# document

id: c757a91852db333967a394d91e48e134
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32387
content:
"These assessments are constrained by limited availability of observational datasets and of scientific studies. Assessment of observed \r\nclimate change for Small Islands is often constrained by low station density (Ryu and Hayhoe, 2014; P.D. Jones et al., 2016a), short \r\nperiods of record, digitization requirements or data-sharing limitations (P.D. Jones et al., 2016a), availability of metadata (McGree \r\net al., 2014; Stephenson et al., 2014; P.D. Jones et al., 2016b), challenges in some gridded product representations of variability, for \r\nexample, for complex topography (Frazier and Giambelluca, 2017), and challenges characterizing the impact of vertical land motion \r\non sea level rise (Atlas.10.2; Woppelmann and Marcos, 2016)."


id: 3ec6ac92fa2d044a33c0e499a6d86011
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8235
content:
"Small Islands will very likely continue to warm this century, though at a rate less than the global average (Figure Atlas.28), with \r\nconsequent increased frequency of warm extremes for the Caribbean and western Pacific islands, and heatwave events for the \r\nCaribbean (high confidence) (Table 11.13). Annual and JJA rainfall declines are likely for some Indian and southern Pacific ocean \r\nregions with drying over southern French Polynesia (attributed partially to greenhouse gas increases) and farther east clearly evident \r\nin CMIP5 and CMIP6 projections (high confidence) (Figure Atlas.28). See also Section Atlas.10.4."


id: ba0f3ccc488f02c32e5a24898fbde824
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29955
content:
"Sea level rise is very likely to continue in all Small Island regions (Sections 9.6.3.3 and 12.4.7.4, and Figure Atlas.28) and its effects \r\nwill be compounded by TC surge events. In general, the most intense TCs are likely to intensify and produce more flood rains with \r\nwarming, however detailed effects of climate change on TCs will vary by region (Section 11.7.1; Knutson et al., 2019). Bailey et al. \r\n(2016) projected a 20% decline in groundwater availability by 2050 in coral atoll islands of the Federated States of Micronesia and \r\nstressed that under higher sea level rises the decrease could be higher than 50% due to marine water intrusion into aquifers, as well \r\nas drought events."


id: a6af5f7f5e5dd7d332debbd300156d3f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26543
content:
"Whilst this assessment demonstrates that the climate of Small Islands has and will continue to change in diverse ways, constructing \r\nclimate information for Small Islands is challenging. This is due to observational issues, incomplete understanding of some modes of \r\nvariability and their representation by climate models and the lack of availability of large ensembles of regional climate model \r\nsimulations and limited studies to decouple internal variability and anthropogenic influences."


id: 349dd59439601a4549a24a837c697064
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6493
content:
"an overall assessment of the ice-sheet processes and changes, as part \r\nof the cryosphere, ocean and sea level change assessment."


id: 891265e4d5b4f3e74ab117058a338013
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21280
content:
"The Antarctic region, covered by an ice sheet and surrounded by the \r\nSouthern Ocean, is characterized by polar climate. It is the coldest, \r\nwindiest and driest continent on Earth and plays a  pivotal role in \r\nregulating the global climate and hydrological cycle. Antarctica has \r\na mean temperature of -35degC (Lenaerts et al., 2016) and receives \r\n171 mm yr-1 water equivalent of snowfall (north of 82degS, estimate \r\nbased on satellite measurements during 2006-2011; Palerme \r\net  al., 2014). Precipitation in Antarctica occurs mostly in the form "


id: 62de0dd8307b644dcae9e9fc745eab19
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14694
content:
"Snowfall increased over the Antarctic Ice Sheet over AP and \r\nWAN, offsetting some of the 20th-century sea level rise (medium \r\nconfidence). Longer records suggest either a  decrease in snowfall \r\nover the Antarctic Ice Sheet over the last 1000 years or a statistically \r\nnegligible change over the last 800 years (low confidence)."


id: f99404939b3f86bb4b46a735247edda1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41277
content:
"Recent warming in the AP and consequent ice-shelf collapse are likely\r\nlinked to anthropogenic ozone and greenhouse gas forcing via the \r\nSAM and anthropogenically driven Atlantic sea surface. Also, there is \r\nhigh confidence in the influence of tropical sea surface temperature \r\non the Antarctic temperature and Southern Hemisphere mid-latitude \r\ncirculation, as well as the SAM. There is medium agreement but \r\nlimited evidence of an anthropogenic forcing effect on Antarctic \r\nice-sheet mass balance (low confidence) and partitioning between \r\nnatural and human drivers of atmospheric and ocean circulation \r\nchanges remains very uncertain."


id: 1b7367fd3d243bd060f4c9a4cc5f4660
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2007
content:
"In AR5, Church et  al. (2013) gave medium confidence in model \r\nprojections of a future Antarctic SMB increase, implying a negative \r\ncontribution to global mean sea level rise, consistent with a projection \r\nof significant Antarctic warming. Church et al. (2013) also gave high \r\nconfidence to the relationship between future temperature and \r\nprecipitation increases in Antarctica on physical grounds and from \r\nice-core evidence. In Meredith et al. (2019), the total mass balance \r\nprojections derived from ice-sheet models were reported without \r\nseparating the SMB, though projections were reported of increased \r\nprecipitation and continued strengthening of the westerly winds in \r\nthe Southern Ocean."


id: 2104057bfc962db238b5f68eddf21794
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3032
content:
"Antarctic climate variability is influenced by the Southern Annular \r\nMode (SAM) and regionally by other modes, including ENSO, Pacific-\r\nSouth American pattern, Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV), Indian Ocean \r\nDipole and Zonal Wave 3 (Annex IV). Climate change in Antarctica \r\nand the Southern Ocean is influenced by interactions between the \r\nice sheet, ocean, sea ice and atmosphere (Sections  9.2.3.2, 9.3.2 \r\nand 9.4.2; Meredith et al., 2019). In addition to Chapter 9, Antarctica \r\nis discussed across the report: global climate links (Chapters 2 and \r\n10), attribution (Chapter 3), global water cycle (Chapter 8), extremes \r\n(Chapter 11), and climatic impact-drivers (Chapter 12)."


id: 52b896f3bb100ed76f51148e09ee0b1d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11829
content:
"The AR5 (Vaughan et  al., 2013) reported warming over Antarctica \r\nsince the 1950s, mostly over the AP and WAN, attributed to the \r\npositive trend in the SAM. These trends in the Antarctic temperature \r\nwere given low confidence due to substantial multi-annual to multi\u0002decadal variability, as well as uncertainties in magnitude and spatial \r\ntrend structure. The AR5 reported low confidence that anthropogenic \r\nforcing has contributed to the temperature change in Antarctica. The \r\nAR5 highlighted a large interannual variability in snow accumulation \r\nwith no significant trend since 1979 around Antarctica, and high \r\nconfidence in the overall mass loss from Antarctica, accelerated since \r\nthe 1990s."


id: 5f2fc34bbb1681b4864dea490fe0fe68
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14054
content:
"In this and the following paragraphs, findings are from SROCC \r\n(Meredith et  al., 2019) unless otherwise stated. Warming trends \r\nwere reported over parts of WAN with record surface warmth \r\nover WAN during the 1990s compared to the past 200 years, and \r\nAP surface melting intensifying since the mid-20th  century. No \r\nsignificant temperature trends were reported over EAN and there \r\nwas low confidence in both WAN and EAN trend estimates due \r\nto sparse in situ records and large interannual to inter-decadal \r\nvariability. In the AP, concomitant increase in temperature and \r\nfoehn winds due to positive SAM caused increased surface melting \r\nover the Larsen ice shelves (medium confidence). Strong warming \r\nbetween the mid-1950s and the late 1990s led to the collapse of the \r\nLarsen B ice shelf in 2002, which had been intact for 11,000 years \r\n(medium confidence)."


id: 478c001d7b31768fde818ae31c3c3f42
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9802
content:
"Significant warming at the Byrd station (0.29degC +- 0.19degC per \r\ndecade during 1957-2016) confirms and extends earlier trend \r\nestimates (0.42degC +- 0.24degC per decade during 1958-2010) and is \r\nrepresentative of the entire WAN warming (0.22degC +- 0.12degC per \r\ndecade from 1958 to 2012 averaged over WAN excluding AP, medium \r\nconfidence due to lack of observations) (Bromwich et al., 2013, 2014; "


id: 55180730589d4ea878f5a2085054f949
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12245
content:
"Jones et al., 2019). WAN and AP show statistically significant warming \r\nin the HadCRUTv5 observational dataset (Figure 2.11b). There is high \r\nconfidence in the long-term warming trend at the AP and WAN, and \r\nalso at the century scale based on reconstructions (Zagorodnov \r\net  al., 2012; Stenni et  al., 2017; Lyu et  al., 2020), confirming the \r\ntrends estimated by earlier studies assessed in the SROCC (Meredith \r\net al., 2019). The century-scale warming trend in the AP is very likely\r\nan emerging signal compared to natural variability, while the WAN \r\nwarming trend falls in the high end of century-scale trends over the \r\nlast 2000 years (medium confidence) (Stenni et al., 2017)."


id: 3787e0da8a14fa7e8c3a83268fec6f60
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6982
content:
"inferred since 1979 (IMBIE team et al., 2018; Medley and Thomas, \r\n2019). While ice-core reconstructions show a significant increase in \r\nthe western AP SMB since the 1950s (Thomas et al., 2017; Medley \r\nand Thomas, 2019; Wang et al., 2019), this trend is not reproduced \r\nby regional climate models or the reanalyses used to drive them \r\n(Figure Atlas.30; van Wessem et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2019)."


id: bd79feffcfc198272abc7e3fd103145d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30594
content:
"According to the ice-core reconstructions, SMB over WAN (including \r\nAP) has likely increased during the 20th  century with trends of \r\n5.4 +- 2.9 Gt yr-1 per decade (1900-2010; Wang et al., 2019) mitigating \r\nglobal mean sea level rise by, respectively, 0.28 +-  0.17  mm per \r\ndecade (WAN excluding AP, during 1901-2000) and 0.62 +- 0.17 mm \r\nper decade (AP, during 1979-2000; Medley and Thomas, 2019). \r\nSignificant spatial heterogeneity in SMB trends has been observed \r\nover AP and WAN:"


id: ad4940fad05d6abaaf81daa211228da6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27729
content:
"In EAN, during 1957-2016, three stations showed significant \r\nwarming (Scott 0.22degC +- 0.15degC, Novolazarevskaya 0.13degC +- 0.09degC, \r\nand Vostok 0.15degC +- 0.13degC per decade), while other stations with \r\nlong-term observations indicated no statistically significant trends \r\n(Figure Atlas.30). During 1979-2016, three coastal stations showed \r\ncooling, while at the South Pole a  warming trend was detected, \r\nincreasing to 0.61degC +- 0.34degC per decade during 1989-2018 \r\n(Figure Atlas.30; Jones et al., 2019; Clem et al., 2020; Turner et al., \r\n2020). The century-scale warming in Queen Maud Land coast based \r\non ice-core reconstructions is within the range of centennial internal \r\nvariability (Stenni et al., 2017)."


id: 9166b79d99931c09bce7b0f8741ce9ae
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22792
content:
"The SMB of EAN increased during the 20th century which mitigated \r\nglobal mean sea level rise by 0.77 +- 0.40  mm per decade during \r\n1901-2000 (medium confidence) (Medley and Thomas, 2019). \r\nEAN SMB has been increasing at a much lower rate since 1979 as \r\nshown by observations, while regional climate models show strong \r\ninterannual variability masking any trend (low confidence due to \r\nlimited observations) (Figure Atlas.30; Medley and Thomas, 2019; \r\nRignot et al., 2019). EAN SMB changes during the 20th century and \r\nrecent decades showed large spatial heterogeneity:"


id: 19cb1c470491155c372297c5df7329f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1735
content:
"Direct observations of snowfall in Antarctica using traditional \r\ngauges are highly uncertain and records from precipitation radars \r\n(Gorodetskaya et al., 2015; Grazioli et al., 2017; Scarchilli et al., 2020) \r\nare not long enough to assess trends. Estimates of precipitation and \r\nSMB are largely model-based due to the paucity of in situ observations \r\nin Antarctica (Lenaerts et al., 2019; Hanna et al., 2020). Antarctic SMB \r\nis dominated by precipitation and removal by sublimation with very \r\nsmall amounts of melt mostly important only on the ice shelves. \r\nClimate models and satellite records (IMBIE team et al., 2018; Rignot \r\net al., 2019; Mottram et al., 2021) suggest that strong interannual \r\nvariability of Antarctic-wide SMB over the satellite period currently \r\nmasks any existing trend (Figure Atlas.30) in spite of a possible ozone \r\ndepletion-related precipitation increase over the 1991-2005 period \r\n(Lenaerts et  al., 2018). No significant Antarctic-wide SMB trend is "


id: dfa523072c62593f4355a55567bd352b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36595
content:
"processes are either of variable quality, with extremely simple \r\nrepresentatons, or non-existent (Agosta et  al., 2015; Trusel et  al., \r\n2015). Though most meltwater refreezes in the snowpack in current \r\nclimate simulations, this may be an issue in the future climate \r\nsimulations under global warming as runoff is projected to increase \r\n(Kittel et al., 2021). Since CMIP5, representation of snow (Lenaerts \r\net al., 2016) and stable surface boundary layers (Vignon et al., 2018) \r\nhas improved in some atmospheric GCMs. In one example, the \r\nCMIP6 model CESM2 simulation of cloud and precipitation showed \r\nsubstantial improvements (Schneider et  al., 2020), though surface \r\nmelting is still considerably overestimated compared to RCMs and \r\nsatellite products (Trusel et al., 2015; Lenaerts et al., 2016)."


id: 7574ef3bd09957efe3903522f5826bca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17893
content:
"Regional trends during recent 50 year (1961-2010) and 100 year \r\n(1911-2010) periods are within the centennial variability of the \r\npast 1000 years, except for coastal QML (unusual 100-year increase \r\nin accumulation) and for coastal Victoria Land (unusual 100-year \r\ndecrease in accumulation) (Thomas et al., 2017). Nevertheless, the \r\ncurrent EAN SMB is not unusual compared to the past 800 years \r\n(Frezzotti et al., 2013)."


id: 9a2f1d9eeab1c454d2ecfccb1c0786f4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24365
content:
"Assimilation of observations in reanalysis products yields realistic \r\ntemperature patterns and seasonal variations, with the recent ERA5 \r\nreanalysis showing improved performance compared to others for \r\nmean and extreme temperature, wind and humidity, though a warm \r\nbias in near-surface air temperatures remains (Retamales-Munoz \r\net  al., 2019; Tetzner et  al., 2019; Dong et  al., 2020; Gorodetskaya \r\net al., 2020). The ability of the reanalyses to simulate precipitation and \r\nSMB is more variable; they generally overestimate the latter (Gossart \r\net  al., 2019; Roussel et  al., 2020), but are well suited to provide \r\natmospheric and sea surface boundary conditions to drive RCMs."


id: 6ddbccf6b839d8c7aa4a59b889359231
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16590
content:
"This section provides evaluation of atmospheric global and regional \r\nclimate models, including reanalyses. Evaluation of the ice-sheet \r\nmodels and relevant processes, including selection of the atmospheric \r\nmodels used to drive ice-sheet models, is given in Section 9.4.2.2."


id: e06eaf3494ac8de7598623aee296677d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36736
content:
"One of the major systematic biases in CMIP5 and earlier GCMs was \r\nan equatorward bias in the latitude of the Southern Hemisphere \r\nmid-latitude westerly jet, which is significantly reduced in the \r\nCMIP6 ensemble (Bracegirdle et al., 2020a). GCM Southern Ocean \r\nsea ice biases are also of importance as they influence 21st-century \r\ntemperature projections in Antarctica and simulations of present\u0002day temperatures are highly sensitive to these biases (Agosta \r\net al., 2015; Bracegirdle et al., 2015). A positive bias in near-surface \r\ntemperature over the Antarctic plateau is seen in CMIP5 models \r\n(Lenaerts et al., 2016)."


id: 8e9404acf90ffa2003e214225631fb7a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:42
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22266
content:
"CMIP6 GCMs showed an improved representation of the Antarctic \r\nnear-surface temperature compared to CMIP5 but little improvement \r\n(maintaining positive bias) in Antarctic precipitation estimates \r\n(Palerme et  al., 2017; Roussel et  al., 2020). An analysis of the \r\n1850-2000 SMB mean, trends, and interannual and spatial variability \r\nsuggests slightly worse agreement with ice-core-based reanalyses \r\nin CMIP6 than CMIP5 (Gorte et  al., 2020). Comparison of CMIP5 \r\nmodels with CloudSat satellite products and an ice-core-based SMB \r\nreconstruction showed almost all the models overestimate current \r\nAntarctic precipitation, some by more than 100% (Palerme et  al., \r\n2017; Gorte et  al., 2020). GCM simulations of surface snow-melt "


id: 9e870ddeb4dade382111d6c07c7a0709
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25114
content:
"Finer-resolution RCM studies demonstrate improved representation \r\nof precipitation and temperature gradients (van Wessem et  al., \r\n2018; Bozkurt et  al., 2020; Donat-Magnin et  al., 2020; Elvidge \r\net al., 2020), and strength of katabatic winds (Bintanja et al., 2014; "


id: 7b0a0354e5f25f174e89cef1c26172eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18852
content:
"Souverijns et al., 2019) in coastal and mountainous regions. Adequate \r\nrepresentation of some processes is still lacking, including drifting \r\nsnow, sublimation of falling snow or the spectral dependency of \r\nsnow albedo (Lenaerts et al., 2019). Non-hydrostatic regional models, \r\nfor example Polar-WRF, MetUM or HARMONIE-AROME at spatial \r\nresolutions up to 2  km further improve regional RCM simulations, \r\nbut are still often unable to resolve relevant feedbacks and foehn \r\nprocesses (Grosvenor et al., 2014; Elvidge et al., 2015, 2020; Elvidge \r\nand Renfrew, 2016; King et al., 2017; Turton et al., 2017; Bozkurt et al., \r\n2018b; Hines et al., 2019; Vignon et al., 2019; Gilbert et al., 2020)."


id: 63489241677177dd1eb149fc1abd6353
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14763
content:
"Existing uncertainties in the Antarctic climate representation by both \r\nGCMs and RCMs cause significant spread in the future Antarctic \r\nclimate and SMB projections (Gorte et al., 2020; Kittel et al., 2021). \r\nRun-time bias adjustment in atmospheric GCMs (Cross-Chapter \r\nBox 10.2; Krinner et al., 2019, 2020) has been proposed to provide \r\nlow-bias present and consistently corrected future RCM forcing \r\n(reducing the need for coupled model selection), which could be used \r\ndirectly for Antarctic climate projections (Krinner et al., 2019)."


id: 7555b4b6456789d8c32c6467a6491cc4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17873
content:
"This section provides an assessment of projections in temperature, \r\nprecipitation and SMB. See Section  9.4.2 for projected changes in \r\nthe ice-sheet total mass balance and relevant processes, and see \r\nSection 4.3.1 (Table 4.2) and Section 4.5.1 for Antarctic temperature \r\nprojections relative to other regions."


id: ea356d417df265d47fd14cbeeef654fb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38556
content:
"Polar-CORDEX RCMs show higher variability in precipitation \r\nprojections compared to CMIP5 models with a similar spatial pattern \r\nof the areas with precipitation increase over continental Antarctica \r\nbut with higher local magnitude, and also showing a larger increase \r\nover the Weddell Sea ice shelves (Interactive Atlas). CMIP5 and CMIP6 "


id: 7db3a2f7edfa2d66358e66dfe68b4efd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19290
content:
"models, bias adjusted based on regional climate model simulations, \r\nshowed that the projected warming is expected to result in increased \r\nsurface melting over the Antarctic ice shelves, with meltwater runoff \r\nunder RCP8.5 and SSP5-8.5 becoming larger than precipitation over \r\nice shelves over the period 2045-2050, surpassing intensities that \r\nwere linked with the collapse of Larsen A and B ice shelves (Trusel \r\net al., 2015; Kittel et al., 2021). Given the existing uncertainty in the \r\npresent precipitation and SMB simulations and the significant range in \r\nthe projected precipitation increase under various emissions scenarios \r\nin CMIP5, CMIP6 and CORDEX models, there is medium confidence\r\nthat the future Antarctic SMB will have a  negative contribution \r\nto sea level during the 21st  century under all emissions scenarios \r\n(see Section 9.4.2.3 for assessment of the drivers of future Antarctic \r\nice-sheet change and Section 9.4.2.6 for longer time scales)."


id: 6a6f6697ded92aa020aa2c09094e9c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16005
content:
"Observations show a  very likely widespread, strong warming \r\ntrend starting in the 1950s in the Antarctic Peninsula. Significant \r\nwarming trends are observed in other West Antarctic regions and at \r\nselected stations in East Antarctica (medium confidence). Antarctic \r\nprecipitation and SMB showed a significant positive trend over the \r\n20th  century according to the ice cores, while large interannual \r\nvariability masks any existing trend over the satellite period since the \r\nend of the 1970s (medium confidence)."


id: 9ce604b53d8102b85c46e8f669e96681
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24840
content:
"An assessment of model performance for the present day shows \r\nthat high-resolution regional climate models with polar-optimized \r\nphysics are important for estimating SMB and generating climate \r\ninformation, and show improved realizations compared to reanalyses \r\nand GCMs when evaluated against observations. At the same time, \r\nCMIP6 GCMs showed an improved representation of the Antarctic \r\nnear-surface temperature compared to CMIP5, though still struggle \r\nwith the representation of precipitation. There is therefore medium \r\nconfidence in the capacity of climate models to simulate Antarctic \r\nclimate and SMB changes."


id: 1020b40513d2c1ac31d950580513178
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24
content:
"The following summary from previous IPCC reports is derived from \r\nthe SROCC (IPCC, 2019a) unless otherwise stated. Arctic surface air \r\ntemperatures have increased from the mid-1950s, with feedbacks \r\nfrom loss of sea ice and snow cover contributing to the amplified \r\nwarming (high confidence) (IPCC, 2018c), and have likely increased \r\nby more than double the global average over the last two decades \r\n(high confidence). Arctic snow cover in June has declined from 1967 \r\nto 2018 (high confidence). Arctic glaciers are losing mass (very \r\nhigh confidence) and this along with changes in high-mountain \r\nsnowmelt have caused changes in hydrology, including river runoff, \r\nthat are projected to continue in the near term (high confidence). \r\nThe rate of ice loss from the Greenland Ice Sheet has increased; \r\nduring 2006-2015 the loss was 278 +- 11 Gt yr -1 with the rate for \r\n2012-2016 higher than for 2002-2011 and several times higher than \r\nduring 1992-2001 (high confidence)."


id: 1ddf7333ff039d876a607433aa652d3f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2447
content:
"Under all assessed emissions scenarios, both West and East Antarctica \r\nare very likely to have higher annual mean surface air temperatures \r\nand more precipitation, which will have a  dominant influence on \r\ndetermining future changes in the SMB (high confidence). However, \r\ndue to the challenges of model evaluation over the region and the \r\npossibility of increased meltwater runoff described above, there is \r\nonly medium confidence that the future contribution of the Antarctic \r\nSMB to sea level this century will be negative under all greenhouse \r\ngas emissions scenarios."


id: 953fa3dfdfc6c49f68d1bc523afa33a2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23458
content:
"The Arctic sea ice area is declining in all months of the year (very \r\nhigh confidence) with the September sea ice minimum very likely\r\nhaving reduced by 12.8 +- 2.3% per decade during the satellite \r\nera (1979-2018) to levels unprecedented for at least 1000 years \r\n(medium confidence)."


id: bc0a54a1f05fc8bd1efa8025818e5666
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30319
content:
"The high latitudes are likely to experience an increase in annual \r\nmean precipitation under RCP8.5 (IPCC, 2013c). Further, changes \r\nin precipitation will not be uniform. Autumn and spring snow \r\ncover duration are projected to decrease by a further 5-10% from \r\ncurrent conditions in the near term (2031-2050). No further losses \r\nare projected under RCP2.6 whereas a further 15-25% reduction in \r\nsnow cover duration is projected by the end of century under RCP8.5 \r\n(high confidence)."


id: 4b899ab1c5485664cc1d9b5060fa106b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10547
content:
"increase in the cold season (October-May) (medium confidence) \r\n(AMAP, 2019). Also, for neighbouring Arctic regions for example NEU, \r\nEEU and North Asia, mean annual precipitation has increased since \r\nthe early 20th century (Atlas.8 and Atlas.5.2). Estimated trends for \r\nprecipitation and snowfall fraction are mixed for the Arctic, with \r\nincreases and decreases for different regions and seasons (Vihma et al., \r\n2016). However, annual precipitation trends derived from different \r\nreanalyses do not agree, differ in sign and have low significance \r\n(Lindsay et  al., 2014; Boisvert et  al., 2018). Direct precipitation \r\nmeasurements are difficult and include uncertainties (among others \r\nmeasuring frozen precipitation), therefore precipitation estimates in \r\nthe Arctic rely on climate models and reanalyses."


id: 4db7c36e72e260167c0a5c3d739c919e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10947
content:
"An average of five reanalyses for 2000-2010 suggests around 40% \r\nof Arctic Ocean precipitation falls as snow, though there is large \r\nuncertainty in this estimate (Boisvert et al., 2018). Rainfall frequency \r\nis estimated to have increased over the Arctic by 2.7-5.4% over \r\n2000-2016 (Boisvert et al., 2018) with more frequent rainfall events \r\nreported for NEU and ARO (Svalbard; Maturilli et al., 2015; AMAP, \r\n2019), and winter rain totals and frequency have increased in Svalbard \r\nsince 2000 (medium confidence) (Lupikasza et al., 2019). Rain-free \r\nwinters have rarely occurred since 1998 (Peeters et al., 2019)."


id: e2127c7975afd9163683dda2ec7811c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37054
content:
"Observational records (1966-2010) for the RAR region show \r\nchanging precipitation characteristics (Ye et al., 2016), with higher \r\nprecipitation intensity but lower frequency and little change in \r\nannual precipitation total. Precipitation intensity is reported to have \r\nincreased in all seasons, strongest in winter and spring, weakest \r\nin summer, and at a rate of about 1-3% per degree Celsius of air \r\ntemperature increase."


id: 8d7604cacf5ec1649ed164409345f824
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22072
content:
"Evaluating simulated temperature and precipitation is problematic \r\nin the Arctic due to sparse weather station observations. The lack of \r\nreliable observed precipitation datasets for the Arctic thus makes it \r\nvery unlikely to be able to evaluate objectively the skill of models to \r\nreproduce precipitation patterns (Takhsha et al., 2018)."


id: 4fff2eead357306f6f847a7a5ced07ba
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11369
content:
"A multi-dataset analysis for NEN shows a  consistent warming \r\n(Rapaic et  al., 2015), with the largest annual temperature trend \r\ngreater than 0.3degC per decade during 1981-2010 over eastern NEN \r\nand also significant warming over northern Quebec and most of \r\nthe Canadian Arctic north of the treeline. For the longer 1950-2010 \r\nperiod, a consistent warming is found over central and western NEN, \r\nbut no trend or no consensus is found over the Labrador coast. The \r\nlatter is related with cooling of the North Atlantic region during \r\nthe 1970s. For western Greenland, however, summer temperatures \r\nincreased (2.2degC in June, 1.1degC in July) from 1994 to 2015 (Saros \r\net al., 2019). For neighbouring Arctic regions of NEU, WSE and ESB, \r\ndatasets show a  consistent warming of annual mean temperature \r\nsince the mid-1970s and 1980 (Atlas.8 and Atlas.5.2)."


id: f67e4f2f845f2a26ee0254a2440cba5c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40736
content:
"Along with the amplified warming, the Arctic has become moister \r\n(Rinke et  al., 2019; Nygard et  al., 2020). AMAP reported Arctic \r\nprecipitation increases of 1.5-2.0% per decade, with the strongest "


id: 692891b5c3f2dc3d852a2b28af048a3c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15769
content:
"which have a  warm or weak bias in their Arctic temperature \r\nsimulations, closely relate the Arctic warming to changes in the large\u0002scale atmospheric circulation. In other models, which show large cold \r\nbiases, the albedo feedback effect plays a more important role for \r\nthe temperature trend magnitude. This implies that the dominant \r\nsimulated Arctic warming mechanism and trend may be dependent \r\non the bias of the model mean state (Franzke et al., 2017). Compared \r\nto CMIP5 models, Davy and Outten (2020) found lower biases in \r\nCMIP6 models' representation of sea ice extent and volume with \r\nimproved extents linked to a better seasonal cycle in the Barents Sea."


id: f0294a72400f9c4c34ba4ed18ac2d0b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39635
content:
"Rapid temperature changes, such as the pronounced increase of \r\n2degC yr -1 during 2003-2012 over the Kara and Barents seas in March \r\nis well captured in Arctic CORDEX simulations (Kohnemann et  al., \r\n2017). The models show adequate skill in capturing the general \r\ntemperature patterns (Koenigk et  al., 2015; Matthes et  al., 2015; \r\nHamman et  al., 2016; Cassano et  al., 2017; Brunke et  al., 2018; \r\nDiaconescu et al., 2018; Takhsha et al., 2018), but tend to show a cold \r\ntemperature bias which is largest in winter and depends on the \r\nreference dataset. Cassano et al. (2017) showed a large sensitivity \r\nof the simulated surface climate to changes in atmospheric model \r\nphysics. In particular, large changes in radiative flux biases, driven by \r\nchanges in simulated clouds, lead to large differences in temperature \r\nand precipitation biases."


id: d00b25f292b917b89e5bf9cdce889710
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33957
content:
"The CMIP5 models perform well in simulating 20th-century snowfall \r\nfor the Northern Hemisphere, although there is a  positive bias in \r\nthe multi-model ensemble relative to the observed data in many \r\nregions (Krasting et  al., 2013). Lack of sufficient spatial resolution \r\nin the model topography has a serious impact on the simulation of \r\nsnowfall. The patterns of relative maxima and minima of snowfall, \r\nhowever, are captured reasonably well by the models."


id: 6f51c80554f92454a402619f1b29bc1f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16846
content:
"Mean temperature in the Arctic is projected to continue to rise \r\nthrough the 21st century significantly higher than the global average \r\n(Figure Atlas.29 and the Interactive Atlas). For the regions NWN and \r\nNEN, see Atlas.9. The Arctic is projected to reach a 2degC annual mean \r\nwarming above the 1981-2005 baseline about 25 to 50 years before \r\nthe globe as a whole under RCP8.5 and RCP4.5 (Post et al., 2019). \r\nThe Arctic warming may be as much as 4degC in the annual mean and \r\n7degC in late autumn under 2degC global warming, regardless of which \r\nscenario is considered (high confidence) (Post et al., 2019)."


id: 3aa3403c06566256c152288200e18571
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7521
content:
"Arctic CORDEX RCMs reproduce the dominant features of regional \r\nprecipitation patterns and extremes (e.g., Glisan and Gutowski, 2014; \r\nHamman et al., 2016). Due to their higher spatial resolution, RCMs \r\nsimulates larger amounts of orographic precipitation compared \r\nto reanalyses. Overall, the simulated precipitation is within the \r\nreanalysis and global model ensemble spread, but the Arctic river \r\nbasin precipitation is closer to observations (Brunke et  al., 2018). \r\nHowever, Takhsha et  al. (2018) show that the RCMs' precipitation \r\nbias highly depends on the observational reference dataset used."


id: 7b93129b050d54676df3025dbbe99c94
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18949
content:
"Projections from 40 CMIP5 models of the 2014-2100 Arctic annual \r\nwarming under RCP4.5 vary from 0.9degC to 6.7degC, with a multi-model \r\nmean of 3.7degC (Chylek et al., 2016). All models agree on a projected \r\nArctic amplification (of at least 1.5 times), but they disagree on the \r\nmagnitude and spatial patterns. Arctic warming trends projected \r\nby models that include a  full direct and indirect aerosol effect \r\n('fully aerosol-cloud interactive') are significantly higher than \r\nthose projected by models without a  full indirect aerosol effect \r\n(Chylek et al., 2016)."


id: a8095be8d103c1d550829558711a1f18
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26777
content:
"The annual mean precipitation pattern of ensemble global \r\natmospheric simulations with a  high horizontal resolution agrees \r\nwell with the observations, with precipitation maxima over the \r\nGreenland and Norwegian seas (Kusunoki et  al., 2015). However, \r\nthe simulated Arctic average annual precipitation shows a positive \r\nbias with excessive precipitation over Alaska and the western Arctic \r\n(Kattsov et al., 2017)."


id: 96ec5841726297889f69d8631ff0d31f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23744
content:
"Projected Arctic warming exhibits a very pronounced seasonal cycle, \r\nwith exceptionally strong warming in the winter. In projections \r\nfrom 30 CMIP5 models, winter warming over ARO varies regionally \r\nfrom 3degC to 5degC by mid-century and 5degC to 9degC by late-century under \r\nRCP4.5 (high confidence) (AMAP, 2017). Averaged over the Arctic \r\nand based on 36 CMIP5 models, winter warming is 5.8degC +- 1.5degC \r\nby mid-century and 7.1degC +- 2.3degC by 2100 under RCP4.5 "


id: 58879944e24e8af82674ed5b42231cee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12821
content:
"Regarding the Greenland Ice Sheet (region GIC), modelled surface \r\nmass balance (SMB) has decreased since the end of the 1990s \r\n(Fettweis et al., 2020). A multi-model intercomparison study (Fettweis \r\net al., 2020) emphasized a simulated positive mean annual SMB of \r\n338 +- 68 Gt yr-1 between 1980 and 2012, with a decreasing average \r\nrate of 7.3 +- 2.0 Gt yr-2, mainly driven by an increase in meltwater "


id: 625e44d73762f3b996bc6dd034acde93
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14589
content:
"The CMIP6 projections confirm precipitation will likely increase \r\nalmost everywhere in the Arctic (Interactive Atlas). The largest \r\nincrease is simulated over the Barents Sea, Kara Sea and East \r\nSiberian Sea regions, and over north-east Greenland. A pronounced \r\nuncertainty in the projection exists over the Arctic North Atlantic and \r\nsouth Greenland. There, the precipitation signal is not significant even \r\nby the end of the 21st century and under high-emissions scenarios \r\n(RCP8.5, SSP5-8.5). Consistent with the generally higher warming in \r\nCMIP6, compared to CMIP5, the projected precipitation increase is \r\nalso higher (high confidence) (Figure Atlas.29)."


id: e77576056fcba0b94befe49bf5d40b9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38021
content:
"(Overland et al., 2019), and an exceptionally strong warming of up to \r\n14.1degC +- 2.9degC is projected in December under RCP8.5 (Bintanja and \r\nKrikken, 2016). Bintanja and Van Der Linden (2013) estimated the \r\nArctic winter warming over the 21st century to exceed the summer \r\nwarming by at least a factor of four, irrespective of the magnitude of \r\nthe climate forcing."


id: f7c71b3c8954bf0ce497b5990590e09a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40966
content:
"The Arctic mean annual precipitation sensitivity has been estimated \r\nat a 4.5% increase per degree Celsius of temperature rise, compared \r\nto a global average of 1.6-1.9% per degree Celsius of temperature \r\nrise (Bintanja and Selten, 2014) based on a set of 37 CMIP5 GCMs. \r\nKoenigk et al. (2015) stress the different precipitation sensitivity in \r\nwinter (0.8 mm per month per degree Celsius of temperature rise) and \r\nsummer (2 mm per month per degree Celsius of temperature rise). \r\nThe pattern and amplitude of precipitation changes agree in CORDEX \r\nsimulations with their driving CMIP5 models (high confidence) \r\n(Koenigk et  al., 2015; Spinoni et  al., 2020). However, more small\u0002scale variations over land and coastlines, and significantly larger \r\nprecipitation changes in summer are obvious in the downscaling."


id: 8724d269f334bfb590df5e16cbd05292
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20939
content:
"Rain is projected to become the dominant form of precipitation in \r\nthe Arctic region by the end of the 21st century (Bintanja, 2018). The \r\nCMIP5 models show a decrease in annual Arctic snowfall under both \r\nRCP4.5 and RCP8.5 (high confidence) (Krasting et al., 2013; Bintanja \r\nand Andry, 2017). In the central Arctic, the snowfall fraction barely \r\nremains larger than 50%, with only Greenland still having snowfall \r\nfractions larger than 80% (Bintanja and Andry, 2017). The most \r\ndramatic reductions in snowfall fraction are projected to occur over \r\nthe North Atlantic and, especially, the Barents Sea."


id: a451f60f47d8677e7e2c5743c33b5994
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26113
content:
"The ensemble of CMIP6 shows likely greater warming compared to \r\nCMIP5 (Figure Atlas.29). There is weak agreement among the models \r\nin projected temperature change over the Arctic North Atlantic under \r\nSSPs until the mid-century, but a  robust warming signal clearly \r\nemerges even there by 2100 (Interactive Atlas). Generally, the largest \r\nannual warming is simulated over the Arctic Ocean, particularly \r\nover the Barents Sea and the Kara Sea. Future warming in CORDEX \r\nRCMs and the CMIP5 models are similar (Spinoni et al., 2020). The \r\nRCM warming over the AO is smaller, while the warming over land \r\nis larger in winter and spring but smaller in summer, compared with \r\nCMIP5 (Koenigk et al., 2015)."


id: 75ea61fe4dc090cf0e941ae3c5670a34
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17971
content:
"With ongoing warming and polar amplification in the Arctic, the \r\nGreenland Ice Sheet SMB will inevitably continue to change (high \r\nconfidence) (Lenaerts et al., 2019). For the ice sheet, despite large \r\ndifferences between model scenarios, future projections and regions \r\nagree that increasing temperatures will increase runoff which will \r\nin turn dominate the future decrease of SMB (Rae et  al., 2012; \r\nvan Angelen et al., 2014; Mottram et al., 2017; Hofer et al., 2020), \r\nconfirming the high sensitivity of the SMB to atmospheric warming. \r\nChanges in SMB will continue to dominate future mass loss from \r\nthe ice sheet, and likely even more when marine-terminating glaciers \r\nretreat onto land, and solid ice discharge is reduced (Vizcaino, 2014; \r\nLenaerts et al., 2019)."


id: 8c3300eaf4a7438b8afba127b4408489
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21840
content:
"It is very likely that the Arctic has warmed at more than twice the \r\nglobal rate over the past 50 years and likely that annual precipitation \r\nhas increased with the highest increases during the cold season. \r\nThis is based on various Arctic amplification processes, in particular, \r\na  combination of several feedback-related processes such as sea \r\nice and snow-cover albedo, poleward energy transports, and water\u0002vapour-cloud-radiation feedbacks. The frequency of rainfall increased \r\nover the Arctic by 2.7-5.4% over the 2000-2016 period with more "


id: dc6929999b4451f1729e9ee6f381b903
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36044
content:
"can remain larger than model uncertainty or scenario uncertainty \r\nthroughout the whole century. The Atlas (similarly to other regional \r\nchapters) uses a single realization per model (CMIP6 models provide \r\nmultiple realizations, but it is not the case for CORDEX and less so \r\nfor CMIP5), which allows for the comparison of the different lines \r\nof evidence but at the expense of internal variability having a larger \r\ninfluence on the ability to detect or quantify changes."


id: 50c1ddbb409325e9800f682999a4c2af
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11483
content:
"The CMIP5 models reproduce the observed Arctic warming over \r\nthe past century but overestimate the amplified Arctic warming in \r\nthe recent decades (medium confidence). Arctic CORDEX simulations \r\nshow adequate skill in capturing regional temperature and \r\nprecipitation patterns and precipitation extremes (high confidence). \r\nSMB models have improved due to increased availability and quality \r\nof remotely sensed and in situ observations, and an ensemble mean \r\nof SMB model simulations provides the best estimate of the present\u0002day SMB (medium confidence)."


id: 5125f04f893fe2620416d5e28ffc32f2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11563
content:
"The assessment produced in the Atlas is based on the individual \r\nresults from the different lines of global and regional evidence \r\nand the consistency amongst them, as there is a lack of literature \r\non methodologies that combine multiple lines of evidence to distil \r\nregional climate change information."


id: b950869945e7b40d321cadb636cbaa6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29815
content:
"It is very likely that the Arctic annual mean temperature \r\nand precipitation will continue to increase, reaching around \r\n11.5degC  +-  3.4degC and 49 +- 19% over the 2081-2100 period (with \r\nrespect to a  1995-2014 baseline) under the SSP5-8.5 scenario or \r\n4.0degC +- 2.5degC and 17 +- 11% under the SSP1-2.6 scenario. These \r\nCMIP6 results show likely higher Arctic annual mean temperatures \r\ncompared to CMIP5 for a given time-period and emissions scenario, \r\nthough the projections are consistent for global warming levels."


id: 761ea96ba810f735c5d03b3e3682ef04
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18012
content:
"Developing from the AR5 WGI Atlas Annex (IPCC, 2013a), the Atlas is \r\nan innovation in the WGI contribution to the AR6, providing a region\u0002by-region assessment of new knowledge on changes in mean climate \r\nand an online interactive tool, the Interactive Atlas. It demonstrates \r\nthe diversity in the climate changes across these regions, in the \r\nevidence base for generating information on what changes have \r\nalready occurred and why, and what further changes each region is \r\nprojected to face in the future based on different emissions scenarios \r\nand global warming levels. Finally, the Interactive Atlas allows for \r\nfurther exploration of the data underpinning the assessment material \r\ngenerated by many of the other chapters."


id: d6d1a7ce8e10b1c195a046b490b8571c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35105
content:
"The foundation of the regional information generated by the Atlas \r\nchapter is an assessment of the significant body of new literature \r\non regional climate change though noting substantial heterogeneity \r\nin both its availability and the involvement of regional expertise. In \r\nmany regions this allows for an in-depth assessment though in some \r\nthe range of information that can be provided and/or the level of \r\nconfidence in the information is limited. There is similar heterogeneity \r\nin the availability of observations to assess recent trends and evaluate \r\nmodel performance, with a lack of curated regional datasets in the \r\npolar regions, Northern South America, Africa and the Small Islands."


id: 543375c52e2b496730ad76b72742acf1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12090
content:
"Internal variability is a large contributor to the climate uncertainty at \r\nregional scales. Recent work has combined outputs of single model \r\ninitial-conditions large ensembles (SMILEs) with CMIP5 and CMIP6 \r\nto partition and gain insights on the modelled range and uncertainty \r\narising from internal variability and from model-response \r\nuncertainty for a given emissions scenario (Deser et al., 2020; Lehner \r\net al., 2020; Maher et al., 2021). The work highlights the notable role \r\nfor internal variability at regional scales, particularly for precipitation \r\nin regions with weaker forced response, where internal variability "


id: 155644408ebdaf81bc14621464bac2df
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 967
content:
"Mansour Almazroui (Saudi Arabia), Lisa Bock (Germany), Josep G. Canadell (Australia), Rafiq Hamdi \r\n(Belgium), Masao Ishii (Japan), Pedro M. S. Monteiro (South Africa), Prabir K. Patra (Japan/India), \r\nShilong Piao (China), Jin-Ho Yoon (Republic of Korea), Yongqiang Yu (China), Prodromos Zanis \r\n(Greece), Olga Zolina (Russian Federation/France)"


id: 9aeab451ebc30690bd10930f6244aae5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24497
content:
"IPCC, 2021: Annex I: Observational Products [Trewin, B. (ed.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. \r\nContribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\r\n[Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Pean, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, \r\nK. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekci, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge \r\nUniversity Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2061-2086, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.015."


id: ce78597999c241989ada4c92ce118486
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33672
content:
"Reanalyses are within the scope of this annex, but historical climate \r\nmodel simulations are not. Proxy datasets are also outside the scope \r\nof this annex."


id: 47efa0d8c3d4075b851cf8dcce166d78
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9872
content:
"The purpose of this annex is to document observational datasets used \r\nby Working Group I in the Sixth Assessment Report. This includes \r\ndetails of the types and versions of datasets, the time period they \r\ncover, the chapters in which they appear, and citations and (where \r\navailable) web links to the data."


id: ac61a484d1f306f53db73543a3dbcd7c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27566
content:
"Datasets which are updated regularly on an operational basis are \r\nshown as ending in 2020, even if no 2020 data have yet been \r\npublished at the time of writing."


id: 24138d8c3e53babfff115c7f8fe0cdec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3528
content:
"Datasets are sorted alphabetically according to the dataset name or, \r\nif there is no formal name, the name of the responsible institution \r\nor lead author."


id: 9aa015632e1c2a4b7d0cf5fed03ea7f1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24444
content:
"This list includes those observational datasets that contribute \r\nto values reported in the text or in figures, unless they are citing \r\na specific result from a paper (as opposed to an ongoing dataset for \r\nwhich that paper is a reference)."


id: a6f9831f65cbbadd00a3f77531c81acb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26583
content:
"Paul J. Durack (United States of America/Australia), Seita Emori (Japan), Malte Meinhausen \r\n(Australia/Germany), Sophie Nowicki (United States of America/France), Lucas Ruiz (Argentina)"


id: fe89b4d424abe9fb148c85146dcb8151
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42158
content:
"(Taylor  et  al., 2012). This table illustrates the heterogeneity of \r\ninformation available across the different domains which limits the \r\nassessment of some scenarios in some regions."


id: fb98aad0727ac8cb4cdf9e5b77dab0dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41634
content:
"The RCMs contributing to CORDEX (as available from ESGF) are listed \r\nin Table AII.2, including the main references and details on model \r\ncomponents relevant for the AR6 WGI assessment. "


id: 716dc9a3d6f7948c7b11e22b55323c54
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17210
content:
"The Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX; \r\nGutowski Jr. et al., 2016) coordinates regional downscaling activities \r\nworldwide over a number of defined domains. Regional downscaling \r\nis performed using regional climate models (RCMs) run over limited \r\ngeographical regions, driven at the boundaries by the output from \r\nthe Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) global model \r\nsimulations. CORDEX relies on the same infrastructure as CMIP to \r\nmake the multi-model output publicly available in a  standardized \r\nformat: the data is disseminated via the Earth System Grid Federation \r\n(ESGF; Williams et al., 2016). "


id: 3b641a5281869c6e1d8cb57f5c88802
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7638
content:
"Finally, Tables AII.3 and AII.4 provide information on the CMIP5 and \r\nRCM models used in the different CORDEX domains, respectively (the \r\nnumbers in each cell indicate the number of available simulations for \r\neach scenario). Note that CORDEX information is complex to describe \r\nsince each particular simulation is produced by a single combination \r\nof a CMIP5 boundary forcing, or 'driving model' (or reanalysis for the \r\nevaluation experiment) and an RCM model from Table AII.2. These \r\ntwo tables together provide comprehensive information on the GCM/\r\nRCM composition of the ensembles available in each domain, which \r\nis key to understanding the assessment done in WGI chapters (in \r\nparticular the regional Chapters 10, 11 and 12, and the Atlas). "


id: aba7d86b4e22dae3f52aa6398da502aa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27440
content:
"Table AII.1 lists the current CORDEX domains, displaying the different \r\nresolutions (from the lowest - 0.44deg, to the highest - 0.11deg, typically \r\nin rotated coordinates), with data available through the ESGF. \r\nFigure Atlas.6 provides a geographical map of the domains. Note that \r\n0.44deg and 0.22deg are the prioritized resolution in the CORDEX and \r\nCORDEX-CORE experimental designs, respectively, and only some \r\ndomains provide information for higher resolution (0.11deg); see Atlas, \r\nAtlas.1.4.4 and https://cordex.org for further details. Table AII.1 \r\nalso displays the number of simulations available for the following \r\nexperiments: 'evaluation' (ERA-Interim driven simulations), and the \r\n'historical', 'RCP2.6', 'RCP4.5' and 'RCP8.5' CMIP5-driven simulations "


id: 2b69e0146ae6af55ffc0f0a081304c83
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4887
content:
"Table AII.1 | CORDEX regional domains. Column 1: name of the domain. Column 2: domain code (as in ESGF specification). Column 3: horizontal grid resolutions (11, \r\n22 and 44 for 0.11deg, 0.22deg and 0.44deg resolution in the native projections, and the suffix 'i' indicating regular interpolated domains). Columns 4-8 indicate the number of \r\nsimulations available at each resolution, for the evaluation, historical, RCP2.6, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 experiments, respectively, as archived in the ESGF as of 31 January 2021. Note \r\nthat MED-CORDEX data is stored on a dedicated server (details at www.medcordex.eu) and includes experiments with only atmosphere (the standard for other domains) and \r\natmosphere-ocean coupled regional climate models (denoted by MED and OMED, respectively). See Atlas.1.4.4 for more details on CORDEX and CORDEX-CORE experiments. "


id: 79b088b1e7286e7effa9b950916033a0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18612
content:
"provided by the one-stop-shop 'further_info_url' global attribute \r\nin each CMIP6 netCDF data file. ES-DOC also includes the CMIP6 \r\nerrata system (https://errata.es-doc.org), which tracks issues with \r\nthe model data and the potential corrections made. ES-DOC includes \r\ninformation at the model level and the experiment level. "


id: 9415243db87f11fa3ca55f89bd8df6c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23258
content:
"Model datasets shared on ESGF are characterized by their institution, \r\nmodel, experiment, variable and ensemble member (the different \r\ntypes of ensemble strategies are introduced in Chapter 1, Section 1.4). \r\nEach ensemble member is designated by a label of four letters, each \r\nassociated with a number: 'r' for realization, 'i' for initialization, 'p' \r\nfor physics, and 'f' for forcing. For example, Table Atlas.SM.2 lists the \r\nensemble member label of each CMIP6 dataset used in the Atlas. In \r\nthe future, ES-DOC will document in more detail how each individual \r\nmember differs from the other members of a given ensemble. "


id: f809ae37175b803b3f51e6b434adb3a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41011
content:
"A new online service, ES-DOC, provides information about all aspects \r\nof CMIP6. Building on the Common Information Model concepts \r\nand standards (Lawrence et al., 2012), a number of documents are \r\ncreated for the CMIP6 Project, as illustrated at https://es-doc.org/\r\ncmip6/. These include documents to describe experiments, ensemble \r\nsimulations, models, conformance to the numerical requirements of \r\nthe CMIP6 protocol (see Pascoe et al., 2020 for CMIP6 experiments) \r\nand other important aspects of the CMIP6 model archive. These \r\ndifferent documents are either produced automatically or provided \r\nin a  standard way by modelling groups. Hundreds of clearly \r\nstructured properties are harvested and stored on a  database to \r\nbe used by clients and portals (e.g.,  https://search.es-doc.org/ and \r\nhttps://explore.es-doc.org/). Another entry point to the database is "


id: 9ec6fcb7aad32f94d456fd417e9bb9ef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25154
content:
"features of the coupled gene\r\nons. Column 3: main referen\r\number of vertical levels, grid \r\ndivided by the number of grid \r\nm assuming standard atmosp\r\n active nitrogen cycle (N cyc\r\nained in the table is consiste\r\n \r\n \r\nCryosphere1) Sea Ice 2) Land Ice\r\nLa1) N2) \r\n1) CICE4 1) \r\nwso2) \r\n1) FESOM1.4 1) 1) SIS1 1) \r\n2) \r\n1) SIS1 1) \r\n2) \r\n1) SIS1 1) "


id: 48ffb45046923e31c14c82c7251fcae4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10067
content:
"Table AII.6 | High-resolution coupled models participating in HighResMIP. Full names of the institutions are found in Table AII.5. The horizontal resolution (rounded to \r\n10 km when larger than 10 km) is the square root of the number of grid points divided by the surface area of the Earth, or the number of surface ocean grid points divided by \r\nthe area of the ocean surface, for the atmosphere and ocean respectively. When reported in hPa, the atmosphere top heights are converted into kilometres assuming standard \r\natmosphere (ISO 2533:1975, 1975)."


id: 7203db96c8caf40d004a926c33a5a9bc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17304
content:
"More specific information on the model capabilities and parameter \r\nchoices used for each ice sheet and glacier MIP are presented in the \r\nfollowing papers: ISMIP6 initMIP-Greenland (Goelzer et  al., 2018), \r\nISMIP6 projection-Greenland (Goelzer et al., 2020), ISMIP6 initMIP\u0002Antarctica (Seroussi et  al., 2019), ISMIP6 Antarctica projection \r\n(Seroussi et al., 2020), LARMIP-2 Antarctica projections (Levermann \r\net al., 2020) and GlacierMIP (Hock et al., 2019; Marzeion et al., 2020)."


id: d709fc65d15104a7a5983709d3ba48bc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35135
content:
"Ice sheet and glacier models are used to assess the contribution \r\nof ice sheets and glaciers to future sea level rise as described in \r\nSection  9.6.3. New to AR6, the projections of the future sea level \r\ncontribution from ice sheets and glaciers comes from the ensemble of \r\nmodel intercomparison studies (Sections 9.4.1.2, 9.4.2.2 and 9.5.1.3, \r\nand Box 9.3). The tables here describe the models used for Greenland \r\nISMIP6 (Table AII.7), Antarctica ISMIP6 and LARMIP-2 (Table AII.8) \r\nand GlacierMIP (Table AII.9)."


id: d0eb08825a984a71cbcb279653e78ed8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34101
content:
"Table AII.7 | Models used in Greenland model intercomparison studies (initMIP and/or ISMIP6 projections)."


id: 285ae66e648f38e6b0c5d689e34dd2cd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4301
content:
"Table AII.8 | Models used in Antarctica model intercomparison studies (initMIP and/or ISMIP6 projections and/or LARMIP-2 projections)."


id: 70675a1aad70fca5a4828760e7c6f15a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17036
content:
"Coordinating Lead Authors: \r\nFrank J. Dentener (EU/The Netherlands), Bradley Hall (United States of America), Chris Smith \r\n(United Kingdom)"


id: 4e430f54a1cc8051cb408225be204476
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11040
content:
"Jinho Ahn (Republic of Korea), William Collins (United Kingdom), Christopher D. Jones \r\n(United Kingdom), Malte Meinshausen (Australia/Germany) "


id: 9d6352d2891139055985a86cbf0af901
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24924
content:
"Ed J. Dlugokencky (United States of America), Ralph Keeling (United States of America), \r\nPaul B. Krummel (Australia), Jens Muhle (United States of America/Germany), Zebedee R. J. Nicholls \r\n(Australia), Isobel J. Simpson (Canada)"


id: 98f1c63944683deadcf6f5936f01eef3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24121
content:
"IPCC, 2021: Annex III: Tables of historical and projected well-mixed greenhouse gas mixing ratios and effective radiative \r\nforcing of all climate forcers [Dentener F.J., B. Hall, C. Smith (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. \r\nContribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\r\n[Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Pean, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, \r\nK. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekci, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University \r\nPress, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2139-2152, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.017."


id: 24d302a41bfa74e284b8b6ba4b9eb5e9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3673
content:
"Montzka et al. (2009); Dlugokencky et al. (2011); Hall et al. (2011); \r\nRigby et al. (2014); Laube et al. (2016); Simmonds et al. (2017); Adcock \r\net al. (2018); Prinn et al. (2018); Leedham Elvidge et al. (2018); Muhle \r\net al. (2019); Naus et al. (2019); Droste et al. (2020). "


id: fe636f9a89c50c036dfab958e1add2b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42131
content:
"Annex III presents, in tabulated form, data related to historical \r\nand projected changes in greenhouse gas (GHG) mixing ratios \r\nand effective radiative forcing (ERF) of all climate forcers as \r\nassessed and used throughout Chapters 1-7. Where available 90% \r\nconfidence level uncertainties on observed GHG mixing ratios are \r\ngiven. For each species, the abundance is given as dry air mole \r\nfraction: ppm = micromoles per mole (10-6); ppb = nanomoles per \r\nmole (10-9); and ppt = picomoles per mole (10-12). ERF is given \r\nin W m-2 for CO2, N2O, and CH4 and in 10-3 Wm-2 (mW m-2) for \r\nother components. "


id: bbcec0f7c150ab91b9f180e224fef53f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30269
content:
"Projected concentrations for the five core scenarios discussed in the \r\nreport (Section 1.6.1) are from Gidden et al. (2019), Meinshausen \r\net al. (2017, 2020) and Velders et al. (2015). These scenarios \r\nspan a  wide range of plausible societal and climatic futures from \r\npotentially below 1.5degC best-estimate warming to over 4degC warming \r\nby 2100 (Section 4.3.4). Computational methods and assumptions \r\nto calculate historical and projected ERF are described in Chapter 7 \r\nand detailed information can be found in Chapter 7 Supplementary \r\nMaterial 7.SM.1.3 and 7.SM.1.4. "


id: 7dadfbde6605b0f5621d09b53a64df2f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19284
content:
"Pre-instrumental mixing ratios are estimated from ice-core and firn \r\nair records that are described in Machida et al. (1995); Fluckiger et al. \r\n(1999); Sowers (2001); Siegenthaler et al. (2005); Ahn et al. (2012); \r\nMitchell et al. (2013); Bauska et al. (2015); Meinshausen et al. (2017); \r\nRubino et al. (2020); Ryu et al. (2020)."


id: ff02847a9d1f3956bfc0773ec05c063f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42264
content:
"Extended datasets and further auxiliary data are made available via \r\nhttps://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5705391 (Smith et al., 2021). "


id: 373533051930018445a868b11697d958
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6931
content:
"Tables AIII.Ia-f provide historical abundances (mixing ratios) and \r\neffective radiative forcing (ERF) values for greenhouse gases assessed \r\nin this report."


id: 21886356ec254bb492a48ffabf979749
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3110
content:
"Observed (instrumental) mixing ratios are described in Masarie \r\nand Tans (1995); Trudinger et al. (2004); Worton et al. (2006); "


id: 78a3201507743ebf9aa314fa7432f6dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18417
content:
"Notes: 1750 from AR5; 1850-1970 from CMIP6 dataset in Meinshausen et al. (2017). 1980-2019 AGAGE or merged AGAGE and NOAA networks, depending on the date of \r\navailability. ERF (2019-1750) from Chapter 7."


id: 704329b0f3efc91fbf1aa6e3b2565831
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17008
content:
"Note: aObserved from Table AIII.1a. SSP GHG concentrations (Meinshausen et al., 2017, 2020) available at greenhousegases.science.unimelb.edu.au. Concentrations of \r\nhalogenated compounds in electronic supplement. Major scenarios used in this report are selected."


id: b0bdfb01724aaf761af8fb665b08ec28
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28324
content:
"Notes: a Tables AII.6.8 and 6.10 in Annex II of the IPCC AR5 WG1 report (IPCC, 2013), for which total ERF is derived from CMIP5 models and anthropogenic ERF from a simple \r\nclimate model emulator. b RCPs calculated for ERF as described in Chapter 7 Supplementary Material 7.SM.1.4. Similar to AR5, an emulator was used in AR6 to derive \r\nanthropogenic ERF (Cross-Chapter Box 7.1 and Chapter 7 Supplementary Material 7.SM.1.4). Further discussion on the difference between AR5 and AR6 radiative forcing \r\nis in Section 4.6.2. c ScenarioMIP (O'Neill et al., 2016), d AerChemMIP (Collins et al., 2017), e Allen et al. (2021)."


id: 8839342b4b54fd2d687dfdc1791d15c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21117
content:
"Susanna Corti (Italy), Francois Engelbrecht (South Africa), June-Yi Lee (Republic of Korea), \r\nAmanda Maycock (United Kingdom), Shayne McGregor (Australia), Olaf Morgenstern (New \r\nZealand/Germany), Hyacinth C. Nnamchi (Nigeria, Germany/Nigeria), Juan A. Rivera (Argentina), \r\nBlair Trewin (Australia)"


id: a6e18c1856c8acf44075aff1e3c4cfaf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26571
content:
"IPCC, 2021: Annex IV: Modes of Variability [Cassou, C., A. Cherchi, Y. Kosaka (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical \r\nScience Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate \r\nChange [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Pean, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. \r\nHuang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekci, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge \r\nUniversity Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2153-2192, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.018."


id: fae45a5e1e6fb4efa711978c95d919d9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41524
content:
"Many modes of variability are driven by internal climate processes \r\nand provide a substantial potential source of climate predictability \r\non sub-seasonal to decadal time scales. It is essential to understand \r\nthe physical processes behind the past evolution of the modes of \r\nclimate variability in order to assess, with confidence, their future \r\nchanges. External forcing may affect their temporal (occurrence, \r\nvariance, seasonality and persistence, etc.) or spatial properties and \r\nassociated teleconnections."


id: 122e46d3bbdf8695eecb41641cd0fac6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 390
content:
"There are several ways to document and describe the modes of climate \r\nvariability based on more or less sophisticated statistical techniques \r\nand the dynamical nature, interpretation and understanding of \r\nthe variability (i.e., Feldstein and Franzke, 2017; Hannachi et  al., \r\n2017; Franzke et  al., 2020; Ghil and Lucarini, 2020). The simplest \r\nmethod to evaluate the temporal evolution of a spatially coherent \r\nphenomenon is to take one or more spatial averages of a climate \r\nvariable such as sea surface temperature (SST) or sea level pressure \r\n(SLP), as examples, within a  latitude-longitude box. Another \r\nclassical technique relies on principal component analysis  (PCA), \r\nalso known as empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis, to \r\nextract the patterns in the chosen climate variable with maximal \r\nspatial covariance. The method also extracts an associated climate "


id: bab13a356b0e3ae970cc3c5e268a4a47
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30065
content:
"The annex summarizes the fundamental features of spatial structure, \r\nseasonality and teleconnections for a selection of modes of climate \r\nvariability corresponding to those addressed in the report, namely: the \r\nNAO and Northern Annular Mode, the Southern Annular Mode, ENSO, \r\nthe Indian Ocean Basin and Dipole modes, the Atlantic Meridional \r\nand Zonal modes, the Pacific Decadal Variability, the Atlantic \r\nMulti-decadal Variability, and the Madden-Julian Oscillation. For \r\neach mode, the description follows a common structure, starting with \r\na short definition of the mode (based on simple box-averaged indices \r\nand EOF) and related key physical mechanisms, then a description \r\nof the associated teleconnections (based on regression techniques), \r\nand when relevant, finishes with a short summary of paleoclimate \r\nreconstruction of the mode based on proxy-based records. An \r\nillustrative figure including patterns and time series is also provided \r\nfor each mode."


id: dc16dbc7282d6fc70fc013271698b92a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36000
content:
"The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) is the leading mode of large-scale \r\natmospheric variability in the North Atlantic basin. It is characterized \r\nby alternating (seesaw) variations in SLP between the Azores High \r\nin the subtropics and the Icelandic Low in the mid- to high latitudes, \r\nwith some northward extension deep into the Arctic (Hurrell et al., \r\n2003). The positive phase of the NAO corresponds to an anomalously \r\nstrong Azores High and concomitant deepening of the Icelandic Low \r\nwith some penetration in the sub-Arctic basin (Greenland/Norwegian/\r\nBarents Sea), accompanied by a  reinforced and northward-shifted \r\njet and storm track over a  broad North Atlantic-European sector \r\n(Figure  AIV.1a). The opposite, notwithstanding marginal spatial \r\nasymmetries, occurs for the negative phase."


id: a709babf7d4d7caba8cbfaa9683e1f39
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26596
content:
"The temporal correlation between the EOF and fixed latitude-based \r\nzonal NAM estimations is equal to 0.91 for the December-January-\r\nFebruary (DJF) average and both are strongly correlated with the NAO \r\nindices (Figure AIV.1c). Correlations between all the NAO estimates \r\nare spatially and temporally very high in all the observational \r\nproducts over the modern reanalyses period (Gerber and Martineau, \r\n2018); for instance, the correlation between the station-based and \r\nEOF-based NAO indices over 1959-2018 in boreal winter using \r\nJRA-55 is equal to 0.89 (Figure AIV.1c). EOF-based NAO and NAM \r\nindices are used in Section  3.7.1 for model evaluation. The fixed\u0002latitude NAM index is used in Sections 2.4.1.1, 4.3.3.1, 4.4.3.1 and \r\n4.5.3.1, and in Section 3.7.1 for attribution of past changes."


id: e0c74264a5a6bb775cd78345a9f836f9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36806
content:
"Given their equivalent barotropic structure, the NAO/NAM is usually \r\ndefined from SLP fields or geopotential height anomalies at various \r\nlevels (Fu et al., 2016). The NAO/NAM can be defined using pattern\u0002based statistical techniques such as EOF or clustering techniques \r\napplied to seasonal gridded atmospheric circulation fields (SLP or \r\ngeopotential height anomalies) from observations or reanalysis \r\ndata. The NAM pattern is traditionally defined as the leading EOF \r\nof pressure fields computed over the entire hemisphere, northward \r\nof 20degN (Figure AIV.1b) and its related PC defines the NAM index \r\n(Figure AIV.1c). Similarly the NAO index can be defined as the PC of \r\nthe leading EOF of the pressure field over the North Atlantic sector \r\n(Figure AIV.1a) or the temporal occurrence of the seasonal weather \r\nregimes extracted from clustering (Corti et al., 1999; Cassou et al., \r\n2011; Hannachi et al., 2017)."


id: b63b9d752768ec5b0d61a62caab5e6d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29284
content:
"shorter time scale (interannual), the NAO is dominated by variations \r\nin the latitude of the North Atlantic jet and storm track, whereas \r\non the longer time scale (multi-decadal and beyond) it represents \r\nchanges in their strength. The two time scales also exhibit different \r\nregional impacts on temperature and precipitation, and different \r\nrelationships to SSTs, which makes proxy reconstructions of the NAO \r\nproblematic."


id: 284b298af8b82c72b57b24893ae58afb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4289
content:
"There is a strong seasonal asymmetry in observed NAO teleconnection \r\npatterns and NAO temporal evolution. Impacts over Europe are \r\nopposite between summer and winter months with dominant \r\nwarmer and drier weather conditions over northwestern Europe in \r\nsummer concurrently with wetter conditions over southern Europe \r\nduring positive NAO phases (Folland et al., 2009; Blade et al., 2012). \r\nExtreme events (heatwave occurrence, droughts, etc.) are also linked \r\nto NAO phases (Cassou et  al., 2005; Drouard et  al., 2019) due to \r\nthe related latitudinal shift of the North Atlantic storm tracks (Dong \r\net al., 2013). Summer NAO trends also affect the Arctic climate as \r\nassessed in Sections 3.4.1 and 9.4.1. The NAO is associated with \r\nstorms or periods of persistent mild winds and dry/sunny spells \r\naffecting availability and power consumption (Jerez et  al., 2013; \r\nZubiate et al., 2017)."


id: c6a257464c997c503a2f6612622b24fc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32248
content:
"Most of the reconstructed NAO/NAM indices describe the boreal \r\nwinter patterns of the last 500 years because the variability is the \r\nmost pronounced and is on a larger scale for that season (Luterbacher, \r\n2001; Dezileau et al., 2011). Tree rings can however allow NAO boreal \r\nsummer reconstruction back to the 16th century (Folland et al., 2009; \r\nLinderholm et al., 2009). Recent efforts to develop reconstructions of \r\nthe NAO phases using pollen data (Mauri et al., 2014), speleothems \r\n(Ait Brahim et  al., 2019) and lake sediments (Olsen et  al., 2012) \r\nprovide new evidence for multi-centennial NAO-type variability \r\nalong the Holocene (Hernandez et al., 2020). A detailed description \r\nof the latest proxy-based reconstructions of the NAO and related \r\nconclusions placing the observations since the pre-industrial period \r\nin a broader context of variability are given in Section 2.4.1.1."


id: ab82ee7a03a330984a81f0623378b389
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27408
content:
"NAO fluctuations generate ocean responses due to altered buoyancy \r\nfluxes and wind stress anomalies (Barrier et al., 2014). Signatures of \r\nthe NAO can be found in the gyre circulations (Marshall et al. 2001) \r\nand in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC; Yeager \r\nand Danabasoglu, 2014), with a  sea level imprint in observations \r\n(Han et al., 2017). The oceanic response is dependent on the time \r\nscale of the NAO variability (Delworth and Zeng, 2016), especially \r\nfor AMOC in connection with the so-called Atlantic Multi-decadal \r\nVariability (AMV; Section AIV.2.7). This is assessed in Section 9.2.3.1."


id: 2b5ac923ed66ebe80c5053cc8041c08f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4876
content:
"Implications of NAO/NAM variability in terms of observed and \r\nprojected precipitation at a  regional scale (Europe, Mediterranean \r\nbasin, etc.) is comprehensively assessed in Sections 8.3.2.9, \r\n8.4.2.9 and 8.5.2. NAO implications on extremes are assessed in \r\nSections  11.3.1 and 11.4.1, and regional manifestations of NAM/\r\nNAO are further assessed in Atlas.5, Atlas.7, Atlas.8 and Atlas.9, and \r\nCross-Chapter Box Atlas.2."


id: b9bb3c33130483015d0146dd22a4145a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29887
content:
"Given its equivalent barotropic structure, the SAM is commonly \r\nquantified as the first EOF mode of extratropical geopotential \r\nheight anomalies at various tropospheric levels or of SLP anomalies. \r\nHowever, it extends into the stratosphere, coupling lower\u0002and middle-atmosphere dynamics. As it essentially represents \r\na meridional atmospheric mass transfer, an alternative definition is \r\nthe difference in normalized zonal mean SLP anomalies at middle \r\n(40degS) and high (65degS) southern latitudes (Gong and Wang, 1999; \r\nMarshall, 2003). The polarity of the SAM is defined such that it is "


id: 2ab15eaa9b5aa345ef8cf8e5d1189f0a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4734
content:
"SAM. In austral summer, during a positive phase of the SAM, drier \r\nconditions affect most of the southern Patagonia region and the \r\nsouthernmost tip of South America, while wetter conditions are \r\nfound in South Africa and Madagascar, as well as in south-eastern \r\nAustralia where colder temperatures also prevail (Figure AIV.2c, d). \r\nPositive temperature anomalies are found in New Zealand, Tasmania \r\nand the southern tip of South America. These anomalies appear as \r\nthe continental fingerprint of a  warmer belt located around 40degS \r\nthat is characterized by significant hemispheric-scale SST changes \r\nconsistent with the southern shift of the summer storm track."


id: b382dc3be1458efdac47727ac1e65722
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28822
content:
"positive when pressure over Antarctica is anomalously low, and \r\nvice versa. While the SAM pattern is more zonally symmetric than \r\nits Northern Hemisphere counterpart (NAM; Section AIV.2.1), it \r\ndoes exhibit some asymmetries particularly in the mid-latitude node \r\nover the Pacific Ocean and Indian Ocean sectors (Fogt et al., 2012). \r\nAlternative interpretations of the SAM as a regional variability pattern \r\nin the South Pacific are also considered (Spensberger et al., 2020). The \r\nzonal asymmetries are present for all seasons, and illustrated in Figure \r\nAIV.2a for austral summer, to support the assessment in Section 3.7.2. \r\nA number of different SAM indices have been produced, and several \r\nare compared by Ho et al. (2012) and Barrucand et al. (2018), showing \r\ngood agreement after the second half of the 20th century. Over the \r\n1979-2019 period, the correlation between the EOF-based and zonal \r\nSLP-based indices for the summer SAM reaches 0.94 (Figure AIV.2b)."


id: 6fd24221864ac0d3a3c6ac584867fde0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16935
content:
"Moreover, several studies have described equatorward teleconnections \r\nlinking the SAM to Asian precipitation across the equator (e.g., Prabhu \r\net  al., 2017; Liu et  al., 2018). Coupling of seasonal stratospheric \r\nanomalies to the SAM can influence spring heat extremes in eastern \r\nAustralia (Lim et al., 2019). Marshall et al. (2013) described a reversal \r\nin the relationship between the SAM and East Antarctic temperatures \r\nduring austral summer/autumn in the first decade of the 21st century, \r\ndue to regional variability of the pressure pattern associated with \r\nthe zonal wavenumber 3. Other studies have analysed the temporal \r\nvariability in the interactions between the SAM and ENSO at different \r\ntime scales (e.g., Yu et al., 2015; Clem et al., 2016), being positive and \r\nsignificant during 1986-2014 (Vera and Osman, 2018)."


id: df3579dfeeb5c1a62088579a4641d45a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36523
content:
"During the positive phase of the SAM, the Antarctic air mass is isolated \r\nby an enhanced westerly jet that is located further south than during \r\nthe negative phase. This leads to colder conditions over the entire \r\ncontinent and negative SST anomalies along the surrounding ocean \r\n(Figure AIV.2). During the opposite, negative phase, an equatorward \r\ndisplacement of the jet and related storm track brings low-pressure \r\nsystems toward the north with a strong effect on the southern tip of \r\nSouth America (Mariani and Fletcher, 2016). The SAM is often used \r\nas a  proxy for the location of the mid-latitude westerly wind belt \r\nat seasonal to interannual time scales. However, Swart et al. (2015) \r\nnoted that trends in the SAM and the Southern Hemisphere surface \r\nwesterly jet are not directly interchangeable because multiple factors \r\nother than SAM can affect trends in the position, width and strength \r\nof the jet and surface wind."


id: 92b998e9066ad2caee445e862f8ac2b6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23031
content:
"Implications of SAM on observed and projected changes in the water \r\ncycle and specific regional influences are assessed in Sections 8.3.2.9 \r\nand 8.4.2.9, and in Sections 12.4, Atlas.7 and Atlas.11, respectively."


id: 8a1f0747038e7c8eb1f1e33ff5652f03
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21474
content:
"The SAM is mainly driven by extratropical atmospheric dynamics, \r\nbut its phase is affected by remote SST anomalies such as ENSO \r\n(Section AIV.2.3) and anthropogenic forcing as assessed in Section 3.7.2."


id: 3522c3c41ec5c9986a1a9c199cbafd70
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6589
content:
"The EOF-based SAM index is used for model evaluation in Section 3.7.2. \r\nThe fixed-latitude SAM index is used for the attribution assessment \r\nof the observed positive trend of the SAM that is maximum over \r\nthe second half of the 20th century but reduced since about 2000 \r\n(Section 2.4.1.2) due to slackened ozone influence (Section 3.7.2). \r\nThe fixed-latitude SAM index is also used in Sections 4.3.3.1, 4.4.3.1 \r\nand 4.5.3.1 to assess the future changes in Southern Hemispheric \r\nzonal circulation as a function of emissions scenarios and lead times."


id: b5c6dc3b05332dadbf7636428d3efc18
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29207
content:
"Recent observational studies have enriched our understanding of \r\nthe widespread influence of SAM variability on mean climate and \r\nrelated environmental parameters of the entire Southern Hemisphere \r\nextratropics (e.g.,  Manatsa et  al., 2013; Waugh et  al., 2013; Raut \r\net al., 2014; Jones et al., 2016; Holz et al., 2017; Kostov et al., 2017; \r\nMarshall et  al., 2017). The influence of the SAM extends over the \r\nmid-latitude continental land masses with precipitation anomalies \r\nover southern Australia (Cai and Watterson, 2002) and South-Eastern \r\nSouth America (Silvestri and Vera, 2003) in connection with the \r\nlatitudinal migration and strength of the extratropical storm and mean \r\nwesterly circulation. Consistently with NAM/NAO (Section AIV.2.1), \r\nthere is a strong seasonality in the teleconnection associated with "


id: 6e61977f0f1dac1e40323803d42299eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16685
content:
"which are all different in the magnitude, spatial structure and/or \r\nseasonal timing. As a direct consequence, it is difficult to accurately \r\nrepresent ENSO with one single index. Over time, further indices have \r\nbeen introduced to monitor ENSO event evolution (i.e., Trans Nino \r\nIndex  - TNI, Trenberth and Stepaniak, 2001) and spatial structure \r\n(i.e., El Nino Modoki Index - EMI, G. Li et al., 2010). The limited length \r\nand quality of the observational records may further affect the choice \r\nof the index, whose relevance can depend on the specific application. \r\nThe variety in ENSO indices also explains the non-universality in the \r\nqualification of ENSO status delivered by meteorological agencies \r\nresponsible for operational monitoring, operational forecast and \r\nclimate services for users."


id: fdae801923cbd2d908bbe2ff4e74289d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41989
content:
"SST anomalies from the NINO3 and NINO3.4 regions provide a direct \r\nmeasure of the events via its surface ocean fingerprint, while the SOI \r\nprovides a measure in terms of atmospheric perturbation. Data are \r\navailable back to 1876 for the SOI computation, whilst the uncertainty \r\nin SST-based indices, particularly those associated with the central \r\nequatorial Pacific, is large prior to the 1950s when the number of SST \r\nobservations was much lower (Kennedy et al., 2019). The complexity \r\nof ENSO is at least partly demonstrated by the observed events, "


id: df90bca1dcd3e434607c9fabdb265634
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36582
content:
"The description of ENSO in this Annex supports the assessments of \r\nSections 2.4.2, 3.7.3, 4.3.3.2, 4.4.3.2 and 4.5.3.2. ENSO's influence \r\non ocean circulation, heat transport and sea levels are assessed in \r\nSections 9.2 and 9.6."


id: 9ffaf88aa1266fc21022edaa19045e10
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25363
content:
"modulated by the inherent strong internal variability (Deser et al., 2017; \r\nDrouard and Cassou, 2019). In the Atlantic, a  relationship between \r\nENSO and Atlantic Nino (Section AIV.2.5) is found in boreal spring \r\n(Tokinaga et al., 2019) while the South Atlantic Subtropical Dipole mode \r\nis mostly connected to ENSO in austral summer (Rodrigues et al., 2015)."


id: 1553ef49df573c6c185078d5d61b94d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 965
content:
"Implications of ENSO in water cycle changes are further assessed in \r\nSections 8.3.2.9 and 8.4.2.9. The association of ENSO with extremes \r\nand specific regional climate anomalies is assessed in Sections 11.4, \r\n11.6, 11.7 and 12.4, in Box  11.4, and in Atlas.4, Atlas.5, Atlas.6, \r\nAtlas.7 and Atlas.9."


id: b671d3770553afac355b15d58740c5b6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29311
content:
"Being the dominant actor of variability at interannual time scales, \r\nENSO is linked to many other modes of variability both in the tropics \r\nand mid-latitudes, either in phase or with some seasonal lag. For \r\ninstance, connection has been documented between EP ENSO events \r\nand SAM during austral summer (Ciasto et al., 2015). A relationship \r\nexists between ENSO and the NAO/NAM in boreal winter through \r\nvarious mechanisms such as stratosphere-troposphere coupling \r\n(Domeisen et  al., 2015) and tropospheric pathways, including the \r\neastward extension of the PNA during El Nino events and also through \r\nthe alteration of the propagation of tropical Rossby wave trains \r\nfrom the  Pacific to the Atlantic (Drouard et  al., 2015). The tropical\u0002extratropical teleconnection is not symmetrical with the phase of ENSO \r\nand non-stationary with considerable dependence on epochs being "


id: 8fd5deb02a83d960d2d02a8dc0de0e58
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22514
content:
"The Indian Ocean Basin (IOB) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) modes \r\nare the two dominant modes of interannual climate variability in the \r\nIndian Ocean. The IOB mode features the temporal alternation of \r\nbasin-wide warming and cooling of sea surface in the positive and \r\nnegative phases, respectively (Figure AIV.4), while the IOD mode is "


id: 9de4052627a67e6a1fdd87678ac42ab2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25015
content:
"Paleo fluctuations of IOB and IOD as well as the changes over the \r\ninstrumental record period are assessed in Section 2.4.3, while their \r\nmodel representations are assessed in Section 3.7.4. Future variations \r\nunder global warming are assessed in Sections 4.4.3.3 (near term) \r\nand 4.5.3.3 (mid- to long terms)."


id: 25f59e38dcbd40a5440e0842b4f2c5cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3855
content:
"characterized by a zonal dipole of SST anomalies in the tropics, with \r\none lobe centred off Sumatra and Java and the other covering a large \r\nportion of the western basin (Figure AIV.5). The two modes mostly \r\nvary on interannual time scales and are both correlated positively \r\nwith ENSO. In particular, the IOD tends to emerge during ENSO \r\ndevelopment from boreal summer to autumn (Stuecker et al., 2017), \r\nfollowed by the IOB which grows in ENSO peak season and persists \r\nfor a few subsequent seasons (Tokinaga and Tanimoto, 2004)."


id: d105c1111aabe69efea7e8f7e6efbb22
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34127
content:
"Since the IOB mode is tightly associated with ENSO, related climate \r\nanomalies can be viewed as part of ENSO's influence from boreal \r\nwinter to subsequent spring. Still, the IOB mode plays an important \r\nrole in modulating the ENSO influence on several regions. The positive \r\nphase of the IOB plays a major role in suppressing precipitation in the \r\nMaritime Continent from boreal winter to spring (Watanabe and Jin, \r\n2002; Annamalai et al., 2005) and in Northern Australia in austral \r\nsummer (Taschetto et al., 2011) in conjunction with El Nino events \r\n(Figure AIV.3d). An anomalous surface anticyclone then forms over \r\nthe Philippine Sea linked to the precipitation reduction in the tropical \r\nwestern Pacific and brings more precipitation to East Asia during \r\nEl Nino winter and spring (Figure AIV.3d; Wang et al., 2000). "


id: 55bdd68d2eea0f400e9620041cab2f32
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12355
content:
"The IOB mode is considered primarily as a  response to ENSO \r\nassociated with large-scale alteration of the Walker circulation, \r\nand thus matures in boreal spring, a season after the typical ENSO \r\npeak (Klein et al., 1999; Lau and Nath, 2000, 2003). By contrast, the \r\nBjerknes feedback is key to the formation of the IOD. This feedback \r\nrequires background surface easterlies and thermocline shallowing \r\nin the eastern part of the basin along the equator, and this condition \r\nsets in boreal spring and persists until autumn, then dissipating by \r\nearly winter in association with climatological monsoon wind swing. \r\nThe IOD mode therefore develops in boreal summer and reaches \r\nits maximum amplitude in autumn, then rapidly terminates before \r\nwinter (Schott et al., 2009). Differently from the IOB, strong internal \r\nfeedbacks enable the IOD mode to develop also without influence \r\nfrom ENSO, as noted for some specific events (Saji and Yamagata, \r\n2003b; Meyers et al., 2007)."


id: 5bcc4d1ce6364c4e0571e08941022555
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13410
content:
"The IOD is associated with climate anomalies in broad regions \r\n(Figure  AIV.5c,d). However, the related anomalies are affected by \r\ninfluences from concomitant ENSO. The IOD affects rainfall in eastern \r\nAfrica, South Asia, Indonesia and Australia (Figure AIV.5c,d). The IOD \r\nin the positive phase increases rainfall in eastern tropical Africa in \r\nboreal autumn to early winter (Figure AIV.5d), while the negative \r\nphase induces the opposite anomalies. These anomalies are also found \r\nin association with ENSO (Figure AIV.3d), but the explained variance \r\nby IOD is larger (Saji and Yamagata, 2003a). Both positive IOD and \r\nEl Nino events reduce precipitation and temperature over the entire \r\nMaritime Continent (Figures AIV.5c,d and AIV.3c,d) because of strong \r\nlow-level divergence coupled with upper-level convergence related \r\nto diminished convection, while the opposite anomalies are induced \r\nby negative IOD and La Nina episodes (Saji and Yamagata, 2003a). "


id: 666128938f49a9e152d5f47d6fd3ae25
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15275
content:
"The IOB-like (Han et al., 2014) and IOD-like (Ashok et al., 2004a; Tozuka \r\net al., 2007) variability can also be identified at decadal time scales. \r\nThe decadal IOB mode is defined as the leading EOF mode of linearly \r\ndetrended monthly SST after decadal time filtering (Han et al., 2014; \r\nDong and McPhaden, 2017). Ten-year low-pass filtered Indian Ocean \r\nbasin-mean SST is an alternative index for the decadal IOB mode (Dong \r\net al., 2016), with the global-mean SST subtracted in some cases as \r\nan estimation of the response component to radiative forcing (Huang \r\net al., 2019). The decadal IOD mode can be extracted as the second EOF \r\nmode of 10-year low-pass filtered Indian Ocean SST in boreal autumn \r\n(Yang et al., 2017), while other studies use the 10-year low-pass filtered \r\nSST anomaly difference between the western and eastern equatorial \r\nIndian Ocean (Ashok et al., 2004a; Tozuka et al., 2007)."


id: 446105aaf02b3cf97ccdfb602acb2f16
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9267
content:
"the northern and southern portion of the Atlantic. Both modes are \r\nassociated with changes in the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone \r\n(ITCZ) and related winds, and exert a strong influence on the climate \r\nin adjacent and remote regions."


id: 249114eb3a9ef04b1dfa9c71d4eb7f99
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3626
content:
"Implications of these modes on water cycle changes and specific \r\nregional influences are further assessed in Sections 8.3.2.9, \r\n8.4.2.9 and 12.4, and Atlas.5, Atlas.6, Atlas.7 and Cross-Chapter \r\nBox Atlas.2, respectively."


id: 9a09801dc0b71ae41e8020c298221a5f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24338
content:
"The AZM and AMM represent the first and second EOF patterns of \r\nthe tropical Atlantic variability identified using SST anomalies in this \r\nregion (Figures AIV.6a and AIV.7a). These modes may also be defined \r\nusing box averages, with the AZM defined as SST anomalies averaged \r\nover the equatorial Atlantic region called ATL3 (3degS-3degN, 0deg-20degW), \r\nand the AMM defined as the difference between the normalized SST \r\nanomalies averaged over the tropical North Atlantic and tropical \r\nSouth Atlantic (i.e., 5degN-30degN, 20degW-60degW minus 5degN-20degS, \r\n5degE-25degW). In boreal summer, the ATL3 and the EOF-AZM PC are \r\ncorrelated at 0.87 during 1958-2019 (Figure AIV.6b). The correlation \r\nbetween the AMM-box index and the EOF-AMM PC is lower at 0.39 \r\n(Figure AIV.7b) but increases to 0.67 over 1900-2019."


id: 80af91edf42196ca4cf8ed26fe118fde
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19771
content:
"For the AMM, the latitudinal polarity in SST anomalies is associated \r\nwith wind gradient and flow from the cooler to the warmer \r\nhemisphere (Figure AIV.7c; Ruiz-Barradas et  al., 2000; Chiang and \r\nVimont, 2004; Lubbecke et al., 2018; Foltz et al., 2019). For the AZM, \r\nsimilarly to ENSO in the Pacific Ocean, anomalous westerlies lead to \r\nlow-level convergence over warmer SST along the climatological cold \r\ntongue (Figure AIV.6c)."


id: 1271d671bf33d0825ef995d978633190
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 445
content:
"The Atlantic Zonal Mode (AZM), also commonly referred to as \r\nthe Atlantic Nino, and the Atlantic Meridional Mode (AMM) are \r\nthe two dominant modes of tropical Atlantic climate variability on \r\ninterannual to decadal time scales. The AZM peaks during the boreal \r\nsummer upwelling season with maximum SST anomalies in the \r\neastern equatorial Atlantic and is commonly regarded as the Atlantic \r\ncounterpart of the Pacific El Nino (Zebiak, 1993; Keenlyside and Latif, \r\n2007; Lubbecke et al., 2018; Foltz et al., 2019). The AMM, which is \r\nmore active on longer time scales, peaks during boreal spring and \r\nexhibits a  cross-equatorial gradient of SST with opposite signs in "


id: e5598418dc64f1d12c5c10898fa46e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37651
content:
"The temporal evolution of the Atlantic modes of variability and \r\ntheir model representation are assessed in Sections 2.4.4 and 3.7.5, \r\nrespectively. Their near-term and long-term evolution is assessed in \r\nSections 4.4.3.4 and 4.5.3.4, respectively."


id: 758453625e75cf4743be5c4b1bcc735f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17902
content:
"teleconnection pattern (Haarsma and Hazeleger, 2007; Garcia-Serrano \r\net al., 2011), and can remotely affect the NAO (Dreevillon et al., 2003; \r\nPeng et  al., 2005). The AZM can also increase precipitation over \r\nsouthern Europe and the Mediterranean Sea during boreal summer \r\nthrough extratropical Rossby waves (Losada et al., 2012)."


id: 67c595e58f8df5f5951cd87b6a2ada4f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15529
content:
"The tropical Atlantic variability has robust teleconnections with \r\nclimate variability across the global tropics and beyond. There is \r\nevidence for two-way teleconnections between the tropical Atlantic \r\nand Pacific on interannual to decadal time scales, such that the tropical \r\nAtlantic variability responds and feeds back to the Pacific ENSO \r\n(Section AIV.2.3) and Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV; Section AIV.2.6). \r\nA number of studies suggest the existence of a possible connection \r\nbetween the tropical North Atlantic and tropical Pacific variability \r\n(Wu  et  al., 2007; Ham et  al., 2013a, b; L.  Wang et  al., 2017) at \r\ninterannual time scales. This teleconnection appears to be modulated \r\nat a decadal time scale by the AMV phases (L. Wang et al., 2017) and \r\nit is also affected by global warming (Dong and Zhou, 2014)."


id: 4eccdc3ccf124a3fd40c99388b922296
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11143
content:
"The fluctuation of the meridional SST gradient in the tropical Atlantic \r\nmodulates the seasonal march of the ITCZ, thus influencing regional \r\nrainfall over north-eastern Brazil and the Sahel (Hastenrath and \r\nHeller, 1977; Folland et al., 1986; Foltz et al., 2012). During a negative \r\nphase of the AMM, northerly wind anomalies are associated with \r\na  southward shift of the ITCZ (Cabos et  al., 2019). During boreal \r\nspring, warmer SST over the tropical North Atlantic modulates winds \r\nover the western Indian Ocean and may strengthen the monsoon \r\ncirculation over India, affecting the continental rainfall (Vittal et al., \r\n2020). The AMM is also well known to affect the Atlantic hurricane \r\nactivity (Vimont and Kossin, 2007; Patricola et al., 2014) and tropical \r\ncyclones over the western North Pacific (Zhang et al., 2017)."


id: 8a74a58743f52c44d3580cbd6d8d0a0b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21529
content:
"The AZM-related boreal summer variability is linked with ENSO in \r\nthe following boreal winter (Polo et  al., 2008; Rodriguez-Fonseca \r\net  al., 2009; Ding et  al., 2012; Keenlyside et  al., 2013; Martin-Rey \r\net  al.,  2015; Cai et  al., 2019). This relationship is strongest during \r\nnegative AMV phases due to enhanced equatorial Atlantic variability \r\n(Martin-Rey et al., 2014, 2018; Polo et al., 2015). On the other hand, \r\nthe persistence of SST anomalies during multi-year ENSO events \r\naffects the equatorial Atlantic variability through modifications of \r\nthe Walker circulation (Tokinaga et al., 2019). An exhaustive analysis \r\nof the AZM characteristics and related teleconnections is given in \r\nLubbecke et al. (2018) and by Cabos et al. (2019)."


id: 38b4e9861ce54916643de281e7f637af
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7181
content:
"Only a  few paleo-reconstructions of AMM and AZM are available. \r\nInter-hemispheric cross-equatorial SST gradients linked to changes \r\nin ITCZ locations characteristic of the AMM have been found during \r\nthe Last Glacial Maximum, Heinrich Stadial 1 and the mid-Holocene \r\n(McGee et al., 2014). Similarly, the dipole-like SST pattern in the South \r\nAtlantic subtropics, which is related to the AZM (Lubbecke et  al., \r\n2018; Foltz et al., 2019), has been reconstructed with SST proxies from \r\nmarine sediment cores during the past 12 kyr (Wainer et al., 2014)."


id: c62788b2250ab8ea5fe4ab09bac07bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32171
content:
"The Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV) describes the large-scale \r\nfluctuations typically observed beyond ENSO time scales in a variety \r\nof instrumental records and proxy reconstructions over the entire \r\nPacific Ocean and surrounding continents."


id: ae6d46a816d87087cc934e3a2863fde9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27919
content:
"Historically, climate variability of the Pacific Ocean on time scales \r\nlonger than 8-10 years has been described in terms of statistical \r\nmodes, usually assessed through the decomposition into EOFs \r\nof the SST over oceanic sub-basins. The leading EOF mode of SST \r\ndecadal variability in the extratropical North Pacific is called the \r\nPacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO; Mantua et al., 1997; Mantua and \r\nHare, 2002). The PDO is recognized to correspond to a collection of \r\nmultiple processes (Newman et al., 2016). On interannual-to-decadal \r\ntime scales, the PDO is thought to be driven by atmospheric forcing \r\nlinked to stochastic changes in the Aleutian Low integrated by ocean \r\nmixed layer dynamics and related re-emergence processes, as well \r\nas to ENSO-forced teleconnections (Schneider and Cornuelle, 2005; \r\nNidheesh et  al., 2017). On decadal-to-inter-decadal time scales, \r\nsubpolar-subtropical gyre dynamics and related zonal advection "


id: 7cd6e27442ca6d63ee5d1782c9601d4f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19156
content:
"On the western side of the basin, a warm equatorial Atlantic delays \r\nthe northward migration of the ITCZ and can thus influence rainfall \r\nover North-Eastern South America (Nobre and Srukla, 1996), even \r\nbefore the peak of the AZM (Losada et  al., 2010; Mohino et  al., \r\n2011; Martin-Rey et al., 2018). When the Atlantic and Pacific basins \r\nact together, the response over North-Eastern South America \r\nis found to be strongly enhanced (Torralba et  al., 2015). In the \r\nextratropics, the decaying phase of the AZM in boreal autumn can \r\nmodify the atmospheric circulation over Europe via a circum-global "


id: 42fb77ba9e8353ad309c688caccd5bd3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8986
content:
"of temperature anomalies in the Kuroshio-Oyashio extension and \r\nwestward-propagating oceanic Rossby waves are thought to be key \r\nmechanisms (Qiu et al., 2007; Taguchi et al., 2007; Wills et al., 2019)."


id: c4ed390c08bb3b32d3b2345a87e3423a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31954
content:
"The PDO's South Pacific counterpart, called the South Pacific Decadal \r\nOscillation (SPDO; Chen and Wallace, 2015) is defined as the leading \r\nEOF mode of SST in the extratropical South Pacific. As for the PDO, the \r\nSPDO is thought to be driven by internal climate variability associated \r\nwith extratropical atmospheric modes (e.g.,  SAM; Section AIV.2.2), \r\nENSO teleconnections (Section AIV.2.3) and ocean dynamics through \r\ngyre circulation (Shakun and Shaman, 2009; Zhang et al., 2018)."


id: b9dc5f79d8f3247ba0a4b5b7eed9f814
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29919
content:
"In the tropical Pacific, while ENSO has a clear interannual spectral \r\npeak, decadal variability is also present with a similar spatial structure \r\n(Zhang et al., 1997), called tropical Pacific Decadal Variability (TPDV) \r\nor decadal ENSO. Relative occurrence of El Nino and La Nina events \r\nin a given decade correlates with the phase of the TPDV (Power and \r\nColman, 2006)."


id: dbca8fcd93c5c9cc59fcd01da093eff
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35955
content:
"In the following paragraphs and in Section  3.7.6 evaluating the \r\nmodel performance in reproducing PDV and assessing the human \r\ninfluence on the mode evolution, the TPI index is preferred. The latter \r\ndefinition is found to be less sensitive than classical EOF analysis to \r\nthe possible interplay between internal processes that intrinsically \r\ndrive the PDV (Wills et  al., 2018) and the externally-forced SST \r\nresponse simulated in historical simulations. There is no unique way \r\nto remove the impact of the external forcing in the observations \r\nat decadal to multi-decadal time scales, and any chosen method \r\nmay have significant implications for the interpretation of the PDV \r\nexpression during the instrumental era."


id: e22483eec550fb2b7e2da661d44955e2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37066
content:
"Whether the IPO is a  distinct mode of climate variability (Henley \r\net al., 2017) or not (Tung et al., 2019) remains to be further assessed \r\nand clarified. However, since the PDO, SPDO, TPDV and IPO modes \r\nare highly correlated both spatially and temporally, they can be \r\nreferred to collectively as the Pacific Decadal Variability mode (PDV; \r\nHenley, 2017; Liu and Di Lorenzo 2018), similarly to the Atlantic \r\n(Section AIV.2.7). Besides, it is noteworthy that none of these modes \r\nare actually oscillations with clear spectral peaks in the instrumental \r\nperiod (Mann et al., 2020), which advocates for the use of the PDV \r\nacronym across the report."


id: 34cbd799932301720769135d32bff25e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6531
content:
"De facto, there is no unique way to assess the PDV. It can be \r\nextracted from the IPO, defined as the leading EOF mode of decadal \r\nlow-pass filtered SST variability over the entire Pacific to remove the \r\noverwhelming influence of ENSO at interannual time scales. Henley \r\net al. (2015) introduced the tripole index (TPI) as the difference of \r\nSST anomalies between an equatorial Pacific domain (10degS-10degN, \r\n170degE-90degW) and an average of mid-latitude North (25degN-45degN, \r\n140degE-145degW) and South (50deg-15degS, 150degE-160degW) Pacific domains \r\n(Figure AIV.8a). Section 2.4.5 describes the changes in the PDV phases \r\nover the instrumental record using a variety of SST products."


id: d7f014a4fbb7a5fc139070a21ae5a71
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35297
content:
"decadal IOB and IOD modes (Section AIV.2.4), while influence from \r\nthe Indian Ocean SST on PDV has been also suggested (Luo et al., \r\n2012; Mochizuki et al., 2016)."


id: f86ceffc50a2d3c8ad2593c36a1c9705
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41071
content:
"Atlantic and western South Pacific (Grant and Walsh, 2001; Liu and \r\nChan, 2008; Li et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2018, 2020). PDV, together with \r\nENSO, have been shown to control part of the interannual to multi\u0002decadal wildfire variability, through PDV-related persisting droughts \r\nand severe heatwaves acting as preconditioning in many regions \r\n(see for instance, Kitzberger et al., 2007; Ward et al., 2016)."


id: b38680429091e7a8b8e9f78b0bc5e8dd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28826
content:
"The temporal evolution of PDV in the instrumental records and its \r\nmodel representation are assessed in Sections 2.4.5 and 3.7.6, \r\nrespectively. Skill in predicting near-term temporal evolution of the PDV \r\nand mid- to long-term PDV changes are assessed in Sections 4.4.3.5 \r\nand 4.5.3.5, respectively."


id: 39a7887dab5a7c7ddd385a593eeb9f73
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7356
content:
"Implications of PDV on water cycle changes are further assessed in \r\nSections 8.3.2.4 and 8.4.2.4. Section 10.4 highlights the importance \r\nof PDV in regional climate change attribution, with an example in \r\nSection  10.6. The influence of PDV climate anomalies in specific \r\nregions, including extremes, are assessed in Sections 11.3, 11.4, \r\n11.6 and 11.7, and in Atlas.4, Atlas.5, Atlas.7 and Cross-Chapter \r\nBox Atlas.2. Its implications for ocean circulation and sea levels are \r\nassessed in Sections 9.2 and 9.6."


id: b8cd118c39b580c1f66252bb199148b9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29717
content:
"Due to the similarity of the SST-anomaly pattern with ENSO in the \r\ntropical Pacific, atmospheric teleconnections associated with the PDV \r\nare rather similar to those of ENSO but with a  longer temporal \r\nexpression. This includes the long-term alteration of the Walker \r\ncirculation, the modification of the extratropical background driven \r\nby tropically forced Rossby waves then favouring particular phases \r\nof the PNA and PSA patterns of atmospheric internal variability \r\nthat are responsible for persistent influences over the continents \r\n(e.g.,  persistent drought over California and Australia, etc.). Those \r\natmospheric patterns imprint PDO-like and SPDO-like SST patterns \r\nwith a reddening by the extratropical oceans, forming the pan-Pacific \r\nSST anomaly pattern of the PDV as described above (Newman et al., \r\n2016; Henley, 2017; Liu and Di Lorenzo, 2018)."


id: c0378e2aa641cd4f1ffac5c948eed411
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31117
content:
"The Atlantic Multi-decadal Variability (AMV) describes the large-scale \r\nslow fluctuations observed from one decade to the next in a variety \r\nof instrumental records and proxy reconstructions over the entire \r\nNorth Atlantic Ocean and surrounding continents. Fingerprints of the \r\nAMV can be found at the surface ocean, which is characterized by \r\nswings in basin-scale SST anomalies reflecting the interaction with \r\nthe atmosphere, with a nominal period in the order of 70 years (Deser \r\net al., 2010).AMV markers can be also tracked in the subsurface ocean \r\nin terms of heat content and density anomalies. The latter have been \r\ntraditionally linked to the low-frequency fluctuations in the Atlantic \r\nMeridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and related oceanic \r\nmeridional heat/salinity transport and water masses formation \r\nthrough deep convection in the sub-Arctic Seas (Zhang, 2017)."


id: 4d70e869db33b333cbc2c6078f4501a8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10902
content:
"In the tropics, a  positive PDV is associated with warm and dry \r\nanomalies in the Maritime Continent and Amazon (Meehl and Teng, \r\n2014; Figure AIV.8c, d). The Indian and African monsoons also tend \r\nto weaken (Meehl and Hu, 2006; Figure AIV.8d). Warm and dry \r\nanomalies also cover most of Australia while wet anomalies dominate \r\nin South America south of 15degS. In particular, a positive PDV increases \r\ndrought risk in Australia (Power et  al., 1999; Vance et  al., 2015). \r\nIn the oceans, a  positive PDV increases the occurrence of marine \r\nheatwaves in the Bering Sea and subtropical eastern Pacific, while \r\na negative PDV increases ocean heatwaves in the Kuroshio-Oyashio \r\nextension, Melanesia and over the tropical Indian Ocean (Holbrook \r\net al., 2019). PDV also modulates tropical cyclone activity: a positive \r\nPDV increases tropical cyclone genesis over the Philippine Sea and the \r\ntropical eastern North Pacific and decreases it over the tropical North "


id: c797112f4e0c14d7e53ed05f3577e8b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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"The positive phase of the AMV is characterized by anomalous \r\nwarming over the entire North Atlantic, with the strongest amplitude \r\nin the subpolar gyre and along sea ice margin zones in the Labrador \r\nSea and Greenland/Barents Sea (approximately +0.5degC) and in the "


id: ce2bd40c6e49376a3ecdcfcf4d9c0d8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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"furthering a better understanding of the teleconnections associated \r\nwith the AMV. The two latter indices are shown in Figure AIV.9b and \r\ncompared to the traditional AMV index."


id: 5fb8e6bb04046b6729f3a3fc782a516c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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"subtropical North Atlantic basin to a  lower extent (Figure AIV.9a). \r\nConcurrent, albeit weaker, anomalous cooling is found over the \r\nSouth Atlantic but also along the Pacific cold tongue sandwiched by \r\nwarmer SST, a pattern reminiscent of the PDV (Section AIV.2.6). What \r\nstands out is the apparent inter-basin connectivity in AMV-related \r\nSST anomalies, which is strongly indicative of the existence of \r\na  network of teleconnections linking neighbouring ocean basins, \r\nthe tropics and the extratropics, including Northern Hemisphere \r\npolar regions, and the oceans and land regions (Cassou et al., 2018). \r\nThe AMV, together with the PDV, has been shown to modulate the \r\nobserved time-evolving global surface temperature on multi-decadal \r\ntime scales since pre-industrial time (Cross-Chapter Box 3.1), whilst \r\nthe level of their respective influence remains difficult to quantify \r\nbecause of their inter-connectivity (Tung and Zhou, 2013; Wu et al., \r\n2019; Li et al., 2020)."


id: 5f2812f5ee903605b527e8a37b802848
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14043
content:
"All AMV time series consistently show a few distinct phases over the \r\napproximately 120-year instrumental record, namely warm periods \r\nover 1930-1965 and since 1995, and cool periods between 1900 \r\nand 1925 and over 1965-1995 (Figure AIV.9b). The uncertainty \r\nintroduced by the different definitions of the index is mainly related \r\nto the strength of the phase of the AMV and in particular the most \r\nrecent ones, which are the most sensitive to the estimation of the \r\nexternally forced signal."


id: 50cd9ce933f16de3dc50a050187e25ed
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11487
content:
"The temporal evolution of AMV in the instrumental records is \r\nassessed in Section 2.4.6. The transition between phases has been \r\nshown to involve various atmospheric and oceanic processes, leading \r\nto some predictability, but also influences from external forcing (both \r\nanthropogenic and natural), whose respective weight and interplay \r\nremain outstanding issues, as assessed in detail in Sections 3.7.7 \r\nand 9.2.3."


id: 818f5a848e53954274b2678481a0d198
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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content:
"The term 'Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation' (AMO) has been \r\nintroduced in the literature (Kerr, 2000) and used in previous IPCC \r\nreports to describe this phenomenon and in particular to make the \r\ndistinction with the so-called North Atlantic tripole pattern connected \r\nto the NAO (Section AIV.2.1) at interannual time scales (Enfield et al., \r\n2001). However, since the observed slow variations of the North \r\nAtlantic SSTs consist of a broad band of low-frequency signals (Zhang, \r\n2017; Sutton et al., 2018) rather than a single preferred time scale, \r\nas also confirmed from last-millennium reconstructions (e.g., Singh \r\net  al., 2018), the denomination 'Atlantic Multi-decadal Variability' \r\nwherein a distinct oscillatory time scale is less clearly implied, appears \r\nmore appropriate to describe decadal climate variability phenomena \r\nas also suggested for the Pacific (Section AIV.2.6). The term AMV will \r\nbe accordingly used subsequently and throughout the entire report."


id: 5006f410ca780b53d7ee7ae6d13b93ac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"The important role of the AMV in observed low-frequency climate \r\nsignals at a regional scale has been recognized for decades. The AMV \r\nis a key driver of temperature and precipitation anomalies along the \r\ncontinents surrounding the North Atlantic but also remotely through \r\nglobal atmospheric teleconnections (e.g.,  monsoons). Considering \r\nAMV-induced regional influence is crucial because the AMV acts \r\nas a  pronounced modulator of the impacts driven by external \r\nnatural and anthropogenic forcings. For instance, the AMV can have \r\na pronounced fingerprint in time-integrating processes, such as river \r\nflows, and could explain the largest fraction of observed variance \r\nin some specific local areas since the 1900s (e.g.,  Bonnet et  al., \r\n2020). It is thus a  key phenomenon for regional-scale or process\u0002based attribution of past observed climate variations as introduced in \r\nCross-Chapter Box 1.4 and extensively developed in Section 10.4.1."


id: d80d90b1a11ccc2c1b3636f2169dd0c4
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content:
"the raw North Atlantic SST variability rather than to the residual \r\nof the Atlantic signal obtained after removal of the estimation \r\nof  the external forcing influence. A  multi-perspective assessment \r\nof the North Atlantic variability is thus necessary for understanding \r\nthe origin of the AMV, its physics and its climatic implications over \r\nthe paleoclimatic period."


id: 4480b4a902263f63f2d772098f83957d
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vector_id: 9283
content:
"with a reinforced occurrence of blocking (Rimbu et al., 2014; Davini \r\net al., 2015) and a southward shift of the jet (Simpson et al., 2018). \r\nAnomalies are positive all year round over a broad Mediterranean \r\nregion, including North Africa and the Middle East. Reduction of \r\nArctic sea ice is also found during positive AMV with local warming \r\nextension over the adjacent polar land (Day et al., 2012; Yu et al., \r\n2017; Castruccio et al., 2018)."


id: 9e728c2f6377e59c47d407ed8b625f78
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25098
content:
"The weight of the AMV in observed low-frequency variations is \r\nassessed in detail in Section 10.4.2 for specific regional case studies, \r\nincluding the sectors listed above. Because of its long time scale due \r\nto persistent heat content anomalies, the AMV can be considered \r\nas a potential source of near-term climate predictability. The skill of \r\nthe current decadal forecast systems in predicting the AMV temporal \r\nevolution and associated teleconnection at various lead times is \r\nassessed in Section 4.4.3.6, while long-term changes are assessed \r\nin Section 4.5.3.6."


id: 556e51efb2fc7b94557ea693eb2631da
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content:
"Each phase has a nominal persistence of about seven to eight days \r\nand the anti-clockwise rotation in this two-dimensional diagram \r\nmaterializes the propagation of the MJO packets from west to east. \r\nFigure AIV.10b provides an example of that RMM index computed for \r\nthe year 1997, with months highlighted in colours. When the value of \r\nthe index lies in the centre of the diagram, the MJO is considered to \r\nbe inactive; outside the circle, its distance from the centre quantifies \r\nthe amplitude and spatial coherence of the MJO episode."


id: b40196b2ece0dc0cbcb6428f4e6cdf76
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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content:
"(Vitart  and  Robertson, 2018) and for the development of new \r\nobservational networks needed to initialize the forecast systems \r\n(Subramanian et al., 2019). The MJO can also impact the atmospheric \r\ncomposition, such as ozone, CO, CO2 and aerosols (Tian et al., 2007, \r\n2011; K.-F. Li et al., 2010; Lau et al., 2012)."


id: a15550b7a26d630d1a55326f72087b45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25604
content:
"The assessment of changes in the MJO and related processes, mostly \r\nin terms of its implication for water cycle changes in the recent past \r\nand in future projections is provided in Sections 8.3.2.9 and 8.4.2.9, \r\nrespectively. The MJO influence over South East Asia and Central \r\nand South America is further assessed in Atlas.4, Atlas.5 and Atlas.7, \r\nand Cross-Chapter Box Atlas.2."


id: 67db2c7bd6038bebb0856f9b0c6846c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15547
content:
"In AR5, the MJO has been described as a tropical phenomenon, yet \r\nwith prominent impacts across the globe through teleconnections. \r\nThe MJO exerts a  strong influence on occurrences of extreme \r\nweather events in the tropics, including tropical cyclones, droughts, \r\nflooding, heatwaves and fires, among others (Zhang, 2013), as well \r\nas those in the extratropics via teleconnections (Stan et al., 2017). \r\nThis has opened new opportunities and scientific endeavours in the \r\nemerging field of sub-seasonal to seasonal forecasts of extremes "


id: 886387763823b22ed33a582006623bbb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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content:
"Lincoln M. Alves (Brazil), Paola A. Arias (Colombia), Mathew Barlow (United States of \r\nAmerica), Ruth Cerezo-Mota (Mexico), Aida Diongue-Niang (Senegal), Joelle Gergis (Australia), \r\nSergey  K.  Gulev (Russian Federation), Dabang Jiang (China), Richard G. Jones (United \r\nKingdom), Won-Tae Kwon (Republic of Korea), June-Yi Lee (Republic of Korea), Jian Li (China), \r\nLinda  O.  Mearns (United States of America), Wilfried Pokam Mba (Cameroon), Sabin Thazhe \r\nPurayil (India), Krishnan Raghavan (India), Juan A. Rivera (Argentina), Jessica Tierney (United \r\nStates of America), Tianjun Zhou (China)"


id: a8971f24fef0f41280fb5028d955916
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26869
content:
"IPCC, 2021: Annex V: Monsoons [Cherchi, A., A. Turner (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. \r\nContribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\r\n[Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Pean, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, \r\nK. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekci, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University \r\nPress, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2193-2204, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.019."


id: 34ea9684c81662fd7677e6a2cfdd0835
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content:
"2.5 mm day-1 (Kitoh et al., 2013), and the domain is represented by the \r\nblack contour lines in Figure AV.1. Simulation of the global monsoon \r\nand its variability is the subject of coordinated modelling experiments \r\nin the Global Monsoon Model Intercomparison Project (GMMIP; Zhou \r\net al., 2016). Past changes, simulation and attribution, and projections \r\nof the GM are assessed in Sections 2.3.1.4.2, 3.3.3.2 and 4.4.1.4, \r\nrespectively."


id: 9dca23fe72469bdfaf7d43d178e0fc92
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24996
content:
"A monsoon refers to a seasonal transition of regimes in atmospheric \r\ncirculation and precipitation in response to the annual cycle of solar \r\ninsolation and the distribution of moist static energy (Wang and Ding, \r\n2008; Wang et al., 2014; Biasutti et al., 2018). A global monsoon can \r\nbe objectively identified based on precipitation contrasts in the solstice \r\nseasons to encompass all monsoon regions (Wang and Ding, 2008). \r\nIn AR5, regional monsoon domains were identified starting from the \r\ndefinition of the global monsoon tailored over the continents and \r\nadjacent oceans, as in Kitoh et  al. (2013). This annex contains the \r\ndefinition of the global monsoon as used in the Sixth Assessment \r\nReport (AR6; see Section AV.2); it explains the rationale for the different \r\ndefinition of AR6 regional monsoons compared to Fifth Assessment \r\nReport (AR5; see Section AV.3), and provides the definition and basic \r\ncharacteristics of each regional monsoon assessed (Section AV.4)."


id: 530f5784591fbdb803e3452bdbba13fa
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content:
"The concept of the global monsoon (GM) emerged during the second \r\nhalf of the 20th  century. The GM represents the leading empirical \r\northogonal function (EOF) mode of the annual variations of precipitation \r\nand circulation in the global tropics and subtropics as a forced response \r\nof the coupled climate system to the annual cycle of solar insolation \r\n(Wang and Ding, 2008; An et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017). GM variability \r\nrepresents, to a large extent, changes in the Inter-tropical Convergence \r\nZone (ITCZ) and associated Hadley circulation (Wang et  al., 2014). \r\nChanges in the GM have been attributed to both internal variability and \r\nexternal forcings, ranging from interannual to millennial and orbital \r\ntime scales (Wang et al., 2014, 2017; An et al., 2015; Geen et al., 2020). \r\nIn AR6, the global monsoon is defined as the area in which the annual \r\nrange (local summer minus local winter) of precipitation is greater than "


id: e4cba8905793850d44d65f0738b14a19
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vector_id: 37535
content:
"Figure AV.1 | Global and regional monsoon domains. The AR6 global monsoon area is represented by the black contour lines. The AR6 regional monsoons are: North \r\nAmerican monsoon (NAmerM, shaded magenta), South American monsoon (SAmerM, shaded dark orange), West African monsoon (WAfriM, shaded grey), South and South \r\nEast Asian monsoon (SAsiaM, shaded pink), East Asian monsoon (EAsiaM, shaded purple) and Australian-Maritime Continent monsoon (AusMCM, shaded yellow). Areas \r\nover Central America and equatorial South America and southern Africa (dotted red and dotted magenta, respectively) are highlighted but not identified as specific regional \r\nmonsoons (see explanation in the main text). For each regional monsoon, the seasonal characteristics associated with each domain are specified in the main text."


id: 276799a2cb654ae9c7569dc67d047921
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content:
"biases in coupled GCMs were shown to worsen the monsoon dry \r\nbias by limiting the available moisture (Levine et al., 2013; Sandeep \r\nand Ajayamohan, 2015). Some improvements to the spatial pattern \r\nhave been noted in CMIP6, particularly near orography (Gusain \r\net al., 2020). The teleconnection to the El Nino-Southern Oscillation \r\n(ENSO) provides the main prospect for seasonal prediction \r\nand was too weak in CMIP5 (Sperber et  al., 2013). The boreal \r\nsummer intra-seasonal oscillation (BSISO) controls the majority of \r\nsub-seasonal variations in SAsiaM rainfall, as well as affecting the \r\nEast Asian monsoon region. While CMIP5 models represented the \r\nBSISO better than CMIP3 (especially its characteristic northward \r\npropagation), the spatial pattern is still poorly simulated in most \r\nmodels (Sabeerali et al., 2013). "


id: 685712acc1683dab86594e8ed7fa03bf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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content_type: text
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vector_id: 15628
content:
"The South and South East Asian monsoon (SAsiaM) is characterized \r\nby pronounced seasonal reversal of wind and precipitation. It covers \r\nvast geographical areas and several countries including India, \r\nBangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Thailand, Laos, \r\nCambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines (Pant and Rupa Kumar, \r\n1997; Goswami, 2006; Gadgil et al., 2010; Shige et al., 2017), with \r\na  domain roughly extending across 60degE-110degE and 10degS-25degN \r\nas shown in Figure AV.1 (shaded pink). The SAsiaM is unique in \r\nits geographical features because of the orography surrounding \r\nthe area (i.e., the Himalayas, Western Ghats and Arakan Yoma \r\nmountains, and the Tibetan Plateau to the north) and the adjacent \r\nIndian Ocean."


id: 1bcfd9798f61b6c4dc4a5bb642435b26
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2077
content:
"The SAsiaM is assessed in Sections 8.3.2.4.1, 8.4.2.4.1, Atlas.5.3.2 \r\nand Atlas.5.3.4. One of its main components, the Indian summer \r\nmonsoon, is assessed in Section  10.6.3 as a  case study on the \r\nconstruction of regional climate information from the distillation \r\nof multiple lines of evidence. Climate change over the Hindu Kush \r\nHimalaya is assessed in Cross-Chapter Box 10.4."


id: 15cf8c9fc21da8c93a9dea05d184efea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1055
content:
"The East Asian monsoon (EAsiaM) is the seasonal reversal in wind \r\nand precipitation occurring over East Asia, including eastern China, \r\nJapan and the Korean Peninsula. The continental area influenced by \r\nthis monsoon is roughly bounded by 102.5degE-140degE and 20degN-40degN \r\n(e.g., Wen et al., 2000; Wang and LinHo, 2002; Wang et al., 2010), and \r\nis shaded purple in Figure AV.1. Unlike other monsoons, it extends \r\nquite far north, out of the tropical belt, and it is largely influenced \r\nby subtropical systems, such as the western North Pacific subtropical \r\nhigh, East Asian subtropical westerly jet, and by disturbances from \r\nthe mid-latitudes (Chang et  al., 2000; Lee et  al., 2006; Yim et  al., \r\n2008; Zhou et al., 2009; S.-S. Lee et al., 2013)."


id: bf0f6f48cb25f09bd1148933b56c5eff
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"The climatological onset of the SAsiaM occurs around 20 May over \r\nthe Andaman and Nicobar Islands and covers the central Bay  of \r\nBengal around 25 May, while it simultaneously advances into \r\nmainland India from the south through Kerala (Pai et  al., 2020). \r\nThe normal date of monsoon onset over Kerala is 1 June and the \r\nmonsoon rains progress into India both from south to north and \r\neast to west, so as to cover the entire country by 15 July (Pai et al., \r\n2020), although with large interannual and inter-decadal variations \r\n(Ghanekar et al., 2019). Retreat of the SAsiaM typically begins from \r\nfar north-west India around 1 September and withdraws completely \r\nfrom the country by 15 October; this is followed by the establishment \r\nof the north-east monsoon rainy season over south peninsular India \r\nfrom October through December (Pai et al., 2020)."


id: 78b41139c42429765868d7d0f9547c69
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content:
"The EAsiaM manifests during boreal summer with warm and wet \r\nsoutherly winds, but also during boreal winter with cold and dry \r\nnortherly winds (Ha et al., 2012). The winter component has been \r\nlinked to the subsequent summer (e.g., Wen et  al., 2000, 2016; \r\nGe et al., 2017; Yan et al., 2020). "


id: 6f75cb5d434b156d430fc4f28bf1c103
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16873
content:
"The East Asian summer monsoon is a subtropical monsoon system \r\n(e.g., Wang and LinHo, 2002; Ding et al., 2007). It is characterized \r\nby low-level southerly winds prevailing over eastern China, Korea \r\nand Japan in boreal summer. The monsoon flow brings abundant \r\nwater vapour into East Asia that converges and forms the Meiyu/\r\nBaiu/Changma rain belt over the region (Zhou et al., 2009; Jin et al., \r\n2013; Lee et al., 2017). Rainfall onset occurs in late April/early May \r\nin the central Indochina Peninsula, and in mid-June the rainy season \r\narrives over East Asia with the formation of the Meiyu front along \r\nthe Yangtze River valley, Changma in Korea, and Baiu in Japan. \r\nLater in July, the monsoon advances up to north China, the Korean \r\nPeninsula and central Japan (Zhang et  al., 2004; Yihui and Chan, \r\n2005; Zhou et al., 2009)."


id: 3071610f056c6a133a988c089940b05c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5780
content:
"The SAsiaM exhibits prominent rainfall variability on sub-seasonal, \r\ninterannual and inter-decadal time scales with teleconnections \r\nto modes of climate variability (see Webster et  al., 1998; Turner \r\nand Annamalai, 2012). While the gross features of the SAsiaM \r\nare simulated in GCMs, there are several large biases that have \r\npersisted over generations of climate models, in CMIP3 and CMIP5, \r\nincluding a large dry bias over India coupled to a lower-tropospheric \r\ncirculation that is too weak (Sperber et al., 2013) and a related wet \r\nbias over the western Equatorial Indian Ocean (Bollasina and Ming, \r\n2013). In CMIP5, cold Arabian Sea SST (sea surface temperature) "


id: 7e015e9b150ed28123cddc7186405d11
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vector_id: 19347
content:
"changing the EAWM intensity. At the inter-decadal time scale, the \r\nEAWM weakened significantly in the mid-1980s, which resulted from \r\natmospheric intrinsic quasi-stationary planetary waves (Wang et al., \r\n2009) and external forcings (Miao et  al., 2018). In the mid-2000s, \r\nthe EAWM was observed to recover from its weak epoch (Wang and \r\nChen, 2014)."


id: 16b19607f4c0d2312cc1719f9cd71a16
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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vector_id: 1202
content:
"The large-scale features of the EAWM are well reproduced by \r\nclimate models, although the strength of monsoon circulation is \r\nunderestimated. The ability of coupled models to simulate the EAWM \r\nshows little difference through the TAR to AR5, but has improved from \r\nAR5 to AR6 (Jiang et al., 2016, 2020). In CMIP5 models, reasonable \r\nsimulations of the Siberian High and Aleutian Low intensities and the \r\nrelationship with ENSO help improve the climatology and interannual \r\nvariability of the EAWM (Gong et al., 2014). "


id: 9a64e07674f2d1548a7fb787912873dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24406
content:
"The summer (June-July-August) component of the EAsiaM is assessed \r\nin Sections 8.3.2.4.2, 8.4.2.4.2, Atlas.5.1.2 and Atlas.5.1.4."


id: 71c8da3018165e8798e13da0fd0757d8
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vector_id: 17260
content:
"The East Asian winter monsoon (EAWM) is characterized by strong \r\nnorth-westerlies over north-east China, Korea and Japan, and by \r\nstrong north-easterlies along the coast of East Asia (Huang et  al., \r\n2003). The northerly winds extend from mid-latitude East Asia \r\nto the equatorial South China Sea (Wen et  al., 2000; Wang et  al., \r\n2010). The EAWM has one component mostly linked to mid-to-high \r\nlatitude circulation systems and another mostly linked to the tropical \r\ncirculation and largely controlled by ENSO (Ge et al., 2012; Chen et al., \r\n2014a). The mid-latitude component has a  close relationship with \r\nautumn Arctic sea ice concentration changes (Chen et al., 2014b)."


id: 70014955730524b4b6be9ed6c40380a5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16961
content:
"The EAWM exhibits significant variability ranging from intra-seasonal \r\nto inter-decadal time scales. Its intra-seasonal variability is suggested \r\nto be influenced by both high-latitude and subtropical Eurasian wave \r\ntrains (Jiao et al., 2019). At the interannual time scale, ENSO is an \r\nimportant factor modulating the EAWM (Wang et al., 2000), while \r\nthe relationship between them is not stable (Wang and He, 2012; Fan \r\net al., 2020). In addition, Arctic Oscillation (Gong et al., 2001), Arctic \r\nsea ice (Ge et al., 2012), Eurasian snow (Luo and Wang, 2019), and \r\nstrong volcanic eruptions (Miao et al., 2016) also play vital roles in "


id: c8aae576d2eaf7838385e7617995d5b6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32623
content:
"The WAfriM features variability at different time scales. Unprecedented \r\ndroughts occurred in West Africa and particularly over the Sahel from \r\nthe late 1960s to the mid-1990s, and a specific assessment of the \r\nunderstanding of mechanisms related to these changes is provided \r\nin Sections 8.3.2.4.3 and 10.4.2.1."


id: 92564c7ec03dc1cbee6adb969bca2b52
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22968
content:
"The identification of a regional monsoon regime in North America \r\ndates back to the 1990s (Douglas et al., 1993; Adams and Comrie, \r\n1997; Higgins et al., 1997; Barlow et al., 1998), although consideration \r\nof the monsoonal character of the south-western USA precipitation \r\ngoes back considerably further (e.g., Bryson and Lowry, 1955). The \r\nmonsoonal characteristics of the region include a pronounced annual \r\nmaximum of precipitation in boreal summer (June-July-August) \r\naccompanied by a surface low-pressure system and an upper-level \r\nanticyclone, although the seasonal reversal of the surface winds \r\nis primarily limited to the northern Gulf of California. In particular, \r\nthe summer precipitation in the NAmerM region is dictated by the \r\nlocation of the upper-level anticyclone (Reed, 1933; Castro et  al., \r\n2001). The decay phase of the NAmerM is typically observed during \r\nlate September to October, when convection migrates from Central \r\nto South America (Vera et al., 2006)."


id: a5aefeaf81b06b010a99f506284f9b92
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26378
content:
"Mesoscale variability of the NAmerM comes from the pulsing of \r\nthe  Gulf of California low-level jet, the intensification/reduction \r\nof the land-sea contrast (Torres-Alavez et al., 2014) and moisture \r\nsurges over the Gulf of California (Vera et  al., 2006). Synoptic \r\nvariability of the NAmerM is mainly associated with the activity \r\nof tropical cyclones and of easterly waves (Stensrud et al., 1997; \r\nFuller and Stensrud, 2000). In addition, the NAmerM is strongly \r\ninfluenced by ENSO variability at both interannual (Higgins et al., \r\n1999; Higgins and Shi, 2001) and decadal (e.g., Castro et al., 2001) \r\ntime scales."


id: c3efca10bb5ce24f24d15958597e8d0a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31752
content:
"The WAfriM is assessed in Sections 8.3.2.4.3 and 8.4.2.4.3. The \r\nobserved Sahel and West African monsoon drought and recovery \r\nis assessed as a  regional climate change attribution example in \r\nSection 10.4.2.1."


id: 60b019b05f39c2ba05d1ef0fb0379a9a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14309
content:
"The North American monsoon (NAmerM) is a  regional-scale \r\natmospheric circulation system dominated by boreal summer \r\nprecipitation over north-western Mexico and south-west USA, \r\nwhere it contributes to almost 70% and 40% of the total annual \r\nprecipitation, respectively (Douglas et al., 1993; Higgins et al., 1997). \r\nThe NAmerM domain is shaded magenta in Figure AV.1, is roughly \r\nbounded by 15degN-35degN, 100degW-115degW and is defined where the \r\nJuly-August-September minus June mean precipitation exceeds \r\n25  mm month-1 (Douglas et  al., 1993; Adams and Comrie, 1997; \r\nBarlow et al., 1998; Cook and Seager, 2013)."


id: a7e0ec8f1f15e17428b62b266d09c0c8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26745
content:
"The South American monsoon (SAmerM) is a  regional circulation \r\nsystem characterized by inflow of low-level winds from the \r\nAtlantic Ocean toward South America, involving Brazil, Peru, \r\nBolivia and northern Argentina, associated with the development \r\nof surface pressure gradients (and intense precipitation) during \r\naustral summer (December-January-February; DJF). Based on \r\nclimatological precipitation intensity, the SAmerM region is roughly "


id: edff7e5a5cf0ba537943fedba9ef1e27
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39246
content:
"bounded by 5degS-25degS and 70degW-50degW (Zhou and Lau, 1998; Vera \r\net al., 2006; Raia and Cavalcanti, 2008) and is shaded dark orange \r\nin Figure AV.1."


id: fc94e328d6960d9229d66be20819cfb9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41807
content:
"to the yellow shaded region in Figure AV.1. The identification of \r\nthe Australian monsoon by meteorologists dates back to the early \r\n20th century (see review of Suppiah, 1992), with later studies providing \r\nclassifications of monsoon circulation regimes (e.g.,  McBride, 1987) \r\nand definitions of monsoon onset (Troup, 1961; Holland, 1986; Hendon \r\nand Liebmann, 1990; Drosdowsky, 1996)."


id: ec225c2ba9eb593b0d9c56f60d231088
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38911
content:
"During austral spring (September-October-November; SON), areas \r\nof intense convection migrate from north-western South America to \r\nthe south (Raia and Cavalcanti, 2008), forming the South Atlantic \r\nConvergence Zone (SACZ) during austral summer (Kodama, 1992; \r\nJones and Carvalho, 2002; Vera et  al., 2006). Associated with this \r\nregime, an upper-tropospheric anticyclone (the Bolivian High) forms \r\nover the Altiplano region during the monsoon onset (Lenters and \r\nCook, 1997). The establishment of this upper-level anticyclone has \r\nbeen related to the transition from southerly to northerly winds and \r\nthe occurrence of strong convective heating over the Amazon (Lenters \r\nand Cook, 1997; Wang and Fu, 2002). The SAmerM then retreats \r\nduring austral autumn (March-April-May) with a  north-eastward \r\nmigration of the convection (e.g., Vera et al., 2006)."


id: bd936274d3a77649e5f39bb136dcf7e5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30613
content:
"The AusMCM is characterized by the seasonal reversal of prevailing \r\neasterly winds to westerly winds and the onset of periods of active \r\nconvection and heavy rainfall (Zhang and Moise, 2016). Over northern \r\nAustralia, the monsoon season generally lasts from December to \r\nMarch and is associated with the west to north-westerly inflow of \r\nmoist winds, producing convection and heavy precipitation. Over the \r\nMaritime Continent, the main rainy season south of the equator is \r\ncentred on December to February with north-westerly monsoon flow \r\nat low levels."


id: d177405ea39ce4567a07ea2f6b9b97d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34205
content:
"Over Australia, the monsoon is strongly influenced by ENSO on \r\ninterannual time scales: during El Nino years the monsoon onset \r\ntends to be delayed (Nicholls et  al., 1982; McBride and Nicholls, \r\n1983; Drosdowsky, 1996). This relationship breaks down after the \r\nonset of the wet season, leading to little correlation between ENSO \r\nphase and total monsoon rainfall or duration (e.g.,  Hendon et  al., \r\n2012). The Maritime Continent also experiences a delay in monsoon \r\nonset during El Nino years and monsoon rainfall is correlated with \r\nENSO during the dry and transition seasons (Robertson et al., 2011). \r\nThe AusMCM is also influenced by the Indian Ocean Dipole (peaking \r\nin September to November) that tends to weaken the following \r\nmonsoon when in its positive phase (Cai et al., 2005)."


id: 1db534ef55135e57fcabf7482711f7b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2413
content:
"The ability of climate models to simulate the Australian monsoon \r\nhas improved in successive generations of coupled models (i.e., from \r\nCMIP3 to CMIP6, Moise et al., 2012; Brown et al., 2016; Narsey et al., \r\n2020), with sensitivity of monsoon rainfall to the magnitude of SST \r\nbiases in the Equatorial Pacific (Brown et al., 2016). "


id: cec51cb7e7ad57c9380c072cbf747dcc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33716
content:
"The general large-scale features of the SAmerM are reasonably \r\nwell simulated by coupled climate models although they do not \r\nadequately reproduce maximum precipitation over the core of the \r\nmonsoon, even when considering simulations under past natural \r\nforcings, such as those during the last millennium (Rojas et al., 2016; \r\nDiaz and Vera, 2018). However, CMIP5 models featured an improved \r\nrepresentation of the SAmerM with respect to CMIP3 (Joetzjer et al., \r\n2013; Jones and Carvalho, 2013; Gulizia and Camilloni, 2015; Diaz \r\nand Vera, 2017). "


id: 27d95649c0b0d9e28da8cfd6f7f4ffac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4204
content:
"The Australian-Maritime Continent monsoon (AusMCM) occurs during \r\naustral summer (December-January-February), with the large-scale \r\nshift of the ITCZ into the Southern Hemisphere. It  covers northern \r\nAustralia and the Maritime Continent up to 10degN (e.g.,  McBride, \r\n1987; Suppiah, 1992; Robertson et  al., 2011), and it corresponds "


id: 808ae2435268479d86f0a0ae9e2570fb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19741
content:
"Jose M. Gutierrez (Spain), Roshanka Ranasinghe (The Netherlands/Sri Lanka, Australia), \r\nAlex C. Ruane (United States of America), Robert Vautard (France)"


id: 4bbb635c90eabca1c9fee81d872c4a18
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10579
content:
"Mathias Hauser (Switzerland), Carley E. Iles (Norway, France/United Kingdom), Maialen Iturbide \r\n(Spain)"


id: 24a908c380e3ac2bc0705ad3de4d032f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3641
content:
"This annex provides background information on indices used within \r\nChapter 11, Chapter 12 and the Atlas, including technical details of \r\ncalculation and related references."


id: edfc937d091ea449eeb5ddf81d85d45d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39242
content:
"Indices are used in many chapters of this Report: in Chapter 4 for \r\nassessing changes in the global climate, in Chapter 8 for water cycle \r\nchanges assessment, in Chapter  9 for oceans and the cryosphere, \r\nin Chapter 11 for assessing changes in extreme conditions, and in \r\nChapter 12 for assessing CIDs and their changing characteristics due \r\nto climate change. The Atlas assesses changes in mean variables/\r\nindices (temperature, precipitation and snow). The Interactive Atlas \r\nincludes indices of mean changes (for temperatures, precipitation, \r\nsnowfall and wind) and a  number of extreme indices and CIDs, \r\nallowing for flexible spatial and temporal analysis of the results. "


id: e9a5ffe79972c3c45160910369e294dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Indices can also characterize aspects of climatic impact-drivers \r\n(CIDs; see Chapter 1 for the definition) that are key to impacts and \r\nrisks to society and ecosystems. Chapter 12 proposes a definition of \r\n'climatic impact-driver indices' as 'numerically computable indices \r\nusing one or a combination of climate variables designed to measure \r\nthe intensity of the climatic impact-driver, or the probability of \r\nexceedance of a threshold. For instance, an index of heat inducing \r\nhuman health stress is the Heat Index (HI) that combines temperature \r\nand relative humidity (e.g., Burkart et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2012; Kent \r\net al., 2014) and is used by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric \r\nAdministration (NOAA) for issuing heat warnings'."


id: f61c6ab1ff11e696f4eae51de78c26b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Climatic impact-drivers may not be related only to extremes, and \r\ntherefore require a much broader set of indices. For instance, the rate \r\nof coastline recession, due to sea level rise, assessed in Chapter 12, is \r\ninvolved in the risk of damage and losses in coastal settlements and \r\ninfrastructures. Mean trends and changes themselves are considered \r\nthroughout the report as CIDs. For instance, beyond the warming \r\ntrend that has a  large number of consequences, changes in other \r\nindices such as 'snow season length' are often used to study economic \r\nimpacts on winter tourism (Damm et al., 2017). Furthermore, Mora \r\net al. (2018) used a set of 11 very different key CID indices, among \r\nwhich about half are related to extremes to characterize broader \r\nthreats to society. Section  12.3 in Chapter  12 reviews the CIDs \r\ndescribed in the literature which drive impacts and risks, and reveal \r\nthe wide variety of indices used to characterize them."


id: d316ac59fea8594e819192e54a10fa93
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34479
content:
"Some of these indices are included in the Interactive Atlas allowing \r\nfurther analysis (seasons, regions, baselines and future periods  - \r\nusing both time slices/scenarios and global warming levels): TXx, \r\nTNn, Rx1day, Rx5day, FD, CDD and SPI."


id: c9a8b6a6ab6986f46b21865f4901b657
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32803
content:
"Cooling degree days (CD): Energy consumption in hot environments \r\ntypically depends on the excess of temperature above a  given \r\nthreshold, where cooling is required. In Chapter 12 and the Atlas we \r\nused the formulation of Spinoni et al. (2015), which uses the mean \r\n(TM), max (TX) and min daily (TN) temperature with the formula taken \r\nfrom this reference:"


id: c4b62cb253b8e6a3b1863d2a0bd8f52c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31918
content:
"In Chapter  12, 33 CID categories are identified on the basis of \r\nrelevance for risks and impacts and available literature. They are \r\nclassified into seven types: heat and cold, wet and dry, wind, snow \r\nand ice, coastal, open ocean, and other (see Tables 12.1 and 12.2). It \r\nwould be impossible to cover all indices that have been developed in \r\nthe literature. However, in order to illustrate how indices can provide \r\ninformation about future regional climate, Chapter 12 and the Atlas \r\nuse a limited number of indices to illustrate the main CIDs and their \r\nevolution with climate change."


id: 2514e8890b7e7d3f8b23ef99fb4fa878
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3717
content:
"The selection of indices, as displayed in Chapter 12 and the Atlas, is \r\nbased on expert judgement using the following guiding principles. \r\nThe set of indices should:"


id: 3b93ecdcb37b7f96b24ea5c016e27390
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7665
content:
"The difference between Chapter  12, the Atlas and the previous \r\nreference is that in this Report the sum is cumulated over the entire \r\nyear instead of six months, so it applies to all hemispheres. This index \r\nis included in the Interactive Atlas."


id: 827fcf06ff25c211558402026df9b917
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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content:
"Number of days with maximum daily temperature above \r\nthreshold (TXnn): The number of days with maximum temperature \r\nabove a threshold can be critical for human health, infrastructure, \r\necosystems and agriculture. Different thresholds are used for \r\ndifferent crops, generally varying between 30degC and 40degC (Hatfield \r\nand Prueger, 2015; Grotjahn, 2021). Chapter  12 uses the 35degC \r\nthreshold globally (Figure 12.4), which was identified as a critical \r\ntemperature for maize pollination and production (Wolfe et  al., \r\n2008; Schlenker and Roberts, 2009; Hatfield et  al., 2011, 2014; \r\nLobell and Gourdji, 2012; Gourdji et al., 2013; Lobell et al., 2013; \r\nDeryng et al., 2014; Hatfield and Prueger, 2015; Tripathi et al., 2016; \r\nSchauberger et al., 2017; Tesfaye et al., 2017), as well as a notable \r\nthreshold for human health hazards (Kingsley et al., 2016; Petitti \r\net  al., 2016). The Interactive Atlas includes both TX35 and TX40 \r\n(both raw and bias adjusted; see Atlas 1.4.5). "


id: eeb2ff44c6dd7f917f1bf16f52a1619
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39377
content:
"The selection results in 13 regional indices that are reported in \r\nTable AVI.2. The description of the formulae used for processing is \r\ndescribed below."


id: 106a0b4baed4bd368570b72cb5167993
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
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content:
"NOAA heat index (HI): HI is used by the US National Oceanic \r\nand Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for issuing heat warnings \r\nand was applied in several studies that investigated adverse health \r\nimpacts due to heat stress (e.g., Burkart et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2012; \r\nKent et al., 2014). HI is calculated as multiple linear regression with "


id: 4f05b152fa6cf18577b5ec81dddd59c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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content:
"each month separately. The application periods are the IPCC periods \r\n1995-2014, 2041-2060 and 2081-2100, and 20-year periods for \r\nspecific warming levels (1.5degC, 2degC, 3degC and 4degC). "


id: a7061a56c2359ac2161f15d63d0e6809
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26592
content:
"Heating degree days (HDD): symmetrical to the cooling degree \r\ndays index, the HDD index is used for illustrating energy demand for \r\nheating. It has been used in several studies of the impacts of climate \r\nchange on the energy sector. The Atlas follows the formulation \r\nproposed by Spinoni et al. (2015). The calculation follows:"


id: a7e8a694fdf6ff1036894995f2f6f196
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26751
content:
"c0 = -42.379 degF, c1 = 2.04901523, c2 = 10.14333127 degF, \r\nc3 = -0.22475541, c4 = -0.00683783 degF-1, c5 = -0.05481717 degF,\r\nc6 = 0.00122874 degF-1, c7 = 0.00085282, c8 = -0.00000199 degF-1"


id: b9801054fe8148ed72bee0f7e6ad94d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29847
content:
"To account for various geographic zones, however, the HDD index \r\nis cumulated over the entire year, instead of six months, as in the \r\nprevious reference. This index is included in the Interactive Atlas."


id: ad96ffc7001bc127869f43d121118032
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27783
content:
"HI is calculated for CMIP5, CMIP6 and CORDEX using daily mean \r\nnear-surface specific humidity, daily mean surface pressure, and \r\ndaily maximum near-surface air temperature. For CMIP5 and CMIP6, \r\ndaily mean surface pressure is calculated from daily mean sea level \r\npressure by applying a height adjustment (see Schwingshackl et al. \r\n(2021) for details). Additionally, HI is calculated for WFDE5, which is \r\na bias-adjusted version of the ERA5 reanalysis (Cucchi et al., 2020). \r\nDaily maximum temperature is calculated as the maximum of the \r\nhourly WFDE5 near-surface temperature values. Relative humidity \r\nis calculated using daily means of the hourly WFDE5 variables for \r\nnear-surface air temperature, near-surface specific humidity, and \r\nsurface air pressure."


id: d51c1515d3e2ea98a9c04082e66ee00
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34816
content:
"Number of frost days (FD): Frost affects crops (Barlow et al., 2015; \r\nCrimp et al., 2016; Cradock-Henry, 2017; Makinen et al., 2018), and \r\nthere has been a  number of studies investigating changes in the \r\nnumber of frost days, with various thresholds, mostly between -10degC \r\nand +2degC. In Chapter 12 and the Atlas, we use the simple threshold \r\nof 0degC for the daily minimum temperature to define frost days as in \r\nTable AVI.1. This index is included in the Interactive Atlas."


id: 96511f766873fb1c11ac1515e00f8887
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23639
content:
"River flood index using runoff (FI): As a  flood indicator, the \r\n100-year return value of discharge value (Q100) has been used. \r\nThe computation of the index follows Alfieri et al. (2015):"


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vector_id: 18789
content:
"3. The peak discharge corresponding to the 100-year return period, \r\nQ100=Q(RP=100), is then calculated."


id: fb475d03b0e470e678f00ced20df4f35
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41582
content:
"For CORDEX regional models the total runoff of each of the models \r\nhas been used as an input of the hydrological model CHyM (Coppola \r\net  al., 2007, 2018) to produce the river discharge. The Q(RP=100) \r\nvalue has been computed for each of the river segments and each \r\nof the 29 CHyM simulations. The results are shown in the regional \r\nfigures in Section 12.4."


id: de24770d150e8a3181678ec2159fdd1e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36343
content:
"the opposite season (May through September). SWE was assessed in \r\nseveral studies and its simulation depends on the representation of \r\nsurface processes dealing with snow. Despite limitations, SWE was \r\nfound to be useful in giving insight into the sign of changes (McCrary \r\net al., 2017). When interpreting the figures shown in Chapter 12, one \r\nshould also keep in mind that 'altitudes' are model altitudes and may \r\nnot correspond to real ones due to the coarse resolution, and the \r\nchanges can be quite sensitive to such effects."


id: 687135d337a9cf1f5abd4fc4b08bee3f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15643
content:
"Standardized precipitation index (SPI): The SPI is a  statistical \r\nindex that compares cumulated precipitation for n months (n = 6) \r\nwith the long-term precipitation distribution for the same location \r\nand cumulation period. The SPI months have been selected so that \r\nSPI represents the medium-term cumulated value and can be used to \r\nmeasure the medium-term impact on river flow and reservoir storage \r\n(Mckee et al., 1993)."


id: 75c48ccaa178026da17d3646ee57dfb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17949
content:
"Extreme Total Water Level (ETWL): Factors contributing \r\nto extreme sea levels (ETWL) are sea level rise, storm surge \r\n(e.g.,  associated with tropical cyclones and extratropical \r\ncyclones), tide, and extreme waves (resulting in high-wave setup \r\nat the shoreline). The ETWL used here is the summation of the \r\naforementioned factors (Vitousek et al., 2017; Vousdoukas et al., \r\n2018) and the commonly used 1-in-100-year ETWL (the  100-\r\nyear ETWL return value) is adopted here as the index relevant to \r\nepisodic coastal flooding. Here, the median ETWL, together with \r\nthe associated 5-95% confidence interval, resulting from a  fully \r\nprobabilistic model that incorporates storm surge and waves \r\nderived from models forced by an ensemble of six GCMs, is used as \r\nthe index relevant for long-term coastal erosion."


id: a7ed58b0091a9aaf46bc943fd8625fb1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26755
content:
"Coastal erosion (CE): Coastal erosion is generally accompanied by \r\nshoreline retreat, which can occur as a gradual process (e.g., due to sea \r\nlevel rise) or as an episodic event due to storm surge and/or extreme \r\nwaves, especially when combined with high tide (Ranasinghe, 2016). \r\nThe most commonly used shoreline retreat index is the magnitude of \r\nshoreline retreat by a predetermined planning horizon such as 50 or \r\n100 years into the future. Here, the median shoreline retreat, together \r\nwith the associated 5-95% confidence interval, resulting from a fully \r\nprobabilistic model that incorporates storm surge and waves derived \r\nfrom models forced by an ensemble of six GCMs, is used as the index \r\nrelevant for long-term coastal erosion."


id: 27a7bff3c1a6bacbd841dfb71168b8e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4159
content:
"Once SPI has been computed, the calculation of the drought frequency \r\n(DF) follows the method in Spinoni et  al. (2014): a  drought event \r\nstarts in the month when SPI falls below -1 and it ends when SPI \r\nreturns to positive values, for at least two consecutive months."


id: d9fcd2a8d800a07c3cd64dabe33f9284
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35653
content:
"It has to be noted that the SPI index has been recognized to be \r\ndifficult to interpret in high latitudes and arid areas due to statistical \r\nissues linked to inaccuracies in the estimation of the Gamma function \r\n(Spinoni et  al., 2014). The duration of six months is considered in \r\nFigure 12.4. This index is included in the Interactive Atlas."


id: 8b3a12f02d62890c6a9ed3320b0bcc55
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21659
content:
"Some of these indices are included in the Interactive Atlas allowing \r\nflexible analysis (seasons, regions, baselines and future periods  - \r\nusing both time slices/scenarios and global warming levels): TX35 \r\nand TX40 (both raw and bias adjusted; see Atlas 1.4.5), FD, CDD, \r\nHDD, SPI-6 (CDD and HDD are labelled as CD and HD, respectively, in \r\nthe Interactive Atlas)."


id: e330aa08ce37eeca47bce342c0cd5290
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37270
content:
"Soil moisture (SM): The soil moisture index is used in Chapter 12 \r\nfigures. It is using the total soil moisture content integrated over the \r\nsoil depth, normalized by the recent past climatological values at \r\neach grid point."


id: c3a242c6a65e91630ab2f27b99a10294
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31690
content:
"Snow season length (SWE100): Several studies use the snow \r\nwater equivalent (SWE) variable (variable snw in model outputs) in \r\norder to define a 'snow season length' as the number of days with \r\nenough snow on the ground. This index is particularly important for \r\nthe winter tourism sector (Damm et  al., 2017; Jacob et  al., 2018). \r\nSeveral thresholds are used to define a day with 'enough snow on \r\nthe ground', with Wobus et  al. (2017) marking 100  mm as a  key \r\nthreshold for skiing. However, this index is important not only for \r\nwinter tourism but also in other sectors such as water management. \r\nIn several figures of Chapter 12, the snow season length is calculated \r\nthen as the number of days with SWE > 100  mm, following the \r\ndefinition of Damm et al. (2017) and Wobus et al. (2017). Seasonal \r\nlimits are given (November through March) for studies in the Northern \r\nHemisphere, and the index for the Southern Hemisphere is taken over "


id: 48d50a08758dc13425ce6fa482c2e70c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10027
content:
"J.B. Robin Matthews (France/United Kingdom), Vincent Moller (Germany),  Renee van Diemen \r\n(The  Netherlands/United Kingdom),  Jan S. Fuglestvedt (Norway), Valerie Masson-Delmotte \r\n(France), Carlos Mendez (Venezuela),  Sergey Semenov (Russian Federation), Andy Reisinger \r\n(New Zealand)"


id: 134b521421140b0f6bc8de396a6e3081
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 607
content:
"Rondrotiana Barimalala (South Africa/Madagascar), Roxana Bojariu (Romania), Annalisa Cherchi \r\n(Italy), Peter M. Cox (United Kingdom), Sergio Henrique Faria (Spain/Brazil), Piers Forster \r\n(United  Kingdom), Christopher Jones (United Kingdom), Nana Ama Browne Klutse (Ghana), \r\nCharles Koven (United States of America), Svitlana Krakovska (Ukraine), Sawsan K. Mustafa (Sudan), \r\nFriederike Otto (United Kingdom/Germany), Matthew D. Palmer (United Kingdom), Tamzin Palmer \r\n(United Kingdom), Wilfried Pokam Mba (Cameroon), Roshanka Ranasinghe (The Netherlands/Sri \r\nLanka, Australia), Pedro Scheel Monteiro (South Africa), Joeri Rogelj (United Kingdom/ Belgium), \r\nSharon L. Smith (Canada), Ying Sun (China), Andrew Turner (United Kingdom), Bart van den Hurk \r\n(The Netherlands), Emilie Vanvyve (United Kingdom/Belgium), Martin Wild (Switzerland), \r\nCunde Xiao (China), Prodromos Zanis (Greece)"


id: bada3186d340b45218a30f3643da546b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30087
content:
"This glossary defines some specific terms as the Lead Authors intend them to be interpreted in \r\nthe context of this report. Italicized words in definitions indicate that the italicized term is defined \r\nin the Glossary. "


id: 7e5a9085745a51170309ac5901aa31e4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19395
content:
"IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Moller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, \r\nC.  Mendez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of \r\nWorking Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, \r\nV., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Pean, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. \r\nLonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekci, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, \r\nCambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215-2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022."


id: 7bf7f15cb54c8ffb3831a89ccbc3c7a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19019
content:
"Ablation (of glaciers, ice sheets, or snow cover) See Mass \r\nbalance/budget (of glaciers or ice sheets)."


id: 92b76e548a59176a69ed401d127bfa76
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23027
content:
"Abrupt change A change in the system that is substantially \r\nfaster than the typical rate of the changes in its history. See also \r\nAbrupt climate change and Tipping point."


id: 1f89368dee4911a4e2368780ebe2aaa6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2757
content:
"Abrupt climate change A large-scale abrupt change in the \r\nclimate system that takes place over a few decades or less, persists \r\n(or is anticipated to persist) for at least a few decades and causes \r\nsubstantial impacts in human and/or natural systems. See also Abrupt \r\nchange and Tipping point."


id: 8607e497ca97616579fbdea3de8ae8b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20723
content:
"Accumulation (of glaciers, ice sheets, or snow cover) See \r\nMass balance/budget (of glaciers or ice sheets)."


id: 672489035785bbd8d33beba5cd8f80e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15424
content:
"Adaptation In human systems, the process of adjustment to \r\nactual or expected climate and its effects, in order to moderate harm \r\nor exploit beneficial opportunities. In natural systems, the process \r\nof adjustment to actual climate and its effects; human intervention \r\nmay facilitate adjustment to expected climate and its effects. \r\nSee  also Adaptation options, Adaptive capacity and Maladaptive \r\nactions (Maladaptation)."


id: f813749832e99f3f77063a9aa95933fe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41019
content:
"Aerosol optical depth (AOD) Wavelength-dependent aerosol \r\noptical depth is a measure of the aerosol contribution to extinction of \r\ntop-of-the-atmosphere solar intensity measured at the ground. AOD \r\nis unitless."


id: 8e78d345cb12827a4c905116d04648f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22256
content:
"Adaptation options The array of strategies and measures \r\nthat are available and appropriate for addressing adaptation. They \r\ninclude a wide range of actions that can be categorized as structural, \r\ninstitutional, ecological or behavioural."


id: 13660f5e11ef1bc151ad681300862618
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 622
content:
"Fine-mode aerosol optical depth\r\nAerosol optical depth due to aerosol particles smaller than 1 mm \r\nin radius."


id: 1ecaa7fc6e5994b861c98839041f013a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2618
content:
"Adaptive capacity The ability of systems, institutions, humans \r\nand other organisms to adjust to potential damage, to take advantage \r\nof opportunities, or to respond to consequences (MA, 2005)."


id: 97465cb0c3e807104bf8a17d7738f5ce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23811
content:
"Aerosol-cloud interaction A process by which a perturbation \r\nto aerosol affects the microphysical properties and evolution of \r\nclouds through the aerosol role as cloud condensation nuclei or ice \r\nnuclei, particularly in ways that affect radiation or precipitation; such \r\nprocesses can also include the effect of clouds and precipitation on \r\naerosol. The aerosol perturbation can be anthropogenic or come from \r\nsome natural source. The radiative forcing from such interactions has \r\ntraditionally been attributed to numerous indirect aerosol effects, \r\nbut in this report, only two levels of radiative forcing (or effect) \r\nare distinguished:"


id: bbae14b04f7813cfa1cf25cfe9e61caa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30245
content:
"Added value Improvement of the representation of some climatic \r\naspects by one methodology compared to another methodology. For \r\ninstance, downscaling a coarse resolution global climate model may \r\nimprove the representation of regional climate in complex terrain."


id: 78f2722df154ec2d0b8d506f232f7211
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18467
content:
"Adjustments (in relation to effective radiative \r\nforcing) The response to an agent perturbing the climate system\r\nthat is driven directly by the agent, independently of any change \r\nin global surface temperature. For example, carbon dioxide and \r\naerosols, by altering internal heating and cooling rates within the \r\natmosphere, can each cause changes to cloud cover and other \r\nvariables thereby producing an effective radiative forcing even in \r\nthe absence of any surface warming or cooling. Adjustments are \r\nusually rapid in the sense that they begin to occur right away, \r\nbefore climate feedbacks which are driven by global surface \r\nwarming (although some adjustments may still take significant time \r\nto proceed to completion, for example those involving vegetation \r\nor ice sheets)."


id: d633ed52510c6fb692b3d310af03e8a6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35002
content:
"The final radiative forcing (or effect) from the aerosol perturbation, \r\nincluding the adjustments to the initial change in droplet or crystal \r\nformation rate. These adjustments include changes in the strength of \r\nconvection, precipitation efficiency, cloud fraction, lifetime or water \r\ncontent of clouds, and the formation or suppression of clouds in \r\nremote areas due to altered circulations."


id: e44e2a6f35ca226beb212a2e4c4f5aa1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37463
content:
"Advection Transport of water or air along with its properties \r\n(e.g., temperature, chemical tracers) by winds or currents. Regarding \r\nthe general distinction between advection and convection, the \r\nformer describes transport by large-scale motions of the atmosphere"


id: aa464c3da7e770bf02f46d15bb8820a0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27189
content:
"aerosol perturbation, with other variables (in particular total cloud \r\nwater content) remaining equal. In liquid clouds, an increase in cloud \r\ndroplet concentration and surface area would increase the cloud \r\nalbedo. This effect is also known as the cloud albedo effect, first \r\nindirect effect, or Twomey effect. It is a largely theoretical concept \r\nthat cannot readily be isolated in observations or comprehensive \r\nprocess models due to the ubiquity of adjustments."


id: 8045a5d47d2fca2226f04d7def6e3c45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19697
content:
"Air pollution Degradation of air quality with negative effects \r\non human health or the natural or built environment due to the \r\nintroduction, by natural processes or human activity, into the \r\natmosphere of substances (gases, aerosol) which have a direct \r\n(primary pollutants) or indirect (secondary pollutants) harmful effect. \r\nSee also Short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs)."


id: 713e1d88a719d8aaabe55d26607bfa57
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17182
content:
"Airborne fraction The fraction of total carbon dioxide (CO2)\r\nemissions (from fossil fuels and land-use change) remaining in \r\nthe atmosphere."


id: 983783465186c0ede385013ec859d82e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23990
content:
"Aerosol-radiation interaction An interaction of aerosol\r\ndirectly with radiation produces radiative effects. In this report, two \r\nlevels of radiative forcing (or effect) are distinguished:"


id: 8fd17ca0ffdc999a5a52a70b942b912f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22511
content:
"Albedo The proportion of sunlight (solar radiation) reflected by \r\na surface or object, often expressed as a percentage. Clouds, snow \r\nand ice usually have high albedo; soil surfaces cover the albedo range \r\nfrom high to low; vegetation in the dry season and/or in arid zones\r\ncan have high albedo, whereas photosynthetically active vegetation \r\nand the ocean have low albedo. The Earth's planetary albedo changes \r\nmainly through changes in cloudiness and of snow, ice, leaf area and \r\nland cover."


id: ef96c244fbe1057f98460ee48b2308d9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39533
content:
"The total effective radiative forcing due to both aerosol-cloud and \r\naerosol-radiation interactions is denoted aerosol effective radiative \r\nforcing (ERFari+aci)."


id: a8a9f39a05122311578e0506d863503
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26879
content:
"Effective radiative forcing (or effect) due to aerosol-radiation \r\ninteractions (ERFari)\r\nThe final radiative forcing (or effect) from the aerosol perturbation, \r\nincluding adjustments to the initial change in radiation. These \r\nadjustments include changes in cloud caused by the impact of \r\nthe radiative heating on convective or larger-scale atmospheric \r\ncirculations, traditionally known as semi-direct aerosol forcing \r\n(or effect)."


id: 515fd5bf8419e59f012ba2df9d433253
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11594
content:
"Altimetry A technique for measuring the height of the Earth's \r\nsurface with respect to the geocentre of the Earth within a defined \r\nterrestrial reference frame (geocentric sea level). See also Geocentric \r\nsea level change."


id: a7e0f2049c37854c700957fbfcc0afa7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26746
content:
"Annular modes Hemispheric scale patterns of atmospheric \r\nvariability characterized by opposing and synchronous fluctuations \r\nin sea level pressure between the polar caps and mid-latitudes, \r\nwith  a structure exhibiting a high degree of zonal symmetry, and \r\nwith no real preferred time scales ranging from days to decades. In \r\neach hemisphere, these fluctuations reflect changes in the latitudinal \r\nposition and strength of the mid-latitude jets and associated storm \r\ntracks. Annular modes are defined as the leading mode of variability \r\nof extratropical sea level pressure or geopotential heights and are \r\nknown as the Northern Annular Mode (NAM) and Southern Annular \r\nMode (SAM) in the two hemispheres, respectively."


id: 734b171d14c13b6c40fdd6707a86bc61
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17535
content:
"The radiative forcing (or radiative effect, if the perturbation is \r\ninternally generated) of an aerosol perturbation due directly to \r\naerosol-radiation interactions, with all environmental variables \r\nremaining unaffected. Traditionally known in the literature as the \r\ndirect aerosol forcing (or effect)."


id: 3021c94e3112de064f565865afd1eb63
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5729
content:
"Afforestation Conversion to forest of land that historically has \r\nnot contained forests. [Note: For a discussion of the term forest and \r\nrelated terms such as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, \r\nsee the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories \r\nand their 2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United \r\nNations Framework Convention on Climate Change (IPCC, 2006, \r\n2019; UNFCCC, 2021a, b).] See also Deforestation, Reforestation, \r\nAnthropogenic removals and Carbon dioxide removal (CDR)."


id: b48c7868ddf5aa400ad9c1bcc6b3f7c0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29010
content:
"Agreement In this Report, the degree of agreement within the \r\nscientific body of knowledge on a particular finding is assessed \r\nbased on multiple lines of evidence (e.g., mechanistic understanding, \r\ntheory, data, models, expert judgement) and expressed qualitatively \r\n(Mastrandrea et al., 2010). See also Confidence, Likelihood, \r\nUncertainty and Evidence."


id: fc508fb4bd43975862f782aa3eaeaf46
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41757
content:
"Air mass A widespread body of air, the approximately \r\nhomogeneous properties of which (i) have been established while \r\nthat air was situated over a particular region of the Earth's surface, \r\nand (ii) undergo specific modifications while in transit away from the \r\nsource region (AMS, 2021)."


id: 4e537642123bf6ec604588dd1b23cc1f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11054
content:
"The leading mode of climate variability of Southern Hemisphere sea \r\nlevel pressure and geopotential height, which is associated with the \r\nstrength and latitudinal shifts in the mid- to high-latitudes westerly \r\nwind belt. The SAM is also known as the Antarctic Oscillation (AAO). "


id: c01bd93da1d7fe930f64834e3bb4cf4f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31090
content:
"in this report. As a consequence, the land-related net GHG emission \r\nestimates from global models included in this report are not necessarily \r\ndirectly comparable with land use, land-use change and forestry \r\n(LULUCF) estimates in national GHG Inventories.] See also Carbon \r\ndioxide removal (CDR), Afforestation, Enhanced weathering, Ocean \r\nalkalinization/Ocean alkalinity enhancement and Reforestation."


id: beb5ae48b9a34d05951c2086212efde4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30818
content:
"A positive SAM phase is defined as lower-than-normal pressures \r\nover the polar regions and higher-than-normal pressures in the \r\nsouthern mid-latitudes, with a contraction towards Antarctica and \r\nstrengthening of the westerly wind belt. The negative SAM phase \r\nexhibits positive high-latitude pressure anomalies, negative mid\u0002latitude pressure anomalies and a weaker westerly flow expanded \r\ntowards the equator. See Section AIV.2.2 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI \r\nreport. See also Annular modes."


id: e92f837929d258910f2279a86c9271f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38377
content:
"Anthropogenic subsidence Downward motion of the land \r\nsurface induced by anthropogenic drivers (e.g., loading, extraction \r\nof hydrocarbons and/or groundwater, drainage, mining activities) \r\ncausing sediment compaction or subsidence/deformation of the \r\nsedimentary sequence, or oxidation of organic material, thereby \r\nleading to relative sea level rise."


id: 2d1ab9d2377bb5d2c35ef2d8790ff700
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5216
content:
"Apparent hydrological sensitivity (ea) The change in global \r\nmean precipitation per degree Celsius of global mean surface \r\nair temperature (GSAT) change with units of % per degC, although \r\nit can also be calculated as W m-2 per degC. See also Hydrological \r\nsensitivity (e)."


id: bb79948ff095457e5768ad1a4416469c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30204
content:
"Arid zone Areas where vegetation growth is severely constrained \r\ndue to limited water availability. For the most part, the native \r\nvegetation of arid zones is sparse. There is high rainfall variability, \r\nwith annual averages below 300 mm. Crop farming in arid zones \r\nrequires irrigation."


id: 8fe2c676f9f9c714779995a2c4fe426a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22522
content:
"Aridity The state of a long-term climatic feature characterized \r\nby low average precipitation or available water in a region. Aridity \r\ngenerally arises from widespread persistent atmospheric subsidence \r\nor anticyclonic conditions, and from more localized subsidence in the \r\nlee side of mountains (adapted from Gbeckor-Kove, 1989; Turkes, \r\n1999). See also Drought."


id: 2341a3557a188b92136bada591c7e94e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3405
content:
"Anthropogenic emissions Emissions of greenhouse gases \r\n(GHGs), precursors of GHGs and aerosols caused by human activities. \r\nThese activities include the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, land \r\nuse and land-use changes (LULUC), livestock production, fertilization, \r\nwaste management, and industrial processes. See also Anthropogenic\r\nand Anthropogenic removals."


id: 3904a3666cf3ceb30db63d8f64a717b3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7236
content:
"Artificial ocean upwelling (AOUpw) A potential carbon \r\ndioxide removal (CDR) method that aims to artificially pump up \r\ncooler, nutrient-rich waters from deep in the ocean to the surface. \r\nThe aim is to stimulate phytoplankton activity and thereby increase \r\nocean CO2 uptake."


id: c0e377d2c91f2b302cc6e22dab1aed7b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31235
content:
"Assets Natural or human-made resources that provide current \r\nor future utility, benefit, economic or intrinsic value to natural or \r\nhuman systems."


id: 7f42904097ece4cd3bd9bf83a9f9a31c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19544
content:
"Atlantic Equatorial Mode See Atlantic Zonal Mode (AZM)\r\nunder Tropical Atlantic Variability (TAV)."


id: 55b68b1d80d7d66bd1d4a6a4efec0e4f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12349
content:
"Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) See \r\nMeridional overturning circulation (MOC)."


id: dca56fdccb04e9c5c371dbf8b20affab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36082
content:
"Atlantic Multi-decadal Variability (AMV) Large-scale \r\nfluctuations observed from one decade to the next in a variety of \r\ninstrumental records and proxy reconstructions over the entire \r\nNorth Atlantic ocean and surrounding continents. Fingerprints of "


id: f390e675b6dc7812b32b44a44ab6dcb2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40228
content:
"Autotrophic respiration Respiration by photosynthetic (see \r\nphotosynthesis) organisms (e.g., plants and algae)."


id: e147cf96c947b1008f2e3931b666fa91
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36897
content:
"AMV can be found at the surface ocean, which is characterized by \r\nswings in basin-scale sea surface temperature anomalies reflecting \r\nthe interaction with the atmosphere. The positive phase of the \r\nAMV is characterized by anomalous warming over the entire North \r\nAtlantic, with the strongest amplitude in the subpolar gyre and along \r\nsea ice margin zones in the Labrador Sea and Greenland/Barents \r\nSea  and in the subtropical North Atlantic basin to a lower extent. \r\nIn the AR6 WGI report, the term AMV is preferred to Atlantic Multi\u0002decadal Oscillation (AMO) used in previous IPCC reports because \r\nthere is no preferred time scale of decadal variability as the term \r\noscillation would indirectly imply. See Section AIV.2.7 in Annex IV of \r\nthe AR6 WGI report."


id: 893c4b7f2f1800aeaad96a06dd0347a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21313
content:
"Avalanche A mass of snow, ice, earth or rocks, or a mixture of \r\nthese, falling down a mountainside."


id: 3a29c79dd7cf9942ea0e4255a98cc5c5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7439
content:
"Basal lubrication Reduction of friction at the base of an ice sheet\r\nor glacier due to lubrication by meltwater. This can allow the glacier \r\nor ice sheet to slide over its base. Meltwater may be produced by \r\npressure-induced melting, friction or geothermal heat, or surface \r\nmelt may drain to the base through holes in the ice."


id: 6a406aa2a93abed7bef4fb1e6fdb1219
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15972
content:
"Biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity means the \r\nvariability among living organisms from all sources including, among \r\nother things, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, and the \r\necological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity \r\nwithin species, between species, and of ecosystems (UN, 1992). See \r\nalso Ecosystem."


id: 9d81895d967536475b001652d8ec7fdd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24950
content:
"Bioenergy with carbon dioxide capture and storage \r\n(BECCS) Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technology \r\napplied to a bioenergy facility. Note that depending on the total \r\nemissions of the BECCS supply chain, carbon dioxide (CO2) can be \r\nremoved from the atmosphere. See also Carbon dioxide capture \r\nand storage (CCS), Anthropogenic removals and Carbon dioxide \r\nremoval (CDR)."


id: c16e4e85190f15a51269a434242ce02b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31336
content:
"Biological (carbon) pump A series of ocean processes through \r\nwhich inorganic carbon (as carbon dioxide, CO2) is fixed as organic \r\nmatter by photosynthesis in sunlit surface water and then transported \r\nto the ocean interior, and possibly the sediment, resulting in the \r\nstorage of carbon."


id: 15366a2d3e242f72939b1ec98f9ffb69
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 947
content:
"Atmospheric boundary layer The atmospheric layer adjacent \r\nto the Earth's surface that is affected by friction against that boundary \r\nsurface, and possibly by transport of heat and other variables across \r\nthat surface (AMS, 2021). The lowest 100 m of the boundary layer \r\n(about 10% of the boundary layer thickness), where mechanical \r\ngeneration of turbulence is dominant, is called the surface boundary \r\nlayer or surface layer."


id: ac7dcfae7f661659bed554e611a69029
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27588
content:
"Biomass Organic material excluding the material that is fossilized \r\nor embedded in geological formations. Biomass may refer to the \r\nmass of organic matter in a specific area (ISO, 2014). "


id: 6161b2d30450489c7179ebcad20b4aa8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14430
content:
"Biosphere (terrestrial and marine) The part of the Earth \r\nsystem comprising all ecosystems and living organisms, in the \r\natmosphere, on land (terrestrial biosphere) or in the oceans (marine \r\nbiosphere), including derived dead organic matter, such as litter, soil \r\norganic matter and oceanic detritus."


id: 461a86606aa232a21223b12d793d8e06
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9548
content:
"Atmospheric rivers (ARs) Long, narrow (up to a few hundred \r\nkm wide), shallow (up to a few km deep) and transient corridors of \r\nstrong horizontal water vapour transport that are typically associated \r\nwith a low-level jet stream ahead of the cold front of an extratropical \r\ncyclone (ETC) (Ralph et al., 2018)."


id: 3a9e9e6e981773afeaca11f22f73874
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7517
content:
"Bipolar seesaw (also inter-hemispheric seesaw, inter\u0002hemispheric asymmetry, hemispheric asymmetry) A \r\nphenomenon in which temperature changes in the Northern and \r\nSouthern hemispheres are related but out of phase, generally \r\ninferred to represent a change in the magnitude or sign of net \r\nheat transport across the equator. Originally called hemispheric \r\nasymmetry and linked to changes in thermohaline overturning "


id: 104a9a6b4395c48eefdbce4d25f102bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 54
content:
"Attribution Attribution is defined as the process of evaluating \r\nthe relative contributions of multiple causal factors to a change or \r\nevent with an assessment of confidence."


id: 780e1134529f2dcc0bfae9e0bc530b67
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18333
content:
"Calcification The process of biologically precipitating calcium \r\ncarbonate minerals to create organism shells, skeletons, otoliths, or \r\nother body structures. The chemical equation describing calcification \r\nis Ca2+ (aq) + 2HCO3\r\n-\r\n (aq) - CaCO3(s) + CO2 + H2O. Aragonite and \r\ncalcite are two common crystalline forms of biologically precipitated \r\ncalcium carbonate minerals that have different solubilities."


id: e774c4886ec92de2ab4f534768c2362c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38020
content:
"circulation on multi-millennial scales (Mix et al., 1986), later named \r\nbipolar seesaw and applied to millennial scales (Broecker, 1998) with \r\na similar thermohaline mechanism (Stocker and Johnsen, 2003). \r\nSee also Meridional overturning circulation (MOC) and Deglacial or \r\ndeglaciation or glacial termination."


id: 2ee0a8984b354ae8a29de04b679260fd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5525
content:
"Black carbon (BC) A relatively pure form of carbon, also known \r\nas soot, arising from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel, \r\nand biomass. It only stays in the atmosphere for days or weeks. BC \r\nis a climate forcing agent with strong warming effect, both in the \r\natmosphere and when deposited on snow or ice. See also Aerosol\r\nand Atmosphere."


id: 35f3c69402dbf469a0895635a594d90
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6740
content:
"Calving (of glaciers or ice sheets) The breaking off of \r\ndiscrete pieces of ice from a glacier, ice sheet or an ice shelf into \r\nlake or seawater, producing icebergs. This is a form of mass loss from \r\nan ice body."


id: 7afee2ebff462af422ba0b210cd5f5df
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18842
content:
"Blocking Associated with persistent, slow-moving high-pressure \r\nsystems that obstruct the prevailing westerly winds in the middle \r\nand high latitudes and the normal eastward progress of extratropical \r\ntransient storm systems. It is an important component of the intra\u0002seasonal climate variability in the extratropics and can cause \r\nlong-lived weather conditions such as cold spells in winter and \r\nsummer heatwaves."


id: d5ddbedff25cb0680283232c48e09e25
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34942
content:
"Carbon budget Refers to two concepts in the literature: (i) \r\nan assessment of carbon cycle sources and sinks on a global \r\nlevel, through the synthesis of evidence for fossil fuel and cement \r\nemissions, emissions and removals associated with land use and \r\nland-use change, ocean and natural land sources and sinks of \r\ncarbon dioxide (CO2), and the resulting change in atmospheric CO2\r\nconcentration. This is referred to as the global carbon budget; (ii) \r\nthe maximum amount of cumulative net global anthropogenic CO2\r\nemissions that would result in limiting global warming to a given \r\nlevel with a given probability, taking into account the effect of other \r\nanthropogenic climate forcers. This is referred to as the total carbon \r\nbudget when expressed starting from the pre-industrial period, and \r\nas the remaining carbon budget when expressed from a recent \r\nspecified date."


id: 30e20adf7879f9924732abc18d47df8b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5855
content:
"Blue carbon Biologically driven carbon fluxes and storage in \r\nmarine systems that are amenable to management. Coastal blue \r\ncarbon focuses on rooted vegetation in the coastal zone, such as tidal \r\nmarshes, mangroves and seagrasses. These ecosystems have high \r\ncarbon burial rates on a per unit area basis and accumulate carbon \r\nin their soils and sediments. They provide many non-climatic benefits \r\nand can contribute to ecosystem-based adaptation. If degraded or \r\nlost, coastal blue carbon ecosystems are likely to release most of their \r\ncarbon back to the atmosphere. There is current debate regarding \r\nthe application of the blue carbon concept to other coastal and non\u0002coastal processes and ecosystems, including the open ocean. See \r\nalso Sequestration."


id: 98f595042d7ad634b542fc6511f625ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24126
content:
"Note 1: Net anthropogenic CO2 emissions are anthropogenic CO2\r\nemissions minus anthropogenic CO2 removals. See also Carbon \r\ndioxide removal (CDR)."


id: 55418a294e43f44b82f833e715ef668e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12276
content:
"Note 2: The maximum amount of cumulative net global anthropogenic \r\nCO2 emissions is reached at the time that annual net anthropogenic \r\nCO2 emissions reach zero."


id: cfd50122bf8bdeac0fb76e538ecfa526
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33923
content:
"Brewer-Dobson circulation The meridional overturning \r\ncirculation of the stratosphere transporting air upward in the tropics, \r\npoleward to the winter hemisphere, and downward at polar and \r\nsubpolar latitudes. The Brewer-Dobson circulation is driven by the \r\ninteraction between upward propagating planetary waves and the \r\nmean flow."


id: 9977249de902b274088a9e9591eed9b2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24225
content:
"Note 3: The degree to which anthropogenic climate forcers other than \r\nCO2 affect the total carbon budget and remaining carbon budget \r\ndepends on human choices about the extent to which these forcers \r\nare mitigated and their resulting climate effects."


id: 13cee398475690281a90c27b97e1fff6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 699
content:
"Note 4: The notions of a total carbon budget and remaining carbon \r\nbudget are also being applied in parts of the scientific literature and \r\nby some entities at regional, national, or sub-national levels. The \r\ndistribution of global budgets across individual different entities \r\nand emitters depends strongly on considerations of equity and other \r\nvalue judgements."


id: 32c24d289d10a9e1186474d280c0cde4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6199
content:
"Business as usual (BAU) The term business as usual scenario \r\nhas been used to describe a scenario that assumes no additional \r\npolicies beyond those currently in place and that patterns of socio\u0002economic development are consistent with recent trends. The term \r\nis now used less frequently than in the past. See also Reference \r\nscenario (under Scenario)."


id: 369c1731b36e270b2db4be25f5c3a86
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6842
content:
"Carbon cycle The flow of carbon (in various forms, e.g., as \r\ncarbon dioxide (CO2), carbon in biomass, and carbon dissolved in \r\nthe ocean as carbonate and bicarbonate) through the atmosphere, \r\nhydrosphere, terrestrial and marine biosphere and lithosphere. In this \r\nreport, the reference unit for the global carbon cycle is GtCO2 or GtC \r\n(one Gigatonne = 1 Gt = 1015 grams; 1 GtC corresponds to 3.664 \r\nGtCO2). See also Ocean carbon cycle."


id: 97a8d7d756f1b328c095a25321414e89
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23901
content:
"13C Stable isotope of carbon having an atomic weight of \r\napproximately 13. Measurements of the ratio of 13C/12C in carbon \r\ndioxide (CO2) molecules are used to infer the importance of different \r\ncarbon cycle and climate processes and the size of the terrestrial \r\ncarbon reservoir."


id: 3da696b57da3cb65f10fbfa1fda4ffc4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8012
content:
"14C Unstable isotope of carbon having an atomic weight of \r\napproximately 14 and a half-life of about 5700 years. It is often used \r\nfor dating purposes going back some 40 kyr. Its variation in time is \r\naffected by the magnetic fields of the Sun and Earth, which influence \r\nits production from cosmic rays."


id: 7acbbbced901670853064faf04780632
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18807
content:
"Carbon dioxide (CO2) A naturally occurring gas, CO2 is also \r\na by-product of burning fossil fuels (such as oil, gas and coal), of \r\nburning biomass, of land-use change (LUC) and of industrial \r\nprocesses (e.g., cement production). It is the principal anthropogenic "


id: a050338064494cbdd798d798d0bb44aa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25413
content:
"greenhouse gas (GHG) that affects the Earth's radiative balance. It \r\nis the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and \r\ntherefore has a global warming potential (GWP) of 1. "


id: faec7c6ac8b2db9a64da1a9f6cfed040
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41529
content:
"Carbon dioxide (CO2) fertilization The increase of plant \r\nphotosynthesis and water-use efficiency in response to increased \r\natmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. Whether this \r\nincreased photosynthesis translates into increased plant growth \r\nand carbon storage on land depends on the interacting effects of \r\ntemperature, moisture and nutrient availability."


id: 1bd509195dddd87a43941f9730c60cb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2080
content:
"Carbonate pump Ocean carbon fixation through the biological \r\nformation of carbonates, primarily by plankton that generate \r\nbio-mineral particles that sink to the ocean interior, and possibly \r\nthe sediment. It is also called carbonate counter-pump, since the \r\nformation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is accompanied by the release \r\nof carbon dioxide (CO2) to surrounding water and subsequently to the \r\natmosphere."


id: ab88495d7f3ff0a6ac7fca02c010d2db
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27410
content:
"Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) A process in \r\nwhich a relatively pure stream of carbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial \r\nand energy-related sources is separated (captured), conditioned, \r\ncompressed and transported to a storage location for long-term \r\nisolation from the atmosphere. Sometimes referred to as carbon \r\ncapture and storage. See also Bioenergy with carbon dioxide capture \r\nand storage (BECCS), Sequestration, Anthropogenic removals and \r\nCarbon dioxide removal (CDR)."


id: 7a43c06d8b0c5ec7136fb29bb3db139d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18706
content:
"Cenozoic Era The third and current geological Era, which began \r\n66.0 Ma. It comprises the Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary\r\nPeriods."


id: 15c7a51e0838667225af7d328966f62c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1050
content:
"Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) Anthropogenic activities \r\nremoving carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and durably \r\nstoring it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. \r\nIt includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of \r\nbiological or geochemical CO2 sinks and direct air carbon dioxide \r\ncapture and storage (DACCS), but excludes natural CO2 uptake \r\nnot directly caused by human activities. See also Anthropogenic \r\nremovals, Afforestation, Enhanced weathering, Ocean alkalinization/\r\nOcean alkalinity enhancement, Reforestation, Bioenergy with carbon \r\ndioxide capture and storage (BECCS) and Carbon dioxide capture and \r\nstorage (CCS)."


id: c8c274f84b4ac54c92c823b1a2e460b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32644
content:
"Chaotic A dynamical system such as the climate system, governed \r\nby non-linear deterministic equations, may exhibit erratic or chaotic \r\nbehaviour in the sense that very small changes in the initial state of \r\nthe system lead to large and apparently unpredictable changes in its \r\ntemporal evolution. Such chaotic behaviour limits the predictability\r\nof the state of a non-linear dynamical system at specific future times, \r\nalthough changes in its statistics may still be predictable given \r\nchanges in the system parameters or boundary conditions."


id: bcebb7c5f3bae194051c73acfffdd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30477
content:
"Charcoal Material resulting from charring of biomass, usually \r\nretaining some of the microscopic texture typical of plant tissues; \r\nchemically it consists mainly of carbon with a disturbed graphitic \r\nstructure, with lesser amounts of oxygen and hydrogen."


id: b4f1b3beb02461891ef86ceada511852
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29078
content:
"Carbon neutrality Condition in which anthropogenic CO2\r\nemissions associated with a subject are balanced by anthropogenic \r\nCO2 removals. The subject can be an entity such as a country, \r\nan  organization, a district or a commodity, or an activity such as \r\na service and an event. Carbon neutrality is often assessed over the life \r\ncycle including indirect ('scope 3') emissions, but can also be limited \r\nto the emissions and removals, over a specified period, for which the \r\nsubject has direct control, as determined by the relevant scheme."


id: 47f70fb5723869d5b4d20cd9d86280e2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9879
content:
"Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) An organic compound that \r\ncontains chlorine, carbon, hydrogen and fluorine and is used for \r\nrefrigeration, air conditioning, packaging, plastic foam, insulation, \r\nsolvents or aerosol propellants. Because they are not destroyed in \r\nthe lower atmosphere, CFCs drift into the upper atmosphere where, \r\ngiven suitable conditions, they lead to ozone (O3 ) depletion. They \r\nare some of the greenhouse gases (GHGs) covered under the 1987 \r\nMontreal Protocol, as a result of which manufacturing of these \r\ngases has been phased out, and they are being replaced by other \r\ncompounds, including hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)."


id: cbef9ed17a19f27fe5431ac91abf29d3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33206
content:
"Note 1: Carbon neutrality and net zero CO2 emissions are overlapping \r\nconcepts. The concepts can be applied at global or sub-global scales \r\n(e.g., regional, national and sub-national). At a global scale, the terms \r\ncarbon neutrality and net zero CO2 emissions are equivalent. At sub\u0002global scales, net zero CO2 emissions is generally applied to emissions \r\nand removals under direct control or territorial responsibility of the \r\nreporting entity, while carbon neutrality generally includes emissions \r\nand removals within and beyond the direct control or territorial \r\nresponsibility of the reporting entity. Accounting rules specified by \r\nGHG programmes or schemes can have a significant influence on the \r\nquantification of relevant CO2 emissions and removals."


id: 27b9e589cbe95b04937c6ecabe4c0f38
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4175
content:
"Clathrate (methane) A partly frozen slushy mix of methane gas \r\nand ice, usually found in sediments."


id: 963343429b503b3cbd0166c76554f42d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23620
content:
"Note 2: In some cases, achieving carbon neutrality may rely on the \r\nsupplementary use of offsets to balance emissions that remain after \r\nactions by the reporting entity are taken into account."


id: fb5afb556d151ed5a33b8c9ee081549f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41597
content:
"Clausius-Clapeyron equation/relationship The thermodynamic \r\nrelationship between temperature and the vapour pressure of \r\na substance in which two phases of the substance are in equilibrium \r\n(e.g., liquid water and water vapour). For gases such as water vapour, "


id: 4414eb609257eb4e26a35b911f4099d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9214
content:
"A  specific subcategory of zero emissions commitment is the Zero \r\nCO2 Emissions Commitment which refers to the climate system \r\nresponse to CO2 emissions after setting these to net zero. The \r\nCO2-only definition is of specific use in estimating remaining \r\ncarbon budgets."


id: fb24bf236db06e5894ffe6d87f33c30f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41559
content:
"this relation gives the increase in equilibrium (or saturation) vapour \r\npressure per unit change in air temperature."


id: 4c05ce0c3149b63440612b4a148e04df
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10638
content:
"Climate Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average \r\nweather, or more rigorously as the statistical description in terms of \r\nthe mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time \r\nranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical \r\nperiod for averaging these variables is 30 years, as defined by the \r\nWorld Meteorological Organization (WMO). The relevant quantities \r\nare most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation \r\nand wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical \r\ndescription, of the climate system."


id: c8bcc449369a3b1be1368bbb616faf11
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32636
content:
"Climate extreme (extreme weather or climate event) The \r\noccurrence of a value of a weather or climate variable above (or \r\nbelow) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends of the range \r\nof observed values of the variable. By definition, the characteristics \r\nof what is called extreme weather may vary from place to place in an \r\nabsolute sense. When a pattern of extreme weather persists for some \r\ntime, such as a season, it may be classified as an extreme climate \r\nevent, especially if it yields an average or total that is itself extreme \r\n(e.g., high temperature, drought, or heavy rainfall over a season). For \r\nsimplicity, both extreme weather events and extreme climate events \r\nare referred to collectively as 'climate extremes'."


id: 6535a4598d1f9ae1f627b17b0df2cddb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15076
content:
"Climate feedback An interaction in which a perturbation in one \r\nclimate quantity causes a change in a second, and the change in \r\nthe second quantity ultimately leads to an additional change in the \r\nfirst. A negative feedback is one in which the initial perturbation is \r\nweakened by the changes it causes; a positive feedback is one in \r\nwhich the initial perturbation is enhanced. The initial perturbation \r\ncan either be externally forced or arise as part of internal variability. \r\nSee also Climate-carbon cycle feedback, Cloud feedback and Ice-\r\nalbedo feedback."


id: fd440d0d097d01e82e0e194423775831
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41912
content:
"Climate feedback parameter A way to quantify the radiative \r\nresponse of the climate system to a change induced by a radiative \r\nforcing. It is quantified as the change in net energy flux at the top of \r\natmosphere for a given change in annual global surface temperature. \r\nIt has units of W m-2 degC-1."


id: 7e9073f578504bad23c9bb09d767c59f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19419
content:
"Climate change commitment Climate change commitment \r\nis defined as the unavoidable future climate change resulting from \r\ninertia in the geophysical and socio-economic systems. Different \r\ntypes of climate change commitment are discussed in the literature \r\n(see subterms). Climate change commitment is usually quantified \r\nin terms of the further change in temperature, but it includes other \r\nfuture changes, for example in the hydrological cycle, in extreme \r\nweather events, in extreme climate events, and in sea level."


id: 813f4e8a28a983034b01479c2d3210cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19869
content:
"Climate index A time series constructed from climate variables \r\nthat provides an aggregate summary of the state of the climate \r\nsystem. For example, the difference between sea level pressure in \r\nIceland and the Azores provides a simple yet useful historical North \r\nAtlantic Oscillation (NAO) index. Because of their optimal properties, \r\nclimate indices are often defined using principal components - \r\nlinear combinations of climate variables at different locations that \r\nhave maximum variance subject to certain normalization constraints \r\n(e.g., the Northern Annular Mode (NAM) and Southern Annular \r\nMode (SAM) indices, which are principal components of Northern \r\nHemisphere and Southern Hemisphere gridded pressure anomalies, \r\nrespectively). Definitions of observational indices for Modes of \r\nclimate variability can be found in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report. "


id: 97ad0bb3a37ba56b22b678a566580aab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23904
content:
"The constant composition commitment is the remaining climate \r\nchange that would result if atmospheric composition, and hence \r\nradiative forcing, were held fixed at a given value. It results from the \r\nthermal inertia of the ocean and slow processes in the cryosphere\r\nand land surface."


id: ee8d94c2797d752a011d48ed62bbef2b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39348
content:
"The constant emissions commitment is the committed climate change\r\nthat would result from keeping anthropogenic emissions constant."


id: ada8caeefe5c7ed57c249a0945468b5a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27794
content:
"Climate indicator Measures of the climate system, including \r\nlarge-scale variables and climate proxies. See also Climate metrics."


id: 5d825fe580092c99816ef0ff081a3d26
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13736
content:
"The zero emissions commitment is an estimate of the subsequent \r\nglobal warming that would result after anthropogenic emissions\r\nare set to zero. It is determined by both inertia in physical climate \r\nsystem components (ocean, cryosphere, land surface) and carbon \r\ncycle inertia. In its widest sense it refers to emissions of each \r\nclimate forcer, including greenhouses gases, aerosols and their \r\nprecursors. The climate response to this can be complex due \r\nto the different time scale of response of each climate forcer. "


id: 83b5d580e31dce8c738f4b244770345e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20316
content:
"Key indicators constitute a finite set of distinct variables that may \r\ncollectively point to important overall changes in the climate \r\nsystem of broad societal relevance across the atmospheric, oceanic, \r\ncryospheric and biospheric domains, with land as an implicit cross\u0002cutting theme. Taken together, these indicators would be expected \r\nto both have changed and continue to change in the future in a "


id: 3233e1185dd7b423957f8d6eccc380e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6087
content:
"Climate sensitivity The change in the surface temperature\r\nin response to a change in the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)\r\nconcentration or other radiative forcing. See also Climate feedback \r\nparameter."


id: 70693fbfe2ada4880cf57f844dc4b331
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17039
content:
"Climate information Information about the past, current \r\nstate or future of the climate system that is relevant for mitigation, \r\nadaptation and risk management. It may be tailored or 'co-produced' \r\nfor specific contexts, taking into account users' needs and values."


id: 46a18fbc22e6762648d54eae3741db11
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9632
content:
"The equilibrium surface temperature response of the coupled \r\natmosphere-ocean-cryosphere-vegetation-carbon cycle system to \r\na doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration \r\nis referred to as Earth system sensitivity. Because it allows ice sheets \r\nto adjust to the external perturbation, it may differ substantially from \r\nthe equilibrium climate sensitivity derived from coupled atmosphere-\r\nocean models."


id: 14e4a0c67e079cfe860e958bda940ecd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 903
content:
"Climate metrics Measures of aspects of the overall climate \r\nsystem response to radiative forcing, such as equilibrium climate \r\nsensitivity (ECS), transient climate response (TCR), transient climate \r\nresponse to cumulative CO2 emissions (TCRE) and the airborne \r\nfraction of anthropogenic carbon dioxide. See also Greenhouse gas \r\nemission metric, Climate indicator and Key climate indicators (under \r\nClimate indicator)."


id: d12bafe96d56f0ca7873c2744c711b0c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34148
content:
"An estimate of the surface temperature response to a doubling of \r\nthe atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration that is evaluated \r\nfrom model output or observations for evolving non-equilibrium \r\nconditions. It is a measure of the strengths of the climate feedbacks at \r\na particular time and may vary with forcing history and climate state, \r\nand therefore may differ from equilibrium climate sensitivity."


id: 4c4b5454c84e088cb120a4b973a03035
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10685
content:
"The equilibrium (steady state) change in the surface temperature\r\nfollowing a doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)\r\nconcentration from pre-industrial conditions."


id: 77b440ab6fd16e15810446e341744323
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18268
content:
"The surface temperature response for the hypothetical scenario \r\nin which atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) increases at 1% yr-1\r\nfrom pre-industrial to the time of a  doubling of atmospheric CO2\r\nconcentration (year 70)."


id: 42c7dd0af1ea5df3907b998acc61a0ac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8945
content:
"Transient climate response to cumulative CO2 emissions (TCRE)\r\nThe transient surface temperature change per unit cumulative carbon \r\ndioxide (CO2) emissions, usually 1000 GtC. TCRE combines both \r\ninformation on the airborne fraction of cumulative CO2 emissions \r\n(the fraction of the total CO2 emitted that remains in the atmosphere, \r\nwhich is determined by carbon cycle processes) and on the transient \r\nclimate response (TCR)."


id: 4ff9ef4eb9b2e8d8b8605d9b1c21fa8b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11365
content:
"Climate pattern A set of spatially varying coefficients obtained \r\nby 'projection' (regression) of climate variables onto a climate index\r\ntime series. When the climate index is a principal component, the \r\nclimate pattern is an eigenvector of the covariance matrix, referred to \r\nas an empirical orthogonal function (EOF) in climate science."


id: c9c16384b2539491bdb6cf645208562f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32826
content:
"Climate services Climate services involve the provision of climate \r\ninformation in such a way as to assist decision-making. The service \r\nincludes appropriate engagement from users and providers, is based \r\non scientifically credible information and expertise, has an effective \r\naccess mechanism and responds to user needs (Hewitt et al., 2012)."


id: 9a4c6809c2346e2c4319d255008a7b78
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24390
content:
"Climate prediction A climate prediction or climate forecast is the \r\nresult of an attempt to produce (starting from a particular state of the \r\nclimate system) an estimate of the actual evolution of the climate in \r\nthe future, for example, at seasonal, interannual or decadal time scales. \r\nBecause the future evolution of the climate system may be highly \r\nsensitive to initial conditions, has chaotic elements and is subject to \r\nnatural variability, such predictions are usually probabilistic in nature."


id: 8ceb3aa13b53615a41bed7d05b5b87e0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21976
content:
"Climate simulation ensemble A group of parallel model \r\nsimulations characterizing historical climate conditions, climate \r\npredictions, or climate projections. Variation of the results across \r\nthe ensemble members may give an estimate of modelling-based \r\nuncertainty. Ensembles made with the same model but different \r\ninitial conditions characterize the uncertainty associated with \r\ninternal climate variability, whereas multi-model ensembles \r\nincluding simulations by several models also include the effect of \r\nmodel differences. Perturbed parameter ensembles, in which model \r\nparameters are varied in a systematic manner, aim to assess the \r\nuncertainty resulting from internal model specifications within \r\na single model. Remaining sources of uncertainty unaddressed with \r\nmodel ensembles are related to systematic model errors or biases, "


id: 5906facf7ff2e525705fd53cb8e31c45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12904
content:
"Climate projection Simulated response of the climate system to \r\na scenario of future emissions or concentrations of greenhouse gases \r\n(GHGs) and aerosols and changes in land use, generally derived using \r\nclimate models. Climate projections are distinguished from climate \r\npredictions by their dependence on the emission/concentration/\r\nradiative forcing scenario used, which is in turn based on assumptions \r\nconcerning, for example, future socio-economic and technological \r\ndevelopments that may or may not be realized."


id: 92b97b8706828165e9dacc78e7b99b19
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23030
content:
"which may be assessed from systematic comparisons of model \r\nsimulations with observations wherever available."


id: b4b88b65ecb6ed4d79e32c0fab2cf8e3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29045
content:
"tolerance, CIDs and their changes can be detrimental, beneficial, \r\nneutral or a mixture of each across interacting system elements and \r\nregions. See also Risk, Hazard and Impacts (consequences, outcomes)."


id: 9898ebe0b22c8d81762ea07cddc9c97
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24062
content:
"Climate system The global system consisting of five major \r\ncomponents: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the \r\nlithosphere and the biosphere and the interactions between them. \r\nThe climate system changes in time under the influence of its own \r\ninternal dynamics and because of external forcings such as volcanic \r\neruptions, solar variations, orbital forcing, and anthropogenic\r\nforcings such as the changing composition of the atmosphere and \r\nland-use change."


id: 493e55997540e53735ae799d2dea52eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10103
content:
"Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) The subset of aerosol\r\nparticles that serve as an initial site for the condensation of liquid \r\nwater, which can lead to the formation of cloud droplets, under typical \r\ncloud formation conditions. The main factor that determines which \r\naerosol particles are CCN at a given supersaturation is their size."


id: 77873bc1dbc2592006cad39c0d2f79a3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18232
content:
"Cloud feedback A climate feedback involving changes in any \r\nof the properties of clouds as a response to a change in the local \r\nor global surface temperature. Understanding cloud feedbacks and \r\ndetermining their magnitude and sign requires an understanding of \r\nhow a change in climate may affect the spectrum of cloud types, \r\nthe cloud fraction and height, the radiative properties of clouds, and \r\nfinally the Earth's radiation budget. "


id: 5fe4d5ddf6b944ba10c894f325c49aeb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14180
content:
"Climate threshold A limit within the climate system (or its \r\nforcing) beyond which the behaviour of the system is qualitatively \r\nchanged. See also Abrupt climate change and Tipping point."


id: a2d4d2cbe357bb692782069b572a4030
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25865
content:
"Climate variability Deviations of climate variables from \r\na given mean state (including the occurrence of extremes, etc.) at \r\nall spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather \r\nevents. Variability may be intrinsic, due to fluctuations of processes \r\ninternal to the climate system (internal variability), or extrinsic, due \r\nto variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing (forced \r\nvariability). See also Climate change and Modes of climate variability."


id: e070195ce3695f37f66669498a5b43c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36738
content:
"Cloud radiative effect The radiative effect of clouds relative to \r\nthe identical situation without clouds."


id: 2079ce966d147c215c530fa1ba65e778
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2934
content:
"Cloud-resolving models (CRMs) Numerical models that are \r\nthat are of high enough resolution and have the necessary physics to \r\nrepresent the dynamical and physical processes of cloud formation."


id: ae6d520273647d258d73b5eb74fb1c73
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27920
content:
"Decadal variability refers to climate variability on decadal time scales. \r\nSee also Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV), Atlantic Multi-decadal \r\nOscillation/Variability (AMO/AMV) and Pacific Decadal Oscillation \r\n(PDO) (under Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV))."


id: 50c0d9cb5a5160732e63c9797afa5abe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11481
content:
"Fluctuations of the climate dynamical system when subject to \r\na constant or periodic external forcing (such as the annual cycle). See \r\nalso Climate variability."


id: 60f2c4f8a5c8bd009a6ddac479a08d5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14348
content:
"Natural variability refers to climatic fluctuations that occur without \r\nany human influence, that is, internal variability combined with \r\nthe response to external natural factors such as volcanic eruptions, \r\nchanges in solar activity and, on longer time scales, orbital effects \r\nand plate tectonics. See also Orbital forcing."


id: fae3aebc4f0ca11e83a5688b3475f033
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41522
content:
"Climate velocity The speed at which isolines of a specified \r\nclimate variable travel across landscapes or seascapes due to \r\nchanging climate. For example, climate velocity for temperature is the \r\nspeed at which isotherms move due to changing climate (km yr-1) and \r\nis calculated as the temporal change in temperature (degC yr-1) divided \r\nby the current spatial gradient in temperature (degC km-1). It can be \r\ncalculated using additional climate variables such as precipitation or \r\ncan be based on the climatic niche of organisms."


id: afe89572203787707b413fa375df0fb1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28187
content:
"Coast The land near to the sea. The term 'coastal' can refer to that \r\nland (e.g., as in 'coastal communities'), or to that part of the marine \r\nenvironment that is strongly influenced by land-based processes. Thus, \r\ncoastal seas are generally shallow and near-shore. The landward and \r\nseaward limits of the coastal zone are not consistently defined, either \r\nscientifically or legally. Thus, coastal waters can either be considered \r\nas equivalent to territorial waters (extending 12 nautical miles/22.2 \r\nkm from mean low water), or to the full Exclusive Economic Zone, or \r\nto shelf seas, with less than 200 m water depth."


id: 24051649fdc28c7e7566f122922e0ccf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3517
content:
"Climate-carbon cycle feedback A climate feedback involves \r\nchanges in the properties of the land and ocean carbon cycle in \r\nresponse to climate change. In the ocean, changes in oceanic \r\ntemperature and circulation could affect the atmosphere-ocean \r\ncarbon dioxide (CO2) flux; on the continents, climate change could \r\naffect plant photosynthesis and soil microbial respiration and hence \r\nthe flux of CO2 between the atmosphere and the land biosphere."


id: 1f05085b5e100ae4d91300aa30e12b10
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2660
content:
"Common era (CE) CE (Common Era) and BCE (Before the \r\nCommon Era) are alternative names for AD (Anno Domini) and BC \r\n(Before Christ) in the Gregorian international standard calendar-year \r\nsystem. CE/BCE are preferred in an international context because \r\nthey are neutral with respect to religion. The numbering of calendar "


id: b21e41a9e14fe7f410e5c7c433abc3d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28567
content:
"Climatic impact-driver (CID) Climatic impact-drivers (CIDs) are \r\nphysical climate system conditions (e.g., means, events, extremes) \r\nthat affect an element of society or ecosystems. Depending on system "


id: 61ed9a51e43526cc726e23aa164bdf92
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14504
content:
"based on shared model inputs by modelling groups from around \r\nthe world. The CMIP Phase 3 (CMIP3) multi-model dataset includes \r\nprojections using Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) \r\nscenarios. The CMIP Phase 5 (CMIP5) dataset includes projections \r\nusing the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP). The CMIP6 \r\nphase involves a suite of common model experiments as well as an \r\nensemble of CMIP-endorsed Model Intercomparison Projects (MIPs)."


id: 7c27d895e2992672d149c41e6b29875c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19055
content:
"years is the same under both terminologies. The CE began in year \r\nAD 1 and extends to the present day. "


id: 2abeec12039120acb23cac8eab4cdfa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4748
content:
"Compatible emissions Earth system models that simulate \r\nthe land and ocean carbon cycle can calculate carbon dioxide \r\n(CO2) emissions that are compatible with a given atmospheric CO2\r\nconcentration trajectory. The compatible emissions over a given period \r\nof time are equal to the increase of carbon over that same period of \r\ntime in the sum of the three active reservoirs: the atmosphere, the \r\nland and the ocean."


id: d107e2005fdf7b101755f83448e16829
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34129
content:
"Cryosphere The components of the Earth system at and below \r\nthe land and ocean surface that are frozen, including snow cover, \r\nglaciers, ice sheets, ice shelves, icebergs, sea ice, lake ice, river ice, \r\npermafrost and seasonally frozen ground."


id: 397a7c1f46f58a4f54a9e57a3a3efd9d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7323
content:
"Compound weather/climate events The terms 'compound \r\nevents', 'compound extremes' and 'compound extreme events' are \r\nused interchangeably in the literature and this report and refer to the \r\ncombination of multiple drivers and/or hazards that contributes to \r\nsocietal and/or environmental risk (Zscheischler et al., 2018)."


id: 7a4e21a81bb7cfacceafa0c8176e8ea5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18715
content:
"Cumulative emissions The total amount of emissions released \r\nover a specified period of time. See also Carbon budget and Transient \r\nclimate response to cumulative CO2 emissions (TCRE) (under Climate \r\nsensitivity)."


id: 576986d5f842bad379473aab182b02b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12642
content:
"Dansgaard-Oeschger events (D-O events) Millennial-scale \r\nevents first characterized in Greenland ice cores as abrupt warming \r\nfrom a cold stadial state to a warmer interstadial state, followed by \r\na return to a cold stadial state (Dansgaard et al., 1993), and traced in \r\nthe ocean via deposits of ice-rafted sand grains (Bond and Lotti, 1995). \r\nNamed after Willi Dansgaard and Hans Oeschger by Bond and Lotti \r\n(1995). An example of a D-O event during the most recent deglacial\r\ntransition is the Bolling-Allerod interstadial. Warm D-O events in \r\nGreenland are associated with cooling events in Antarctica (Blunier \r\nand Brook, 2001) through ocean thermohaline circulation (Stocker \r\nand Johnsen, 2003). See also Bipolar seesaw (also interhemispheric \r\nseesaw, interhemispheric asymmetry, hemispheric asymmetry)."


id: 90ffaf72fecab0bcffca20a028edf558
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22714
content:
"Confidence The robustness of a finding based on the type, \r\namount, quality and consistency of evidence (e.g., mechanistic \r\nunderstanding, theory, data, models, expert judgement) and on the \r\ndegree of agreement across multiple lines of evidence. In this report, \r\nconfidence is expressed qualitatively (Mastrandrea et al., 2010)."


id: 84b898732795f1c3d2f48088457dfa14
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20493
content:
"Data assimilation Mathematical method used to combine \r\ndifferent sources of information in order to produce the best possible \r\nestimate of the state of a system. This information usually consists \r\nof observations of the system and a numerical model of the system \r\nevolution. Data assimilation techniques are used to create initial \r\nconditions for weather forecast models and to construct reanalyses\r\ndescribing the trajectory of the climate system over the time period \r\ncovered by the observations."


id: d86131d0995b5df7a5a5972ff272f4d6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35368
content:
"Convection Vertical motion driven by buoyancy forces arising \r\nfrom static instability, usually caused by near-surface cooling or \r\nincreases in salinity in the case of the ocean and near-surface \r\nwarming or cloud-top radiative cooling in the case of the atmosphere. \r\nIn the atmosphere, convection gives rise to cumulus clouds and \r\nprecipitation and is effective at both scavenging and vertically \r\ntransporting chemical species. In the ocean, convection can carry \r\nsurface waters to deep within the ocean."


id: 58be01b692ceb56d1b9f57798ab20a48
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12853
content:
"Dead zones Extremely hypoxic (i.e., low-oxygen) areas in oceans\r\nand lakes, caused by excessive nutrient input from human activities \r\ncoupled with other factors that deplete the oxygen required to \r\nsupport many marine organisms in bottom and near-bottom water."


id: 4cef9edff50838e2a4a98a449ff0f1d0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10806
content:
"Coral bleaching Loss of coral pigmentation through the loss of \r\nintracellular symbiotic algae (known as zooxanthellae) and/or loss \r\nof their pigments."


id: 5ecff1f890c0cffdc89c836683ea8201
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13974
content:
"Decadal predictability Refers to the notion of predictability\r\nof the climate system on a decadal time scale. See also Climate \r\nprediction, Predictability and Decadal prediction."


id: 5800bab6244d194c89e4a9f86e9a13a6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12745
content:
"Coral reef An underwater ecosystem characterised by structure\u0002building stony corals. Warm-water coral reefs occur in shallow seas, \r\nmostly in the tropics, with the corals (animals) containing algae \r\n(plants) that depend on light and relatively stable temperature \r\nconditions. Cold-water coral reefs occur throughout the world, \r\nmostly at water depths of 50-500 m. In both kinds of reef, living \r\ncorals frequently grow on older, dead material, predominantly made \r\nof calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Both warm- and cold-water coral reefs \r\nsupport high biodiversity of fish and other groups and are considered \r\nto be especially vulnerable to climate change."


id: eb47a9371c9bfb8571bccce63ab78d2b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38749
content:
"Decadal prediction A climate prediction on decadal time scales. \r\nSee also Predictability and Decadal predictability."


id: 1e1aec5e214f757c1b565ef4013f52ce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2496
content:
"Deforestation Conversion of forest to non-forest. [Note: For \r\na discussion of the term forest and related terms such as afforestation, \r\nreforestation and deforestation, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for \r\nNational Greenhouse Gas Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and \r\ninformation provided by the United Nations Framework Convention "


id: 5cfe5252433fc8284cef17dab75edeaa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13629
content:
"on Climate Change (IPCC, 2006, 2019; UNFCCC, 2021a, b).] See also \r\nAfforestation and Reforestation."


id: 7b83e4cb701c4625373d5e81e1b35af5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18938
content:
"Dobson unit (DU) A unit to measure the total amount of ozone\r\nin a vertical column above the Earth's surface (total column ozone). \r\nThe number of Dobson units is the thickness in units of 10-5 m that \r\nthe ozone column would occupy if compressed into a layer of uniform \r\ndensity at a pressure of 1013 hPa and a temperature of 0degC. One DU \r\ncorresponds to a column of ozone containing 2.69 x 1020 molecules \r\nper square metre. A typical value for the amount of ozone in a column \r\nof the Earth's atmosphere, although very variable, is 300 DU."


id: b3b51fdfdc3fd94017f3e9f42315f5d6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28861
content:
"Deglacial or deglaciation or glacial termination The period \r\nof transition from glacial conditions at the end of a glacial period \r\nto interglacial conditions characterized by a reduction in land ice \r\nvolume. Gradual changes can be punctuated by abrupt changes\r\nlinked to stadial/interstadial events and bipolar seesaw aspect. The \r\nlast deglacial transition occurred between about 18,000 and 11,000 \r\nyears ago. It encompasses rapid events such as Meltwater Pulse 1A \r\n(MWP-1A) and millennial-scale fluctuations such as the Younger \r\nDryas. See also Glacial-interglacial cycles and Ice age."


id: 92a2b97bb3e81821aaa50a22efdce70d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23017
content:
"Downscaling A method that derives local- to regional-scale \r\ninformation from larger-scale models or data analyses. Two main \r\nmethods exist: dynamical downscaling and empirical/statistical \r\ndownscaling. The dynamical method uses the output of regional \r\nclimate models, global models with variable spatial resolution, or \r\nhigh-resolution global models. The empirical/statistical methods are \r\nbased on observations and develop statistical relationships that link \r\nthe large-scale atmospheric variables with local/regional climate \r\nvariables. In all cases, the quality of the driving model remains an \r\nimportant limitation on quality of the downscaled information. The \r\ntwo methods can be combined, for example, applying empirical/\r\nstatistical downscaling to the output of a regional climate model \r\nconsisting of a dynamical downscaling of a global climate model."


id: 66e7cf1841d4342af3144dbff0d5dfb7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15370
content:
"Detection Detection of change is defined as the process of \r\ndemonstrating that climate or a system affected by climate has \r\nchanged in some defined statistical sense, without providing a reason \r\nfor that change. An identified change is detected in observations if its \r\nlikelihood of occurrence by chance due to internal variability alone is \r\ndetermined to be small, for example, <10%."


id: d5d5ed8072bcbd67c6d1b1c6b7972255
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34932
content:
"Diatoms Microscopic (2-200 um) unicellular photosynthetic \r\nalgae that live in surface waters of lakes, rivers and oceans and form \r\nshells of opal. In the global ocean, marine diatom species distribution \r\nis primarily driven by nutrient availability. On regional scales, their \r\nspecies distribution in ocean sediment cores can be related to past \r\nsea surface temperatures (Abrantes et al., 2013)."


id: a297509a8b19c6e17d3210561b5fbcb9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25821
content:
"Drought An exceptional period of water shortage for existing \r\necosystems and the human population (due to low rainfall, high \r\ntemperature, and/or wind). See also Plant evaporative stress."


id: 90a6ca3b8f4203d9514733f91767fa86
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22654
content:
"Depending on the affected biome: a period with abnormal soil moisture\r\ndeficit, which results from combined shortage of precipitation and \r\nexcess evapotranspiration, and during the growing season impinges \r\non crop production or ecosystem function in general."


id: 4e19d3bb66af8563a1d9850536fbf267
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11012
content:
"Dimensions of integration In IPCC AR6, concepts used to \r\nsynthesize the knowledge of climate change across not just the \r\nphysical sciences, but also across impacts, adaptation and mitigation\r\nresearch. The concept of 'dimensions of integration' includes \r\n(i)  emission and concentration scenarios underlying the climate \r\nchange projections assessed in this report, (ii) levels of  projected \r\nglobal mean temperature change and (iii) total amounts of cumulative \r\ncarbon emissions for projections."


id: aa8d1cabc74293c423540449b117b8ae
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27229
content:
"Direct air capture (DAC) Chemical process by which a pure \r\ncarbon dioxide (CO2) stream is produced by capturing CO2 from the \r\nambient air. See also Anthropogenic removals and Carbon dioxide \r\nremoval (CDR)."


id: 8fc0555fe6ea94de037ddbc7c28eca02
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22502
content:
"Dynamic global vegetation model (DGVM) A model that \r\nsimulates vegetation development and dynamics through space and \r\ntime, as driven by climate and other environmental changes."


id: cf632bc60eca159fc186bbe15fe9a59
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33839
content:
"Disaster A 'serious disruption of the functioning of a community \r\nor a society at any scale due to hazardous events interacting with \r\nconditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or \r\nmore of the following: human, material, economic and environmental \r\nlosses and impacts' (UNGA, 2016). See also Exposure, Hazard, Risk\r\nand Vulnerability."


id: 24ef4e15df0cb34ff12edbeb3801ebee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3687
content:
"Dynamical system A process or set of processes whose evolution \r\nin time is governed by a set of deterministic physical laws. The climate \r\nsystem is a dynamical system."


id: 71eaa680debc1efbcedda03925a4d52
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17289
content:
"Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO) The EECO is a period \r\nof geological time that occurred about 53 to 49 million years ago, \r\nduring the Eocene Epoch. Continental positions at this time were \r\nsomewhat different to present due to tectonic plate movements. \r\nGeological data indicate that the EECO was a period of relatively \r\nhigh atmospheric CO2 concentrations (about 1150-2500 ppmv) \r\nand relative warmth (global mean surface temperature was about \r\n10-18degC above the 1850-1900 reference), and polar ice sheets\r\nwere absent."


id: 3abbd6ac343f09a7c558541b5342a3d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7534
content:
"Dissolved inorganic carbon The combined total of different \r\ntypes of non-organic carbon in (seawater) solution, comprising \r\ncarbonate (CO3\r\n2-), bicarbonate (HCO3-\r\n), carbonic acid (H2CO3) and \r\ncarbon dioxide (CO2)."


id: dec86daf08cd4d106b8b963ff1e12d10
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36461
content:
"Diurnal temperature range (DTR) The difference between the \r\nmaximum and minimum temperature during a 24-hour period."


id: 51feff60b0a36f03ab167240a789600e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11700
content:
"the carbon cycle is included, allowing for interactive calculation \r\nof atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) or compatible emissions. \r\nAdditional components (e.g., atmospheric chemistry, ice sheets, \r\ndynamic vegetation, nitrogen cycle, but also urban or crop models) \r\nmay be included. See also Earth system model of intermediate \r\ncomplexity (EMIC)."


id: 6967848afd5ec45a705db4c966109dac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15813
content:
"Ecosystem A functional unit consisting of living organisms, their \r\nnon-living environment and the interactions within and between \r\nthem. The components included in a given ecosystem and its spatial \r\nboundaries depend on the purpose for which the ecosystem is \r\ndefined: in some cases, they are relatively sharp, while in others they \r\nare diffuse. Ecosystem boundaries can change over time. Ecosystems \r\nare nested within other ecosystems, and their scale can range from \r\nvery small to the entire biosphere. In the current era, most ecosystems \r\neither contain people as key organisms or are influenced by the \r\neffects of human activities in their environment. "


id: d177098325af53b0b4d0e8c1de2dc6c4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34204
content:
"Earth system model of intermediate complexity \r\n(EMIC) EMICs represent climate processes at a lower resolution\r\nor in a simpler, more idealized fashion than an Earth system model \r\n(ESM)."


id: c5d426f57af720d14b29a29943e529c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32112
content:
"Effective radiative forcing (ERF) See Radiative forcing, \r\nAerosol effective radiative forcing (ERFari+aci) (under Aerosol-\r\nradiation interaction), Effective radiative forcing (or effect) due to \r\naerosol-cloud interactions (ERFaci) (under Aerosol-cloud interaction) \r\nand Effective radiative forcing (or effect) due to aerosol-radiation \r\ninteractions (ERFari) (under Aerosol-radiation interaction)."


id: 7af44a20ac7228417338cf4b6f811c5c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18833
content:
"Earth's energy budget encompasses the major energy flows \r\nof relevance for the climate system: the top-of-atmosphere energy \r\nbudget; the surface energy budget; changes in the global energy \r\ninventory and internal flows of energy within the climate system that \r\ncharacterize the climate state. "


id: c46aeaecea90d27a4c4f280a99733df5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31860
content:
"Ekman transport The total transport resulting from a balance \r\nbetween the Coriolis force and the frictional stress due to the action \r\nof the wind on the ocean surface."


id: 24b3bc453706222e5d27e50031736bcc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3654
content:
"Comprises the energy fluxes associated with incoming solar radiation, \r\nreflected solar radiation and emitted thermal radiation. Typical units: \r\nW m-2. "


id: fe3e510ce470f0ff11bfbe0ab06813b4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42101
content:
"Comprises the exchanges of heat at the surface of the Earth associated \r\nwith both radiative and non-radiative processes. Typical units: W m-2. "


id: 72df5593e4f85a5366cc8a1af32c66d3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17458
content:
"Quantifies the excess energy absorbed or lost by the Earth system \r\n(ocean, land, atmosphere and cryosphere), mostly in the form of heat, \r\nassociated with radiative forcing of the climate. Typical units: Joules. "


id: 60da3c5d19b34e556be8e29b4c670e4c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:43
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14338
content:
"For a given time period, the global energy budget expresses the \r\nbalance between change in the global energy inventory, the time\u0002integrated effective radiative forcing and time-integrated radiative \r\nresponse of the climate system. Typical units: Joules."


id: 4962a3d2b6da7b142c5c483d9289a933
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10132
content:
"Earth's energy imbalance The persistent and positive \r\n(downward) net top of atmosphere energy flux associated with \r\ngreenhouse gas forcing of the climate system. See also Earth's energy \r\nbudget and Radiative response (of the climate system)."


id: 79752f0cc958a8c893975e0098403c39
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18569
content:
"An El Nino event in which sea surface temperature anomalies are \r\nstronger in the central equatorial Pacific than in the east. Also known \r\nas a Modoki El Nino event."


id: adfed777b8506137c79ad88061754337
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27853
content:
"An El Nino event in which sea surface temperature anomalies are \r\nlargest in the eastern tropical Pacific."


id: 52c78fa8dd33bac00c78c9a655952fc2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11834
content:
"Electromagnetic spectrum Wavelength, frequency or energy \r\nrange of all electromagnetic radiation. In terms of solar radiation, the \r\nspectral irradiance is the power arriving at the Earth per unit area, \r\nper unit wavelength."


id: 2d7aefbffa25efa407a7e3c0141964c4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5294
content:
"Eastern boundary upwelling systems (EBUS) Eastern \r\nboundary upwelling systems (EBUS) are located at the eastern \r\n(landward) edges of major ocean basins in both hemispheres, where \r\nequatorward winds drive upwelling currents that bring cool, nutrient\u0002rich (and often oxygen-poor) waters from the deep ocean to the \r\nsurface near the coast."


id: c15bffd5cde9a9a6d785174c41036b85
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31320
content:
"Elevation-dependent warming (EDW) Characteristic of many \r\nregions where mountains are located, in which past and/or future \r\nsurface air temperature changes vary neither uniformly nor linearly \r\nwith elevation. In many cases, warming is enhanced within or above \r\na certain elevation range."


id: 5900663c7fc1e7c801f38a5759163c84
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12897
content:
"Emergence (of the climate signal) Emergence of a climate \r\nchange signal or trend refers to when a change in climate (the 'signal') \r\nbecomes larger than the amplitude of natural or internal variations \r\n(defining the 'noise'), This concept is often expressed as a 'signal\u0002to-noise' ratio and emergence occurs at a defined threshold of this \r\nratio (e.g., S/N > 1 or 2). Emergence can refer to changes relative to \r\na historical or modern baseline (usually at least 20 years long) and \r\ncan also be expressed in terms of time (time of emergence) or in terms \r\nof a global warming level. Emergence is also used to refer to a time \r\nwhen we can expect to see a response to reducing greenhouse gas \r\n(GHG) emissions (emergence with respect to mitigation). Emergence \r\ncan be estimated using observations and/or model simulations. See \r\nalso Time of emergence (ToE)."


id: dd5b13fdb9c70accde3ada11e995afa6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36208
content:
"Energy balance The difference between the total incoming and \r\ntotal outgoing energy. If this balance is positive, warming occurs; if \r\nit is negative, cooling occurs. Averaged over the globe and over long \r\ntime periods, this balance must be zero. Because the climate system\r\nderives virtually all its energy from the Sun, zero balance implies that, \r\nglobally, the absorbed solar radiation, that is, incoming solar radiation\r\nminus reflected solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere and \r\noutgoing longwave radiation emitted by the climate system are equal."


id: 3451f96ef5ae5c574826da59e76dd47e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6443
content:
"Emergent constraint An attempt to reduce the uncertainty in \r\nclimate projections, using an ensemble of Earth system models (ESMs)\r\nto relate a specific feedback or future change to an observation of the \r\npast or current climate (typically some trend, variability or change \r\nin variability)."


id: ac9ee662449dbcebf295374808ac1101
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27613
content:
"Emission factor/Emissions intensity A coefficient that \r\nquantifies the emissions or removals of a gas per unit activity. \r\nEmission factors are often based on a sample of measurement data, \r\naveraged to develop a representative rate of emission for a given \r\nactivity level under a given set of operating conditions."


id: 8624c7b79f0808eec4fe01d0f5bd8ee8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20748
content:
"Emissions See Cumulative emissions, Anthropogenic emissions, \r\nFossil fuel emissions, Non-CO2 emissions and radiative forcing and \r\nNegative greenhouse gas emissions. See also Emissions scenario\r\n(under Scenario), and Emission pathways."


id: 49ae97fad9b57b90d211c407898776e5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10194
content:
"Enhanced weathering A proposed method to increase the \r\nnatural rate of removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere\r\nusing silicate and carbonate rocks. The active surface area of these \r\nminerals is increased by grinding, before they are actively added to \r\nsoil, beaches or the open ocean. See also Carbon dioxide removal \r\n(CDR) and Anthropogenic removals."


id: a80e82abbf5901fee269370b73e47036
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26780
content:
"Emulation Reproducing the behaviour of complex, process\u0002based models (namely, Earth system models, ESMs) via simpler \r\napproaches, using either emulators or simple climate models (SCMs). \r\nThe computational efficiency of emulating approaches opens new \r\nanalytical possibilities given that ESMs take a lot of computational \r\nresources for each simulation. See also Emulators and Simple climate \r\nmodel (SCM)."


id: 6736ea319112e6e130dc72d2c32b0679
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15434
content:
"Ensemble A collection of comparable datasets that reflect \r\nvariations within the bounds of one or more sources of uncertainty\r\nand that, when averaged, can provide a more robust estimate \r\nof underlying behaviour. Ensemble techniques are used by the \r\nobservational, reanalysis and modelling communities. See also \r\nClimate simulation ensemble."


id: 3a9f2a935cf2a5ab9a88f4dae7ea9edc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7518
content:
"Emulators A broad class of heavily parametrized models ('simple \r\nclimate models'), statistical methods like neural networks, genetic \r\nalgorithms or other artificial intelligence approaches designed to \r\nreproduce the responses of more complex, process-based Earth \r\nsystem models (ESMs). The main application of emulators is to \r\nextrapolate insights from ESMs and observational constraints \r\nto a larger set of emission scenarios. See also Emulation and Simple \r\nclimate model (SCM)."


id: 27b6fdb02d5308647ab8c99731fd6c1c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4173
content:
"Equilibrium and transient climate experiment An \r\nequilibrium climate experiment is a climate model experiment in \r\nwhich the model is allowed to fully adjust to a change in radiative \r\nforcing. Such experiments provide information on the difference \r\nbetween the initial and final states of the model, but not on the time\u0002dependent response. If the forcing is allowed to evolve gradually \r\naccording to a prescribed emissions scenario, the time-dependent \r\nresponse of a climate model may be analysed. Such an experiment is \r\ncalled a transient climate experiment."


id: 6f605d265c555282d77145732faed66
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16856
content:
"Energy balance model (EBM) An energy balance model is \r\na  simplified climate model that is typically used as an emulator \r\nof climate to analyse the energy budget of the Earth to compute \r\nchanges in the climate. In its simplest form, there is no explicit spatial \r\ndimension, and the model then provides an estimate of the changes \r\nin globally averaged temperature computed from the changes \r\nin radiation. This zero-dimensional energy balance model can be \r\nextended to a one-dimensional or two-dimensional model if changes \r\nto the energy budget with respect to latitude, or both latitude and \r\nlongitude, are explicitly considered."


id: d9f2d71f70cb42b95443beed3637a1bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35644
content:
"Equilibrium line The spatially averaged boundary at a given \r\nmoment, usually chosen as the seasonal mass budget minimum at \r\nthe end of summer, between the region on a glacier where there \r\nis a net annual loss of ice mass (ablation area) and that where there is \r\na net annual gain (accumulation area). The altitude of this boundary \r\nis referred to as equilibrium line altitude (ELA)."


id: d2b95ec2e4d63654aaec4844c9ef8651
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34421
content:
"modification of coastlines or dredging. In turn, changes in any or all \r\nof the contributions to extreme sea levels may lead to long-term \r\nrelative sea level changes. Alternate expressions for ESL may be used \r\ndepending on the processes resolved."


id: 1c898c7bd8d467aaf050e65c2d31e0b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2202
content:
"Eutrophication Over-enrichment of water by nutrients such as \r\nnitrogen and phosphorus. It is one of the leading causes of water \r\nquality impairment. The two most acute symptoms of eutrophication \r\nare hypoxia (or oxygen depletion) and harmful algal blooms."


id: cda8282aaf2ce5b51260a5fbc5e6d73f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33514
content:
"Extreme still water level (ESWL) refers to the combined contribution \r\nof relative sea level change, tides and storm-surges. Wind-waves \r\nalso contribute to coastal sea level via three processes: infragravity \r\nwaves (lower frequency gravity waves generated by the wind waves), \r\nwave setup (time-mean sea level elevation due to wave energy \r\ndissipation), and swash (vertical displacement up the shore-face \r\ninduced by individual waves). Extreme total water level (ETWL) is the \r\nESWL plus wave setup. When considering coastal impacts, swash is \r\nalso important, and Extreme coastal water level (ECWL) is used. See \r\nalso Storm surge and Sea level change (sea level rise/sea level fall)."


id: f479ccd95f2e821b475a3b54f7e17a11
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40386
content:
"Evaporation The physical process by which a liquid (e.g., water) \r\nbecomes a gas (e.g., water vapour)."


id: 8a15b0bd663506eb40181c9ca77d5be
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21468
content:
"Evapotranspiration The combined processes through which \r\nwater is transferred to the atmosphere from open water and ice \r\nsurfaces, bare soil, and vegetation that make up the Earth's surface."


id: bb60668f652ba2eb0487a063db57631e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30183
content:
"Potential evapotranspiration The potential rate of water loss from \r\nwet soils and from plant surfaces, without any limits imposed by the \r\nwater supply."


id: d7f9125793676f181f06be0c9f8baf8c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35301
content:
"Extreme still water level (ESWL) See Extreme sea level (ESL).\r\nExtreme total water level (ETWL) See Extreme sea level (ESL)."


id: fbd20a29e18eaedd4fc5b39dd1b759f3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41671
content:
"Evidence Data and information used in the scientific process to \r\nestablish findings. In this report, the degree of evidence reflects the \r\namount, quality and consistency of scientific/technical information \r\non which the Lead Authors are basing their findings. See also \r\nAgreement, Confidence, Likelihood and Uncertainty."


id: 72cd9e210117864dcce1449799995c4e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17443
content:
"Extreme weather event An event that is rare at a particular \r\nplace and time of year. Definitions of 'rare' vary, but an extreme \r\nweather event would normally be as rare as or rarer than the 10th \r\nor 90th percentile of a probability density function estimated from \r\nobservations. By definition, the characteristics of what is called \r\nextreme weather may vary from place to place in an absolute sense. \r\nSee also Climate extreme (extreme weather or climate event)."


id: a5688b4fe7eebb3cb0225acae0f8d1cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26332
content:
"Exposure The presence of people; livelihoods; species or \r\necosystems; environmental functions, services, and resources; \r\ninfrastructure; or economic, social, or cultural assets in places and \r\nsettings that could be adversely affected."


id: ca78a5fa0ce32559d36c3f17a9fb4acb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32960
content:
"Extreme/heavy precipitation event An extreme/heavy \r\nprecipitation event is an event that is of very high magnitude with a \r\nvery rare occurrence at a particular place. Types of extreme precipitation \r\nmay vary depending on its duration (hourly, daily or multi-days (e.g., 5 \r\ndays)) though all of them qualitatively represent high magnitude. The \r\nintensity of such events may be defined with a block maxima approach \r\nsuch as annual maxima or with a peaks over threshold approach, such \r\nas rainfall above the 95th or 99th percentile at a particular place."


id: 921282ff2d10b2a3e171ef54a24d0c4b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22915
content:
"Extended concentration pathways (ECPs) See Representative \r\nconcentration pathways (RCPs) (under Pathways)."


id: cf6098edeb7c1587bcd0bee654844c8b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33835
content:
"External forcing External forcing refers to a forcing agent \r\noutside the climate system causing a change in the climate system. \r\nVolcanic eruptions, solar variations and changes in Earth's orbit, as \r\nwell as anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere \r\nor in land use are external forcings. See also Orbital forcing."


id: 6707d0abb9f437e62970c35b89432dd7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15392
content:
"Faculae Bright patches on the Sun. The area covered by faculae is \r\ngreater during periods of high solar activity."


id: 1b7ff2c6b6e762306dbea0f67503eaed
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2025
content:
"Extratropical cyclone (ETC) Any cyclonic-scale storm that is not \r\na tropical cyclone. Usually refers to a mid- or high-latitude migratory \r\nstorm system formed in regions of large horizontal temperature \r\nvariations. Sometimes called extratropical storm or extratropical low."


id: e4ef667e446a1e534c3df95039e3ab50
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37568
content:
"Extratropical jets Extratropical jets are wind maxima in the \r\nupper troposphere marking zones of baroclinic instability. Anomalies \r\nin the position of these jets are often associated with storms, blocking, \r\nand weather extremes."


id: 3030fca8d627e888e66e911fdfac9e52
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5735
content:
"Fingerprint The climate response pattern in space and/or time to \r\na specific forcing is commonly referred to as a fingerprint. The spatial \r\npatterns of sea level response to melting of glaciers or ice sheets (or \r\nother changes in surface loading) are also referred to as fingerprints. \r\nFingerprints are used to detect the presence of this response in \r\nobservations and are typically estimated using forced climate model\r\nsimulations. See also Detection and attribution."


id: 75bb23b5ceaa462cce50d151aece91fb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17944
content:
"Fire weather Weather conditions conducive to triggering \r\nand sustaining wildfires, usually based on a set of indicators and \r\ncombinations of indicators including temperature, soil moisture, \r\nhumidity, and wind. Fire weather does not include the presence or \r\nabsence of fuel load."


id: c7595087ea97558520b5d4d14c0a4217
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32390
content:
"Extreme sea level (ESL) The occurrence of an exceptionally \r\nlow or high local sea surface height, arising from (a combination \r\nof) short-term phenomena (e.g., storm surges, tides and waves). \r\nRelative sea level changes affect extreme sea levels directly by \r\nshifting the mean water levels and indirectly by modulating the \r\npropagation of tides, waves and/or surges due to increased water \r\ndepth. In addition, extreme sea levels can be influenced by changes \r\nin the frequency, tracks or strength of weather systems and \r\nstorms, or due to anthropogenically induced changes such as the "


id: edaec204b096fc4dc82658fab3d0c89
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39179
content:
"Firn Snow that has survived at least one ablation season but has \r\nnot been transformed to glacier ice. Its pore space is at least partially \r\ninterconnected, allowing air and water to circulate. Firn densities \r\ntypically are 400-830 kg m-3."


id: 69564055e6c8d9946145568846f6978e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15799
content:
"Fitness-for-purpose The suitability of a model (or other resource, \r\nsuch as a dataset or method) for a particular task, such as quantifying \r\nthe contribution of increased greenhouse gas concentrations to \r\nrecent changes in global mean surface temperature or projecting \r\nchanges in drought frequency in a region under a given scenario. \r\nAssessment of a model's fitness-for-purpose can be informed both by \r\nhow the model represents relevant physical processes and by how it \r\nscores on relevant performance metrics."


id: bce94817453f2e5764d9a2f3c23371c8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30475
content:
"General circulation model (GCM) A numerical representation \r\nof the atmosphere-ocean-sea ice system based on the physical, \r\nchemical and biological properties of its components, their \r\ninteractions and feedback processes. General circulation models \r\nare used for weather forecasts, seasonal to decadal prediction, and \r\nclimate projections. They are the basis of the more complex Earth \r\nsystem models (ESMs). See also Climate model."


id: fc0374e8624e3bfbc717ded6706e7c66
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41697
content:
"Flaring Open air burning of waste gases and volatile liquids, \r\nthrough a chimney, at oil wells or rigs, in refineries or chemical plants, \r\nand at landfills."


id: 7da908787e3ae7c51809ad2274dc84fb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19279
content:
"Geoid The equipotential surface having the same geopotential at \r\neach latitude and longitude around the world (geodesists denote this \r\npotential W0) that best approximates the mean sea level. It is the \r\nsurface of reference for measurement of altitude. In practice, several \r\nvariations of definitions of the geoid exist depending on the way the \r\npermanent tide (the zero-frequency gravitational tide due to the Sun \r\nand Moon) is considered in geodetic studies."


id: b04e9ac119c6b64db74d62bf9a776067
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28254
content:
"Flood The overflowing of the normal confines of a stream or other \r\nwater body, or the accumulation of water over areas that are not \r\nnormally submerged. Floods can be caused by unusually heavy rain, \r\nfor example during storms and cyclones. Floods include river (fluvial) \r\nfloods, flash floods, urban floods, rain (pluvial) floods, sewer floods, \r\ncoastal floods and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs)."


id: e312e9e0bff2caba4261c08a158b3a00
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37246
content:
"Geostrophic winds or currents A wind or current that is in \r\nbalance with the horizontal pressure gradient and the Coriolis force, \r\nand thus is outside of the influence of friction. Thus, the wind or \r\ncurrent is directly parallel to isobars and its speed is proportional to \r\nthe horizontal pressure gradient."


id: 66f3cc0e6ab8a0eeb234947d6453e79
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15380
content:
"Flux A movement (a flow) of matter (e.g., water vapour, particles), \r\nheat or energy from one place to another, or from one medium (e.g., \r\nland surface) to another (e.g., atmosphere)."


id: 882d313bf69f66a3b55e035b9401e0e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21112
content:
"Foraminifera Single-celled, sand-sized marine organisms \r\n(protists) that possess a hard test mainly composed of agglutinated \r\nwalls (detrital grains glued together with organic cement) or calcium \r\ncarbonate (predominantly calcite). They are used to reconstruct \r\na range of (paleo)environmental variables such as salinity, \r\ntemperature, oxygenation, oxygen isotope composition and organic \r\nand nutrient flux."


id: b9ee8ed5430895e09a0c6c5351304342
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29935
content:
"Glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) The ongoing changes \r\nin gravity, rotation and viscoelastic solid Earth deformation (GRD)\r\nin response to past changes in the distribution of ice and water \r\non Earth's surface. On a time scale of decades to tens of millennia \r\nfollowing mass redistribution, Earth's mantle flows viscously as it \r\nevolves toward isostatic equilibrium, causing solid Earth movement \r\nand geoid changes, which can result in regional-to-local sea level \r\nvariations. See also Sea level change (sea level rise/sea level fall)."


id: 20de39be4ba04e56b721c4aefc96f760
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3004
content:
"Forest A vegetation type dominated by trees. Many definitions \r\nof the term forest are in use throughout the world, reflecting \r\nwide differences in biogeophysical conditions, social structure \r\nand economics. [Note: For a discussion of the term forest in the \r\ncontext of National GHG inventories, see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines \r\nfor National GHG Inventories and their 2019 Refinement, and \r\ninformation provided by the United Nations Framework Convention \r\non Climate Change (IPCC, 2006, 2019; UNFCCC, 2021a, b).] See also \r\nAfforestation, Deforestation and Reforestation."


id: 4793dd615f091ef484f133e6f64d201c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9814
content:
"Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF)/Glacier lake \r\noutburst A sudden release of water from a glacier lake, including \r\nany of the following types - a glacier-dammed lake, a pro-glacial \r\nmoraine-dammed lake or water that was stored within, under or on \r\nthe glacier."


id: 56611fba4d636cea5df802c8a9870837
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12463
content:
"Fossil fuel emissions Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs)\r\n(in particular carbon dioxide (CO2)), other trace gases and aerosols\r\nresulting from the combustion of fuels from fossil carbon deposits \r\nsuch as oil, gas and coal."


id: 6991c1cdfb4d2e3076a694a38e88c8c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15843
content:
"Fossil fuels Carbon-based fuels from fossil hydrocarbon deposits, \r\nincluding coal, oil and natural gas."


id: b303c320b2026f55dbdfe93361078836
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28737
content:
"Free atmosphere The atmospheric layer that is negligibly \r\naffected by friction against the Earth's surface, and which is above \r\nthe atmospheric boundary layer."


id: 65905808467b4ac76c67d8bb48b4475b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15135
content:
"Frozen ground Soil or rock in which part or all of the pore water \r\nconsists of ice. See also Active layer and Permafrost."


id: 36d360307fb40d701387473489dc50a2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6872
content:
"General circulation The large-scale motions of the atmosphere\r\nand the ocean as a consequence of differential heating on a rotating \r\nEarth. General circulation contributes to the energy balance of the \r\nsystem through transport of heat and momentum."


id: 9991e795fd390dbeeaed80f94930f4f4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24249
content:
"Glacial-interglacial cycles Phase of the Earth's history marked \r\nby large changes in continental ice volume and global sea level. \r\nSee also Glacial or glaciation, Deglacial or deglaciation or glacial \r\ntermination, Interglacial or interglaciation and Ice age."


id: f1e87f01323805eb908684851cb5e546
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39947
content:
"convection and heavy rainfall. Over northern Australia, the monsoon \r\nseason generally lasts from December to March and is associated \r\nwith west to north-westerly inflow of moist winds, producing \r\nconvection and heavy precipitation. Over the Maritime Continent, \r\nthe main rainy season south of the equator is centred on December \r\nto February with north-westerly monsoon flow at low levels. Further \r\ndetails on how AusMCM is defined and used throughout the Report \r\nare provided in Annex V."


id: e1d39c9c80c953c1024aacb2a4961bf3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37010
content:
"Glaciated State of a surface that was covered by glacier ice in the \r\npast, but not at present. See also Glacierized."


id: f0f87e825ff68a096c19f09062443f46
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39765
content:
"Glacier A perennial mass of ice, and possibly firn and snow, \r\noriginating on the land surface by accumulation and compaction of \r\nsnow and showing evidence of past or present flow. A glacier typically \r\ngains mass by accumulation of snow and loses mass by ablation. \r\nLand ice masses of continental size (>50,000 km2) are referred to as \r\nice sheets (Cogley et al., 2011)."


id: ea2bf392dd4f4969e92520015c178c7a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38551
content:
"Outlet glacier A glacier, usually between rock walls, that is part of, \r\nand drains, an ice sheet. See also Ice stream."


id: c64aa0a88029030d4f1125c33db69f1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32200
content:
"Global dimming Global dimming refers to the observed \r\nwidespread reduction in the amount of solar radiation received at \r\nthe Earth's surface from the 1950s to the 1980s, with an increase in \r\nanthropogenic aerosol emissions appearing to have contributed. This \r\nwas followed by a partial recovery since the 1990s ('brightening'), \r\nparticularly in industrialized areas, coincident with a reduction in \r\nanthropogenic aerosol emissions."


id: 835122f5f30b2b7cdbf96478735c3c85
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20233
content:
"The North American monsoon (NAmerM) is a regional-scale \r\natmospheric circulation system with increases in summer \r\nprecipitation over northwestern Mexico and southwest United States. \r\nThe monsoonal characteristics of the region include a pronounced \r\nannual maximum of precipitation in boreal summer (June-July-\r\nAugust) accompanied by a surface low pressure system and an \r\nupper-level anticyclone, although seasonal reversal of the surface \r\nwinds is primarily limited to the northern Gulf of California. Further \r\ndetails on how NAmerM is defined and used throughout the Report \r\nare provided in Annex V."


id: 1406ad64e88dffe3cd8acf7cfbaefd55
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 739
content:
"Global mean surface air temperature (GSAT) Global \r\naverage of near-surface air temperatures over land, oceans and \r\nsea ice. Changes in GSAT are often used as a measure of global \r\ntemperature change in climate models. See also Global mean surface \r\ntemperature (GMST)."


id: 221b972fa83f99f7f56086f4011a35b2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3222
content:
"Global mean surface temperature (GMST) Estimated \r\nglobal average of near-surface air temperatures over land and sea \r\nice, and sea surface temperature (SST) over ice-free ocean regions, \r\nwith changes normally expressed as departures from a value over \r\na specified reference period. See also Global mean surface air \r\ntemperature (GSAT)."


id: d5f42d282c9e6cb34cddf7331f1477ca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34956
content:
"The South American monsoon (SAmerM) is a regional circulation \r\ncharacterized by inflow of low-level winds from the Atlantic to South \r\nAmerica, including Brazil, Peru, Bolivia and northern Argentina, \r\nassociated with the development of surface pressure gradients (and \r\nintense precipitation) during austral summer (December-January-\r\nFebruary). During September-October-November, areas of intense \r\nconvection migrate from northwestern South America to the south. \r\nAssociated with this regime, an upper-tropospheric anticyclone \r\n(a.k.a. the Bolivian High) forms over the Altiplano region during the \r\nmonsoon onset. The SAmerM then retreats during March-April-May \r\nwith a northeastward migration of the convection. Further details \r\non how SAmerM is defined and used throughout the Report are \r\nprovided in Annex V."


id: ee7ed90d465352eaab48701c9b12515c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39335
content:
"Global monsoon The global monsoon (GM) is a global-scale \r\nsolstitial mode that dominates the annual variation of tropical and \r\nsub-tropical precipitation and circulation. The GM domain is defined \r\nas the area where the annual range of precipitation (local summer \r\nminus winter mean precipitation rate) is greater than 2.5 mm day-1, \r\nfollowing on from the definition as in Kitoh et al. (2013). Further details \r\non how the GM is defined, used and related to regional monsoons \r\nthroughout the Report are provided by Annex V in the AR6 WGI report."


id: 6e2c9ee62484272e48d5aef99416f505
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16648
content:
"Australian and Maritime Continent monsoon (AusMCM)\r\nThe Australian-Maritime Continent monsoon (AusMCM) occurs \r\nduring December-January-February, with the large-scale shift of the \r\nInter-tropical Convergence Zone into the Southern Hemisphere and \r\ncovering northern Australia and the Maritime Continent up to 10degN. \r\nThe AusMCM is characterized by the seasonal reversal of prevailing \r\neasterly winds to westerly winds and the onset of periods of active "


id: d39579522c42ecfe1f69bef919dbeefc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34562
content:
"The South and South East Asian monsoon (SAsiaM) is characterized \r\nby pronounced seasonal reversals of wind and precipitation. The \r\nSAsiaM region extends across vast geographical areas and several \r\ncountries, including India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, "


id: 86162c10288ab5b17eb4985aa9b89dd6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20737
content:
"equal, the net amount emitted to space is normally less than would \r\nhave been emitted in the absence of these absorbers because of \r\nthe decline of temperature with altitude in the troposphere and the \r\nconsequent weakening of emission. An increase in the concentration \r\nof GHGs increases the magnitude of this effect; the difference is \r\nsometimes called the enhanced greenhouse effect. The change in \r\na GHG concentration because of anthropogenic emissions contributes \r\nto an instantaneous radiative forcing. Earth's surface temperature \r\nand troposphere warm in response to this forcing, gradually restoring \r\nthe radiative balance at the top of the atmosphere."


id: e65ba8722e5d15dddf0aec955e9686d0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37835
content:
"Pakistan, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines. The \r\nSAsiaM starts in late May/early June and progresses towards the \r\nnortheast, ending in late September/early October. During the core \r\nmonsoon season, maxima of SAsiaM precipitation are located over \r\nthe west coast, north-east and central north India, Myanmar and \r\nBangladesh, whereas minima are located over north-west and south\u0002eastern India, western Pakistan, and south-eastern and northern Sri \r\nLanka. Further details on how SAsiaM is defined and used throughout \r\nthe Report are provided in Annex V."


id: d81b9e66f37364c1feb0b24f9f4bebcb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35322
content:
"Global surface temperature See Global mean surface \r\ntemperature (GMST) and Global mean surface air temperature \r\n(GSAT). See also Global warming."


id: 2d22d31f5172a954b3739c8682963260
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5221
content:
"Notes: Most relative GHG emission metrics (such as the global \r\nwarming potential (GWP), global temperature change potential \r\n(GTP), global damage potential, and GWP*) use carbon dioxide (CO2)\r\nas the reference gas. Emissions of non-CO2 gases, when expressed \r\nusing such metrics, are often referred to as 'carbon dioxide equivalent' \r\nemissions. A metric that establishes equivalence regarding one key \r\nmeasure of the climate system response to emissions does not imply \r\nequivalence regarding other key measures. The choice of a metric, \r\nincluding its time horizon, should reflect the policy objectives for \r\nwhich the metric is applied."


id: 28dad86c0fcab77468dab57d07bf5068
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4405
content:
"Global warming Global warming refers to the increase in global \r\nsurface temperature relative to a baseline reference period, averaging \r\nover a period sufficient to remove interannual variations (e.g., 20 \r\nor 30 years). A common choice for the baseline is 1850-1900 (the \r\nearliest period of reliable observations with sufficient geographic \r\ncoverage), with more modern baselines used depending upon the \r\napplication. See also Climate change and Climate variability."


id: 9ad1d39684b1eab50545891fd93b02a9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24482
content:
"Greenhouse gas neutrality Condition in which metric\u0002weighted anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated \r\nwith a subject are balanced by metric-weighted anthropogenic \r\nGHG removals. The subject can be an entity such as a country, an \r\norganization, a district or a commodity, or an activity such as a \r\nservice or an event. GHG neutrality is often assessed over the life \r\ncycle, including indirect ('scope 3') emissions, but can also be limited \r\nto the emissions and removals, over a specified period, for which the \r\nsubject has direct control, as determined by the relevant scheme. \r\nThe quantification of GHG emissions and removals depends on the \r\nGHG emission metric chosen to compare emissions and removals of \r\ndifferent gases, as well as the time horizon chosen for that metric."


id: ce63ff328056e3a7f2b2a3aef166a247
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33652
content:
"Global warming potential (GWP) An index measuring the \r\nradiative forcing following an emission of a unit mass of a given \r\nsubstance, accumulated over a chosen time horizon, relative to that \r\nof the reference substance, carbon dioxide (CO2). The GWP thus \r\nrepresents the combined effect of the differing times these substances \r\nremain in the atmosphere and their effectiveness in causing radiative \r\nforcing. See also Lifetime and Greenhouse gas emission metric."


id: eacaa86c50ed0bba3eb3f7279534431f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38667
content:
"Gravitational, rotational and deformational (GRD) \r\neffects See Sea level change (sea level rise/sea level fall)."


id: 48ef37bf65c2353ef04d57246bb704b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10052
content:
"Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) A pair \r\nof satellites that measured the Earth's gravity field anomalies from \r\n2002 to 2017. These fields have been used, among other things, to \r\nstudy mass changes of the polar ice sheets and glaciers."


id: 933f7bfda5bda7ea7d085959a38a2ab4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23108
content:
"Note 1: GHG neutrality and net zero GHG emissions are overlapping \r\nconcepts. The concepts can be applied at global or sub-global scales \r\n(e.g., regional, national and sub-national). At a global scale, the terms \r\ngreenhouse gas neutrality and net zero greenhouse gas emissions are \r\nequivalent. At sub-global scales, net zero greenhouse gas emissions \r\nis generally applied to emissions and removals under direct control \r\nor territorial responsibility of the reporting entity, while greenhouse \r\ngas neutrality generally includes emissions and removals within and "


id: 2727af57ea68ab9b4be225b929b96227
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4050
content:
"Greenhouse effect The infrared radiative effect of all infrared\u0002absorbing constituents in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases (GHGs), \r\nclouds, and some aerosols absorb terrestrial radiation emitted by the \r\nEarth's surface and elsewhere in the atmosphere. These substances \r\nemit infrared radiation in all directions, but, everything else being "


id: f23dd55184c424a565dd56c0ac66f3d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40014
content:
"beyond the direct control or territorial responsibility of the reporting \r\nentity. Accounting rules specified by GHG programmes or schemes \r\ncan have a significant influence on the quantification of relevant \r\nemissions and removals."


id: 5ede10500b9b7cd412a6ebe4acfcb1d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13985
content:
"Halocarbons A collective term for the group of partially \r\nhalogenated organic species, which includes the chlorofluorocarbons \r\n(CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons \r\n(HFCs), halons, methyl chloride and methyl bromide. Many of the \r\nhalocarbons have large global warming potentials. The chlorine and \r\nbromine-containing halocarbons are also involved in the depletion of \r\nthe ozone layer."


id: 74f1080d00a6999d34c04a33b014677f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17808
content:
"Note 2. Under the Paris Rulebook (Decision 18/CMA.1, annex, \r\nparagraph 37), parties have agreed to use GWP100 values from the \r\nIPCC AR5 or GWP100 values from a subsequent IPCC Assessment \r\nReport to report aggregate emissions and removals of GHGs. In \r\naddition, parties may use other metrics to report supplemental \r\ninformation on aggregate emissions and removals of GHGs."


id: 1323f51d3afb6374d3d3506e13844e5c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 581
content:
"Halocline A layer in the oceanic water column in which salinity \r\nchanges rapidly with depth. Generally, saltier water is denser and \r\nlies below less salty water. In some high-latitude oceans the surface \r\nwaters may be colder than the deep waters, and the halocline is \r\nresponsible for maintaining water column stability and isolating the \r\nsurface waters from the deep waters."


id: f41d26034af663c91c51689fc14543cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40320
content:
"Note 3: In some cases, achieving greenhouse gas neutrality may rely \r\non the supplementary use of offsets to balance emissions that remain \r\nafter actions by the reporting entity are taken into account. "


id: ac8f7f835bc8df26b543bb6f174954ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27596
content:
"See also Carbon neutrality, Greenhouse gas emission metric and Net \r\nzero greenhouse gas emissions."


id: eb65be6cf64c1f183042d89016c860e1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38769
content:
"Greenhouse gases (GHGs) Gaseous constituents of the \r\natmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit \r\nradiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of radiation \r\nemitted by the Earth's surface, by the atmosphere itself, and by \r\nclouds. This property causes the greenhouse effect. Water vapour \r\n(H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4 ) and \r\nozone (O3) are the primary GHGs in the Earth's atmosphere. Human\u0002made GHGs include sulphur hexafluoride (SF6 ), hydrofluorocarbons \r\n(HFCs), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs); \r\nseveral of these are also O3-depleting (and are regulated under the \r\nMontreal Protocol). See also Well-mixed greenhouse gas."


id: 4eb129b5582c9d2f096a35d252862032
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11115
content:
"Hazard The potential occurrence of a natural or human-induced \r\nphysical event or trend that may cause loss of life, injury, or other \r\nhealth impacts, as well as damage and loss to property, infrastructure, \r\nlivelihoods, service provision, ecosystems and environmental \r\nresources. See also Impacts (consequences, outcomes) and Risk."


id: 3ea1561c1a47b33dd57cf21ffb0e8ce5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8203
content:
"Heat index A measure of how hot the air feels to the human body. \r\nThe index is mainly based on surface air temperature and relative \r\nhumidity; thus it reflects the combined effect of high temperature and \r\nhumidity on human physiology and provides a relative indication of \r\npotential health risks."


id: 68d588496fabbed906336b157e94e6ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15706
content:
"Heat stress A range of conditions in, for example, terrestrial \r\nor aquatic organisms when the body absorbs excess heat during \r\noverexposure to high air or water temperatures or thermal radiation. \r\nIn aquatic water-breathing animals, hypoxia and acidification can \r\nexacerbate vulnerability to heat. Heat stress in mammals (including \r\nhumans) and birds, both in air, is exacerbated by a detrimental \r\ncombination of ambient heat, high humidity and low wind speeds, \r\ncausing regulation of body temperature to fail."


id: 80ef31a6d5fbbd1b41055b2b1c334714
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19817
content:
"Ground-level ozone Atmospheric ozone (O3) is formed naturally \r\nor from human-emitted precursors near Earth's surface, thus affecting \r\nhuman health, agriculture and ecosystems. Ozone is a greenhouse \r\ngas (GHG), but ground-level ozone, unlike stratospheric ozone, \r\nalso directly affects organisms at the surface. Ground-level ozone \r\nis sometimes referred to as tropospheric ozone, although much of \r\nthe troposphere is well above the surface and thus does not directly \r\nexpose organisms at the surface."


id: 9ce6e23f49e89257e952b2860ce02c4e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24841
content:
"Heatwave A period of abnormally hot weather, often defined with \r\nreference to a relative temperature threshold, lasting from two days \r\nto months. Heatwaves and warm spells have various and, in some \r\ncases, overlapping definitions. See also Marine heatwave, Blocking, \r\nHeat index and Heat stress."


id: e84ab201f2e0a6912923d8ac241def7f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38204
content:
"Grounding line The junction between a glacier or ice sheet and \r\nan ice shelf; the place where ice starts to float. This junction normally \r\noccurs over a zone, rather than at a line."


id: a09c56e57d4e30aa7dbdd130064346fe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25463
content:
"Gyre Basin-scale ocean horizontal circulation pattern with slow \r\nflow circulating around the ocean basin, closed by a strong and \r\nnarrow (100 to 200 km wide) boundary current on the western side. \r\nThe subtropical gyres in each ocean are associated with high pressure \r\nin the centre of the gyres; the subpolar gyres are associated with low \r\npressure."


id: 44e05446072ddadf0b11bfab359036f9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9346
content:
"Heinrich event Distinct layers of coarse-grained sediments \r\ncomprised of ice-rafted debris identified across marine sediment cores \r\nin the North Atlantic. These sedimentary layers are closely associated \r\nwith millennial-scale cooling events in the North Atlantic and a \r\ndistinct pattern of global temperature and hydrological changes that \r\nare largely consistent with evidence for a slowdown, or even near\u0002collapse, of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)\r\nduring these times."


id: 6ed31902892487b73120c0d5f6df8b48
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16770
content:
"Hadley circulation A direct, thermally driven overturning cell in \r\nthe atmosphere consisting of poleward flow in the upper troposphere, \r\nsubsiding air into the subtropical anticyclones, return flow as part of \r\nthe trade winds near the surface, and with rising air near the equator \r\nin the so-called Inter-tropical Convergence Zone."


id: 3b311915daa73bcc791c16cb8099debe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7599
content:
"Heterotrophic respiration The conversion of organic matter to \r\ncarbon dioxide (CO2) by organisms other than autotrophs."


id: 3bc84e67375abd1184c79b01787c318
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7702
content:
"recharges groundwater, discharges into streams, and ultimately, flows \r\ninto the oceans as rivers, polar glaciers and ice sheets, from which it \r\nwill eventually evaporate again. The various systems involved in the \r\nhydrological cycle are usually referred to as hydrological systems."


id: 69197158e8f418868ebb63d7a623a880
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15759
content:
"Hydrological sensitivity (e) The linear change in global \r\nmean precipitation per degree Celsius of global mean surface air \r\ntemperature (GSAT) change once precipitation changes related to \r\nfast atmospheric and land surface adjustments to radiative forcings\r\nhave occurred. Units are % per degC although it can also be calculated \r\nas W m-2 per degC. See also Apparent hydrological sensitivity (ea )."


id: 878a9bc630d8fc455d39a84ea03e4ce2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21002
content:
"Hydrosphere The component of the climate system comprising \r\nliquid surface and subterranean water, such as in oceans, seas, rivers, \r\nfreshwater lakes, underground water, wetlands, etc."


id: b9d87731b1a6c190c1557042c390c28b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29912
content:
"Hypoxic Conditions of low dissolved oxygen in shallow water \r\nocean and freshwater environments. There is no universal threshold \r\nfor hypoxia. A value around 60 mmol kg-1 has commonly been used \r\nfor some estuarine systems, although this does not necessarily \r\ndirectly translate into biological impacts. Anoxic conditions occur \r\nwhere there is no oxygen present at all. See also Eutrophication."


id: c5865a8f3518166c6570cf5ff8382c77
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32057
content:
"Ice age An informal term for a geological period characterized \r\nby a long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's climate, \r\nresulting in the presence or expansion of ice sheets and glaciers. \r\nAmong the Earth's ice ages is the current Quaternary Period, \r\ncharacterized by alternating glacial and interglacial intervals. See \r\nalso Deglacial or deglaciation or glacial termination and Glacial-\r\ninterglacial cycles."


id: 36801a61bd85eb3a5961ff8df21cf757
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6823
content:
"Human influence on the climate system Human-driven \r\nactivities that lead to changes in the climate system due to \r\nperturbations of the Earth's energy budget (also called anthropogenic \r\nforcing). Human influence results from emissions of greenhouse \r\ngases, aerosols, ozone-depleting substances (ODSs), and land-use \r\nchange. See also Anthropogenic, Anthropogenic emissions and \r\nAnthropogenic removals."


id: 963f9e58147d6cd9008876bb8b4dc741
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23628
content:
"Ice core A cylinder of ice drilled out of a glacier or ice sheet\r\nto determine the physical properties of the ice body and to gain \r\ninformation on past changes in climate and composition of the \r\natmosphere that are preserved in the ice or in air trapped in the ice."


id: 43aae6d5effd511440a07423bfb0a5a0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9130
content:
"Human system Any system in which human organizations \r\nand institutions play a major role. Often, but not always, the term \r\nis synonymous with society or social system. Systems such as \r\nagricultural systems, urban systems, political systems, technological \r\nsystems and economic systems are all human systems in the sense \r\napplied in this Report."


id: a5c588840458601c001ab2d85d49a13f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26390
content:
"Ice sheet An ice body originating on land that covers an area of \r\ncontinental size, generally defined as covering >50,000 km2, and \r\nthat has formed over thousands of years through accumulation and \r\ncompaction of snow. An ice sheet flows outward from a high central \r\nice plateau with a small average surface slope. The margins usually \r\nslope more steeply, and most ice is discharged through fast-flowing \r\nice streams or outlet glaciers, often into the sea or into ice shelves\r\nfloating on the sea. There are only two ice sheets in the modern \r\nworld, one on Greenland and one on Antarctica. The latter is divided \r\ninto the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS), the West Antarctic Ice Sheet \r\n(WAIS) and the Antarctic Peninsula Ice Sheet. During glacial periods, \r\nthere were other ice sheets."


id: 55e0ea5a15d4b3e75657ca8117a7a60f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12379
content:
"Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) A type of greenhouse gas (GHG), \r\nHFCs are organic compounds that contain fluorine, carbon and \r\nhydrogen atoms and they are produced commercially as a substitute \r\nfor chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They are mainly used in refrigeration \r\nand semiconductor manufacturing."


id: 1f04e88afbfb669de5cd824ce3b4ba
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2658
content:
"Ice shelf A floating slab of ice originating from land of considerable \r\nthickness extending from the coast (usually of great horizontal extent \r\nwith a very gently sloping surface), resulting from the flow of ice \r\nsheets, initially formed by the accumulation of snow, and often filling \r\nembayments in the coastline of an ice sheet. Nearly all ice shelves are \r\nin Antarctica, where most of the ice discharged into the ocean flows \r\nvia ice shelves."


id: 147244205ef18e1fae14eb1610de421a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 819
content:
"Ice stream A stream of ice with strongly enhanced flow that is \r\npart of an ice sheet. It is often separated from surrounding ice by \r\nstrongly sheared, crevassed margins."


id: 3628d11616d66e2ec1f07fe0af055bcb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6777
content:
"during the second half of the 18th century and spreading to Europe \r\nand later to other countries including the United States. The invention \r\nof the steam engine was an important trigger of this development. \r\nThe industrial revolution marks the beginning of a strong increase \r\nin the use of fossil fuels, initially coal, and hence emission of carbon \r\ndioxide (CO2)."


id: be8d2c135e715a3a592f2b9fa42f24c0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30786
content:
"Ice-albedo feedback A climate feedback involving changes \r\nin the Earth's surface albedo. Snow and ice have an albedo much \r\nhigher (up to ~0.8) than the average planetary albedo (~0.3). With \r\nincreasing temperatures, it is anticipated that snow and ice extent \r\nwill decrease, the Earth's overall albedo will decrease and more solar \r\nradiation will be absorbed, warming the Earth further."


id: 38c1e62eafd10e528496e7fd8b4f154d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7188
content:
"Iceberg Large piece of freshwater ice broken off from a glacier\r\nor an ice shelf during calving and floating in open water (at least \r\n5 m height above sea level). Smaller pieces of floating ice known as \r\n'bergy bits' (less than 5 m above sea level) or 'growlers' (less than \r\n2 m above sea level) can originate from glaciers or ice shelves, or from \r\nthe breaking up of a large iceberg. Icebergs can also be classified by \r\nshape, most commonly being either tabular (steep sides and a flat \r\ntop) or non-tabular (varying shapes, with domes and spires) (NOAA, \r\n2021). In lakes, icebergs can originate by breaking off shelf ice, which \r\nforms through freezing of a lake surface."


id: aee7405ec42693628ad87b79f9698827
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28015
content:
"Insolation The amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth by \r\nlatitude and by season measured in W m-2. Usually, insolation refers \r\nto the radiation arriving at the top of the atmosphere. Sometimes it is \r\nspecified as referring to the radiation arriving at the Earth's surface. \r\nSee also Orbital forcing and Total solar irradiance (TSI)."


id: f02eef2e908114751243ee4cac723dd7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39645
content:
"Instantaneous radiative forcing (or effect) due to aerosol-\r\ncloud interactions (IRFaci) See Aerosol-cloud interaction."


id: e082c934d69963b592501a3a5e8a86a6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36754
content:
"Instantaneous radiative forcing (or effect) due to aerosol-\r\nradiation interactions (IRFari) See Aerosol-radiation \r\ninteraction."


id: 896607fb3b25694337cadc1ba4b0c530
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21351
content:
"Impacts The consequences of realized risks on natural and human \r\nsystems, where risks result from the interactions of climate-related \r\nhazards (including extreme weather/climate events), exposure, and \r\nvulnerability. Impacts generally refer to effects on lives, livelihoods, \r\nhealth and well-being, ecosystems and species, economic, social \r\nand cultural assets, services (including ecosystem services), and \r\ninfrastructure. Impacts may be referred to as consequences or \r\noutcomes and can be adverse or beneficial. See also Adaptation, \r\nExposure, Hazard, Vulnerability and Risk."


id: 586d1e1a37b8fe0e860ff6bb4d1b294e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12806
content:
"Indian Ocean basin (IOB) mode A mode of interannual \r\nvariability characterized by a temporal alternation of basin-wide \r\nwarming and cooling of the Indian Ocean sea surface. It mostly \r\ndevelops in response to El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), but \r\noften persists after ENSO's equatorial eastern Pacific signal has \r\ndissipated. The IOB affects atmospheric circulation, temperature, and \r\nprecipitation in South, South East, and East Asia as well as Africa, and \r\nmodulates tropical cyclone activity in the north-western Pacific. See \r\nSection AIV.2.4 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report. See also Modes of \r\nclimate variability and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)."


id: d286c34a9ac95610c933a6ad2d6a4e8e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34391
content:
"Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) The Inter-tropical \r\nConvergence Zone is an equatorial zonal belt of low pressure, strong \r\nconvection and heavy precipitation near the equator where the \r\nnorth-east trade winds meet the south-east trade winds. This band \r\nmoves seasonally. See also South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ)."


id: 38d57fe294269109bdb8c6711acfb720
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7203
content:
"Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) A mode of interannual variability that \r\nfeatures an east-west dipole of sea surface temperature anomalies \r\nin the tropical Indian Ocean. Its positive phase shows concurrent sea \r\nsurface cooling off Sumatra and Java and warming off Somalia in the \r\nwest, combined with anomalous surface easterlies along the equator, \r\nwhile the opposite anomalies are seen in the negative phase. The IOD \r\ntypically develops in boreal summer and matures in boreal autumn \r\nand controls part of the rainfall interannual variability in Australia, \r\nSouth Eastern Asia and Eastern Africa. See Section AIV.2.4 in Annex \r\nIV of the AR6 WGI report. See also Indian Ocean Basin (IOB) mode."


id: 53cfff6e7866d6c435085f51a7a09c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12016
content:
"Interglacial or interglaciation A globally warm period lasting \r\nthousands of years between glacial periods within an ice age. \r\nGenerally coincides with odd-numbered marine isotope stages (MIS)\r\nwhen mean sea level was close to present. The Last Interglacial (LIG) \r\noccurred between about 129 and 116 ka (thousand years) before \r\npresent (defined as 1950) although the warm period started in some \r\nareas a few thousand years earlier. In terms of MIS, interglaciations\r\nare defined as the interval between the midpoint of the preceding \r\ntermination and the onset of the next glaciation. The LIG coincides \r\nwith MIS 5e. The present interglaciation, the Holocene, started at \r\n11,700 years before 2000 CE, although global mean sea level did not \r\napproach its present position until roughly 7000 years ago. See also "


id: 81d34461e1abf5c5fed423aa49cbf167
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19962
content:
"Deglacial or deglaciation or glacial termination, Glacial-interglacial \r\ncycles, Glacial or glaciation and Ice age."


id: c0050d6ec601d303156412e508ba2566
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31074
content:
"Land-cover change Change from one land cover class to \r\nanother, due to change in land use or change in natural conditions \r\n(Pongratz et al., 2018). See also Land-use change (LUC)."


id: 4eee2b806a3dcc64f5b065767132d8fb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11170
content:
"Land surface air temperature (LSAT) The near-surface air \r\ntemperature over land, typically measured at 1.25-2 m above the \r\nground using standard meteorological equipment."


id: 8ac12445af4809b95ea4c765e2e127b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21583
content:
"Interstadial or interstade A brief period of regional climatic \r\nwarming during a glacial or interglacial interval, often characterized \r\nby transient glacial retreats. Interstadials are generally of short \r\nduration (hundreds to a few thousand years) compared to glacial or \r\ninterglacial intervals (lasting many thousands to tens of thousands \r\nof years). One example of a regional interstadial event is based \r\non millennial scale warming recorded by oxygen  isotope  ratios in \r\nGreenland ice cores, the so called \"Greenland Interstadials\" (Johnsen \r\net al., 1992). See also Stadial or stade."


id: 7a1faba938559373d447e04e8c4cdd72
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18685
content:
"Land use The total of arrangements, activities and inputs applied \r\nto a parcel of land. The term land use is also used in the sense of \r\nthe social and economic purposes for which land is managed (e.g., \r\ngrazing, timber extraction, conservation and city dwelling). In \r\nnational greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories, land use is classified \r\naccording to the IPCC land-use categories of forest land, cropland, \r\ngrassland, wetlands, settlements, other lands (see the 2006 IPCC \r\nGuidelines for National GHG Inventories and their 2019 Refinement \r\nfor details (IPCC, 2006, 2019))."


id: 8926b9dd7c62c64d6c2e3d89ee35bbbe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21295
content:
"Irreversibility A perturbed state of a dynamical system is defined \r\nas irreversible on a given time scale if the recovery from this state due \r\nto natural processes takes substantially longer than the time scale of \r\ninterest. See also Tipping point."


id: b77021be0df3064552cc7a11b7d5f037
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29486
content:
"Land-use change (LUC) The change from one land use category \r\nto another. Note that in some scientific literature, land-use change \r\nencompasses changes in land-use categories as well as changes \r\nin land management. See also Afforestation, Deforestation and \r\nReforestation."


id: fc225959eb9140141d8ac788a868f082
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41726
content:
"Isostatic or Isostasy Isostasy refers to the response of the \r\nEarth to changes in surface load. It includes the deformational and \r\ngravitational response. This response is elastic on short time scales, \r\nas in the Earth-ocean response to recent changes in mountain \r\nglaciation, or viscoelastic on longer time scales, as in the response to \r\nthe last deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum."


id: 702638e5af940131655c2e48d374462b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16982
content:
"Indirect land-use change (iLUC) Land-use change outside the \r\narea of focus that occurs as a consequence of change in use or \r\nmanagement of land within the area of focus, such as through market \r\nor policy drivers. For example, if agricultural land is diverted to biofuel \r\nproduction, forest clearance may occur elsewhere to replace the \r\nformer agricultural production. See Land-use change (LUC)."


id: 78df67eb5b8eb9e6d58f63725c033aa1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18455
content:
"Isotopes Atoms of the same chemical element that have the \r\nsame the number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons. \r\nSome proton-neutron configurations are stable (stable isotopes), \r\nothers are unstable undergoing spontaneous radioactive decay \r\n(radioisotopes). Most elements have more than one stable isotope. \r\nIsotopes can be used to trace transport processes or to study \r\nprocesses that change the isotopic ratio. Radioisotopes provide, in \r\naddition, time information that can be used for radiometric dating. \r\nSee also 13C and 14C."


id: 83efb7045de3f8b491684023613f337c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20364
content:
"Land water storage (LWS) Land water storage (LWS) includes \r\nall surface water, soil moisture, groundwater storage and snow, but \r\nexcludes water stored in glaciers and ice sheets. Changes in LWS can \r\nbe caused either by direct human intervention in the water cycle (e.g., \r\nstorage of water in reservoirs by building dams in rivers, groundwater \r\nextraction from groundwater reservoirs for consumption and \r\nirrigation, or deforestation) or by climate variations (e.g., changes in \r\nthe amount of water in endorheic lakes and wetlands, the canopy, \r\nthe soil, the permafrost and the snowpack). Land water storage \r\nchanges caused by climate variations may also be indirectly affected \r\nby anthropogenic influences. See also Sea level change (sea level rise/\r\nsea level fall)."


id: a1ec8aefb3b149311011900aa020e98
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25720
content:
"Kriging Kriging is a method of interpolation (normally spatial \r\ninterpolation when used with atmospheric or oceanographic data) \r\nin which the interpolated values are estimated using a Gaussian \r\nprocess governed by prior covariances."


id: e4a97b3d8b8409455df2379ca9189bc5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37513
content:
"Lapse rate The rate of change of an atmospheric variable, usually \r\ntemperature, with height. The lapse rate is considered positive when \r\nthe variable decreases with height."


id: 935aefef590bc99f6666bdac46a9cbeb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23130
content:
"Land The terrestrial portion of the biosphere that comprises the \r\nnatural resources (soil, near-surface air, vegetation and other biota, \r\nand water), the ecological processes, topography, and human \r\nsettlements and infrastructure that operate within that system \r\n(UNCCD, 1994; FAO, 2007)."


id: 8adb1b4e3bd0ecfe02ea133cd00791b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21599
content:
"Large-scale The climate system involves process interactions \r\nfrom the micro- to the global-scale. Any threshold for defining 'large\u0002scale' is arbitrary. Understanding of large-scale climate variability\r\nand change requires knowledge of both the response to external \r\nforcings and the role of internal variability. Many external forcings \r\nhave substantial hemispheric or continental scale variations. Modes \r\nof climate variability are driven by ocean-basin-scale processes. Thus \r\nwe define large-scale to include ocean-basin and continental scales \r\nas well as hemispheric and global scales."


id: ecb4312030c2bf9ffdbd9ab6b095d5b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39002
content:
"Land cover The biophysical coverage of land (e.g., bare soil, rocks, \r\nforests, buildings and roads or lakes). Land cover is often categorized \r\nin broad land-cover classes (e.g., deciduous forest, coniferous forest, \r\nmixed forest, grassland, bare ground). [Note: In some literature, land \r\ncover and land use are used interchangeably, but the two represent \r\ndistinct classification systems. For example, the land cover class \r\nwoodland can be under various land uses such as livestock grazing, \r\nrecreation, conservation, or wood harvest.]"


id: c0f69679176fedcfa403155955c80d6b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31253
content:
"Last deglacial transition See Deglacial or deglaciation or \r\nglacial termination and Younger Dryas."


id: 6a71f44e19385578485bc0d800c424d0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16006
content:
"Turnover time (T) (also called global atmospheric lifetime) is the \r\nratio of the mass M of a reservoir (e.g., a gaseous compound in \r\nthe atmosphere) and the total rate of removal S from the reservoir: \r\nT  =  M/S. For each removal process, separate turnover times can \r\nbe defined. In soil carbon biology, this is referred to as mean \r\nresidence time."


id: ed81636e011bea35826b51ca910402dd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39146
content:
"Last millennium The interval of the Common Era (CE) between \r\n1001 and 2000 CE. Encompasses the Little Ice Age, a roughly defined \r\nperiod characterized by multiple expansions of mountain glaciers\r\nworldwide, the timing of which differs among regions but generally \r\noccurred between 1400 CE and 1900 CE. The last millennium also \r\nmostly encompasses the Medieval Warm Period (also called the \r\nMedieval Climate Anomaly), a roughly defined period of relatively \r\nwarm conditions or other climate excursions such as extensive \r\ndrought, the timing and magnitude of which differ among regions, \r\nbut generally occurred between 900 and 1400 CE. Transient climate \r\nmodel experiments by the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison \r\nProject (PMIP) for the last millennium extend from 850-1849 CE."


id: 40d2ef0e51a84a22d3ad45854e8fe6aa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8591
content:
"Light-absorbing particles Light-absorbing particles (LAP), for \r\nexample, black carbon (BC), brown carbon and dust, are particles \r\nthat absorb solar radiation and convert it into internal energy, thus \r\nraising the particle's temperature and emitting thermal-infrared \r\nradiation that is selectively absorbed by the surrounding medium. \r\nLAP affect the energy balance of the atmosphere and clouds, and \r\nwhen deposited on snow and ice, they reduce snow/ice albedo, \r\nincreasing heating and accelerating melting. These particles have a \r\nwarming effect on climate."


id: 2195cd9a50c9cd863bb19a7ee8db67f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3119
content:
"Latent heat flux The turbulent flux of heat from the Earth's \r\nsurface to the atmosphere that is associated with evaporation or \r\ncondensation of water vapour at the surface; a component of the \r\nsurface energy budget. See also Sensible heat flux."


id: 282be7c52c57073e836e3f7079ee828f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4267
content:
"Likelihood The chance of a specific outcome occurring, where \r\nthis might be estimated probabilistically. Likelihood is expressed in \r\nthis report using a standard terminology (Mastrandrea et al., 2010).\r\nSee also Agreement, Confidence, Evidence and Uncertainty."


id: 86ba8fbdae99a8373149114a079ff0d7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20866
content:
"Lifetime Lifetime is a general term used for various time scales \r\ncharacterizing the rate of processes affecting the concentration of \r\ntrace gases. The following lifetimes may be distinguished:"


id: 80e773d059cb37fa2a07a101bb8d39da
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19814
content:
"Lithosphere The upper layer of the solid Earth, both continental \r\nand oceanic, which comprises all crustal rocks and the cold, mainly \r\nelastic part of the uppermost mantle. Volcanic activity, although part \r\nof the lithosphere, is not considered as part of the climate system, but \r\nacts as an external forcing factor."


id: d7cd650e38a6e707cf70e8719fa4deb0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35276
content:
"Response time or adjustment time (Ta) is the time scale characterizing \r\nthe decay of an instantaneous pulse input into the reservoir. The term \r\nadjustment time is also used to characterize the adjustment of the \r\nmass of a reservoir following a step change in the source strength. \r\nHalf-life or decay constant is used to quantify a first-order exponential \r\ndecay process. See Response time or adjustment time for a different \r\ndefinition pertinent to climate variations."


id: e21bfcc2d558c06858b48d75a4f0a32b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37060
content:
"Livelihood The resources used and the activities undertaken in \r\norder for people to live. Livelihoods are usually determined by the \r\nentitlements and assets to which people have access. Such assets can \r\nbe categorized as human, social, natural, physical or financial."


id: 45c476b71c2bc18fff7ebe5b85b5bcd4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9491
content:
"Long-lived greenhouse gases (LLGHGs) A set of well-mixed \r\ngreenhouse gases with long atmospheric lifetimes. This set of \r\ncompounds includes carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O), \r\ntogether with some halogenated compounds. They have a warming \r\neffect on climate. These compounds accumulate in the atmosphere at \r\ndecadal to centennial time scales, and their effect on climate hence \r\npersists for decades to centuries after their emission. On time scales \r\nof decades to a century, already emitted emissions of long-lived \r\nclimate forcers can only be abated by greenhouse gas removal."


id: ef994ed13cd8a73820a5c4a9551369da
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39535
content:
"In simple cases, where the global removal of the compound is directly \r\nproportional to the total mass of the reservoir, the adjustment time \r\nequals the turnover time: T = Ta. An example is CFC-11, which is \r\nremoved from the atmosphere only by photochemical processes in \r\nthe stratosphere. In more complicated cases, where several reservoirs \r\nare involved or where the removal is not proportional to the total \r\nmass, the equality T = Ta no longer holds. "


id: cb291573b9300087e3ab5b4596436387
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33082
content:
"Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an extreme example. Its turnover time \r\nis only about 4 years because of the rapid exchange between the \r\natmosphere and the ocean and terrestrial biota. However, a large part \r\nof that CO2 is returned to the atmosphere within a few years. The \r\nadjustment time of CO2 in the atmosphere is determined from the \r\nrates of removal of carbon by a range of processes with time scales \r\nfrom months to hundreds of thousands of years. As a result, 15 to \r\n40% of an emitted CO2 pulse will remain in the atmosphere longer \r\nthan 1,000 years, 10 to 25% will remain about ten thousand years, \r\nand the rest will be removed over several hundred thousand years."


id: 884414e05e090be47e5798deaf5c5063
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21131
content:
"Low-likelihood, high impact outcomes Outcomes/events \r\nwhose probability of occurrence is low or not well known (as in the \r\ncontext of deep uncertainty) but whose potential impacts on society \r\nand ecosystems could be high. To better inform risk assessment and \r\ndecision-making, such low-likelihood outcomes are considered if \r\nthey are associated with very large consequences and may therefore \r\nconstitute material risks, even though those consequences do not \r\nnecessarily represent the most likely outcome."


id: 969583dd9500f65c8d8989509bee32fc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23696
content:
"In the case of methane (CH4 ), the adjustment time is different from \r\nthe turnover time because the removal is mainly through a chemical \r\nreaction with the hydroxyl radical (OH), the concentration of which \r\nitself depends on the CH4 concentration. Therefore, the CH4 removal \r\nrate S is not proportional to its total mass M."


id: 6e717e6f8db19858546ba976cf81a1ed
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16692
content:
"Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) The largest mode of \r\ntropical atmospheric intra-seasonal variability with typical periods \r\nranging from 20 to 90 days. The MJO corresponds to planetary\u0002scale disturbances of pressure, wind and deep convection moving \r\npredominantly eastward along the equator. As it progresses, the MJO "


id: cfad56ddd20a351d739367f31e98db0b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33897
content:
"is associated with the temporal alternation of large-scale enhanced \r\nand suppressed rainfall, with maximum loading over the Indian \r\nand western Pacific oceans, although influences of the MJO can \r\nbe tracked over the Atlantic/Africa in dynamical fields. See Section \r\nAIV.2.8 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."


id: ce4e3b447b2c51b206fbd7973ade6057
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33632
content:
"Accumulation (of glaciers, ice sheets, or snow cover)\r\nAll processes that add to the mass of a glacier, an ice sheet, or snow \r\ncover. The main process of accumulation is snowfall. Accumulation \r\nalso includes deposition of hoar, freezing rain, other types of solid \r\nprecipitation, gain of wind-blown snow, avalanching, and basal \r\naccumulation (often beneath floating ice)."


id: a77d63bd5f3ee75d3e349285f3296cfa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26679
content:
"Maladaptive actions (Maladaptation) Actions that may lead \r\nto increased risk of adverse climate-related outcomes, including via \r\nincreased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, increased vulnerability\r\nto climate change, or diminished welfare, now or in the future. \r\nMaladaptation is usually an unintended consequence."


id: daadbc81ea9b250112dc2ac5b82f149
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35767
content:
"Rate of the flow of ice through a vertical section of a glacier\r\nperpendicular to the direction of the flow of ice. Often used to refer \r\nto the loss of mass at marine-terminating glacier fronts (mostly \r\ncalving of icebergs and submarine melt), or to mass flowing across \r\nthe grounding line of a floating ice shelf."


id: a165cb3617cc3ba847f627aad2822c97
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25612
content:
"Mean sea level The surface level of the ocean at a particular \r\npoint averaged over an extended period of time such as a month \r\nor year. Mean sea level is often used as a national datum to which \r\nheights on land are referred."


id: d4ce68057f82851c850ca1041d63bf70
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34756
content:
"Marine heatwave A period during which water temperature \r\nis abnormally warm for the time of the year relative to historical \r\ntemperatures, with that extreme warmth persisting for days to \r\nmonths. The phenomenon can manifest in any place in the ocean and \r\nat scales of up to thousands of kilometres. See also Heatwave."


id: 1e0241fdb7dcc8b7f7c9d7c719959177
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2477
content:
"Marine ice cliff instability (MICI) A hypothetical mechanism \r\nof an ice cliff failure. In case a marine-terminated ice sheet loses its \r\nbuttressing ice shelf, an ice cliff can be exposed. If the exposed ice \r\ncliff is tall enough (about 800 m of the total height, or about 100 \r\nm of the above-water part), the stresses at the cliff face exceed the \r\nstrength of the ice, and the cliff fails structurally in repeated calving\r\nevents. See also Marine ice sheet instability (MISI)."


id: 8f7dd34574f8eb4096b302126014f478
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22454
content:
"Meltwater Pulse 1A (MWP-1A) A particular interval of rapid \r\nglobal sea level rise between about 14,700 and 14,300 years \r\nago, associated with the end of the last ice age and attributed to \r\nfreshwater flux to the ocean from accelerated melting of ice sheets\r\nand glaciers. First defined based on oxygen isotope data (Duplessy \r\net al., 1981), and later shown to be reflected by high rates of sea \r\nlevel rise (Fairbanks, 1989). See also Deglacial or deglaciation or \r\nglacial termination."


id: 4d6a3a43ab194c0f91af720a536919a6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10898
content:
"Marine ice sheet instability (MISI) A mechanism of \r\nirreversible (on the decadal to centennial time scale) retreat of a \r\ngrounding line for the marine-terminating glaciers, in case the glacier \r\nbed slopes towards the ice sheet interior. See also Marine ice cliff \r\ninstability (MICI)."


id: d688e2f476c5d4a8b1823c87b3ac30db
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35053
content:
"Meridional overturning circulation (MOC) Meridional \r\n(north-south) overturning circulation in the ocean quantified by \r\nzonal (east-west) sums of mass transports in depth or density \r\nlayers. In the North Atlantic, away from the subpolar regions, the \r\nMOC (which is in principle an observable quantity) is often identified \r\nwith the thermohaline circulation (THC), which is a conceptual and \r\nincomplete interpretation. The MOC is also driven by wind, and can \r\nalso include shallower overturning cells such as occur in the upper \r\nocean in the tropics and subtropics, in which warm (light) waters \r\nmoving poleward are transformed to slightly denser waters and \r\nsubducted equatorward at deeper levels."


id: 47da48e9a6059df8953b1de098162662
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9853
content:
"Marine isotope stage (MIS) Geological periods of alternating \r\nglacial and interglacial conditions, each typically lasting tens of \r\nthousands of years as inferred from the oxygen isotope composition \r\nof microfossils from deep sea sediment cores. MIS numbers \r\nincrease back in time from the present, which is MIS 1. Even\u0002number MISs coincide with glacial periods, and odd-numbered MISs \r\nare interglacials."


id: a5f48366c1e6526aa32b0ec58e717a13
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26418
content:
"Marine-based ice sheet An ice sheet containing a substantial \r\nregion that rests on a bed lying below sea level and whose perimeter \r\nis in contact with the ocean. The best known example is the West \r\nAntarctic Ice Sheet."


id: 3218651e0acff5601e5d74c74c6518b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6073
content:
"The main current system in the South and North Atlantic Oceans. \r\nAMOC transports warm upper-ocean water northwards and cold, \r\ndeep water southwards, as part of the global ocean circulation system. \r\nChanges in the strength of AMOC can affect other components of the \r\nclimate system."


id: 1b96223dc7443d808a5770efc477364f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2038
content:
"Mass balance/budget (of glaciers or ice sheets) Difference \r\nbetween the mass input (accumulation) and the mass loss (ablation) \r\nof an ice body (e.g., a glacier or ice sheet) over a stated time period, \r\nwhich is often a year or a season. Surface mass balance refers to the \r\ndifference between surface accumulation and surface ablation."


id: 84eb874bfb5aa9f2d4f652b5888858db
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20523
content:
"Methane (CH4) The greenhouse gas methane is the major \r\ncomponent of natural gas and associated with all hydrocarbon fuels. \r\nSignificant anthropogenic emissions also occur as a result of animal \r\nhusbandry and paddy rice production. Methane is also produced \r\nnaturally where organic matter decays under anaerobic conditions, \r\nsuch as in wetlands. Under future global warming, there is potential \r\nfor increased methane emissions from thawing permafrost, wetlands\r\nand sub-sea gas hydrates. See also Short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs)."


id: 9af5121a5215d748ab81b931ef74e3a5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24510
content:
"All processes that reduce the mass of a glacier, ice sheet, or snow \r\ncover. The main processes are melting, and for glaciers also calving\r\n(or, when the glacier nourishes an ice shelf, discharge of ice across \r\nthe grounding line), but other processes such as sublimation and loss \r\nof wind-blown snow can also contribute to ablation. Ablation also \r\nrefers to the mass lost by any of these processes."


id: 5d7089d6bad3ead9face39182740ede9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13726
content:
"Microwave sounding unit (MSU) A microwave sounder on \r\nU.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) polar \r\norbiter satellites that estimates the temperature of thick layers of the \r\natmosphere by measuring the thermal emission of oxygen molecules \r\nfrom a complex of emission lines near 60 GHz. A series of nine MSUs \r\nbegan making this kind of measurement in late 1978. Beginning in \r\nmid-1998, a follow-on series of instruments, the Advanced Microwave \r\nSounding Units (AMSUs), began operation."


id: 3c129acb051c5afd1c1694986636f192
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7759
content:
"Model spread The range or spread in results from climate models, \r\nsuch as those assembled for Coupled Model Intercomparison Project \r\nPhase 6 (CMIP6). Does not necessarily provide an exhaustive and \r\nformal estimate of the uncertainty in feedbacks, forcing or projections\r\neven when expressed numerically, for example, by computing \r\na standard deviation of the models' responses. In order to quantify \r\nuncertainty, information from observations, physical constraints and \r\nexpert judgement must be combined, using a statistical framework."


id: 303378aad60227838ae199b39accdcfe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5737
content:
"Mineralization/Remineralization The conversion of an \r\nelement from its organic form to an inorganic form as a result \r\nof microbial decomposition. In nitrogen mineralization, organic \r\nnitrogen from decaying plant and animal residues (proteins, nucleic \r\nacids, amino sugars and urea) is converted to ammonia (NH3) and \r\nammonium (NH4\r\n+) by biological activity."


id: 66955c33a30e82190b74f26b64858225
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15302
content:
"Mitigation (of climate change) A human intervention to \r\nreduce emissions or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases."


id: cbcc16fc8e9114b55c1bad4fe350eac6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33181
content:
"Mitigation potential The quantity of net greenhouse gas\r\nemission reductions that can be achieved by a given mitigation\r\noption relative to specified emission baselines. [Note: Net greenhouse \r\ngas emission reductions is the sum of reduced emissions and/or \r\nenhanced sinks.] See also Sequestration potential."


id: db74697cd2b8d27e4adb29635171a412
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35887
content:
"The mitigation potential constrained by biological, geophysical and \r\ngeochemical limits and thermodynamics, without taking into account \r\ntechnical, social, economic and/or environmental considerations."


id: e930cc83c83fe49ecdc275471bc48f57
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38378
content:
"Mole fraction or mixing ratio Mole fraction, or mixing ratio, is \r\nthe ratio of the number of moles of a constituent in a given volume \r\nto the total number of moles of all constituents in that volume. It is \r\nusually reported for dry air. Typical values for well-mixed greenhouse \r\ngases are in the order of mmol mol-1 (parts per million: ppm), nmol \r\nmol-1 (parts per billion: ppb), and fmol mol-1 (parts per trillion: ppt). \r\nMole fraction differs from volume mixing ratio, often expressed in \r\nppmv, etc., by the corrections for non-ideality of gases. This correction \r\nis significant relative to measurement precision for many greenhouse \r\ngases (Schwartz and Warneck, 1995)."


id: 37482c54947f57e5d898ef154d0686ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6941
content:
"The portion of the technical potential for which the social benefits \r\nexceed the social costs, taking into account a social discount rate and \r\nthe value of externalities."


id: cd62bcbe34f7333505bba91580388c0f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33472
content:
"The mitigation potential constrained by biogeophysical limits as well as \r\navailability of technologies and practices. Quantification of technical \r\npotentials takes into account primarily technical considerations, \r\nbut social, economic and/or environmental considerations are \r\noccasionally also included, if these represent strong barriers for the \r\ndeployment of an option."


id: fe2d2427906a8ca26b2f524bbd698bf6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42083
content:
"Montreal Protocol The Montreal Protocol on Substances that \r\nDeplete the Ozone Layer was adopted in Montreal in 1987, and \r\nsubsequently adjusted and amended (including London (1990), \r\nCopenhagen (1992), Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997), Beijing (1999) \r\nand Kigali (2016)). It controls the consumption and production of \r\nchlorine- and bromine-containing chemicals that destroy stratospheric \r\nozone (O3 ), such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methyl chloroform, \r\ncarbon tetrachloride and many others. Since the Kigali Amendment in \r\n2016, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which were used as alternatives to \r\nozone-depleting substances (ODSs),  have been targeted for a phase\u0002down due to their climate effect as greenhouse gases (GHGs)."


id: d8751ce687edf0dafc7c305b12771828
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35378
content:
"Model initialization A climate prediction typically proceeds \r\nby integrating a climate model forward in time from an initial state \r\nthat is intended to reflect the actual state of the climate system. \r\nAvailable observations of the climate system are assimilated into the \r\nmodel. Initialization is a complex process that is limited by available \r\nobservations, observational errors and, depending on the procedure \r\nused, may be affected by uncertainty in the history of climate forcing. \r\nThe initial conditions will contain errors that grow as the forecast "


id: ebc91bf971d63ef820b01b1c6594aef9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38851
content:
"emissions is generally applied to emissions and removals under \r\ndirect control or territorial responsibility of the reporting entity, \r\nwhile GHG neutrality generally includes anthropogenic emissions \r\nand anthropogenic removals within and beyond the direct control \r\nor territorial responsibility of the reporting entity. Accounting rules \r\nspecified by GHG programmes or schemes can have a significant \r\ninfluence on the quantification of relevant emissions and removals."


id: 689299682d71290cbbf257b9578cc22e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15666
content:
"Natural systems The dynamic physical, physicochemical  and \r\nbiological components of the Earth system that would operate \r\nindependently of human activities."


id: e52a78845617b64fb29c7410b48ec5dd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37619
content:
"Note 2: Under the Paris Rulebook (Decision 18/CMA.1, annex, \r\nparagraph 37), parties have agreed to use GWP100 values from the \r\nIPCC AR5 or GWP100 values from a subsequent IPCC Assessment \r\nReport to report aggregate emissions and removals of GHGs. In \r\naddition, parties may use other metrics to report supplemental \r\ninformation on aggregate emissions and removals of GHGs."


id: 59ebb78c3022281740af6f22886368fd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13066
content:
"Negative greenhouse gas emissions Removal of greenhouse \r\ngases (GHGs) from the atmosphere by deliberate human activities, \r\nthat is, in addition to the removal that would occur via natural carbon \r\ncycle or atmospheric chemistry processes. See also Carbon dioxide \r\nremoval (CDR), Net negative greenhouse gas emissions, Net zero CO2\r\nemissions and Net zero greenhouse gas emissions."


id: 7b832baf940a984f17c1c626f08697e1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18936
content:
"See also Net zero CO2 emissions, Greenhouse gas emission metric\r\nand Greenhouse gas neutrality)."


id: f521a91439f759e61b41d0419b238d0e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40492
content:
"Net negative greenhouse gas emissions A situation of \r\nnet negative greenhouse gas emissions is achieved when metric\u0002weighted anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) removals exceed \r\nmetric-weighted anthropogenic GHG emissions. Where multiple \r\nGHG are involved, the quantification of net emissions depends on \r\nthe metric chosen to compare emissions of different gases (such as \r\nglobal warming potential, global temperature change potential, and \r\nothers, as well as the chosen time horizon). See also Net zero CO2\r\nemissions, Net zero greenhouse gas emissions, Negative greenhouse \r\ngas emissions, Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and Greenhouse gas \r\nemission metric."


id: c71295eed848c138f79b087c745a930b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32343
content:
"Nitrogen deposition Nitrogen deposition is defined as the \r\nnitrogen transferred from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface by \r\nthe processes of wet deposition and dry deposition."


id: 1f31f301bdeadb192d93c2847213e2ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2698
content:
"Nitrous oxide (N2O) The main anthropogenic source of N2O, \r\na greenhouse gas (GHG), is agriculture (soil and animal manure \r\nmanagement), but important contributions also come from sewage \r\ntreatment, fossil fuel combustion, and chemical industrial processes. \r\nN2O is also produced naturally from a wide variety of biological \r\nsources in soil and water, particularly microbial action in wet \r\ntropical forests."


id: 17b114c7e62ffde3db0485b66a072465
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1377
content:
"Non-CO2 emissions and radiative forcing Non-CO2 emissions \r\nincluded in this report are all anthropogenic emissions other than \r\ncarbon dioxide (CO2) that result in radiative forcing. These include \r\nshort-lived climate forcers, such as methane (CH4 ), some fluorinated \r\ngases, ozone (O3 ) precursors, aerosols or aerosol precursors, such as \r\nblack carbon and sulphur dioxide, respectively, as well as long-lived \r\ngreenhouse gases, such as nitrous oxide (N2O) or other fluorinated \r\ngases. The radiative forcing associated with non-CO2 emissions and \r\nchanges in surface albedo (e.g., resulting from land-use change) is \r\nreferred to as non-CO2 radiative forcing."


id: 5ee2ff315b4ad9e31004fbb311e7feb8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13990
content:
"Net zero CO2 emissions Condition in which anthropogenic \r\ncarbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are balanced by anthropogenic CO2\r\nremovals over a specified period. "


id: 91347dc355f7a33bfe473a171b1c83ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22755
content:
"Note: Carbon neutrality and net zero CO2 emissions are overlapping \r\nconcepts. The concepts can be applied at global or sub-global scales \r\n(e.g., regional, national and sub-national). At a global scale, the \r\nterms carbon neutrality and net zero CO2 emissions are equivalent. \r\nAt sub-global scales, net zero CO2 emissions is generally applied \r\nto emissions and removals under direct control or territorial \r\nresponsibility of the reporting entity, while carbon neutrality \r\ngenerally includes emissions and removals within and beyond the \r\ndirect control or territorial responsibility of the reporting entity. \r\nAccounting rules specified by GHG programmes or schemes can \r\nhave a significant influence on the quantification of relevant CO2\r\nemissions and removals."


id: 9f52ab91590721bffc1ec0e4c55df780
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25254
content:
"Non-linearity A process is called non-linear when there is no \r\nsimple proportional relation between cause and effect. The climate \r\nsystem contains many such non-linear processes, resulting in \r\na system with potentially very complex behaviour. Such complexity \r\nmay lead to abrupt climate change and tipping points."


id: 4bcfecdc66644e31e5a6d3ca72003aad
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10598
content:
"Net zero greenhouse gas emissions Condition in which \r\nmetric-weighted anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions \r\nare balanced by metric-weighted anthropogenic GHG removals over \r\na specified period. The quantification of net zero GHG emissions \r\ndepends on the GHG emission metric chosen to compare emissions \r\nand removals of different gases, as well as the time horizon chosen \r\nfor that metric. "


id: ebc901528da7521ed9c2e09df5c4d122
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38850
content:
"North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) The leading mode of large\u0002scale atmospheric variability in the North Atlantic basin characterized \r\nby alternating (see-saw) variations in sea level pressure or \r\ngeopotential height between the Azores High in the subtropics and \r\nthe Icelandic Low in the mid- to high latitudes, with some northward \r\nextension deep into the Arctic. It is associated with fluctuations in the \r\nstrength and latitudinal position of the main westerly winds across "


id: ee4be22ef43fa56bbd4d4380124bda15
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39291
content:
"Note 1: GHG neutrality and net zero GHG emissions are overlapping \r\nconcepts. The concept of net zero GHG emissions can be applied \r\nat global or sub-global scales (e.g., regional, national and sub\u0002national). At a global scale, the terms GHG neutrality and net zero \r\nGHG emissions are equivalent. At sub-global scales, net zero GHG "


id: dd63cf71c4d3ea9952074b057fb8c4c9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36218
content:
"from such an experiment as the ratio of the rate of increase of ocean \r\nheat content to the surface temperature change."


id: f4a63789f87459ab50c286df84fd6f1c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40415
content:
"a vast North Atlantic-Europe domain, and thus with fluctuations in \r\nthe embedded extratropical cyclones and associated frontal systems \r\nleading to strong teleconnection over the entire North Atlantic \r\nadjacent continents. The positive and negative phases of the NAO \r\nshow similar characteristics described for the Northern Annular Mode \r\n(NAM). See Section AIV.2.1 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."


id: bef42696a5f8b09037f52c4b9f1e7af8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30864
content:
"Orbital forcing Orbital forcing is the influence of slow, systematic \r\nand predictable changes in orbital parameters (eccentricity, obliquity \r\nand precession of the equinox) on incoming solar radiation\r\n(insolation), especially its latitudinal and seasonal distribution. It is \r\nan external forcing and a key driver of glacial-interglacial cycles."


id: 8fd05a5b216db25ed1c0c79b97d8475f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22508
content:
"Ocean The interconnected body of saline water that covers 71% of \r\nthe Earth's surface, contains 97% of the Earth's water and provides \r\n99% of the Earth's biologically habitable space. It includes the \r\nArctic, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific and Southern Oceans, as well as their \r\nmarginal seas and coastal waters."


id: f002b176b766f9e82ffe69dd32d34693
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39606
content:
"Organic aerosol Component of the aerosol that consists of \r\norganic compounds, mainly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and lesser \r\namounts of other elements."


id: 5af4295bb557aa39b38f80176bc41227
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13252
content:
"Outgoing longwave radiation Net outgoing radiation in the \r\ninfrared part of the spectrum at the top of the atmosphere."


id: 653719206f4cb07c6db3e863ecfac272
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15078
content:
"Ocean acidification (OA) A reduction in the pH of the ocean, \r\naccompanied by other chemical changes (primarily in the levels of \r\ncarbonate and bicarbonate ions), over an extended period, typically \r\ndecades or longer, which is caused primarily by uptake of carbon \r\ndioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, but can also be caused by other \r\nchemical additions or subtractions from the ocean. Anthropogenic\r\nOA refers to the component of pH reduction that is caused by human \r\nactivity (IPCC, 2011, p. 37)."


id: e1f1cbc2f9b5d041b6b82f0971d78d11
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37034
content:
"Oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) The midwater layer (200-\r\n1000 m) in the open ocean in which oxygen saturation is the lowest \r\nin the ocean. The degree of oxygen depletion depends on the largely \r\nbacterial consumption of organic matter, and the distribution of the \r\nOMZs is influenced by large-scale ocean circulation. In coastal oceans, \r\nOMZs extend to the shelves and may also affect benthic ecosystems."


id: 6697d255d11179fa296959ed7e24c505
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15306
content:
"Ocean alkalinization/Ocean alkalinity enhancement A \r\nproposed carbon dioxide removal (CDR) method that involves \r\ndeposition of alkaline minerals or their dissociation products at the \r\nocean surface. This increases surface total alkalinity, and may thus \r\nincrease ocean carbon dioxide (CO2) uptake and ameliorate surface \r\nocean acidification. See also Anthropogenic removals."


id: 60ab3fed4e45929b3ecfa27e9eac01
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14304
content:
"Ozone (O3) The triatomic form of oxygen, and a gaseous \r\natmospheric constituent. In the troposphere, O3 is created both \r\nnaturally and by photochemical reactions involving gases resulting \r\nfrom human activities (e.g., smog). Tropospheric O3 acts as \r\na greenhouse gas (GHG). In the stratosphere, O3 is created by the \r\ninteraction between solar ultraviolet radiation and molecular oxygen \r\n(O2). Stratospheric O3 plays a dominant role in the stratospheric \r\nradiative balance. Its concentration is highest in the ozone layer. See \r\nalso Ground-level ozone, Ozone hole, Ozone-depleting substances \r\n(ODSs), Ozonesonde and Short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs)."


id: fed47862186b0b3063fe16ffd0c5d11c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42225
content:
"Ocean carbon cycle The ocean carbon cycle is the set of processes \r\nthat exchange carbon between various pools within the ocean, as \r\nwell as between the atmosphere, Earth's interior, cryosphere, and the \r\nsea-floor. See also Carbon cycle."


id: 769e6da5c4b5e73b8b26e0bd8ace12e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18090
content:
"Ocean deoxygenation The loss of oxygen in the ocean. It results \r\nfrom ocean warming, which reduces oxygen solubility and increases \r\noxygen consumption and stratification, thereby reducing the mixing \r\nof oxygen into the ocean interior. Deoxygenation can also be \r\nexacerbated by the addition of excess nutrients in the coastal zone."


id: eefeb2a8c82c117571f821eae1f34436
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39416
content:
"Ozone layer A layer of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most \r\nof the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. It contains high concentrations of \r\nozone (O3 ) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still \r\nsmall in relation to other gases in the stratosphere. The ozone layer \r\ncontains less than 10 parts per million of ozone, while the average \r\nozone concentration in Earth's atmosphere as a whole is about \r\n0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower \r\nportion of the stratosphere, from approximately 15 to 35 kilometres \r\n(9.3 to 21.7 miles) above Earth, although its thickness varies \r\nseasonally and geographically. See also Ozone hole and Ozone\u0002depleting substances (ODSs)."


id: 2a912acbcfca70733a4f773866e64198
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4717
content:
"Ocean fertilization A proposed carbon dioxide removal (CDR)\r\nmethod that relies on the deliberate increase of nutrient supply to \r\nthe near-surface ocean with the aim of sequestering additional CO2\r\nfrom the atmosphere through biological production. Methods include \r\ndirect addition of micro-nutrients or macro-nutrients. To be successful, \r\nthe additional carbon needs to reach the deep ocean where it has the \r\npotential to be sequestered on climatically relevant time scales. See \r\nalso Anthropogenic removals and Carbon dioxide removal (CDR)."


id: 6b7e8c65dae828f200baecee66302bce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16216
content:
"Ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) Man-made gases that \r\ndestroy ozone (O3 ) once they reach the ozone layer in the stratosphere. \r\nOzone-depleting substances include: chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), \r\nhydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrobromofluorocarbons \r\n(HBFCs), halons, methyl bromide, carbon tetrachloride and methyl \r\nchloroform. They are used as refrigerants in commercial, home and \r\nvehicle air conditioners and refrigerators, foam blowing agents, \r\ncomponents in electrical equipment, industrial solvents, solvents \r\nfor cleaning (including dry cleaning), aerosol spray propellants and \r\nfumigants. See also Ozone layer, Ozone (O3 ) and Stratospheric ozone."


id: b43e5326ba0a0646269c065bbd1e9c3d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28944
content:
"Ocean heat uptake efficiency This is a measure (W m-2 degC-1) of \r\nthe rate at which heat storage by the global ocean increases as global \r\nsurface temperature rises. It is a useful parameter for climate change \r\nsimulations in which the radiative forcing is changing monotonically, \r\nwhen it can be compared with the climate feedback parameter to \r\ngauge the relative importance of radiative response and ocean heat \r\nuptake in determining the rate of climate change. It can be estimated "


id: 1cf4e3204299ef09f45450545b044dfe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2275
content:
"low pressure anomalies stretching from the subtropical west Pacific \r\nto the east coast of North America."


id: 7c56b8f232307e34dacdcb0d2c9dd28
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19080
content:
"Ozonesonde An ozonesonde is a radiosonde measuring ozone \r\n(O3 ) concentrations. The radiosonde is usually carried on a weather \r\nballoon and transmits measured quantities by radio to a ground\u0002based receiver."


id: b1ce51f85992dce3146dd5aaf837d9e9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28502
content:
"Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) The PETM is \r\na transient event that occurred between 55.9 and 55.7 million years \r\nago. Continental positions at this time were somewhat different to \r\npresent due to tectonic plate movements. Geological data indicate \r\nthat the PETM was characterised by a warming (global mean surface \r\ntemperature rose to about 4degC-7degC warmer than the preceding mean \r\nstate), and an increase in atmospheric CO2 (from about 900 to about \r\n2000 ppmv). In addition, ocean pH and oxygen content decreased; \r\nmany deep-sea species went extinct and tropical coral reefs diminished."


id: 29121a2e361aae459b34a4da89983e5c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4432
content:
"Paleoclimate Climate during periods prior to the development \r\nof measuring instruments, including historic and geologic time, for \r\nwhich only proxy climate records are available."


id: 571bdcbca3650eff9c5846934dcd68b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12578
content:
"Parameterization In climate models, this term refers to the \r\ntechnique of representing processes that cannot be explicitly \r\nresolved at the spatial or temporal resolution of the model (sub-grid \r\nscale processes) by relationships between model-resolved larger\u0002scale variables and the area- or time-averaged effect of such sub-grid \r\nscale processes."


id: f012b9a82f884c7dc43cc3403e1bfb15
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39617
content:
"Pathways The temporal evolution of natural and/or human \r\nsystems towards a future state. Pathway concepts range from sets \r\nof quantitative and qualitative scenarios or narratives of potential \r\nfutures to solution-oriented decision-making processes to achieve \r\ndesirable societal goals. Pathway approaches typically focus on \r\nbiophysical, techno-economic, and/or socio-behavioural trajectories \r\nand involve various dynamics, goals, and actors across different \r\nscales. See also Scenario and Scenario storyline (under Storyline)."


id: 364904c182c9a1d5ce5883591c0ba238
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6790
content:
"An equatorially symmetric pattern of sea surface temperature\r\nvariability at decadal-to-inter-decadal time scales. While the Pacific \r\nDecadal Oscillation (PDO) and its South Pacific counterpart, the \r\nSouth Pacific Decadal Oscillation (SPDO), are considered as physically \r\ndistinct modes, the tropical Pacific decadal-inter-decadal variability \r\ncan drive both the PDO and SPDO, forming the IPO as a synchronized \r\npan-Pacific variability. Its spatial pattern of sea surface temperature \r\nanomalies is similar to that of the El Nino-Southern Oscillation \r\n(ENSO), but with a broader meridional extent in the tropical signal \r\nand more weights in the extratropics compared to the tropics. In \r\nthe AR6 WGI report, it is encapsulated within the definition and \r\ndescription of Pacific Decadal Variability (PDV). See also Section \r\nAIV.2.6 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."


id: 4d245e479794add05177b85e4a37a5b6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10848
content:
"A pathway of emissions of greenhouse gases and other climate \r\nforcers that provides an approximately one-in-two to two-in-three \r\nchance, given current knowledge of the climate response, of global \r\nwarming either remaining below 1.5degC or returning to 1.5degC by \r\naround 2100 following an overshoot."


id: ef75d7ee73724ac0065c97b2ded7270
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39503
content:
"A temporal evolution of a set of  mitigation scenario  features, such \r\nas greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and socio-economic development."


id: 56c0328d0be7239eae65c6291ed051ce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12512
content:
"The leading mode of variability obtained from decomposition in \r\nempirical orthogonal function of sea surface temperature over the \r\nNorth Pacific north of 20degN, and characterized by a strong decadal \r\ncomponent. The positive phase of the PDO features a dipole of sea \r\nsurface temperature anomalies in the North Pacific, with a cold lobe \r\nnear the centre of the basin and extending westward along the \r\nKuroshio, encircled by warmer conditions along the coast of North \r\nAmerica and in the subtropics. A positive PDO is accompanied by \r\nan intensified Aleutian Low and an associated cyclonic circulation \r\nenhancement leading to teleconnections over the continents adjacent \r\nto the North Pacific. In the AR6 WGI report, the PDO is encapsulated \r\nwithin the definition and description of Pacific Decadal Variability \r\n(PDV). See also Section AIV.2.6 in Annex IV of the AR6 WGI report."


id: 444b2b787f21f0122bc023c6de77837e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9255
content:
"Pathways that stay below a specified concentration, forcing, or global \r\nwarming level during a specified period of time (e.g., until 2100)."


id: e4a57951d702a1c34c7458237b2fa71e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37509
content:
"Pathways that first exceed a specified concentration, forcing, or global \r\nwarming level, and then return to or below that level again before \r\nthe end of a specified period of time (e.g., before 2100). Sometimes \r\nthe magnitude and likelihood of the overshoot is also characterized. \r\nThe overshoot duration can vary from one pathway to the next, \r\nbut in most overshoot pathways in the literature and referred to as \r\novershoot pathways in the AR6, the overshoot occurs over a period \r\nof at least one decade and up to several decades."


id: bf497f43ba7694db36f64eb8a963c33c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30922
content:
"within an integrated assessment model. Those SSP scenarios are \r\nbare of climate policy assumption, but in combination with so\u0002called shared policy assumptions (SPAs), various approximate \r\nradiative forcing levels of 1.9, 2.6, ..., or 8.5 W m-2 are reached by \r\nthe end of the century, respectively."


id: 89a695a761daf3b2166a6ac69ffc0c47
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21392
content:
"Scenarios that include time series of emissions and concentrations \r\nof the full suite of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and aerosols and \r\nchemically active gases, as well as land use/land cover (Moss et \r\nal., 2010). The word representative signifies that each RCP provides \r\nonly one of many possible scenarios that would lead to the specific \r\nradiative forcing characteristics. The term pathway emphasises \r\nthat not only the long-term concentration levels are of interest, but \r\nalso the trajectory taken over time to reach that outcome (Moss et \r\nal., 2010)."


id: 579d83d659e9290db42a4374c4fa204b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12682
content:
"Pattern scaling Techniques used to represent the spatial \r\nvariations in climate at a given increase in global mean surface air \r\ntemperature (GSAT) are referred to as 'pattern scaling'."


id: e404c5c4c17af87110b890157f5863c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37415
content:
"Peat Soft, porous or compressed, sedimentary deposit of which \r\na substantial portion is partly decomposed plant material with high \r\nwater content in the natural state (up to about 90%)."


id: db568fbaacbe05ec91692e906a2ece8a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35859
content:
"RCPs usually refer to the portion of the concentration pathway \r\nextending up to 2100, for which integrated assessment models\r\nproduced corresponding emission scenarios. Extended concentration \r\npathways describe extensions of the RCPs from 2100 to 2300 \r\nthat were calculated using simple rules generated by stakeholder \r\nconsultations, and do not represent fully consistent scenarios. Four \r\nRCPs produced from integrated assessment models were selected \r\nfrom the published literature and used in the Fifth IPCC Assessment, \r\nand are also used in this Assessment for comparison, spanning \r\nthe range from approximately below 2degC warming to high (>4degC) \r\nwarming best-estimates by the end of the 21st century: RCP2.6, \r\nRCP4.5 and RCP6.0 and RCP8.5."


id: e4712d173f4fdb299d28491c55b93b70
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37481
content:
"Percentile A partition value in a population distribution that \r\na given percentage of the data values are below or equal to. The 50th \r\npercentile corresponds to the median of the population. Percentiles \r\nare often used to estimate the extremes of a distribution. For example, \r\nthe 90th (10th) percentile may be used to refer to the threshold for \r\nthe upper (lower) extremes."


id: c3d15a0dfeb787eaf999ba31f025a211
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31725
content:
"Permafrost Ground (soil or rock, and included ice and organic \r\nmaterial) that remains at or below 0degC for at least two consecutive \r\nyears (Harris et al., 1988). Note that permafrost is defined via \r\ntemperature rather than ice content and, in some instances, may \r\nbe ice-free."


id: 783241e2ab04891a08bab97ca6098fac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18357
content:
"Permafrost within about 3-4 m of the ground surface. The depth \r\nis not precise, but describes what commonly is highly relevant for \r\npeople and ecosystems. Deeper permafrost is often progressively \r\nless ice-rich and responds more slowly to warming than near-surface \r\npermafrost. The presence or absence of near-surface permafrost is \r\nnot the only significant metric of permafrost change, and deeper \r\npermafrost may persist when near-surface permafrost is absent."


id: 46d8ee662100c5efe88022165336a6c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9667
content:
"See also Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) and Shared \r\nSocio-economic Pathways (SSPs) (under Pathways)."


id: 210cf5ca19f0e7ef1432f6f1bf243f21
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3037
content:
"Progressive loss of ground ice in permafrost, usually due to input of \r\nheat. Thaw can occur over decades to centuries over the entire depth \r\nof permafrost ground, with impacts occurring while thaw progresses. \r\nDuring thaw, temperature fluctuations are subdued because energy \r\nis transferred by phase change between ice and water. After the \r\ntransition from permafrost to non-permafrost, ground can be \r\ndescribed as thawed."


id: 50f8231cb3eb32d39b3556ec9a26f462
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11527
content:
"pH A dimensionless measure of the acidity of a dilute solution \r\n(e.g., seawater) based on the activity, or effective concentration, of \r\nhydrogen ions (H+) in the solution. pH is measured on a logarithmic \r\nscale where pH = -log10(H+). Thus, a pH decrease of 1 unit corresponds \r\nto a 10-fold increase in the acidity, or the activity of H+."


id: 66e952d626aff3bb48e4d7745e66a8bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15371
content:
"Phenology The relationship between biological phenomena that \r\nrecur periodically (e.g., development stages, migration) and climate\r\nand seasonal changes."


id: 8b7bbecad8d42556ec7c6e7c049b6e84
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21705
content:
"expressed in terms of the height of the water if completely condensed \r\nand collected in a vessel of the same unit cross section."


id: 381994b22815c39fb42af62115243157
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:44
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7071
content:
"Photosynthesis The production of carbohydrates in plants, algae \r\nand some bacteria using the energy of light. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is \r\nused as the carbon source."


