to rise from 1.3 billion EUR today to 13-\r 39 billion EUR by 2050 between 2degC and 2.5degC GWL and 93-960 billion \r EUR by 2100 between 2.5deg and 4.4degC GWL, largely depending on \r socioeconomic developments (Cross-Chapter Box  SLR in Chapter 3; \r Vousdoukas et al., 2018a) (high confidence in the sign; low confidence\r in the numbers). UNESCO World Heritage sites in the coastal zone are \r at risk due to SLR, coastal erosion and flooding (Section 13.8.1.3; Cross\u0002Chapter Paper 4; Marzeion and Levermann, 2014; Reimann et al., 2018b) \r as are coastal landfills and other key infrastructures in Europe (AR6/\r SROCC; Brand et al., 2018; Beaven et al., 2020)."


id: 15eb6f22b24239ac809d570a4b3793c5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1076
content:
"The frequency and severity of low flows are projected to increase, making \r streamflow drought and water scarcity more severe and persistent in \r SEU and WCE (medium confidence) (Figure  13.3; Ranasinghe et  al., \r 2021), but decreases are projected in most of NEU except the southern \r UK (Forzieri et al., 2014; Prudhomme et al., 2014; Schewe et al., 2014; \r Roudier et al., 2016; Ranasinghe et al., 2021). In EEU, uncertainty about \r changes in water scarcity pose distinct challenges for adaptation (Greve \r et al., 2018). At 1.5degC GWL, the number of days with water scarcity \r (water availability as opposed to water demand) and drought will \r increase slightly in SEU (Schleussner et al., 2016; Naumann et al., 2018), \r resulting in 18% of the population exposed to at least moderate water \r scarcity, increasing to 54% at 2degC GWL (Byers et al., 2018). Moderate \r water scarcity is emerging in some parts of WCE (Bisselink et al., 2018) \r [...]"


id: 48ceeb0bf5a77bed0e3141d9e3c83867
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10022
content:
"[...] increasing to16% of the population under 2degC GWL and SSP2 (Byers \r et al., 2018). Under 4degC GWL, areas in WCE experience water scarcity, \r especially in summer and autumn. Future intensive water use can \r aggravate the situation, in particular in SEU (Sections 13.5.1, 13.10.3)."


id: 41c57439031a581f8a6e26483ea0ff53
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8768
content:
"Without adaptation, potential economic damages between 7 and 17 billion EUR have been estimated for the next 50 years (Caporin \r and Fontini, 2016). Additionally, the ecosystem is vulnerable to warming (Solidoro et al., 2010) and SLR (Day Jr et al., 1999; Marani et al., \r 2007). The duration of the closure of the lagoon inlets is expected to increase from 2 to 3 weeks yr-1 for RMSL rises of 30 cm, to 2 months \r yr-1 for 50 cm and 6 months yr-1 for 75 cm (Figure Box 13.1.1b; Umgiesser, 2020; Lionello et al., 2021b), resulting in disconnection from \r the sea for most of the time for RMSL rise exceeding 75 cm. Frequent closures of the inlets would prevent ship traffic and in/outflow \r of water. For Venice, adaptation pathways considering the full range of plausible RMSL (Figure Box 13.1.1c) levels are not available, \r indicating a long-term adaptation gap. As planning and implementation of adaptation of this extent can take several decades (Haasnoot \r [...]"


id: 23741df782711c900ee5461ac56b8766
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3435
content:
"[...] et al., 2020b; Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3), this increases the risk that the city will not be prepared in case of rapid SLR."


id: e9939998533ad2124ab18cea71fa2578
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38448
content:
"Nature-based Solutions (NbS) (e.g., wetlands) and sediment-based \r solutions (e.g., sand nourishment) are increasingly considered for \r environmental, economic and/or societal reasons (Cross-Chapter \r Box NATURAL in Chapter 2; Stive et al., 2013; Pranzini et al., 2015; \r Pinto et  al., 2020; de Schipper et  al., 2021). Coastal wetlands can \r be effective to reduce wave height and form habitats, but their \r feasibility and effectiveness is limited for densely populated areas \r with competing land use, runoff of pollution, sediment-starved deltas \r like the Rhine Delta (Edmonds et al., 2020) and rapid SLR (Kirwan \r et  al., 2016; Oppenheimer et  al., 2019; Haasnoot et  al., 2020b). \r While losses of wetlands could be minor if warming stays below \r 1.7degC GWL, at high warming or SLR above 0.5 m large-scale losses \r of these habitats will impact their ecological importance, ecosystem \r function (Section  13.4; KR 1, Section  13.10.2) and their ability to \r [...]"


id: 341086054bd2c205621b449ddb9bdad5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6404
content:
"[...] protect coastlines (Roebeling et al., 2013; van der Spek, 2018; Wang \r et al., 2018; Xi et al., 2021). A combination with structural defences \r could reduce risk in urbanised coastal regions (high confidence). \r Accommodation through elevated or floating houses have been \r implemented and proposed locally within cities as part of a hybrid \r strategy together with protection and as a way of innovative urban \r development (Section  13.6.2; Cross-Chapter Paper 2; Penning\u0002Rowsell, 2020; Storbjork and Hjerpe, 2021)."


id: 692493830c068597ea9a8911c67aaba7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15764
content:
"In recent decades water management in Europe has increasingly \r shifted towards integrated and adaptive strategies, with the most \r noticeable shifts in WCE (high confidence) (e.g., Kreibich et al., 2015; \r Bubeck et  al., 2017). While adaptive strategies are increasingly \r considered as an approach to strengthen flexibility and implement \r climate-change adaptation actions, given deep uncertainty about the \r future (Ranger et  al., 2013; Klijn et  al., 2015; Bloemen et  al., 2019; \r Hall et al., 2019; Pot et al., 2019), more traditional water management \r approaches still dominate across Europe (OECD, 2013; OECD, 2015; \r Wiering et  al., 2017). Current measures focus on structural flood \r protection and water resources supply and play an important role to \r preserve present land use and development patterns. The long-term \r effectiveness of such measures is increasingly challenged by their \r reinforcing path dependency (e.g., flood defence and water supply \r [...]"


id: 9d246b81d16977750a6099c6ae143e3a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24884
content:
"[...] attract developments which require further protection and supply). \r This path dependency limits the solution space and may hamper \r implementation of transformative measures, such as land-use change, \r to accommodate the water system (medium confidence) (Cross\u0002Chapter Paper 2; Di Baldassarre et al., 2015; Kreibich et al., 2015; Alfieri \r et al., 2016; Gralepois et al., 2016; Welch et al., 2017; Di Baldassarre \r et al., 2018; Haer et al., 2020)."


id: 48dfc8d255ac7c7bf90f7d6559d29b7a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10036
content:
"Avoidance through restricting new developments in flood prone \r areas is applied along the coast of WCE and SEU (Harman et  al., \r 2015; Lincke et al., 2020) and is considered a low-cost alternative \r to coastal defence at lower SLR. In SEU, an integrated coastal zone \r management (ICZM) protocol has been developed which requires a \r setback zone of 100 m from the coast in unprotected areas. Setback \r zones are projected to reduce impacts considerably in urbanised \r regions (Lincke et  al., 2020). Planned relocation is increasingly \r considered as a realistic adaptation option in cases of extreme SLR \r (Haasnoot et al., 2021a; Lincke and Hinkel, 2021; Mach and Siders, \r 2021), for example, UK Shoreline Management Plans (Nicholls et al., \r 2013; Buser, 2020). Retreat is rarely applied in Europe (medium \r confidence), though it can have greater benefit-to-cost outcomes \r than protection, particularly in less populated parts of Europe (Lincke \r [...]"


id: 5743a50e5dbd7a8776e8c72fe845d000
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12607
content:
"[...] and Hinkel, 2021). Along parts of the coast in the UK (e.g., The \r Wash), Germany (e.g., Langeoog Island) and the Netherlands (e.g., "


id: 1bc17781b7c530007640a1d59b1734ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2068
content:
"Adaptation measures on the demand side include monitoring (e.g., water \r meters, early warning systems of drought) and regulating demand, for \r example, water restrictions, water pricing, water saving and efficiency \r measures, and land management and cover change (Papadaskalopoulou \r et al., 2015b; Varela-Ortega et al., 2016; Manouseli et al., 2018; Garnier \r and Holman, 2019). Prolonged water restrictions and prioritising sectoral \r supply could result in economic losses (e.g., for irrigated agriculture) \r (Section 13.5.2; Wimmer et al., 2014; Salmoral et al., 2019). Economic \r instruments, such as water pricing, can be effective when combined with \r incentives for water saving and efficiency (Kayaga and Smout, 2014; \r Esteve et  al., 2018; Crespo et  al., 2019). Water saving and efficiency \r measures, such as leakage repair, education and improved irrigation, \r could limit conflicts across sectors but necessitate technological \r [...]"


id: 66e5fcd2b9d98aded18d982c4df1fe2e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15367
content:
"[...] advances and changes in practice together with a willingness to \r cooperate (Garnier and Holman, 2019; Papadimitriou et  al., 2019; \r Teotonio et al., 2020). Increased irrigation efficiency has reduced water \r scarcity, particularly in SEU (Section 13.5; De Roo et al., 2020), and occur \r at farm level in WCE and NEU (Papadaskalopoulou et al., 2015b; van \r Duinen et  al., 2015; Rey et  al., 2017) but come with increasing path \r dependency on supply and trade-offs which may not be sustainable in \r the long term (high confidence) (Di Baldassarre et al., 2018)."


id: 9dcd8cca2ec57fa3fa2295c42f894683
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24999
content:
"Early warning systems, insurance and behaviour change can \r complement protect and accommodate measures to limit residual risk \r (high confidence). Early warning systems have high monetary benefits \r (Pappenberger et al., 2015). Behavioural adaptation to flooding relies \r on recognition of the threat and capacity to respond, both of which are \r often lacking (Section 13.11.2.2; Bamberg et al., 2017; Haer et al., 2019). \r Flood risk insurance and compensation systems vary across European \r countries, ranging from post-disaster payments by governments and \r compulsory flood insurance, to public-private partnerships where the \r state acts as reinsurer (Keskitalo et al., 2014; Surminski et al., 2015; \r Hanger et al., 2018). Risk-based insurance premiums can induce risk\u0002averting behaviour but may become unaffordable to poor households \r and some households in high-risk zones (Hudson, 2018; Surminski, 2018). \r Increasing future flood risks due to both climatic and socioeconomic \r [...]"


id: b2ce072732b4f3da580195c1951197a7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28695
content:
"[...] change could overburden government budgets (medium confidence) \r (Section 13.11.2; Paudel et al., 2015; Mysiak and Perez-Blanco, 2016; \r Schinko et al., 2017; Mochizuki et al., 2018), resulting in unavailable or \r unaffordable insurance for private customers (Section 13.8.3; Hudson \r et  al., 2016; Surminski, 2018), and underfunding and insufficient \r solvency of insurance companies (Section  13.6.2.5; Lamond and \r Penning-Rowsell, 2014). Local knowledge about disastrous flood events \r in the past can be lost across generations, leading to (re)-settlement in \r flood-prone areas (Fanta et al., 2019)."


id: 7b36ebc2da06362c907153196122a468
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18875
content:
"The assessment of the effectiveness and feasibility of adaptation \r options shows that a portfolio of supply-and-demand measures is \r needed to reduce water scarcity (Key Risk 3, Section 13.10.3), although \r locally demand-side measures could be sufficient (Kingsborough et al., \r 2016). Under high warming levels, adaptation to drought and low \r flows by water saving and efficiency measures may not be sufficient \r to counteract reduced availability (medium agreement, low evidence) \r (Collet et al., 2015; De Roo et al., 2020). Successful adaptation in the \r water sector depends on integrating water considerations into sectoral \r policies (Collet et al., 2015; Papadaskalopoulou et al., 2016). Inclusive \r and participatory approaches where (local) stakeholders are actively \r involved in the initiation and execution of water management can \r enhance problem ownership, the quality and democratic legitimacy \r of processes and decisions, enhance support and accelerate decisions \r [...]"


id: dee2615e943c3cd27515e6df4903fa69
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36473
content:
"(Figure  13.8). The largest losses of suitable climatic conditions are \r projected for plants and insects, with different taxon-specific regions \r of highest risk, while proportions of species projected to lose suitable \r climates are lower for other groups (medium confidence) (Figure \r Box 13.1.1; Table SM13.3; Warren et al., 2018). Temperatures >1.5degC \r GWL will lead to a progressive subtropicalisation in SEU, expanding \r into WCE at >3degC GWL, a northward shift in the temperate domain \r into NEU (medium confidence) (Feyen et al., 2020) and an expansion \r of desert biomes in EEU (Sergienko and Konstantinov, 2016). Changes \r in distribution are projected for major tree species in all European \r regions at 1.7degC GWL (Dyderski et  al., 2018; Leskinen et  al., 2020), \r with economic implications for managed forests (Section 13.5.1.4). The \r longer growth season in NEU and WCE will support the establishment \r of invasive species (Cross-Chapter Paper 1). Temperatures <1.5degC GWL \r [...]"


id: bdaa0d3ca041d40d7b3141e52b3a2b45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30629
content:
"[...] would limit expansion and novel appearances of pests, while >3.4degC \r GWL would make large parts of SEU and WCE suitable for pests, for \r example, wood beetles (Urvois et  al., 2021), and increase economic \r losses due to lower harvest quality of timber (Toth et al., 2020)."


id: cf8e29d40238d8de3de58e848ba885ef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33876
content:
"detected across European regions (high confidence) (Figure  13.8; \r Sangines de Carcer et al., 2018; Carnicer et al., 2019; Green et al., 2019; \r Schuldt et al., 2020). Forest expansion in boreal regions results in net \r warming (Bright et  al., 2017), possibly influencing cloud formation \r and rainfall patterns (medium confidence) (Teuling et al., 2017). These \r changes are affecting climate, pollination and soil protection services \r (Figure 13.8; Verhagen et al., 2018). If not managed through increased \r reforestation and/or revegetation or peatland restoration, future \r climate-change impacts will progressively limit the climate regulation \r capacity of European terrestrial ecosystems (medium confidence) \r (Figure 13.8), especially in SEU (Penuelas et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2019). \r Predominantly positive CO2 fertilisation effects at current warming will \r change into increasingly negative effects of warming and drought on \r [...]"


id: 6f7efdf58d11d0f0c6d7e8f2eb079eda
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16883
content:
"[...] forests at higher temperatures (medium confidence) (Penuelas et al., \r 2017; Green et al., 2019; Ito et al., 2020; Wang 2020; Yu et al., 2021). \r In NEU and EEU, peatlands are projected to shrink with 1.7degC GWL, \r and become carbon sources at 3degC GWL (Qiu et al., 2020), peat bogs \r to lose 50% carbon at 2degC GWL, and blanket peatland to shrink or \r regionally disappear (Gallego-Sala et al., 2010; Ferretto et al., 2019)."


id: f548c2f751f314bbc14bb92eadf5934a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40521
content:
"Rehabilitation and restoration of land (Prober et al., 2019), particularly \r abandoned agricultural areas in SEU and NEU (Terres et  al., 2015), \r are long-term strategies to improve regulating services and enhance \r biodiversity conservation (Morecroft et al., 2019; Campos et al., 2021). \r Their success will depend on consideration of the future climate \r niche when restoring peatlands (Bellis et  al., 2021) or long-lived \r species with limited mobility (high confidence) (Hazarika et al., 2021). \r The combination of supporting the resilience of species, increasing \r functional diversity of habitats and assisting the migration of species \r at the limit of their adaptive capacity (Park and Talbot, 2018) is needed \r to protect and restore ecosystems (e.g., forests) (Boiffin et al., 2017; \r Messier et  al., 2019). Successful interventions consider habitat and \r the ecological and evolution interactions of species (Seho et  al., \r [...]"


id: c5637d235adf521c7425a943f84975c0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32036
content:
"[...] 2019; Diallo et  al., 2021) combined with monitoring to assess their \r effectiveness (Casazza et al., 2021)."


id: 6662f9e94ecb9f81e5b0be645906b37b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15277
content:
"The solution space for responding to climate-change risks for terrestrial \r ecosystems has increased in parts of Europe (medium confidence). \r For example, EbA and NbS figure prominently in the EU Adaptation \r Strategy (2021a) and climate-change adaptation is mainstreamed in \r the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 (European Comission, 2020), \r the EU Forest Strategy for 2030 (European Comission, 2021b), the EU \r Green Infrastructure Strategy (European Comission, 2013), as well as \r several national and regional policies. Yet, in the northern parts of EEU \r and NEU (e.g., Greenland, Iceland, northwest Russian Arctic), areas \r which are often sites of pronounced biodiversity shifts and changes, \r solutions are lacking or slow in emergence, due to remoteness, lack \r of resources and sparse populations (Canosa et al., 2020). In the EU, \r innovative financing schemes, such as the Natural Capital Financing \r Facility, are being explored by the European Investment Bank and \r [...]"


id: e0c597bbc6323beec31a7b7a5ed45102
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36805
content:
"[...] the European Commission which supports projects delivering on \r biodiversity and climate adaptation through tailored loans and \r investments. Multiple EU-level service platforms have been promoted \r to track climate-change impacts on land ecosystems and adaptation \r (e.g., Climate-Adapt, Copernicus Land and Fire Monitoring Service, \r Forest Information System of Europe) (Section 13.11.1)."


id: 298901b468f4f9de2011a836412547b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4527
content:
"Despite an expanding solution space, widespread implementation and \r monitoring of natural and planned adaptation across Europe is currently \r limited, due to high management costs, undervaluation of nature, and \r conservation laws and regulations that do not consider species shifts \r under future socioeconomic and climatic changes (high confidence) \r (Kabisch et al., 2016; Prober et al., 2019; Fernandez-Anez et al., 2021). \r Climate risks are not perceived as urgent due to a continuing perception \r of the high adaptive capacity of ecosystems (Uggla and Lidskog, 2016; \r Esteve et al., 2018; Vulturius et al., 2018). Limited financial resources \r prevent widespread implementation of large-scale and connected \r conservation areas (high confidence) (Hermoso et al., 2017; Lee et al., \r 2019; Krause et al., 2020). Particularly in WCE, competition for land use \r with other functions, including mitigation options, is a critical barrier \r [...]"


id: 86b1a93d61a8119a66076d76299d6208
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20864
content:
"[...] to implementation of adaptation. Risks to terrestrial and freshwater \r ecosystems are rarely integrated into regional and local land-use \r planning, land development plans, and agro-system management \r (medium confidence) (Nila et al., 2019; Heikkinen et al., 2020a)."


id: abf468e84816c6bd8157ffe1a7b04351
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27490
content:
"Biological and ecological impacts have cascading effects for marine \r ecosystem functioning (Chivers et  al., 2017; Baird et  al., 2019) and \r biogeochemical cycling (Huete-Stauffer et  al., 2011; Munari, 2011; \r Kersting et al., 2013; Rivetti et al., 2014; Garrabou et al., 2019). In TEUS, \r increased water-column stratification (Section  13.1) and decreasing \r eutrophication, result in reduced primary production (high confidence) \r (Figure 13.11; Capuzzo et al., 2018) and productivity at higher trophic \r levels (high confidence) (Free et  al., 2019), while in NEUS sea ice \r decline has resulted in primary production increase by 40-60% (high \r confidence) (Figure  13.11; Arrigo and van Dijken, 2015; Borsheim, \r 2017; Lewis et al., 2020). Climate-related deoxygenation impacts are \r small in most European waters (medium confidence) (Figure 13.11), \r expect for semi-enclosed seas such as the Baltic and Black seas (Frolov \r [...]"


id: 1be8c28146eddf8ddd58963aa84d1a8e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2093
content:
"[...] et al., 2014; Jacob et al., 2014; Reusch et al., 2018). Here warming and \r eutrophication have altered ecosystem functioning (high confidence), \r reduced potential fish yield and increased harmful algal blooms \r (Alekseev et al., 2014; Carstensen et al., 2014; Berdalet et al., 2017; "


id: 811d9c55cedeedc77bbc6997e967fdef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19852
content:
"formation (medium confidence) (Ragazzola et  al., 2016). Regionally \r (Brodie et  al., 2014), differences in species-specific vulnerability \r will result in community shifts from calcifying macroalgae (medium \r confidence) (Ragazzola et al., 2013) to non-calcifying macroalgae (high \r confidence) (Gordillo et al., 2016). Experimental studies demonstrated \r high resilience of some important habitat formers, such as the deep\u0002water coral Lophelia pertusa (Wall et al., 2015; Morato et al., 2020), \r and habitat engineers, such as Mediterranean limpets (Langer et al., \r 2014), facilitated by energy reallocation. However, if not supported \r by sufficient food availability (Thomsen et  al., 2013; Clements and \r Darrow, 2018), such energy reallocation will negatively impact growth \r or reproduction (medium confidence) (Thomsen et al., 2013; Buscher \r et  al., 2017). This suggests that acidification risks will be amplified \r by increased stratification and reduced primary production (medium \r [...]"


id: 7584571953da17397e3a554d56a112fd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17903
content:
"[...] confidence). The emergence of harmful algal blooms and pathogens \r at higher GWLs is unclear across all European seas (low confidence) \r (Figure 13.11)."


id: c20e4aa6412dcda3bed92d8e4203deec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31440
content:
"Risks to marine and coastal European ecosystems are very likely to \r intensify (Figure  13.11) in response to projected further warming. \r Since the capacity of natural systems for autonomous adaptation is \r limited (medium confidence) (Thomsen et al., 2017; Miller et al., 2018; \r Bindoff et al., 2019), pronounced changes in community composition \r and biodiversity patterns are projected by 2100 for TEUS and the \r eastern Mediterranean Sea (SEUS) for >3degC GWL (Garcia  Molinos \r et  al., 2016), challenging conservation efforts (Corrales et  al., 2018; \r Cramer et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2019). At 1.5degC GWL, particularly in \r winter, Mediterranean coastal fish communities are projected to lose \r ~10% of species, increasing to ~60% at 4degC GWL (Dahlke et  al., \r 2020), exacerbating regime shifts linked to overexploitation (medium \r confidence) (Clark et  al., 2020). Warming at this level will threaten \r many species currently living in marine protected areas (MPAs) in \r [...]"


id: cd8b8a8f4cd6e579e5353fcf95190700
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33498
content:
"[...] TEUS and NEUS (Bruno et  al., 2018). Increasing marine heatwaves \r (MWHs), particularly in SEUS at 4degC GWL (Darmaraki et al., 2019a), \r elevate risks for species (Galli et al., 2017), coastal biodiversity, and \r ecosystem functions, goods and services (Smale et al., 2019); however, \r MWH-related risk levels differ among biotas (Pansch et al., 2018) and \r across European seas (Smale et al., 2015)."


id: 4e1cc6c2b70bca27a687804f467686b7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11016
content:
"Risks to marine biotas and ecosystems in European seas are projected \r to impact important ecosystem services (Figure 13.11). Elevated CO2\r levels predicted at 4degC GWL will affect the C/N ratio of organic-matter \r export and, hence, the efficiency of the biological pump (low confidence), \r depending on the shifts in plankton composition and, hence, food-web \r structure (Taucher et al., 2020). Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) will \r benefit with enhanced larval growth and survival from indirect food\u0002web effects (Sswat et al., 2018a), whereas Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) \r will face overall negative impacts (medium confidence) (Section 13.5; \r Stiasny et al., 2018; Stiasny et al., 2019). Anoxic dead zones in the Black \r (Altieri and Gedan, 2015) and the Baltic (Jokinen et al., 2018; Reusch \r et al., 2018) seas are projected to increase, for example, by 5% in the \r Baltic Sea at 4degC GWL (Saraiva et al., 2019). Europe's coastal vegetated \r [...]"


id: c8cb03fc6db9568354eda4ab76e9e0ae
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32649
content:
"[...] 'blue carbon' ecosystems (subtidal seagrass meadows and intertidal \r salt marshes) are highly vulnerable (Spencer et  al., 2016; Schuerch \r et al., 2018; Spivak et al., 2019), particularly in microtidal areas such as \r the Baltic and Mediterranean coast. Losses are projected for Posidonia \r oceanica seagrass habitats in the Mediterranean by up to 75% at \r 2.5degC GWL (low confidence) (Chapter 3). The Wadden Sea, the world's \r largest system of intertidal flats, is projected to reduce in surface area \r and height, as the sediment transport capacity limits the possibility of \r growth with rapidly rising sea levels (Wang et al., 2018; Jiang et al., \r 2020). For the Dutch Wadden Sea, the critical rate of 6-10 mm yr-1, at \r which intertidal flats will start to 'drown', will be reached by 2030 at \r 1.5degC GWL (medium confidence), or even earlier through subsidence \r due to human activities (van der Spek, 2018). European coastal zones \r [...]"


id: 889f0e3713818c4785ca6d1ce214aa99
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21197
content:
"[...] provided a total of 494 billion EUR of ecosystem services in 2018, and \r 4.2-5.1% of this value will be lost due to coastal erosion by 2100 at \r 2.5degC and 4.6degC GWL, respectively (medium confidence) (Paprotny \r et al., 2021)."


id: 656a602506eb1b01606d423a849d7f32
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15111
content:
"Marine primary production is projected to further decrease by 2100 \r in most European seas between 0.3% at 1.5degC GWL to 2.7% at 4degC \r GWL (high confidence) (Figure 13.11), mainly caused by stratification\u0002driven reductions in nutrient availability, impacting food webs (Doney \r et al., 2012; Laufkoetter et al., 2015; Wakelin et al., 2015; Salihoglu \r et al., 2017; Holt et al., 2018; Bryndum-Buchholz et al., 2019; Carozza \r et al., 2019; Kwiatkowski et al., 2019). In the Barents Sea, however, \r largely stable primary production is projected under all scenarios in \r response to sea ice decline (Slagstad et al., 2011) and in the eastern \r Mediterranean due to reduced stratification (Macias et  al., 2015; \r Moullec et al., 2019). These changes in productivity are projected to \r increase fish and macroinvertebrate biomass between 5 and 22% \r (Moullec et al., 2019). Decreasing net primary production will impact \r higher trophic levels (Section 13.5.1), for example, in TEUS (Holt et al., \r [...]"


id: 361d7c216f272a83f4c9d3904d20f3e5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6771
content:
"[...] 2016; Holt et al., 2018). Marine animal biomass is projected to likely \r decline in most European waters, with decreases <10% under all \r scenarios until the 2030s but losses growing to 25% at 2degC GWL and \r 50% at 4degC GWL in coastal waters of the northeast Atlantic (Lotze \r et al., 2019; Bryndum-Buchholz et al., 2020)."


id: b73fb715d2843d159e73df7e791fb091
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29453
content:
"permitted uses (Chapter 3; Selig et  al., 2014; Hopkins et  al., 2016a; \r Roberts et al., 2017). The extent of MPAs has been increasing in Europe, \r albeit with strong regional variations (Figure 13.12). These MPAs provide \r protection from local stressors, such as commercial exploitation, and \r enhance the resilience of marine and coastal ecosystems, thus lessening \r the impacts of climate change (medium confidence) (Narayan et  al., \r 2016; Roberts et al., 2017); however, climate-change risk reduction is \r only a limited MPA objective (Hopkins et al., 2016b; Rilov et al., 2019). \r The implementation of the legal frameworks, such as the EC Habitats \r Directive and EC Birds Directive, allows for enabling adaptation \r (Verschuuren, 2015) as does the incorporation of climate considerations \r in management of Natura 2000 sites (European Comission, 2014). There \r is evidence that better international cooperation is required to increase \r [...]"


id: c88ae6952f786d5380f874255c185833
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32590
content:
"[...] the effectiveness of the MSFD (Cavallo et  al., 2019), and the Good \r Environmental Status is currently not effectively monitored (Machado \r et al., 2019)."


id: 7ea67afec7c18f46bf8b139fe9e402a9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19441
content:
"Conservation approaches (e.g., MPAs, climate refugia), habitat \r restoration efforts (Bekkby et al., 2020) and further ecosystem-based \r management policies do support alleviation of, or adaptation to, \r climate-change impacts (medium confidence) but are themselves \r impacted by climate change (Chapter 3). Moreover, the interaction of \r adaptation and mitigation measures poses risks to marine systems. \r Many coastal regions of the North Sea, especially in the south, are \r particularly susceptible to rising sea levels because of the strong \r tidal regime and the effects of storm surges (Figure  13.3). Hard \r measures to protect human infrastructure against SLR (Section 13.2) \r will lead to loss of coastal habitats, with negative impacts on marine \r biodiversity (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3; Airoldi and Beck, \r 2007; Cooper et al., 2016). While rising sea levels will also directly \r threaten intertidal and beach ecosystems, coastal wetlands will benefit \r [...]"


id: a33fce279cf712ffde7b6a6e78d487da
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25931
content:
"[...] (medium confidence), in case lateral accommodation space and the \r opportunity for systems to migrate landward and upwards is provided, \r enhancing their ability to capture and store carbon (Lecocq et  al., \r 2022; Rogers et al., 2019). In general, European coastal blue carbon \r ecosystems (e.g., seagrass meadows, kelp forests, tidal marshes) \r (Bekkby et  al., 2020) are potentially effective as carbon sinks in \r climate mitigation, akin to reforestation efforts on land (Section 13.3); \r however, their expansion has the potential to interfere with other \r ecosystem services (Cadier et al., 2020) and biodiversity conservation \r (Howard et  al., 2017; Chausson et  al., 2020). The 'Blue Growth' \r strategy of the European Commission with the aim to increase offshore \r activities (European Comission, 2012) will increase the pressures on \r the marine environments (medium confidence). Large-scale offshore \r wind-park infrastructure is currently developed in European seas, \r [...]"


id: b22d6f8119e5c7d3de8bacfa1b3c3450
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28575
content:
"[...] mostly in the North Sea (WindEuropeBusinessIntelligence, 2019), as \r a major component of climate-change mitigation efforts (Clarke et al., \r 2022). The introduction of novel hard-substrate intertidal habitats \r has, and will continue to have, profound ecological ramifications for \r marine systems, including hydrodynamic changes, stepping stones for \r non-native species, noise and vibration, and changes in the food web \r (high confidence) (Lindeboom et al., 2011; De Mesel et al., 2015; Gill \r et al., 2018; Dannheim et al., 2019)."


id: 555ae3850495698308e3b1810c82d5e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12295
content:
"Observed climate change has led to a northward movement of agro\u0002climatic zones in Europe and earlier onset of the growing season (high \r confidence) (Ceglar et al., 2019). Warming and precipitation changes \r since 1990 explain continent-wide reductions in yield of wheat and \r barley, as well as increases in maize and sugar beet (high confidence) \r (Fontana et al., 2015; Moore and Lobell, 2015; Ray et al., 2015; Ceglar \r et al., 2017). Heat stress has increased in SEU in spring, in summer \r throughout Central and Southern Europe, and recently expanded into \r the southern boreal zone (Fontana et al., 2015; Ceglar et al., 2019). \r Drought, excessive rain and the compound hazards of drought and \r heat (Sections 13.2.1, 13.3.1, 13.10.2) have increased costs and cause \r economic losses in forest productivity (Schuldt et al., 2020), annual and \r permanent crops, and livestock farming (Stahl et al., 2016), including \r losses in wheat production in the EU (van der Velde et al., 2018) and \r [...]"


id: e7dba977dcdf8d90313724256571a118
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38103
content:
"[...] EEU (high confidence) (Ivanov et al., 2016; Loboda et al., 2017), with \r the severity of impacts from extreme heat and drought tripling over \r the past 50  years (Bras et  al., 2021). Meteorological extremes due \r to compound effects of cold winters, excessive autumn and spring \r precipitation, and summer drought caused production losses (up to \r 30% relative to trend expectations) in 2012, 2016 and 2018 (Ben-Ari \r et al., 2018; van der Velde et al., 2018; Zscheischler et al., 2018; Toreti "


id: 511cb5869a6c0bf8b8097850ec57d48
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11553
content:
"Evidence for growing regional differences of projected climate risks is \r increasing since AR5 (high confidence). While there is high agreement \r of the direction of change, the absolute yield losses are uncertain due \r to differences in model parameterisation and whether adaptation \r options are represented (high confidence) (Donatelli et  al., 2015; \r Moore and Lobell, 2015; Knox et al., 2016; Webber et al., 2018). At \r 1.5degC GWL, compound events which led to recent large wheat losses \r are projected to become 12% more frequent (Ben-Ari et  al., 2018). \r Growing regions will shift northward or expand for melons (Bisbis \r et al., 2019), tomatoes and grapevines reaching NEU and EEU in 2050 \r under 1.5degC GWL (high confidence) (Hannah et  al., 2013; Litskas \r et al., 2019), while warming would increase yields of onions, Chinese \r cabbage and French beans (Bisbis et al., 2019) (medium confidence). \r In response to 2degC GWL, agro-climatic zones in Europe are expected to \r [...]"


id: eb9e1d93f47d16b92a1568e755f0f822
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38820
content:
"[...] move northward 25-135 km per decade, fastest in EEU (Ceglar et al., \r 2019). Negative impacts of warming and drought are counterbalanced \r by CO2 fertilisation for crops such as winter wheat (medium confidence, \r medium agreement), resulting in some regional yield increases with \r climate change (Zhao et al., 2017; Webber et al., 2018)."


id: aeae98613fc99f45956ff5125778b61e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27967
content:
"Climate change is altering the structure and function of European \r forests via changes in temperature, precipitation and atmospheric CO2, \r as well as through interaction with pests and fire (high confidence) \r (Section 13.3.1; Moreno et al., 2018; Morin et al., 2018; Senf et al., 2018; \r Orlova-Bienkowskaja et al., 2020). Species-specific responses of trees to \r drier summers (Vitali et al., 2018) shape regional variability in European \r forest productivity in response to water and nutrient availability, \r heatwave and evaporative demand (Reyer et al., 2014; Kellomaki et al., \r 2018). While warming and extended growing seasons have positive \r impacts on forest growth in cold areas in WCE and NEU (Pretzsch \r et al., 2014; Matskovsky et al., 2020), EEU (Tei et al., 2017) and higher \r altitude (Sedmakova et al., 2019), drought stress across Europe has been \r increasing (high confidence) (Primicia et al., 2015; Marques et al., 2018; \r [...]"


id: 4fcb3494eb411aead22f9fb5f3401ca1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11333
content:
"[...] Ruiz-Perez and Vico, 2020). Combined with land use, climate change has \r increased large-scale forest mortality since the 1980s (Senf et al., 2018). \r Extreme events, such as the 2018 drought in WCE, caused widespread \r leaf shedding and tree mortality (Buras et al., 2020) with carryovers into \r 2019 (Schuldt et al., 2020), as well as bark beetle outbreaks (Netherer \r et al., 2019) resulting in felling and cutting of more than 1 million ha of \r spruce forest and disrupting timber markets (Mauser, 2021)."


id: d8b522227882c65b38a64f512debe2e2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35421
content:
"In response to 3degC GWL, forest productivity is projected to increase \r in NEU and altitudes, show mixed trends in WCE and decrease in \r SEU (medium confidence) (Reyer et  al., 2014). This trend is driven by \r increases in productivity of pine and spruce, and decreases of beech \r and oak, and excludes disturbances and management options (Reyer \r et al., 2014). Water stress exacerbates the incidence from and effects of \r fire and other natural disturbances (Section 13.3.1), resulting in forest \r productivity declines or cancelling out productivity gains from CO2 (high \r confidence) (Seidl et al., 2014; Reyer et al., 2017). In response to 1.7degC \r GLW, managed forest and unmanaged woodland areas are projected \r to decrease only minimally, while at GWL >2.5degC losses are increasing \r for managed forest and unmanaged woodland (Harrison et al., 2019). \r Reducing warming from 4degC GLW to below 1.7degC GLW would reduce the \r [...]"


id: 6bbf92190b25e4144a4096dc3af6d54f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16264
content:
"Adaptation practices for livestock systems on European farms commonly \r focus on controlling cooling, shade provision and management of \r feeding times (Gauly et al., 2013). These options are used in indoors\u0002reared species (Gauly et al., 2013) but are limited in mountain pastures \r (high confidence) (Deleglise et al., 2019). Response options to insufficient \r amounts and quality of fodder include changing feeding strategies \r (Kaufman et al., 2017; Ammer et al., 2018), feed additives (Ghizzi et al., \r 2018), relocating livestock linked to improved pasture management, \r organic farming (Rojas-Downing et  al., 2017; EEA, 2019c), importing \r fodder and reducing stock (Toreti et  al., 2019b). Dairy systems that \r maximise the use of grazed pasture are considered more environmentally \r sustainable but are not fully supported by policy and markets (medium \r confidence) (Hennessy et al., 2020). Genetic adaptation of crops, pasture \r [...]"


id: aaebf1dbb03c654ccfa9c3bcdb0f90c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27294
content:
"[...] and animals could be a long-term adaptation strategy (Anzures-Olvera \r et al., 2019; Deleglise et al., 2019). Control strategies for pathogens and \r vectors include indoor or outdoor rearing and applying new diagnostic \r tools or drugs (Bett et al., 2017; Vercruysse et al., 2018), and regulations \r to ensure safe trade and reduce the risk of introducing or spreading pests \r (European Comission, 2016)."


id: 29413268aa2b98bc6063a1f066fd2f5b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4474
content:
"Farm management adaptation options to climate change include \r changing sowing and harvest dates, changes in cultivars and irrigation, \r and selecting alternative crops (Figures 13.14, 13.15; Donatelli et al., \r 2015). Irrigation is effective at reducing yield loss from heat stress \r and drought, for example, for wheat and maize (Figures 13.14, 13.15), \r but it increases demand for water withdrawals (Siebert et al., 2017; \r Ruiz-Ramos et al., 2018; Feyen et al., 2020). Where sufficient water \r and infrastructure is available, irrigation of wheat reverses yield \r losses across Europe at 2degC GWL to become gains, while yield losses \r in maize in SEU are reduced from as much as 80 to 11% (Feyen \r et al., 2020). Extensive droughts during the past two decades have \r caused many irrigated systems in SEU to cease production (Stahl \r et al., 2016) indicating limited adaptive capacity to heat and drought \r (medium confidence). Water management for food production on land \r [...]"


id: 9f1d1e4b643a0aa9b6ebdd715fd16738
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25215
content:
"[...] is becoming increasingly complex due to the need to satisfy other \r social and environmental water demands (KR3, Section 13.10) and is \r limited by costs and institutional coordination (Iglesias and Garrote, \r 2015). Agricultural water management adaptation practices include \r irrigation, reallocating water to other crops, improving use efficiency \r and soil water conservation practices (Iglesias and Garrote, 2015). In\u0002season forecasts of climate impacts on yield were successfully used \r for European wheat during the 2018 drought (van der Velde et al., \r 2018)."


id: c31eb93b02eb696f13345f94f4ed93fb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31600
content:
"An increasing globalised food system makes European nations \r sensitive to supply chain disturbances in other parts of the world, but \r also provides capacity to adapt to production shifts within Europe \r through changes in international trade (Section  13.9.1) (Alexander \r et al., 2018; Challinor et al., 2018; Ercin et al., 2021). Consumer demand \r for food and timber products can adapt to productivity changes and be \r mediated by price (e.g., in response to production changes or policies \r on food-related taxation), reflect changes in preferences (e.g., towards \r plant-based foods motivated by environmental, ethical or health \r concerns) or reductions in food waste (high confidence) (Alexander \r et  al., 2019; Willett et  al., 2019). Although mitigation potentials \r of dietary changes have received increasing attention, evidence is \r lacking on potential for adaptation through changes in European food \r consumption and trade, despite these socioeconomic factors being a \r [...]"


id: 208e02d6f6a75cd773f8a156bf321daf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2949
content:
"[...] strong driver for change (medium confidence) (Harrison et al., 2019; \r Kebede, 2021). Calls are increasing across Europe for sustainable and \r resilient agri-food systems acknowledging interdependencies between \r producers and consumers to deliver healthy, safe and nutritional foods \r and services (Section 13.7) (Venghaus and Hake, 2018)."


id: 95cd45cc918d75d92782d7fa4163dd8b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23550
content:
"Energy demand is projected to display regional differences in response \r to warming beyond 2degC GWL, with a the significant southwest-to\u0002northeast decrease of heating-degree days by 2100 (particularly in \r northern Scandinavia and Russia), and a smaller north-to-south increase \r of cooling-degree days (Porfiriev et  al., 2017; Spinoni et  al., 2018; \r Coppola et  al., 2021). Under the present population numbers, total \r energy demand would decrease in almost all of Europe, whereas it could \r increase in some countries (e.g., UK, Spain, Norway) when considering \r Eurostat's population projections (Klimenko et  al., 2018b; Spinoni \r et al., 2018). There is medium confidence that peak load will increase \r in SEU and decrease in NEU (Damm et  al., 2017; Wenz et  al., 2017; \r Bird et al., 2019). Beyond 2degC GWL, a shift of peak load from winter to \r summer in many countries is possible (Wenz et al., 2017). Together with \r [...]"


id: 6eacb751e223db03d5425ec61eeb0584
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16739
content:
"[...] water-cooling constraints for thermal power, this change in load may \r challenge the stability of electricity networks during heatwaves (EEA, \r 2019a). Technological factors, increased electricity use and adaptation \r influence significantly the temperature sensitivity of electricity demand \r and consequently risks (Damm et al., 2017; Wenz et al., 2017; Cassarino \r et  al., 2018; Figueiredo et  al., 2020). Potential power curtailments or \r outages during climatic extremes may increase electricity prices (Pechan \r and Eisenack, 2014; Steinhauser and Eisenack, 2020)."


id: 650dab63f27554856ba7a230693bfa52
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15046
content:
"Risks of rutting and blow-ups of roads (particularly in low altitudes) \r due to high summer temperatures are expected to increase in WCE \r and EEU at 3degC GWL (medium confidence) (Frolov et  al., 2014; \r Matulla et  al., 2018; Yakubovich and Yakubovich, 2018). In EEU \r and northern Scandinavia, the higher number of freezing-thawing \r cycles of construction materials will increase risks for roads (Frolov \r et al., 2014; Yakubovich and Yakubovich, 2018; Nilsen et al., 2021), \r while warming beyond 2degC GWL could significantly reduce road \r maintenance costs in NEU (Lorentzen, 2020), but limit off-road \r overland transport in northwest Russia (Gadeke et al., 2021). Beyond \r 3degC GWL, more frequent hourly precipitation extremes are projected \r over WCE and NEU in summer (e.g., a twofold and tenfold increase, \r respectively, for events exceeding the present-day 99.99th percentile \r in Germany and the UK) but more widely across Europe in autumn \r [...]"


id: d0a0e637062fce9e91a41d786d7e9597
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34055
content:
"[...] and winter (an increase higher than tenfold for 99.99th percentile \r events in SEU in autumn (Chan et  al., 2020), potentially severely \r damaging roads as happened in Mandra, Greece, in 2017 (Diakakis \r et al., 2020). Landslide risks in WCE and SEU could increase beyond \r a 2degC GWL, threatening road networks (Schlogl and Matulla, 2018; \r Rianna et al., 2020)."


id: 588007a9aac589656ad206ab7b72df54
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12813
content:
"At 2degC GWL and beyond, cities in SEU and large parts of WCE \r would exceed the historical maximum 12-month Drought Severity \r index of the past 50 years (see Section 13.2 on drought risks) and \r 30% will have at least 30% probability of exceeding this maximum \r every month (Guerreiro et al., 2018). This could adversely affect the \r operation of municipal water services (Kingsborough et al., 2016). For \r example, under 2degC GWL, the reservoir storage volume is predicted \r to decrease for all of England and Wales catchments, resulting in a \r probability of years with water-use restrictions doubling by 2050 and \r quadrupling by 2100 compared with 1975-2004 (Dobson et al., 2020). \r The combination of high temperatures, drought and extreme winds, \r potentially coupled with insufficient preparedness and adaptation, \r may amplify the damage of wildfires in peri-urban environments \r (Section 13.3.1.3). High fuel load combined with proximity of the built \r [...]"


id: 61f10a55708b7c1d94ac1e4bfa503faa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14506
content:
"Heatwaves are likely to become a major threat, not only for SEU but \r also for WCE and EEU cities (Russo et al., 2015; Guerreiro et al., 2018; \r Lorencova et al., 2018; Smid et al., 2019). At 2degC GWL and SSP3, half \r of the European population will be under very high risk of heat stress \r in summer (Rohat et  al., 2019). The UHI effect will further increase \r urban temperatures (Estrada et  al., 2017). In many cities, hospitals \r and social housing tend to be located within the intense UHI, thus \r increasing exposure to vulnerable groups (EEA, 2020b). There is\r high confidence that overheating during summer in buildings with \r insufficient ventilation and/or solar protection will increase strongly, \r with thermal comfort hours potentially decreasing by 74% in SEU at \r 3degC GWL (Jenkins et al., 2014a; Hamdy et al., 2017; Heracleous and \r Michael, 2018; Dino and Meral Akgul, 2019; Shen et al., 2020). Highly \r insulated buildings, following present building standards, will be \r [...]"


id: 7a88ebe1bf28b80bffaca6a0b15c2cd0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18751
content:
"[...] vulnerable to overheating, particularly under high GWL levels, unless \r adequate adaptation measures are applied (Williams et al., 2013; Virk \r et al., 2014; Mulville and Stravoravdis, 2016; Fosas et al., 2018; Ibrahim \r and Pelsmakers, 2018; Salem et al., 2019; Tian et al., 2020). Cities in \r NEU and WCE are more vulnerable due to limited solar shading and "


id: e9037ab4956a6896b215bfc6cdb91584
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38348
content:
"Augustenborg district of Malmo, Sweden, using nature to manage \r stormwater runoff has resulted in capturing an estimated 90% of \r runoff from impervious surfaces and reduced the total annual runoff \r volume from the district by about 20% compared with the conventional \r system (EEA, 2020b). Urban greening is associated with lower ambient \r air temperature and relatively higher thermal comfort during warm \r periods (Bowler et al., 2010; Oliveira et al., 2011; Cohen et al., 2012; \r Cameron et al., 2014). The scale and relative degree of management \r or integration of approaches drawing on nature with 'engineered' \r solutions affect their vulnerability to climate change. Small-scale \r urban NbS are relatively less vulnerable due to increased capacity for \r intervention, while the relatively greater contact between stakeholders \r and urban NbS (compared with larger-scale, rural approaches) provides \r greater opportunity for human intervention to ensure the survival of \r [...]"


id: db5151162f89574359066a059ee40e37
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35853
content:
"Urban adaptation plans can enhance resilience, and their development \r is mandatory in the UK, France and Denmark (Reckien et al., 2019). \r There is medium confidence that the development of urban adaptation \r planning is much more influenced by a city's population size, present \r adaptive capacity and GDP per capita than by anticipated climate risks \r (Reckien et al., 2018). A high organisational capacity in a municipality \r may not be a necessary condition for forward-looking investment \r decisions on urban water infrastructure, although enablers differ \r for small versus medium-to-large municipalities (Pot et  al., 2019). \r There is large in-country variation in policy mixes utilised by local \r governments for supporting adaptation (Lesnikowski et  al., 2019). \r In early-adapter cities (e.g., Rotterdam), adaptation is institutionally \r embedded in climate, resilience and sustainability-related actions, as \r well as collaboration between city departments, government levels, \r [...]"


id: 8c61d42fd1020ae4214a63c69c731697
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21875
content:
"[...] businesses and other stakeholders (Holscher et al., 2019). In most other \r cities, however, adaptation planners rarely consider collaborations \r with citizens, and there are difficulties in departmental coordination \r and upscaling from pilot projects (Brink and Wamsler, 2018)."


id: 10a9e65d19e2a1d545eca4c6fa40cdf4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 115
content:
"Attribution studies show that human-induced climate change is \r increasing the frequency and intensity of heatwaves and has already \r impacted human health in Europe (Section  13.10.1; Vicedo-Cabrera \r et al., 2021); for example, the 2010 heatwave in EEU resulted in 55,000 \r heat-related deaths (Barriopedro et al., 2011; Russo et al., 2015); also, \r the 2018 heatwave in NEU (Ebi et al., 2021) and the 2019 heatwave \r in WCE and NEU both had significant health impacts (Cross-Chapter \r Box DISASTER in Chapter 4; Vautard et al., 2020; Watts et al., 2021). \r Elderly, children, (pregnant) women, socially isolated people and those \r with low physical fitness are particularly exposed and vulnerable to \r heat-related risks, as are those people suffering from pre-existing \r medical conditions, including cardiovascular disease, kidney disorders, \r diabetes and respiratory diseases (de'Donato et al., 2015; Sheridan and \r Allen, 2018; Szopa et  al., 2021). An ageing population in Europe is \r [...]"


id: 5d8433145cf71d2020ecb7935f387c70
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13737
content:
"[...] increasing the pool of vulnerable individuals, resulting in higher risk \r of heat-related mortality (Montero et al., 2012; Carmona et al., 2016b; \r WHO, 2018b; Watts et al., 2021)."


id: cda5311084fc575c66e251b26b4b4a7f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33511
content:
"Air pollution is already one of the biggest public health concerns \r in Europe: in 2016, roughly 412,000 people died prematurely due \r to long-term exposure to ambient PM2.5, 71,000 due to NO2 and \r more than 15,000 premature mortalities occurred due to near\u0002surface ozone (EEA, 2019b; Lelieveld et  al., 2019). The impacts \r of air pollution are determined by air-quality policies, changes \r to temperature, humidity and precipitation (Szopa et  al., 2021). \r Climate change could increase air pollution health effects, with the \r size of the effect differing across European regions and pollutants \r (medium confidence) (Jacob and Winner, 2009; Orru et  al., 2017; \r Tarin-Carrasco et al., 2021). Increases in temperature and changes \r in precipitation will impact future air quality due to increased risk \r of wildfires and related air pollution episodes. Data on the health \r impacts of wildfires in Europe is currently limited (Section 13.3.1.4), \r [...]"


id: 1d2e2af4065507bafc90c74fe70ef458
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2309
content:
"[...] but examples, such as the 2017 fires, suggest that more than 100 \r people died prematurely in Portugal alone as a result of poor air \r quality (Oliveira et al., 2020)."


id: 6bab2204c82a289296df7cf6425e2a07
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16249
content:
"A GWL of 1.5degC could result in 30,000 annual deaths due to extreme \r heat, with up to threefold the number under 3degC GWL (high confidence) \r (Roldan et al., 2015; Forzieri et al., 2017; Kendrovski et al., 2017; Naumann \r et al., 2020). The risk of heat stress, including mortality and discomfort, \r is dependent on socioeconomic development (Figure  13.22; Rohat \r et al., 2019; Ebi et al., 2021). Heat stress risks will be lower under SSP1 \r than the SSP3 or SSP4 scenarios (high confidence) (Hunt et al., 2017; \r Rohat et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020; Ebi et al., 2021). The incidence of \r heat-related mortality and morbidity will be highest in SEU, where their \r magnitude is also expected to increase more rapidly (Forzieri et al., 2017; \r Gasparrini et al., 2017; Guo et al., 2018; Diaz et al., 2019; Vicedo-Cabrera \r et al., 2021). WCE, NEU and SEU will experience accelerating negative \r consequences beyond 1.5degC GWL, particularly under SSP3 and SSP4 \r [...]"


id: 922a1836ede73af0e32a19171b0a5224
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22932
content:
"[...] due to higher vulnerability compared with SSP1 (Figure  13.22; Rohat \r et al., 2019). The number of heat-related respiratory hospital admissions \r is projected to increase from 11,000 (1981-2010) to 26,000 annually \r (2021-2050), particularly in SEU mainly due to a relative increase in \r the number of extremely hot days (Astrom et al., 2013). Cold spells are \r projected to decrease across Europe, particularly in Southern Europe, \r but do not compensate for the additional heat-related deaths projected \r (Lhotka and Kysely, 2015; Carmona et al., 2016a; Martinez et al., 2018)."


id: 5444c6111c0157d5a40cd8d26108ee00
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12101
content:
"At 2.5degC GWL, mortalities due to exposure to PM2.5 are projected to \r increase by up to 73% in Europe (medium confidence) (Silva et al., \r 2017; Lelieveld et al., 2019; Tarin-Carrasco et al., 2021). At 2degC GWL, \r annual premature mortalities due to exposure to near-surface ozone \r are projected to increase up to 11% in WCE and SEU and to decrease \r up to 9% in NEU (under RCP4.5) (medium confidence) (Orru et al., \r 2019). A projected increase in wildfires and reduced air quality is \r expected to increase respiratory morbidity and mortality, especially \r in SEU (Slezakova et  al., 2013; de Rigo et  al., 2017). Constant or \r lower emissions, combined with stricter regulations and new policy \r initiatives, might improve air quality in the coming decades (medium \r agreement, low evidence). The ageing population in Europe will \r augment the air-quality mortality burden 3-13% by 2050 (Geels \r et al., 2015; Orru et al., 2019). Besides ambient air quality, projected \r [...]"


id: 7b028ab173a2872d00748bb1339db346
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18845
content:
"[...] increases in flood risk and heavy rainfall could decrease indoor air \r quality (Section 13.6.1.5.2) due to dampness and mould, leading to \r increased negative health impacts, including allergies, asthma and \r rhinitis (EASAC, 2019; EEA, 2019b)."


id: 89de5387d65dea14de3fa9debfe3959e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21423
content:
"The Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) is present in many \r European countries and can transmit dengue, chikungunya and zika \r (Liu-Helmersson et al., 2016; Tjaden et al., 2017; Messina et al., 2019). \r There is a moderate climatic suitability projected for chikungunya \r transmission, notably across France, Spain and Germany, but also \r contractions particularly in Italy. Europe experienced an exceptionally \r early and intense transmission season of the West Nile virus in 2018, \r with elevated spring temperature abnormalities (Haussig et al., 2018; \r Marini et al., 2020). Projections for Europe show the West Nile virus \r risk to expand: by 2025, the risk is projected to increase in SEU and \r southern and eastern parts of WCE (medium confidence) (Semenza \r et  al., 2016). Although climatic suitability for malaria transmission \r in Europe is increasing and will lead to a northward spread of the \r occurrences of Anopheles vectors, the risk from malaria to human \r [...]"


id: bda5eb52155454b87515fe023d434fd4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30622
content:
"[...] health in Europe remains low due to economic and social development \r as well as access to health care (medium confidence) (Sudre et al., \r 2013; Hertig, 2019)."


id: 6b899d3db3e19b3f0c3ccd149c3079d5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16221
content:
"There is growing evidence that climate change will negatively affect \r food quality (diversity of food, nutrient density and food safety) and \r food access, although the risks for European citizens are significantly \r lower compared with other regions (Fanzo et al., 2018; IFPRI, 2018). \r Projected changes in crop and livestock production (Section 13.5.1), \r particularly reduced access to fruits and vegetables and foods with \r lower nutritional quality, will impact already vulnerable groups \r (Swinburn et al., 2019). The effects of climate change on food quality \r and access varies by income, livelihood and nutrient requirements, \r with low-income and more vulnerable groups in Europe most affected \r (IFPRI, 2018). Spikes in food prices due to changing growing conditions \r in Europe (Section 13.5.1), increased competition for land (e.g., land\u0002based climate-change mitigation) and feedbacks from international \r markets are expected to decrease access to affordable and nutritious \r [...]"


id: 608c8a8e5221c017d0a15f532cf726a0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14289
content:
"[...] food (Section 13.9.1; EASAC, 2019; Loopstra, 2020). Reduced access to \r healthy and varied food could contribute to being overweight or obese, \r which is a growing health concern across Europe (Springmann et al., \r 2016). Increased rates of obesity and diabetes further exacerbate risks \r from heat-related events (EASAC, 2019)."


id: 5289ca97b92ac971b47701e8c898fa25
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11802
content:
"Extreme weather events can trigger post-traumatic stress disorder \r (PTSD), anxiety and depression; this is well-documented for flooding \r in Europe (high confidence) but less for other extreme weather events. \r For example, in the UK, flooded residents suffered stress and identity \r loss from the flood event itself, but also from subsequent disputes with \r insurance and construction companies (Carroll et  al., 2009; Greene \r et al., 2015). Residents displaced from their homes for at least 1 year \r due to 2013-2014 floods in England were significantly more likely to \r experience PTSD, depression and anxiety, with stronger effects in the \r absence of advance warning (Munro et al., 2017; Waite et al., 2017). \r There is emerging evidence across Europe that young people may \r be experiencing anxiety about climate change, although it is unclear \r how widespread or severe this is (Hickman, 2019). In northern Italy, \r the number of daily emergency psychiatric visits and mean daily air \r [...]"


id: 54adca4a89afec16c13186324c1576d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12172
content:
"Extreme heat and cold waves have been linked to an increased risk of \r occupational injuries (Martinez-Solanas et al., 2018) and changes in \r labour productivity (Orlov et al., 2019; Garcia-Leon et al., 2021), while \r evidence on the consequences of other extreme events is lacking. \r The sectors with a high percentage of high-intensity outdoor work in \r Europe, mainly agriculture and construction, have the highest risk of \r increased injury and labour productivity losses, but also manufacturing \r and service sectors can be affected when air conditioning is not \r available (Section  13.6.1.3; Gosling et  al., 2018; Szewczyk et  al., \r 2018; Dellink et al., 2019; Orlov et al., 2019). The heatwaves of August \r 2003, July 2010 and July 2015 were concentrated in SEU and led to \r reductions in monthly worker productivity of on average 3-3.5% in \r SEU, ranging up to 8-9% in Cyprus (2003, 2010) and Italy (2015) \r (Orlov et al., 2019); in contrast, the heatwave of 2018 centred on NEU \r [...]"


id: 3fb57d7fc72b7000a96e4f1a04db9705
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8399
content:
"Figure 13.24 presents the assessment of the feasibility and effectiveness \r of key heat-related health adaptation actions. It shows that substantial \r social-cultural and institutional barriers complicate widespread \r implementation of measures; studies on the implementation of new \r blue-green spaces in existing urban structures in, for example, Sweden \r (Wihlborg et al., 2019), the UK (Carter et al., 2018) and the Netherlands \r (Aalbers et al., 2019), point to important feasibility challenges (e.g., access \r to financial resources, societal opposition, competition for space) (high \r confidence). Lower perception of health risks has been observed among \r vulnerable groups which, in conjunction with perceived high costs of \r protective measures, act as barriers to implementing health adaptation \r plans (van Loenhout et al., 2016; Macintyre et al., 2018; Martinez et al., \r 2019). Key barriers to mental health adaptation actions include lack \r [...]"


id: 2fc5278a113c4b3450485456922c79f6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5659
content:
"[...] of funding, coordination, monitoring and training (e.g., psychological \r first aid) (Hayes and Poland, 2018). Existing health measures, such as \r monitoring and early warning systems, play an important role in detecting \r and communicating emerging climate risks and weather extremes (high \r confidence) (Confalonieri et al., 2015; Casanueva et al., 2019; Linares \r et  al., 2020). Stricter enforcement of existing health regulations and \r policies can have a positive effect in reducing risks (Berry et al., 2018)."


id: f0d40d3235e09dbd0c0fffd1ee657d76
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39733
content:
"Health adaptation actions have demonstrable synergies and trade\u0002offs (Cross-Chapter Box HEALTH in Chapter 7). For example, increasing \r green-blue spaces in Europe's densely populated areas can be effective \r in improving microclimates, reducing the impact of heatwaves, improving \r air quality and improving mental health by increasing access to fresh air \r and green (restorative) environments (Gascon et al., 2015; Kondo et al., \r 2018; Kumar et al., 2019). Health adaptations can also have negative \r trade-offs, be inconsistent with mitigation ambitions and could lead \r to maladaptation. Green-blue spaces, for example, may create new \r nesting grounds for carriers of vector-borne diseases, increase pollen \r and allergies (Kabisch et al., 2016), enlarge freshwater use for irrigation \r (Reyes-Paecke et al., 2019) and could raise climate equity and justice \r issues such as green gentrification (Yazar et  al., 2019). Similarly, air \r [...]"


id: 4c5a820b173228ea10684d1baa09f4ec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10696
content:
"[...] conditioning and cooling devices are considered highly effective but \r have low economic and social feasibility as well as negative trade\u0002offs due to increasing energy consumption, raising energy costs which \r is particularly challenging for the poor (Section  13.8.1.1), enhancing \r the UHI effect and increasing noise pollution (Fernandez Milan and \r Creutzig, 2015; Hunt et al., 2017; Macintyre et al., 2018)."


id: aab70fa2c00cec608316e928637d3375
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27260
content:
"progress, limited mainstreaming of climate change has been observed, \r particularly due to low societal pressure to change, confidence in existing \r health systems and lack of awareness of links between human health \r and climate change (medium confidence) (Austin et  al., 2016; WHO, \r 2018b; Watts et al., 2021). Coordination of health adaptation actions \r across scales and between public sectors is needed to ensure timely and \r effective responses for a diversity of health impacts (high confidence) \r (Austin et al., 2018; Ebi et al., 2018). Key enabling conditions to extend \r the solution space include increasing the role for national and regional \r governments in facilitating knowledge sharing across scales, allocating \r dedicated financial resources, and creating dedicated knowledge and \r policy programmes on climate and health (Wolf et al., 2014; Akin et al., \r 2015; Curtis et al., 2017). Investing in public healthcare systems more \r [...]"


id: a0fbfe05bf3c129ece50fca72ebdf50
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25547
content:
"[...] broadly increases their capacity to respond to climate-related extreme \r events and will ensure wider societal benefits as the COVID-19 pandemic \r has demonstrated (Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7)."


id: 7658d2676569f11edcccccda08c53c91
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18044
content:
"Rapid land-use change reduces the ability to adapt (high confidence) (Tyler, 2010; Lof, 2013). National and EU policies expand land uses \r for mining, wind energy and bioeconomy in the area, causing loss, fragmentation and degradation of pastures, and increasing human \r disturbance to animals (medium confidence) (Kivinen et al., 2012; Skarin and Ahman, 2014; Kivinen, 2015; Skarin et al., 2015; Sandstrom \r et al., 2016; Beland Lindahl et al., 2017; Osterlin and Raitio, 2020). The cumulative impacts of these land uses on pastures are not \r adequately assessed or recognised in land-use planning (Klocker Larsen et al., 2017; Klocker Larsen et al., 2018). Herding communities \r face strong barriers to protecting their rights and halting further degradation of pastures (medium confidence) (Allard, 2018; Klocker \r Larsen and Raitio, 2019; Raitio et al., 2020). Attempts by herding communities to stop mining projects have led to conflicts with other \r [...]"


id: 4eab1aa1015c937adb5fbe957a0a6bc1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11112
content:
"[...] actors, including racist hate incidences (Persson et al., 2017; Beland Lindahl et al., 2018). Combined with land-use conflicts, climate \r impacts cause reduced psycho-social health and increase suicidal thoughts among herders (low confidence) (Kaiser et al., 2010; Furberg \r et al., 2011)."


id: 9a06fac54dd75675c1952a85d5c4ce41
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24337
content:
"European territories outside Europe are critically exposed to climate \r risks such as increased forest fires (e.g., in Russian Siberia) (Chapter \r 10; Sitnov et  al., 2017), climate-change-induced biodiversity losses \r and SLR (e.g., in British, Spanish, Portuguese, French and Dutch \r overseas regions and territories) (Chapters 12, 15; Ferdinand, 2018; \r Sieber et  al., 2018). Climate risks emerging from these territories \r include smoke and dust from Siberian forest fires (Sitnov et al., 2017) \r and, depending on European health-risk mitigation measures, dengue \r and other mosquito-transmitted diseases (Section 13.7; Schaffner and \r Mathis, 2014). Some MPAs (Section  13.4.3) in European overseas \r territories are increasingly affected by changes originating in far-field \r upstream areas. These changes ultimately undermine their ability to \r curb biodiversity losses and provide ecosystem services (Schaffner \r and Mathis, 2014; Robinson et  al., 2017). Adaptation options and \r [...]"


id: a243de71ee6338903ac313cdde30f184
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25779
content:
"[...] regulations developed within Europe apply in these territories, \r despite low confidence that they meet local and regional adaptation "


id: 38b9643e0a53593512ec439617fa6d44
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7184
content:
"European countries can address inter-regional risks at the place of origin \r or destination, for example, by (a) developing local adaptation capacity \r in trading-partner countries and in European territories outside Europe \r (Petit and Prudent, 2008; Benzie et al., 2019; Adams et al., 2020; Terorotua \r et al., 2020), (b) providing international adaptation finance (Dzebo and \r Stripple, 2015; BMUB, 2017), (c) developing insurance mechanisms \r suitable for adaptation or (d) providing European climate services to \r support global adaptation (Cross-Chapter Box  INTEREG in Chapter \r 16; Linnerooth-Bayer and Mechler, 2015; Brasseur and Gallardo, 2016; \r Street, 2016; Cavelier et al., 2017). Along the supply chain, risks can be \r reduced by trade diversification and alternative sourcing (Benzie and \r Persson, 2019; Adams et al., 2020). Within Europe, risks can be reduced by \r integrating inter-regional climate risks into national adaptation strategies \r [...]"


id: de253403a4fb4f3e510fe403c1141ae1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36344
content:
"[...] and plans, and mainstreaming them into EU policies (e.g., Common \r Agricultural Policy, trade agreements) (Benzie and Persson, 2019; Benzie "


id: 139a480c245a57a0fe506bb4912dcc06
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 663
content:
"The burning embers on risks for humans (Figure 13.29a) differentiate \r between present and medium adaptation conditions, drawing on SSP2 \r and SSP4 (and to a lesser extent SSP3), and high adaptation conditions, \r drawing on SSP1 and papers using various temperature adjustment \r methods (Table  SM13.25). There is high confidence that the risk is \r already moderate now because it has been detected and attributed \r with high confidence (Section 13.10.1). The transition from moderate \r to high risk for human health is assessed to happen after 1.5degC GWL \r in a scenario with present to medium adaptation and implies a two- to \r threefold increase (compared with moderate risk levels) in magnitude \r of consequences such as mortality, morbidity, heat stress and thermal \r discomfort (Rohat et  al., 2019; Casanueva et  al., 2020; Naumann \r et al., 2020). At this level, the risk will also become more persistent \r across the continent due to increase in heat events exceeding critical \r [...]"


id: afa5be72dade70d4385d1768a0ea787
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28141
content:
"[...] thresholds for health (high confidence on the direction of change and \r temperature transition, but medium confidence on the magnitude) \r (Ranasinghe et al., 2021)."


id: c0531aa009be7eb1dee374ea4625aca8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31140
content:
"Key risks (KRs) are defined as a subset of climate risks that can \r potentially become, or are already, severe (Section  16.5). The \r selection process included a review of KRs already identified in \r AR5 Chapter 23 (Kovats et al., 2014) and a review of the large body \r of new evidence on projected risks presented in Sections  13.2-\r 13.9. Key risks are reinforced by evidence from the detection and \r attribution assessment (Section  13.10.1) and new evidence from \r WGI AR6 Chapters 11 and 12 on regional climatic impact drivers and \r extremes (Ranasinghe et al., 2021; Seneviratne et al., 2021). Several \r expert opinion workshops of lead and contributing authors led to \r further refinements, adjustment and consensus building around the \r characteristics of KRs, which ultimately guided the construction of \r the burning embers (Figures  13.28-13.32; SM13.10). There is high \r confidence that under low or medium adaptation, high to very high \r [...]"


id: dc31652bba961a3515d5338ebfde4a9b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36012
content:
"[...] risks are projected at 3degGWL (Figure  13.28; Sections  13.10.2.1-\r 13.10.2.4). Most risks are assessed as moderate up to 1.5degGWL \r (Figure 13.28)."


id: 2ecba1525dc1cda81c3718307c0a5de5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5510
content:
"The burning embers on risk for terrestrial and marine ecosystems, \r and some of their services, are shown in Figure 13.28 (second and \r third ember from the left) (Tables SM13.26, SM13.27). The transition \r to moderate risk is currently happening as warming already results in \r changes in timing of development, species migration northward and \r upwards, and desynchronisation of species interactions, especially \r at the range limits, with cascading and cumulative impacts through \r ecosystems and food webs (high confidence) (Sections  13.3, 13.4; \r Figures 13.8, 13.12). While some terrestrial ecosystems are already \r impacted today, such as Alpine, cryosphere and peatlands, the \r impacts are not widespread and severe yet across a wide range of \r terrestrial systems. Around 2degC GWL, losses accelerate in marine \r ecosystem and appear across systems, including habitat losses \r especially in coastal wetlands (Roebeling et  al., 2013; Clark et  al., \r [...]"


id: a140f1ec83568cfd90e0d5d2069730da
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25592
content:
"[...] 2020), biodiversity and biomass losses (Bryndum-Buchholz et  al., \r 2019; Lotze et al., 2019) and ecosystem services such as fishing (high \r confidence on the direction of change, but medium confidence on the \r local and regional magnitude) (Raybaud et al., 2017). The transition \r is happening at slightly higher warming in terrestrial systems due \r to a higher number of thermal refugia in terrestrial systems causing \r relocation but not already severe impacts (medium confidence) \r (Chapter 2)."


id: ab2660be91dc765ac4d32f42e7af9a22
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27339
content:
"Key risk 1 has cut across humans and ecosystems, and severe \r consequences are mainly driven by an increasing frequency, intensity \r and duration of heat extremes and increasing average temperatures \r (high confidence) (Urban, 2015; Forzieri et al., 2017; Feyen et al., 2020; \r Naumann et al., 2020; Ranasinghe et al., 2021). The risk of human heat \r stress and mortality is largely influenced by underlying socioeconomic \r pathways, with consequences being more severe under SSP3, SSP4 \r and SSP5 scenarios than SSP1 (very high confidence) (Figure  13.22; \r Sections  13.6.1.5.2, 13.7.1.1; Hunt et  al., 2017; Kendrovski et  al., \r 2017; Rohat et  al., 2019; Casanueva et  al., 2020). The SSPs impact \r natural systems as well but are not yet well studied. The impact of \r warming in marine systems are often synergistic with SLR in coastal \r systems and ocean acidification driven by the rise in CO2, while habitat \r fragmentation and land use have important synergies in terrestrial \r [...]"


id: e7744719a4bbbba8527733ddd1e2340c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38019
content:
"[...] systems (high confidence) (Sections 13.3.1.2, 13.4.1.2). More intense \r heatwaves on land and in the ocean, particularly in Mediterranean \r Europe (Section 13.4; Cross-Chapter Paper 4; Darmaraki et al., 2019b; "


id: 72bf9f0c29f56f4bb995d020a5aedb7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17431
content:
"and SEU leading to enhanced risk of crop failure and decrease in \r pasture quality (Section 13.5.1; Zscheischler and Seneviratne, 2017; \r Sedlmeier et al., 2018; Seneviratne et al., 2021). The risk is already \r moderately severe due to multiple crop failures in the past decade \r in WCE and Russia (Section 13.5.1; Hao et al., 2018; Pfleiderer et al., \r 2019; Vogel et al., 2019). Under high-end scenarios, heat and drought \r extremes are projected to become more frequent and widespread as \r early as mid-century (Toreti et al., 2019a). For present to moderate \r adaptation and at least up to 2.5degGWL, negative consequences are \r mostly in SEU (Bird et al., 2016; EEA, 2019c; Moretti et al., 2019; Feyen \r et al., 2020). The transition from moderate to high risk is projected \r to happen around 2.7degC GWL when hazards and risk will become \r more persistent and widespread in other regions (Section  13.1; \r Deryng et al., 2014; Donatelli et al., 2015; Webber et al., 2018; Ceglar \r [...]"


id: a75d051603963148a03bca0d2adaa20d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26663
content:
"[...] et al., 2019; Ranasinghe et al., 2021; Seneviratne et al., 2021). This \r temperature increase will trigger shifts in agricultural zones, onset \r of early heat stress, losses in maize yield of up to 28% across EU\u000228 and regional disparity in losses and gains in wheat, which are \r not able to offset losses across the continent (Deryng et al., 2014; \r Szewczyk et al., 2018; Ceglar et al., 2019). There will be also broader \r adverse impacts such as reduction of grassland biomass production \r for fodder, increases in weeds and reduction in pollination (medium \r confidence) (Castellanos-Frias et al., 2016; Nielsen et al., 2017; Bras \r et al., 2019). Combined with socioeconomic development, increased \r heat and drought stress, and reduced irrigation water availability, in \r SEU are projected to lead to abandonment of farmland (Holman et \r al., 2017). Around 4degC GWL, the risk is very high due to persistent \r heat and dry conditions (Ben-Ari et al., 2018) and the emergence of \r [...]"


id: 6c5d9f0558462cc5d40d624705d3e348
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16358
content:
"[...] losses also in NEU which would be much higher without the assumed \r CO2 fertilisation (Deryng et al., 2014; Szewczyk et al., 2018; Harrison \r et al., 2019)."


id: e1d192aad6330c38b41a61b549f5c750
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37007
content:
"Autonomous adaptation of species via migration in response to climate \r change is well documented in contemporary, historical and geological \r records (Chapter 2; Cross-Chapter Box PALEO in Chapter 1); however, \r the projected rate of climate change can exceed migration potential, \r leading to evolutionary adaptation or increased extinction risk (Chapters \r 2, 3; Sections 13.3, 13.4). A reduction of non-climatic stressors, such as \r nutrient loads, resource extraction, habitat fragmentation or pesticides \r on land, are considered important adaptation options to increase the \r resilience to climate-change impacts (high confidence) (Sections 13.3, \r 13.4; Ramirez et al., 2018). A major governance tool to reduce climatic \r and non-climatic impacts is the establishment of networks of protected \r areas (Sections 13.3.2, 13.4.2) especially when aggregated, zoned or \r [...]"


id: a9fe3563cd3cb613c75c9b00df1c9dcc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27129
content:
"[...] linked with corridors for migration (high confidence), as well as a cost\u0002effective adaptation strategy with multiple additional co-benefits (Berry \r et al., 2015; Roberts et al., 2017). Reforestation, rewilding and habitat \r restoration are long-term strategies for reducing risk for biodiversity \r loss supported by assisted migration and evolution (Section  13.3.2, \r 13.4), though current laws and regulations do not include species \r migration (high confidence) (Prober et al., 2019; Fernandez-Anez et al., \r 2021)."


id: 7ddb822ce22fa6856f8c99ca1ca7dea7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19319
content:
"Farmers have historically adapted to environmental changes, and \r such autonomous adaptation will continue. Higher CO2 levels have \r a fertilisation effect on plants that is considered to decrease crop \r production risks (Deryng et al., 2014). Adaptation solutions to heat and \r drought risks include changes in sowing and harvest dates, increased \r irrigation, changes in crop varieties, the use of cover crops and mixed \r agricultural practices (Section  13.5.2; Figures  13.14, Figure  13.30b). \r Under high adaptation, the use of irrigation can substantially reduce \r risk by both reducing canopy temperature and drought impacts (high \r confidence) (Section 13.5.2; Webber et al., 2018). Some reductions of \r maize yields in SEU are still possible, but are balanced by gains in other \r crops and regions (Deryng et al., 2014; Donatelli et al., 2015; Webber \r et al., 2018; Feyen et al., 2020). At 3degC GWL and beyond, the adaptive \r [...]"


id: 4557d12fa9890d631625c8f379c49b2a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9421
content:
"[...] capacity is reduced (Ruiz-Ramos et  al., 2018). Crop production is a \r major consumer of water in agriculture (Gerveni et al., 2020), yet a \r potentially scarcer supply of water in some regions must be distributed \r across many needs (KR3, Section  13.10.2.3), limiting availability to \r agriculture which is currently the main user of water in many regions of \r Europe (high confidence) (Section 13.5.1). Where the ability to irrigate \r is limited by water availability, other adaptation options are insufficient \r to mitigate crop losses in some sub-regions, particularly at 3degC GWL \r and above, with an increase in risk from north to south and higher risk \r for late-season crops such as maize (high confidence). Under these \r conditions, land abandonment is projected (low confidence) (Holman \r et al., 2017)."


id: a92767e685ce1c2299fb6f0bfebaa8cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26980
content:
"(e.g., shipping) (Blauhut et  al., 2015; Stahl et  al., 2016; Bisselink \r et al., 2020; Cammalleri et al., 2020). Extensive water extraction will \r augment pressures on water reserves, impacting the ecological status \r of rivers and ecosystems dependent on them (Grizzetti et al., 2017). \r Socioeconomic conditions contributing to severe consequences are \r when more residents settle in drought-prone regions, or when the \r share of agriculture in GDP declines (high confidence). For Europe, risks \r of water scarcity will be higher under SSP5 and SSP3 than under SSP1 \r (medium confidence) (Byers et al., 2018; Arnell et al., 2019; Harrison \r et al., 2019). Transition to high risks is projected to occur below \r 2degC GWL in SEU and be associated with more persistent droughts \r (Section  13.1.3), and at 2degC GWL to show a 54% increase of the \r population facing at least moderate levels of water shortage (Byers \r et  al., 2018). This transition will happen at higher warming in WCE \r [...]"


id: 1cb7b503f69b190d69019775993f8868
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2235
content:
"[...] since risks are projected to increase less rapidly (transition between \r 2degC and 3degC GWL) (medium confidence) (Section 13.2.1.2; Byers et al., \r 2018). At 3degC GWL and beyond, water scarcity will become much more \r widespread and severe in already water-scarce areas in SEU (high \r confidence) and will expand to currently non-water-scarce regions \r in WCE (medium confidence) (Section 13.2.1.2; Bisselink et al., 2018; \r Naumann et al., 2018; Harrison et al., 2019; Koutroulis et al., 2019; \r Cammalleri et al., 2020; Spinoni et al., 2020). Decrease in hydropower \r potential in SEU and WCE are expected beyond 3degGWL (Figure 13.16)."


id: 91a87a9e1911f94af47f58eaeea38621
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22855
content:
"Risks related to water scarcity across multiple sectors can become \r severe in WCE and, to a much larger extent, in SEU based on projections \r of drought damage, population and sectors exposed, and they \r increase in water exploitation (Figure 13.31a; Table SM13.29). In EEU, \r uncertainty in hydrological drought projections and risk consequences \r is higher (Greve et al., 2018; Ranasinghe et al., 2021; Seneviratne et al., \r 2021) and the available number of publications is lower, not allowing a \r conclusion on how risk levels change with GWL. Yet, there is emerging \r evidence that drought-related risks increase with warming beyond \r 3degC GWL also in EEU (Seneviratne, 2021, for hydrological drought and \r 4degC GWL; Kattsov and Porfiriev, 2020). Evidence from the detected \r changes and attribution assessment suggests that the risk is already \r moderate in SEU (e.g., 48 million people exposed to moderate water \r scarcity between 1981 and 2010) (high confidence) (Section 13.10.1; \r [...]"


id: dd4a1e48847d3c07eed62dfb73529428
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36194
content:
"To reduce risk to water scarcity, adaptation measures, at both the \r supply and the demand side, have been suggested (Section  13.2.2; \r Figures  13.6, 13.31b; Garnier and Holman, 2019; Hagenlocher \r et  al., 2019). Several measures are already in place showing high \r technical and institutional feasibility (Sections  13.2.2.2, 13.5.2.1). \r The effectiveness of options varies regionally (in particular between \r northern and southern regions). For example, in SEU many water \r reservoirs are already in place. Irrigation is used to support agriculture \r where rain-fed supplies are not sufficient (Section 13.5.2). Their future \r extension depends on available precipitation. Also, wastewater reuse \r can only be effective if sufficient wastewater is available. Improvements \r in water efficiency and behavioural changes are very effective in \r SEU (>25% of damages avoided) (Section  13.2.2.2). Investments in \r large water infrastructures and advanced technologies (including \r [...]"


id: 996d9568a61ab2c867871566074e643b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24219
content:
"[...] storage), water transfer, water recycling and reuse, and desalination \r will allow to buy time and therefore to cope with additional warming \r (Papadaskalopoulou et  al., 2016; Greve et  al., 2018). Beyond 2.5degC \r GWL, transformational adaptation is needed to lower risk levels, such \r as planned relocation of industry, abandonment of farmland or the \r development of alternative livelihoods (Holman et al., 2017). In WCE, \r the solution space to water scarcity is expanding with considerable \r potential for investments in large water infrastructure and advanced \r technologies (including storage), for reducing risks above 3degC GWL \r (Greve et  al., 2018). Under medium warming a larger portfolio of "


id: 91f8dd97d87b502da25c5d763cf27ea5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22899
content:
"Damages and losses from coastal and river floods are projected to \r increase substantially in Europe over the 21st century (high confidence) \r (Section 13.2.1; SM13.10). Coastal areas have already started to be \r affected by SLR (see Box 13.1; Section 13.10.1) and human exposure \r to coastal hazards is projected to increase in the next decades (high \r confidence), but less under SSP1 (20%) than SSP5 (50%) by the end of \r the century (medium confidence) (Merkens et al., 2016; Reimann et al., \r 2018a). Under low adaptation (i.e., coastal defences are maintained \r but not further strengthened), severe consequences include an increase \r in expected annual damage by a factor of at least 20 for 1.5degC-2.1degC \r GWL (i.e., high risks) and by two to three orders of magnitude between \r 2degC and 3degC GWL in EU-28 (i.e., very high risk) (medium confidence) \r (Figures  13.28, 13.34c; Section  13.2.1.1; Vousdoukas et  al., 2018b; \r [...]"


id: 662154456af1d203999617f5095af998
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15231
content:
"[...] Haasnoot et  al., 2021b). Under high adaptation (i.e., lowlands \r are protected where it is economically efficient), expected annual \r damages still increase by a factor of 5 above 2degC GWL (Section 13.2; \r Vousdoukas et al., 2020). Sea levels are committed to rise for centuries \r (Fox-Kemper et al., 2021), submerging at least 10% of the territory in "


id: af00a0cf5058035d7fe84392b64fffcf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28033
content:
"Pluvial and riverine flood events in Europe have been attributed to \r climate change, but the associated damages and losses also depend \r on land-use planning and flood risk management practices (medium \r confidence) (Section  13.10.1; Ranasinghe et  al., 2021). Exposure to \r urban flooding will increase with urbanisation (Jongman et al., 2012; \r Jones and O'Neill, 2016; Dottori et al., 2018; Paprotny et al., 2018b). \r Flooding is projected to rise with temperature in Europe with, for \r example, a doubling of damage costs and people affected from river \r flood for low adaptation above 3degC GWL (Alfieri et al., 2018). Inland \r flooding represents a KR for Europe due to the extent of settlements \r exposed, the frequency of the hazards, the risks to human lives \r associated with flash floods and the limited adaptation potential to \r pluvial flooding (e.g., difficulty to upgrade urban drainage systems) \r (Dale et al., 2018; Dale, 2021); hence, risks can become very high from \r [...]"


id: d0e9023dd0474c57a19676f3c85ff4f8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34100
content:
"European regions are affected by multiple KRs simultaneously. While \r there is a wide range in quantifications, there is high agreement that \r the consequences for socioeconomic and natural systems can be \r substantial, with more severe consequences in the south than in the \r north (very high confidence); and there is some indication also for a \r west-to-east gradient, with higher uncertainty in eastern WCE and \r EEU, which makes adaptation more challenging (medium confidence). \r Furthermore, the food-water-energy-land nexus plays an important \r role in amplifying overall risk levels in Europe (medium confidence) \r (Forzieri et al., 2016; Harrison et al., 2016; Byers et al., 2018; Arnell \r et  al., 2019; Harrison et  al., 2019; Kebede et  al., 2021). Southern \r Europe, European cities and coastal areas are projected to become \r hotspots of multiple risks (high confidence) (Cramer et  al., 2018; \r Forzieri et  al., 2018; Guerreiro et  al., 2018). The number of people \r [...]"


id: b45697a87f05e1e6e480f53fceaba82c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28964
content:
"[...] exposed to multiple KRs in Europe are projected to at least double \r at 3degC GWL compared with 1.5degC GWL (Forzieri et al., 2017; Byers \r et al., 2018; Arnell et al., 2019), but risk levels are already higher at \r 1.5degC GWL than today for a number of KRs (medium confidence) \r (Figure 13.28)."


id: 969fbfa9a1c7d945c7c4f36de295302a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23702
content:
"A range of adaptation options to coastal flooding exists, and \r adaptation is possible in many European regions if started on time \r (Section  13.2; Figure  13.32d). Continuing a protection pathway is \r cost-effective in urbanised regions for this century (Vousdoukas \r et al., 2020), but there is high agreement that it comes with residual \r risk if coastal defences fail during a storm. This residual risk can \r be reduced through early warning and evacuations, insurance and \r accommodate measures (Section  13.2.2). Soft limits to protection \r have been identified under high GWL, in particular due to the rate of \r change and delayed impacts of long-term SLR (medium confidence) \r (Hinkel et  al., 2018; Haasnoot et  al., 2020a). Ecosystem-based \r solutions, such as wetlands, can reduce waves' propagation, provide \r co-benefits for the environment and climate mitigation, and reduce \r costs for flood defences (medium confidence) (Section  13.2.2.1). \r [...]"


id: d00dfceeaad3984768ac87aa0f7f4a74
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33958
content:
"[...] At higher GWL, ecosystems are projected to experience reduced \r effectiveness due to temperature increases and an increased rate \r of SLR combined with a lack of sediment and human pressures \r (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3). Retention and diversion can \r be effective for compound flooding or for estuaries with a limited \r storm surge duration, but there is a lack of knowledge on their \r effectiveness (Sections 13.2.2)."


id: 87ca54048c266f6e22791fb6570759a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21049
content:
"Economic losses and damages for European economies from multiple \r KRs are projected to increase (high confidence) (Figure  13.34; \r Szewczyk et al., 2018; Feyen et al., 2020; Kalkuhl and Wenz, 2020) \r and potentially quadruple at 3degC GWL compared with 1.5degC GWL \r (Feyen et al., 2020). Existing estimates of projected economic costs for \r Europe, based on integrated assessment or computable general equi\u0002librium models, are, however, likely to be underestimations of the true \r costs because of incomplete coverage of biophysical impacts, in par\u0002ticular low-probability high-impact events, and disruptive risk prop\u0002agation channels (Lamperti et al., 2018; Stoerk et al., 2018; Schewe \r et al., 2019; Piontek et al., 2021). The main driver for this increase in \r economic losses and damages is mortality due to heat stress (me\u0002dium confidence), followed by reduced labour productivity, coastal \r and inland flooding, water scarcity and drought (medium confidence) \r [...]"


id: 3588e35ac2403152bd61d40ebfdbf85f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6672
content:
"[...] (Figure 13.33; Section 13.6.1.3). While losses are highest in SEU for \r both 1.5degC and 3degC GWL, and increase by a factor of more than 3 \r between these GWLs, the projected economic damages and losses \r also increase significantly in WCE (by a factor of 4 from 1.5degC to 3degC \r GWL; 40% of total losses in EU-28 at 3degC GWL) and in NEU (almost \r 10% of total losses at 3degC GWL) (Szewczyk et  al., 2018; Szewczyk \r et al., 2020). Adaptation is projected to reduce macroeconomic costs, \r but residual costs will remain particularly for warming above 3degC \r GWL (medium confidence) (De Cian et al., 2016; Bosello et al., 2018; \r Parrado et al., 2020)."


id: aaf37edc9269b22afb9f54e4d8dc8e51
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27301
content:
"Malmo (population 300,000): Since the 1990s, Malmo has been transitioning towards an environmentally, economically and socially \r sustainable city, investing in eco-districts (redeveloped areas that integrate and showcase the city's sustainability strategies) and adopting \r ambitious adaptation and mitigation targets. The city has focused on energy-efficient buildings and construction, collective and low-carbon \r transportation, and green spaces and infrastructure (Anderson, 2014; Malmo Stad, 2018). Malmo has developed creative implementation \r mechanisms, including a 'climate contract' between the city, the energy distributor and the water and waste utility to co-develop the \r climate-smart district, Hyllie (Isaksson and Heikkinen, 2018; Kanters and Wall, 2018; Parks, 2019). Flagship eco-districts play a central role \r in the city's transition, in the wider adoption of CRD and in securing implementation partners (Isaksson and Heikkinen, 2018; Stripple and \r [...]"


id: d8530861b172160878da08d83d4f232c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35363
content:
"[...] Bulkeley, 2019). The city has also leveraged its status as a CRD leader to attract investment. The private sector views CRD as profitable, due \r to the high demand and competitive value of these developments (Holgersen and Malm, 2015). Malmo adopted the SDGs as local goals \r and the city's Comprehensive Plan is evaluated based on them, for example, considering gender in the use, access and safety of public \r spaces, and emphasising development that facilitates climate-resilient lifestyles (Malmo Stad, 2018). Malmo also engages stakeholders via \r dialogue with residents, collaboration with universities and partnerships with industry and service providers (Kanters and Wall, 2018; Parks, \r 2019). Despite measurable and monitored targets, and supportive institutional arrangements, sustainability outcomes for the flagship \r districts have been tempered by developers' market-oriented demands (Holgersen and Malm, 2015; Isaksson and Heikkinen, 2018) and \r [...]"


id: e31270f455186a4d44e55e93517f40cd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37245
content:
"[...] there is limited low-income housing in climate-resilient districts (Anderson, 2014; Holgersen and Malm, 2015)."


id: d1f82d2d1b5d69a581a638bc6241f597
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34291
content:
"Milan (population 1.4 million): Milan is taking a CRD approach to new developments (Comune di Milano, 2019). From 2020, new \r buildings must be carbon neutral and reconstructions must reduce the existing land footprint by at least 10%. The Climate and Air \r Plan (CAP) and the city's Master Plan (Comune di Milano, 2019) focus on low-carbon, inclusive and equitable development. The CAP \r is directed at municipal and private assets, and individual- to city-scale actions. In 2020, Milan released a revised Adaptation Plan and \r the Open Streets Project to ensure synergies between the COVID-19 response and longer-term CRD. Examples include strengthening \r neighbourhood-scale disaster response and reallocating street space for walking and cycling (Comune di Milano, 2020). Milan emphasises \r institutionalisation of CRD via a dedicated resilience department, and through active participation in climate networks and projects that \r [...]"


id: 7a4fc45bb74004d30b073704c64319a2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18718
content:
"[...] support learning and exchange. Climate network commitments are cited in the city's Master Plan and CAP guidelines as driving more \r ambitious deadlines and emissions targets (Comune di Milano, 2019). Implementation of Milan's plans remains a challenge, despite \r dedicated resources and commitment."


id: 475e207e3adcce3ea671b0f631ae604e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9766
content:
"The drivers of adaptation progress in Europe differ across sectors and \r regions. Common drivers include: experienced climatic events, improved \r climatic information, societal pressures to act, projected economic and \r societal costs of climate change, participation in (city) networks, societal \r and political leadership, and changes in national and European policies \r and legislation (medium evidence, high agreement) (EEA, 2014; Massey \r et al., 2014; Reckien et al., 2018). The availability of knowledge, human \r and financial resources appears important for proactive adaptation \r (Termeer et al., 2012; Sanderson et al., 2018), while adaptation is \r also strongly dependent on economic and social development (high \r confidence) (Sanderson et  al., 2018). How adaptation is governed \r differs substantially across Europe (Clar, 2019; Lesnikowski et al., 2021). \r Political commitment, persistence and consistent action across scales of \r [...]"


id: 1c3e68e165044f51e02dd8a91308547b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2164
content:
"[...] government is critical to move beyond planning for adaptation (Steps \r A-C in Figure 13.34) and to ensure adequacy of implementation (Steps \r D and E in Figure 13.34) (Howlett and Kemmerling, 2017; Lesnikowski \r et al., 2021; Patterson, 2021)."


id: 89d4ce8d0cb042b7dced128cda2ffdbe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21415
content:
"Coordinated responses are necessary to prevent inefficient and \r costly action (Biesbroek, 2021), balance under- and overreaction to \r climate risks (Peters et al., 2017; Biesbroek and Candel, 2019), prevent \r redistributing vulnerability and maladaptive actions (Atteridge and \r Remling, 2018; Albizua et al., 2019; Neset et al., 2019), and ensure \r timely implementation (high confidence) (Benson and Lorenzoni, \r 2017). Since AR5, progress has been made to increase coordinated \r adaptation actions, but so far this is limited to a few sectors (mostly \r water management and agriculture) and European countries \r and regions (mostly SEU, and WCE depending on impact) (high \r confidence) (Section 13.11.2; Lesnikowski et al., 2016; Biesbroek and \r Delaney, 2020; Booth et  al., 2020). Despite evidence of emerging \r bottom-up (e.g., citizens and business) and top-down initiatives (e.g., \r governmental plans and instruments to ensure action), there are \r [...]"


id: 6fcbff5a29ee104463d1df76ed327831
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16929
content:
"[...] considerable barriers to mainstreaming adaptation (high confidence) \r (Runhaar et al., 2018)."


id: c6c05aeb386822f94f9f9cbe21a683cb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32273
content:
"Many near-term investment decisions have long-term consequences, \r and planning and implementation (Steps C and D in Figure 13.34) can \r take decades, particularly for critical infrastructure planning in Europe \r (Zandvoort et al., 2017; Pot et al., 2018). Consequently, there are calls \r to expand planning horizons, to consider long-term uncertainties to \r prevent lock-in decision dependencies, to seize opportunities and \r synergies from other investments (e.g., socioeconomic developments \r and systems transitions) and to broaden the range of considered possible \r impacts (e.g., Frantzeskaki et al., 2019; Marchau, 2019; Oppenheimer \r et  al., 2019; Haasnoot et  al., 2020b ). Yet, high GWL scenarios \r beyond 2100 are often not considered in climate-change adaptation \r planning due to a lack of perceived usability, missing socioeconomic \r information, constraining institutional settings and conflicting \r decision-making timeframes (medium confidence) (Lourenco et  al., \r [...]"


id: b2b23ebcc4b61bbb17b636eca7485100
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28678
content:
"[...] 2019; Taylor et al., 2020). High GWL scenarios are often seen as having \r a low probability of occurrence, resulting in inaction or incremental \r rather than transformative adaptation responses to projected climate \r risks (Dunn et  al., 2017). Extending planning horizons to beyond \r 2100 increases deep uncertainties for decision makers as a result of \r unclear future socioeconomic and climatic changes. For adaptation to "


id: 84798b6a81063d51a31f1ae914ac85a1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20452
content:
"example, in energy and risk prevention in coastal and riverine cities, \r stimulating regulations and bottom-up initiatives (Cavelier et al., 2017; \r Le Cozannet et al., 2017; Reckien et al., 2018; Howard et al., 2020). \r However, climate service efficacy is rarely systematically evaluated \r (Cortekar et  al., 2020). Barriers to use include: lack of perceived \r usefulness of climate information to organisations and expertise to \r use the information, outdated statistics, mismatch between needs and \r type of information made available, insufficient effective engagement \r between providers and recipients of climate information and lack of \r business models to sustain climate services over time (high evidence, \r medium agreement) (Cavelier et al., 2017; Rasanen et al., 2017; Bruno \r Soares et al., 2018; Christel et al., 2018; Oberlack and Eisenack, 2018; \r Hewitt et al., 2020). Adaptation-decision support platforms also face \r [...]"


id: 7d98eb94952bd5b600887db570b0ef7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19267
content:
"[...] challenges regarding updating, training and engagement with users \r (EEA, 2015; Palutikof et al., 2019)."


id: 53d9bf618bbad33766d340cfe5c9a95e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12024
content:
"Within the private sector, there tends to be a preference for 'soft' (e.g., \r knowledge generation) than 'hard' (e.g., infrastructure) adaptation \r measures (Goldstein et  al., 2019), in contrast to government-led \r responses typically favouring hard measures (Pranzini et  al., 2015). \r However, there also remains diversity across sectors and organisations in \r the degree and type of adaptation response (Trawoger, 2014; Dannevig \r and Hovelsrud, 2016; Ray et al., 2017; Ricart et al., 2019). Whereas some \r sectors, such as flood management, banking and insurance, and energy \r (Bank of England, 2015; Gasbarro and Pinkse, 2016; Bank of England, \r 2019; Botzen et al., 2019), have generally made moderate progress on \r adaptation planning across Europe, there are key vulnerable economic \r sectors that are in earlier stages, including aviation (Burbidge, 2018), \r ports and shipping (Becker et al., 2018; Ng et al., 2018), and ICT (high \r [...]"


id: 30eda22a1749a3f76fa6d42cb821927a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5861
content:
"[...] confidence) (EEA, 2018b). There is also some evidence of 'short-sighted' \r adaptation or maladaptation; for example, in winter tourism there is a \r preference for technical and reactive solutions (e.g., artificial snow) that \r will not be sufficient under high levels of warming (Section 13.6.1.4)."


id: 56130b1e4e77cd52ec2bca09d5ca4202
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12415
content:
"Dedicated financial resources for the implementation of NAS and \r plans are a key enabling factor for successful adaptation (high \r confidence) (Chapter 17; Russel et  al., 2020). Yet, only 14 EU \r countries have announced such budget allocations in their plans \r and strategies; and even if budget numbers are available, they are \r difficult to compare (EEA, 2020a). Current adaptation spending \r varies greatly across and within European countries, partly reflecting \r (sub)national adaptation priorities or financing sources targeting \r investment projects (Lopez-Doriga et al., 2020; Russel et al., 2020) \r and competing statutory priorities (Porter et  al., 2015). European \r government budgets are also burdened by climate-change damages \r today, particularly after huge flooding events, and austerity following \r financial crises, limiting anticipatory action (Penning-Rowsell and \r Priest, 2015; Miskic et  al., 2017; Schinko et  al., 2017; Slavikova \r [...]"


id: ba2ade32800da726c8a42ecfc501ecb0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29979
content:
"[...] et  al., 2020). National adaptation funding in EU member states \r is complemented by EU funding (e.g., European Structural and \r Investment Funds, European Regional Development Funds, and LIFE \r program). While the EU spending target on climate action increased \r from 20% in 2016-2020 to 25% in 2021-2026, most spending is \r going into mitigation, not adaptation (Berkhout et al., 2015; Hanger \r et al., 2015; EEA, 2020a)."


id: 1fdde18a438424acbd3ed9a79918b9dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2811
content:
"Perceived personal responsibility for tackling climate change remains \r low across the EU (Figure 13.35) and partly explains why household \r adaptation remains limited (high confidence) (Taylor et  al., 2014; \r van Valkengoed and Steg, 2019), despite risk perception apparently \r growing (Figure Box 13.2.1; Capstick et al., 2015; Poppel et al., 2015; \r BEIS, 2019). Householders' risk perception and concern about climate \r change fluctuates in response to media coverage and significant \r weather or sociopolitical events (high confidence) (Capstick et  al., \r 2015). On average across Europe, and particularly in relation to gradual \r change, compared with experts, non-experts continue to underestimate \r climate-change risks (medium confidence) (Taylor et  al., 2014), have \r low awareness of adaptation options, and confuse adaptation and \r mitigation (Harcourt, 2019), suggesting a need for improved climate \r literacy among the public. Indeed, fostering learning and coping \r [...]"


id: 1897485f935037decf2f08a7dbcd6c6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1537
content:
"Planned behavioural adaptation remains limited among European \r households (high confidence), with few examples that can be consid\u0002ered transformative (e.g., structural, long-term, collective) (medium \r confidence) (Wilson et al., 2020). One Swedish survey of householders \r at risk of extreme weather events (e.g., floods, storms) found evidence \r of some organisational measures (e.g., bringing possessions inside \r prior to a storm, preparing for power cuts with candles, etc.), but very \r few households took any other (technical, social, nature-based, or eco\u0002nomic) measures (Brink and Wamsler, 2019). Similarly, few at risk of \r flooding are taking action (Sections  13.2.1, 13.6.1; Stojanov et  al., \r 2015); for example, there is little public take-up of available municipal \r support for individual adaptation in Germany (Wamsler, 2016). Water \r efficiency measures in anticipation of, or response to, drought are also \r limited (Bryan et  al., 2019), although water reuse in Mediterranean \r [...]"


id: 5490b4b894ceba5ba9e1eef4d9362af5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12157
content:
"[...] and some other EU (e.g., the UK and the Netherlands) countries is \r increasing (Section  13.2; Aparicio, 2017). Among the adaptation re\u0002sponses recorded, few are perceived as opportunities (Taylor et  al., "


id: 4b2c43ede3a6a341f1039039029dbd47
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10471
content:
"Considerable barriers exist that prevent system transitions from taking \r place in Europe, including institutional and behavioural lock-ins such \r as administrative routines, certain types of legislation and dominant \r paradigms of problem solving (high confidence) (Johannessen et  al., \r 2019; Roberts and Geels, 2019). For example, near-term and sectoral \r decision-making constrains transformative options for water-related risks \r (Section 13.2). Breaking through these lock-ins requires substantive (i.e., \r political) will, (un)learning of practices, resources, and evidence of what \r works. Trade-offs exist between the depth, scope and pace of change \r in transitioning from one system to another, suggesting that designing \r system transformations is a delicate balancing act (Termeer et al., 2017). \r Aspiring in-depth and comprehensive transformational changes might \r create a consensus framework to which to aspire, but it might not offer \r [...]"


id: 82f19607f9578c264cc5a97ba9c452b3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20165
content:
"[...] concrete perspectives to act on the ground. Taking small steps and quick \r wins offer an alternative pathway (Termeer and Dewulf, 2018)."


id: 985b2027a052339ef9349fd5cd9cf802
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24014
content:
"As well as temporal trends in climate-change risk perception, the lit\u0002erature since AR5 continues to show much heterogeneity (both within \r and between nations) among householders in respect of risk percep\u0002tion (high confidence). Higher climate-change risk perceptions have \r been observed in Spain, Portugal, Iceland and Germany (Figure 13.2); \r at the individual level, women, younger age groups, more educated, \r left-leaning and those with more 'self-transcendent' values perceive \r more negative impacts from climate change, although the strength \r of these relationships varies across European nations (Clayton et al., \r 2015; Doran et al., 2018; Poortinga et al., 2019; Duijndam and van \r Beukering, 2021). Stronger evidence exists since AR5 that experience \r of extreme weather events can shape climate-change risk perceptions, \r if these events are attributed to climate change or evoke negative \r emotions (high confidence) (Clayton et al., 2015; Demski et al., 2017; \r [...]"


id: e36b75fbe8df067408f2bf1c9c2c62c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37307
content:
"[...] Ogunbode et al., 2019). Proximity to climate hazards does not pre\u0002dict adaptation responses in a straightforward way: in Portugal, those \r living by the coast were more likely to attribute local natural hazards \r to climate change and to take some adaptive measures (Luis et al., \r 2017); while waterside residents in flood-prone regions of France and \r Austria were more resistant to relocation, due to higher place attach\u0002ment (Adger et al., 2013; Rey-Valette et al., 2019; van Valkengoed and \r Steg, 2019; Seebauer and Winkler, 2020). Migration from threatened \r regions is discussed in Section 13.8.1.3."


id: 17afd8590513051550c93b20267d32c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1376
content:
"Adaptation responses can also be understood in terms of their trade\u0002offs and synergies with SDGs (Papadimitriou et al., 2019; Bogdanovich \r and Lipka, 2020). In terms of synergies, analysis of the Russian NAP \r found that successful completion of the NAP's first phase could lead to \r significant progress towards 15 of the 17 goals (Bogdanovich and Lipka, \r 2020). European water adaptation (e.g., flood protection) can similarly \r support freshwater provision; and water-secured environments support \r socioeconomic growth (Sadoff et  al., 2015) since people and assets \r tend to accumulate in areas protected from flooding and supplied with \r water, reducing the incentive for autonomous adaptation (de Moel et al., \r 2011; Hartmann and Spit, 2016; Di Baldassarre et al., 2018). In health, \r behavioural measures to reduce mental health impacts (e.g., gardening, \r active travel) can have broader health benefits (SDG 3) as well as help \r [...]"


id: cf76ff2ff1606ebf4f1a9e18427bd637
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33855
content:
"[...] reduce emissions (Section 13.7; SDGs 7 and 13). Conversely, growing \r use of air conditioning for humans and livestock represents a potential \r trade-off between adaptation and mitigation (Sections  13.5-13.7, \r 13.10). As noted in Section 13.8, addressing poverty (SDG 1)-including \r energy poverty (SDG 7) and hunger (SDG 2); and addressing inequalities \r (SDG 10), including gender inequality (SDG 5)-improves resilience to \r climate impacts for those groups that are disproportionately affected \r (women, low-income and marginalised groups). Also, more inclusive and \r fair decision making can enhance resilience (SDG 16; Section 13.4.4), \r although adaptation measures may also lead to resource conflicts (SDG \r 16; Section  13.7). Climate adaptation, particularly NbS, also supports \r ecosystem health (SDGs 14 and 15) (Dzebo et al., 2019)."


id: 7ef62489a41e0620f2d860ee0a80111f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19490
content:
"The implementation of far-reaching and rapid systemic changes, \r including both adaptation and mitigation options (de Coninck et  al., \r 2018), remains less researched in societal systems than natural ones \r (Salomaa, 2020) that enhance multi-level governance and institutional \r capabilities, and enables lifestyle and behavioural change as well as \r technology innovation. Adaptation responses across European regions \r and sectors are more often incremental than transformative (medium \r confidence), with possible exceptions including water-related examples \r in, for example, the Netherlands (Section 13.2.2) and some cities (see \r Box  13.3). Transformative options may be better able to exploit new \r opportunities and co-benefits (see Box 13.3; Cross-Chapter Box HEALTH \r in Chapter 7; EEA, 2019a). Transitions towards more adaptive and climate\u0002resilient systems are often the result of responses to crises which create \r windows of opportunity for systemic changes (Chapter 18; Johannessen \r [...]"


id: e3e7a28dcb2ce806ec6d0f6c5d96cc9a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37383
content:
"[...] et al., 2019). This includes extreme weather events, financial crises, for \r example in Malmo (Anderson, 2014; Isaksson and Heikkinen, 2018), and \r the COVID-19 pandemic (e.g., Milan), all of which have disrupted the \r status quo and accelerated innovation and implementation (e.g., Milan; \r see Box 13.3; Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7)."


id: 878d95cf7fba296e930cdd26bdc5a7c1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21004
content:
"Economic trade-offs appear to be more common across adaptation \r strategies, for example, reduced employment arising from land-use\u0002change measures (Papadimitriou et  al., 2019). There are also trade\u0002offs between large-scale mitigation measures (e.g., wind farms) and \r adaptation options that rely on ecosystem services (e.g., water regulation) \r (Sections  13.3-13.4); and conversely, some adaptation options (e.g., \r air conditioning) may negatively impact mitigation. Figure  13.36 \r summarises the synergies between adaptation and SDGs as identified \r by 167 European cities in 2019; particularly prominent are reported \r biodiversity and health benefits most often arising from societal (e.g., \r informational) and structural (e.g., technological and/or engineering) \r measures. Beyond the urban context, biodiversity co-benefits from \r agroecology are also recognised (Section 13.5). Sustainable behaviour\u0002change measures have been found to be particularly likely to lead to \r [...]"


id: 8c038b71237886fc2df83dab02288036
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21803
content:
"Figure 13.36 |  Co-benefits for SDGs from adaptation actions. Shown is how European cities have assessed the sustainability co-benefits of taking adaptation actions. \r Data were extracted from the Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) database using the 2019 dataset; of the 861 European cities submitting data, 167 provided data on their adaptation \r actions, and these data are shown here (CDP, 2019). The CDP categories of climate hazards were re-categorised into WGI Climate Impact Drivers (e.g., cold spell, heavy precipitation); \r CDP adaptation actions were re-classified into AR5 adaptation options ('social', 'structural' and 'institutional'; 'other' includes actions falling outside these AR5 categories); and CDP \r co-benefits were re-categorised as SDGs. The upper panel shows that all SDGs except one (SDG 17) were identified as a co-benefit of adaptation, although more environmental \r [...]"


id: 5fc64630d56b9625896d708da45a078a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14150
content:
"[...] co-benefits were identified than social or economic ones. The lower left panel shows that societal actions were most common, followed by structural, then institutional. Informational \r measures were particularly common. The lower right panel shows how many actions were taken by different European cities."


id: 95184ff07ff4313c95c16fdeb35cef19
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23436
content:
"Ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss have been evident across Europe since 1950, mainly due to land use and \r overfishing; however, climate change is becoming a key threat. The unprecedented pace of environmental change \r has already surpassed the natural adaptive capability of many species, communities and ecosystems in Europe. For \r instance, the space available for some land ecosystems has shrunk, especially in Europe's polar and mountain areas, \r due to warming and thawing of permafrost. Across Europe, heatwaves and droughts, and their impacts such as \r wildfires, add further acute pressures, as seen in the 2018 heatwave, which impacted forest ecosystems and their \r services. In the Mediterranean Sea, plants and animals cannot shift northward and are negatively affected by \r marine heatwaves. Food-web dynamics of European ecosystems are disrupted as climate change alters the timing \r [...]"


id: ffd40dd97b31405977a1ee46ba23a379
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42403
content:
"[...] of biological processes, such as spawning and migration of species, and ecosystem composition. Moreover, warming \r fosters the immigration of invasive species that compete with-and can even out-compete-the native flora and \r fauna."


id: 85634309f0cfbab53da52c699088e052
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20604
content:
"Preparing for heatwaves is an important first step. Implementing and sustaining effective measures, such as national \r or regional early warning and information systems, heatwave plans and guidelines, and raising public awareness \r through campaigns, are successful responses. Evidence suggests that such measures have contributed to reduced \r mortality rates in SEU and WCE. At city level, preparing for heatwaves can sometimes require urban re-design. \r For example, green-blue spaces, such as recreational parks and ponds in cities, have been shown to reduce the \r average temperature in cities dramatically and to provide co-benefits, such as improved air quality and recreational \r space. The use of cool materials in asphalt, increasing reflectivity, green roofs and building construction measures \r are being considered in urban planning for reducing heat risks. Citizens can prepare themselves by using natural \r [...]"


id: a166cfeef91a99d0482507e5533287cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25614
content:
"[...] ventilation, using approaches to stay cool in heatwaves, green roofs and green facades on their buildings."


id: 1d0c37fb9ed669df60ba0dd43c9a785c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2292
content:
"As warming and droughts impact SEU most strongly, direct opportunities from climate change are primarily in \r northern regions, thereby increasing existing inequalities across Europe. Across Europe, positive effects of climate \r change are fewer than negative impacts and are typically limited to some aspects of agriculture, forestry, tourism \r and energy sectors. In the food sector, opportunities emerge by the northward movement of food production \r zones, increases in plant growth due to CO2 fertilisation and reduction of heating costs for livestock during cold \r winters. In the energy sector, positive effects include increased wind energy in the southwest Mediterranean and \r reduced energy demand for heating across Europe. While climatic conditions for tourist activities are projected to \r decrease for winter tourism (e.g., insufficient snow amount) and summer tourism in some parts of Europe (e.g., too \r [...]"


id: 1edc6a256d66de9642dc9fff878e773b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2632
content:
"[...] much heat), conditions may improve during spring and autumn in many European locations. Fewer cold waves will \r reduce risks on transport infrastructure, such as cracking of road surface, in parts of NEU and EEU particularly by \r the end of the century."


id: c40efc0d622d058b29dafddcc129d299
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31775
content:
"North American food production is increasingly affected by \r climate change (high confidence), with immediate impacts \r on the food and nutritional security of Indigenous Peoples.\r Climate change and extreme weather events have impacted North \r American agroecosystems (high confidence), with crop-specific effects \r that vary in direction and magnitude by event and location. Climate \r change has generally reduced agricultural productivity by 12.5% since \r 1961, with progressively greater losses moving south from Canada to \r Mexico and in drought-prone rain-fed systems (high confidence) while \r favourable conditions increased yields of maize, soybeans in regions \r like the USA Great Plains. Loss of availability and access to marine and \r terrestrial sources of protein has impaired food security and nutrition \r of subsistence-dependent Indigenous Peoples across North America \r (high confidence). Climate change has impacted aquaculture (high \r [...]"


id: c8d2038d58e2cffe04ffdefcd67bb22b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32659
content:
"[...] confidence) and induced rapid redistribution of species (very high \r confidence), and population declines of multiple key fisheries (high \r confidence). {14.5.4, 14.5.6, 14.7}"


id: c5df15259015184666afa346381e304c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32121
content:
"Climate-induced redistribution and declines in North American \r food production are a risk to future food and nutritional \r security (very high confidence). Climate change will continue \r to shift North American agricultural and fishery suitability ranges \r (high confidence) and intensify production losses of key crops (high \r confidence), livestock (medium confidence), fisheries (high confidence) \r and aquaculture products (medium confidence). In the absence of \r mitigation, incremental adaptation measures may not be sufficient to \r address rapidly changing conditions and extreme events, increasing the \r need for cross-sectoral coordination in implementation of mitigation \r and adaptation measures (high confidence). Combining sustainable \r intensification, approaches based on Indigenous knowledge and local \r knowledge, and ecosystem-based methods with inclusive and self\u0002determined decision making, will result in more equitable food and \r [...]"


id: 2c1377d9360176983a96995012653eb5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5015
content:
"[...] nutritional security (high confidence). {14.5.1-4, 14.5.6, 14.7, Cross\u0002Chapter Box INDIG in Chapter 18, Cross-Chapter Box MOVING PLATE \r in Chapter 5}"


id: 8510e0181b1d8b4e5fa3fbaaba45edb5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20554
content:
"Terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems are being \r profoundly altered by climate change across North America (very \r high confidence). Rising air, water, ocean and ground temperatures \r have restructured ecosystems and contributed to the redistribution \r (very high confidence) and mortality (high confidence) of fish, bird \r and mammal species. Extreme heat and precipitation trends on land \r have increased vegetation stress and mortality, reduced soil quality \r and altered ecosystem processes including carbon and freshwater \r cycling (very high confidence). Warm and dry conditions associated \r with climate change have led to tree die-offs (high confidence) and \r increased prevalence of catastrophic wildfire (medium confidence) \r with an increase in the size of severely burned areas in western \r North America (medium confidence). Nature-based Solutions (NbS) \r and ecosystem-based management have been effective adaptation \r [...]"


id: 63e971defad8377946eb2a7688d5fff6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14865
content:
"[...] approaches in the past but are increasingly exceeded by climate \r extremes (medium confidence). {14.5.1-3, Box 14.7}"


id: 7301cd249e3f6b065dbce70dde660e48
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:23:00
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17487
content:
"Chapter 14 sections are organised to address themes and content as \r contained in the IPCC-approved outline for regions. Regional climate \r changes assessed within North America are keyed to Figure 14.1 using \r four-letter abbreviations (e.g., CA-ON, US-SE, MX-NW). The assessment \r addresses recent and future climate for North America, the impacts, risks \r and adaptations within sectors, key risksacross sectors (KR), the nature \r of adaptation and sustainable development pathways as well as two \r additional sections on Indigenous Peoples and perceptions of climate \r change. Seven boxes are used to highlight topics of interdisciplinary \r nature while four frequently asked questions (FAQ) were produced in \r plain language for communication to the public. The chapter utilises \r the framework as well as designated terms in the standardised \r process for evaluating and characterising the degree of certainty in \r assessment findings developed through the expert judgement process \r [...]"


