# document

id: 4e669fcbe541a6dadd04a5465d1a632c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11066
content:
"Miguel Cifuentes-Jara (Costa Rica), Thomas Frolicher (Switzerland), Miriam Jackson \r\n(Norway), Raphael M. Kudela (USA), Valerie Masson-Delmotte (France), J.B. Robin Matthews \r\n(United Kingdom), Katja Mintenbeck (Germany), Monica M.C. Muelbert (Brazil), Hans-Otto Portner \r\n(Germany), Elvira S. Poloczanska (Australia/United Kingdom), Debra C. Roberts (South Africa), \r\nRenee van Diemen (Netherlands), Phil Williamson (United Kingdom), Panmao Zhai (China)"


id: 5b8b4cc24c2a3351897dcc3704968174
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13351
content:
"IPCC, 2019: Annex I: Glossary [Weyer, N.M. (ed.)]. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing \r\nClimate [H.-O. Portner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegria, M. \r\nNicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, \r\nUSA, pp. 677-702. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.010."


id: 792bd81125e8d89c2b4b7bf9cb433ad9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18509
content:
"Incremental adaptation Adaptation that maintains the essence \r\nand integrity of a system or process at a given scale (Park et al., \r\n2012). In some cases, incremental adaptation can accrue to result \r\nin transformational adaptation (Tabara et al., 2018; Termeer et al., \r\n2017). Incremental adaptations to change in climate are under\u0002stood as extensions of actions and behaviours that already reduce \r\nthe losses or enhance the benefits of natural variations in extreme \r\nweather/climate events."


id: 8f33d4e66c6e71ba259caf59ad734529
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
content_type: text
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vector_id: 22395
content:
"Note:This Glossary defines some specific terms as the Lead Authors \r\nintend them to be interpreted in the context of this Special Report. \r\nBlue italicisations indicate terms defined in this Glossary. Note that \r\nsubterms are in bold italics beneath main terms."


id: 25fc03206bdeddc0cd6e315377fd1e0c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3860
content:
"All processes that reduce the mass of a glacier, ice sheet or snow \r\ncover. The main processes are melting, and for glaciers also calving \r\n(or, when the glacier nourishes an ice shelf, discharge of ice across \r\nthe grounding line), but other processes such as sublimation and \r\nloss of wind-blown snow can also contribute to ablation. Ablation \r\nalso refers to the mass lost by any of these processes. See also Mass \r\nbalance/budget (of glaciers or ice sheets)."


id: 5f075227afacbfa790d2a23f70e90d6b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14015
content:
"Transformational adaptation Adaptation that changes the \r\nfundamental attributes of a social-ecological system in anticipa\u0002tion of climate change and its impacts; and adaptation responses \r\nthat will be required in the face of a global failure to mitigate the \r\ncauses of anthropogenic climate change and are characterised by \r\nsystem-wide change or changes across more than one system, by a \r\nfocus on the future and long-term change, or by a direct question\u0002ing of the effectiveness of existing systems, social injustices and \r\npower imbalances. "


id: e7b3e7c408a3c7e7107bb1588caf1920
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38069
content:
"Abrupt change refers to a change that is substantially faster than \r\nthe rate of change in the recent history of the affected components \r\nof a system. Abrupt climate change refers to a large-scale change \r\nin the climate system that takes place over a few decades or less, \r\npersists (or is anticipated to persist) for at least a  few decades, \r\nand causes substantial disruptions in human and natural systems. \r\nSee also Climate change, Human system, Natural systems and\r\nTipping  point."


id: 147de298948672f509dcc3a2e96127cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:26
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 830
content:
"Adaptation limits The point at which an actor's objectives \r\n(or  system needs) cannot be secured from intolerable risks \r\nthrough adaptive actions. "


id: 8c2644967e130c6109d9dbd9395e4a49
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21828
content:
"Soft adaptation limit - Options may exist but are currently not \r\navailable to avoid intolerable risks through adaptive action. "


id: 6d394ec5f139eb001efc7cda6c4469d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16492
content:
"All processes that add to the mass of a glacier, an ice sheet or snow \r\ncover. The main process of accumulation is snowfall. Accumulation also \r\nincludes deposition of hoar, freezing rain, other types of solid precipi\u0002tation, gain of wind-blown snow, avalanching and basal accumulation \r\n(often beneath floating ice). See also Avalanche and Mass balance/\r\nbudget (of glaciers or ice sheets)."


id: 63fd30cb20a8ca08c687301895af2206
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14880
content:
"See also Adaptation options, Adaptive capacity, Justice, Maladaptive \r\nactions (Maladaptation) and Mitigation (of climate change)."


id: 640c7f0ea8f1701b821774122a800aa6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14889
content:
"The array of strategies and measures that are available and appro\u0002priate for addressing adaptation. They include a  wide range of \r\nactions that can be categorised as structural, institutional, ecological \r\nor behavioural. See also Adaptive capacity and Maladaptive \r\nactions  Maladaptation)."


id: f0914132eb5b6a967155b8c1db968cb3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39698
content:
"In human systems, the process of adjustment to actual or expected\r\nclimate and its effects, in order to moderate harm or exploit beneficial \r\nopportunities. In natural systems, the process of adjustment to actual \r\nclimate and its effects; human intervention may facilitate adjustment \r\nto expected climate and its effects. "


id: 534849433ca96cf4e84004f2861034cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11923
content:
"The ability of systems, institutions, humans and other organisms \r\nto  adjust to potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities \r\nor to respond to consequences (IPCC, 2014; MA, 2005). See \r\nalso Adaptation."


id: 374b044fa8c2d510011b45533a10e919
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6943
content:
"Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) The use of ecosystem manage\u0002ment activities to increase the resilience and reduce the vulnerability\r\nof people and ecosystems to climate change (Campbell et al., 2009)."


id: 1a2eb8f93fa741fed7822924aee104eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1803
content:
"Evolutionary adaptation The process whereby a species or pop\u0002ulation becomes better able to live in a changing environment, \r\nthrough the selection of heritable traits. Biologists usually dis\u0002tinguish evolutionary adaptation from acclimatisation, with the \r\nlatter occurring within an organism's lifetime. "


id: 29c4e11172b5c22bfe3e07ac3fbae5c0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4575
content:
"Downward motion of the land surface induced by anthropogenic\r\ndrivers (e.g., loading, extraction of hydrocarbons and/or groundwater, \r\ndrainage, mining activities) causing sediment compaction or \r\nsubsidence/deformation of the sedimentary sequence, or oxidation \r\nof organic material, thereby leading to relative sea level rise. See also\r\nAnthropogenic and Sea level change (sea level rise/sea level fall)."


id: 57488fb5028d65bdd0a65e9691ff0f6b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12611
content:
"Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) \r\nSee Meridional Overturning Circulation (MOC). "


id: c5f85764a8f45b7cddad82cad9c4ef49
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32138
content:
"The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth, divided into five layers - \r\nthe troposphere, which contains half of the Earth's atmosphere, the \r\nstratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the exosphere, \r\nwhich is the outer limit of the atmosphere. The dry atmosphere con\u0002sists almost entirely of nitrogen (N2, 78.1% volume mixing ratio) and \r\noxygen (O2, 20.9% volume mixing ratio), together with a number of \r\ntrace gases, such as argon (Ar, 0.93% volume mixing ratio), helium (He) \r\nand radiatively active greenhouse gases (GHG) such as carbon diox\u0002ide (CO2, 0.04% volume mixing ratio) and ozone (O3 ). In addition, the \r\natmosphere contains the GHG water vapour (H2O), whose amounts are \r\nhighly variable but typically around 1% volume mixing ratio. The atmo\u0002sphere also contains clouds and aerosols. See also Climate system, \r\nHydrological cycle, Methane (CH4 ) and Radiative forcing. "


id: f2fc99fd4ba5bb2f20bcccc712b92d43
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40142
content:
"In this Special Report, the degree of agreement within the scientific \r\nbody of knowledge on a particular finding is assessed based on multiple \r\nlines of evidence (e.g., mechanistic understanding, theory, data, models, \r\nexpert judgement) and expressed qualitatively (Mastrandrea et al., \r\n2010). See also Confidence, Likelihood and Uncertainty."


id: c956f510b8a56fa85dc0ccc9a853c3c8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32746
content:
"The proportion of sunlight (solar radiation) reflected by a surface or \r\nobject, often expressed as a percentage. Clouds, snow and ice usually \r\nhave high albedo; soil surfaces cover the albedo range from high to \r\nlow; vegetation in the dry season and/or in arid zones can have high \r\nalbedo; whereas photosynthetically active vegetation and the ocean \r\nhave low albedo. The Earth's planetary albedo changes mainly through \r\nvarying cloudiness, snow, ice, leaf area and land cover changes."


id: 9b8cd3f8dc74107c39efc04503dfc7af
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24619
content:
"An introduced species (alien species, exotic species, non-indigenous \r\nspecies, or non-native species) living outside its native distributional \r\nrange, but which has arrived there by human activity, either deliberate \r\nor accidental. Non-native species can have various effects on and \r\nadversely affect the local ecosystem. See also Endemic species and\r\nInvasive species."


id: 82d15bb930f20388936a86d2089f3f40
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20142
content:
"The community of organisms living on the bottom or in sediments of \r\na body of water (such as an ocean, river or lake). The ecological zone \r\nat the bottom of a body of water, including the sediment surface and \r\nsome sub-surface layers, is known as the 'benthic zone'."


id: 54247f3db8eb83dd33afeaea3653e0fc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12081
content:
"or biological diversity means the variability among living organisms \r\nfrom all sources including, among other things, terrestrial, marine \r\nand other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of \r\nwhich they are part; this includes diversity within species, between \r\nspecies and of ecosystems (UN, 1992). See also Ecosystem service\r\nand Functional diversity."


id: 18ba4aa5823fa195bf6dc97d00505355
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1571
content:
"A series of ocean processes through which inorganic carbon (ascarbon \r\ndioxide, CO2) is fixed as organic matter by photosynthesis in sunlit sur\u0002face water and then transported to the ocean interior, and possibly the \r\nsediment, resulting in the storage of carbon. See also Carbonate pump, \r\nDissolved organic carbon (DOC) and particulate organic carbon (POC), \r\nMicrobial carbon pump and Solubility pump."


id: 12260fa57144507a0c733ebde6210b79
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 382
content:
"Emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), precursors of GHGs, and\r\naerosols, caused by human activities. These activities include the \r\nburning of fossil fuels, deforestation, land use and land use changes \r\n(LULUC), livestock production, fertilisation, waste management, and \r\nindustrial processes. See also Anthropogenic."


id: 7ea717536185f3cdc5b2a33c26b9f0eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19442
content:
"Organic material excluding the material that is fossilised or embed\u0002ded in geological formations. Biomass may refer to the mass of \r\norganic matter in a specific area (ISO, 2014)."


id: bf56c3ea2d0874d5bca7c34f81c4cc21
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30930
content:
"The flow of carbon (in various forms, e.g., as carbon dioxide (CO2 ), \r\ncarbon in biomass, and carbon dissolved in the ocean as carbonate and \r\nbicarbonate) through the atmosphere, hydrosphere, ocean, terrestrial \r\nand marine biosphere and lithosphere. In this Special Report, the refer\u0002ence unit for the global carbon cycle is GtCO2 or GtC (one Gigatonne = \r\n1 Gt = 1015 grams; 1 GtC corresponds to 3.667 GtCO2 ). See also Atmo\u0002sphere, Blue carbon and Ocean acidification (OA)."


id: 82ad6f7e0e314a72477bac413a7e36f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20121
content:
"A relatively pure form of carbon, also known as soot, arising from the \r\nincomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel and biomass. It only \r\nstays in the atmosphere for days or weeks. BC is a climate forcing \r\nagent with strong warming effect, both in the atmosphere and when \r\ndeposited on snow or ice. See also Aerosol, Albedo, Forcing and \r\nShort-lived climate forcers (SLCF)."


id: fda9cd5b0b4cd2c0fdd0ad36557c6cf2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41980
content:
"A naturally occurring gas, CO2 is also a by-product of burning fossil \r\nfuels (such as oil, gas and coal), of burning biomass, of land use\r\nchanges (LUC) and of industrial processes (e.g., cement production). It \r\nis the principal anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) that affects the \r\nEarth's radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other \r\nGHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential \r\n(GWP) of 1. See also Global warming, Greenhouse gas (GHG), Land\r\nand Ocean acidification (OA)."


id: 9a1824f9dcf78f39cae6c2b45bda1ad4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24346
content:
"All biologically-driven carbon fluxes and storage in marine systems \r\nthat are amenable to management can be considered as blue carbon. \r\nCoastal blue carbon focuses on rooted vegetation in the coastal zone, \r\nsuch as tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrasses. These ecosystems \r\nhave high carbon burial rates on a per unit area basis and accumulate \r\ncarbon in their soils and sediments. They provide many non-climatic \r\nbenefits and can contribute to ecosystem-based adaptation. If degrad\u0002ed or lost, coastal blue carbon ecosystems are likely to release most of \r\ntheir carbon back to the atmosphere. There is current debate regard\u0002ing the application of the blue carbon concept to other coastal and \r\nnon-coastal processes and ecosystems, including the open ocean. See \r\nalso Carbon cycle, Coast, Ecosystem service and Sequestration."


id: 6d8a6adfbf4b5294ee7bf2d9b4466bb0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16536
content:
"Anthropogenic activities removing carbon dioxide (CO2 ) from the \r\natmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean\r\nreservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropo\u0002genic enhancement of biological or geochemical CO2 sinks and direct \r\nair capture and storage but excludes natural CO2 uptake not directly \r\ncaused by human activities. See also Greenhouse gas removal (GGR),\r\nMitigation (of climate change) and Negative emissions."


id: e2dc24a58eceb329fc73f7dcb78389e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37208
content:
"The process of mechanical destruction of a mass of ice usually typical \r\nof marine-terminating glaciers; in the latter case, the ice calving (or \r\nbreaking away) from the glacier edge can lead to the formation of \r\nicebergs. See also Ice sheet and Marine ice cliff instability (MICI)."


id: e982485f63c04f9bc1660a0cc8b7a22e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38437
content:
"The price for avoided or released carbon dioxide (CO2 ) or CO2- \r\nequivalent emissions. This may refer to the rate of a carbon tax, or \r\nthe price of emission permits. In many models that are used to assess \r\nthe economic costs of mitigation, carbon prices are used as a proxy \r\nto represent the level of effort in mitigation policies."


id: 443d344d34ebc6ca823c44c6afca7f74
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9243
content:
"Ocean carbon fixation through the biological formation of carbon\u0002ates, primarily by plankton that generate bio-mineral particles that \r\nsink to the ocean interior, and possibly the sediment. It is also called \r\ncarbonate counter-pump, since the formation of calcium carbonate \r\n(CaCO3) is accompanied by the release of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) to \r\nsurrounding water and subsequently to the atmosphere. See also Bio\u0002logical (carbon) pump, Blue carbon, Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) \r\nand particulate organic carbon (POC), Microbial carbon pump and \r\nSolubility pump."


id: 42b30b1291675eeda6d2c8fe1ac00648
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8930
content:
"from extreme weather/climate events occur when an extreme \r\nhazard generates a sequence of secondary events in natural and \r\nhuman systems that result in physical, natural, social or economic \r\ndisruption, whereby the resulting impact is significantly larger \r\nthan the initial impact. Cascading impacts are complex and multi\u0002dimensional, and are associated more with the magnitude of \r\nvulnerability than with that of the hazard (modified from Pescaroli \r\n& Alexander, 2015). See also Impacts (consequences, outcomes), \r\nNatural systems and Risk."


id: 3aa36af745a42c0fc4474a73fb6393e0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7522
content:
"refers to three concepts in the literature: (1) an assessment of carbon \r\ncycle sources and sinks on a global level, through the synthesis of \r\nevidence for fossil-fuel and cement emissions, land use change emis\u0002sions, ocean and land carbon dioxide (CO2 ) sinks, and the resulting \r\natmospheric CO2 growth rate. This is referred to as the global carbon \r\nbudget; (2) the estimated cumulative amount of global CO2 emis\u0002sions that is estimated to limit global surface temperature to a given \r\nlevel above a reference period, taking into account global surface \r\ntemperature contributions of other GHGs and climate forcers; (3) the \r\ndistribution of the carbon budget defined under (2) to the regional, \r\nnational, or sub-national level based on considerations of equity, \r\ncosts or efficiency. See also Atmosphere, Forcing and Land."


id: 292879ae1fef47287096c622f6dcb9b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4452
content:
"in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average weather - or more \r\nrigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and vari\u0002ability of relevant quantities - over a period of time ranging from \r\nmonths to thousands or millions of years. The classical period for aver-"


id: 8e3f553be7edc9fb3025ff9f61bfad27
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22217
content:
"aging these variables is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteoro\u0002logical Organization (WMO). The relevant quantities are most often \r\nsurface variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind. Climate \r\nin a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the \r\nclimate system. "


id: 8adeb2f8e0cdcbd4a5d43d6e795921f7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21603
content:
"and biology scenarios. Climate models are applied as a research \r\ntool to study and simulate the climate and for operational purposes, \r\nincluding monthly, seasonal and interannual climate predictions. See \r\nalso Climate sensitivity and Earth system model (ESM). "


id: 62d2d7093e625de6661769078ae03c34
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14683
content:
"Simulated response of the climate system to a  scenario of future \r\nemissions or concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and \r\naerosols and changes in land use, generally derived using climate \r\nmodels. Climate projections depend on an emission/concentration/\r\nradiative forcing scenario, which is in turn based on assumptions \r\nconcerning, for example, future socioeconomic and technological \r\ndevelopments that may or may not be realised. See also (Model) \r\nEnsemble, Projection and Radiative forcing."


id: f11e70aaf8e2f6c05dfec7f7e4a7a4a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39801
content:
"Trajectories that strengthen sustainable development and efforts to \r\neradicate poverty and reduce inequalities while promoting fair and \r\ncross-scalar adaptation to and resilience in a changing climate. They \r\nraise the ethics, equity, and feasibility aspects of the deep societal \r\ntransformation needed to drastically reduce emissions to limit global \r\nwarming (e.g., to well below 2oC) and achieve desirable and liveable \r\nfutures and well-being for all. See also Equality."


id: 8fc8009200d92a89c0d12010d9cb2be0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22505
content:
"The occurrence of a value of a weather or climate variable above \r\n(or below) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends of \r\nthe range of observed values of the variable. For simplicity, both \r\nextreme weather events and extreme climate events are referred \r\nto collectively as 'climate extremes'. See also Extreme weather/\r\nclimate event. "


id: 8b50063a7b5e0c0daa6b7ab1974279fe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21672
content:
"The change in the annual global mean surface temperature (GMST)\r\nin response to a change in the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2 )\r\nconcentration or other radiative forcing. "


id: e310e5006f6757dae2b7e6fc9f8bf5e3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37243
content:
"Equilibrium climate sensitivity The equilibrium (steady state) \r\nchange in the globally-averaged near-surface temperature fol\u0002lowing a doubling of the atmospheric CO2 concentration from \r\npreindustrial conditions. Often estimated through experiments in \r\natmosphere-ocean general circulation models (AOGCMs) where \r\nCO2 levels are either quadrupled or doubled from pre-industrial\r\nlevels and which are integrated for 100-200 years. A related \r\nquantity, the climate feedback parameter (unit: W m-2 oC-1) refers \r\nto the top of atmosphere budget change per degree of globally\u0002averaged near-surface temperature change. See also Climate \r\nmodel and Global mean surface temperature (GMST)."


id: 43994025e6011daa84d582fd5ecebf4f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9114
content:
"An interaction in which a perturbation in one climate quantity \r\ncauses a change in a second and the change in the second quantity \r\nultimately leads to an additional change in the first. A negative \r\nfeedback is one in which the initial perturbation is weakened by \r\nthe changes it causes; a positive feedback is one in which the \r\ninitial perturbation is enhanced. The initial perturbation can either \r\nbe externally forced or arise as part of internal variability. See also \r\nClimate variability and  Forcing."


id: 413ae9d782eba0d66076f1a427073a51
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8657
content:
"Global system consisting of five major components: the atmosphere, \r\nhydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, and the \r\ninteractions between them. The climate system changes in time under \r\nthe influence of its own internal dynamics and because of external \r\nforcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations, orbital forcing, \r\nand anthropogenic forcings such as the changing composition of the \r\natmosphere and land use change. "


id: 1c1ec43c247b915449e0093defdf2467
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2128
content:
"A qualitative or quantitative representation of the climate system\r\nbased on the physical, chemical and biological properties of \r\nits components, their interactions and feedback processes and \r\naccounting for some of its known properties. The climate system \r\ncan be represented by models of varying complexity; that is, for \r\nany one component or combination of components a spectrum or \r\nhierarchy of models can be identified, differing in such aspects as \r\nthe number of  spatial dimensions, the extent to which physical, \r\nchemical or biological processes are explicitly represented, or the \r\nlevel at which empirical parametrisations are involved. There is an \r\nevolution towards more complex models with interactive chemistry "


id: 89dfa56782268ecb3907ab302f53abb4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21425
content:
"Deviations of some climate variables from a  given mean state \r\n(including the occurrence of extremes, etc.) at all spatial and temporal \r\nscales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be \r\nintrinsic, due to fluctuations of processes internal to the climate \r\nsystem (internal variability), or extrinsic, due to variations in natural \r\nor anthropogenic external forcing (forced variability). "


id: bfc441302d0ceab3f61403fc5c05db79
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31020
content:
"a given investment or policy effort pays off for a particular person, \r\ncompany or country. Cost-benefit analyses representing society's \r\npoint of view are important for climate change decision making, but \r\nthere are difficulties in aggregating costs and benefits across different \r\nactors and across timescales. See also Discounting. "


id: 98a75b965213c7c3c9bc1fd9ace84c9d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24070
content:
"The land near to the sea. The term 'coastal' can refer to that land \r\n(e.g., as in 'coastal communities'), or to that part of the marine environ\u0002ment that is strongly influenced by land-based processes. Thus, coastal \r\nseas are generally shallow and near-shore. The landward and seaward \r\nlimits of the coastal zone are not consistently defined, neither scien\u0002tifically nor legally. Thus, coastal waters can either be considered as \r\nequivalent to territorial waters (extending 12 nautical miles/22.2 km \r\nfrom mean low water), or to the full Exclusive Economic Zone, or to \r\nshelf seas, with less than 200 m water depth. See also Ocean, Ocean \r\ndeoxygenation and Sea level change (sea level rise/sea level fall)."


id: d8ae76078c0e986890b5f9b79dcd3109
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35415
content:
"A measure of the cost at which a policy goal or outcome is achieved. \r\nThe lower the cost, the greater the cost-effectiveness. See also \r\nPrivate costs."


id: df266ed8e619551d0b4bfe0b3722f359
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36512
content:
"A climate modelling activity from the World Climate Research Pro\u0002gramme (WCRP) which coordinates and archives climate model simu\u0002lations based on shared model inputs by modelling groups from around \r\nthe world. The CMIP3 multi-model data set includes projections using \r\nSpecial Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) scenarios. The CMIP5 \r\ndata set includes projections using the Representative Concentration \r\nPathways (RCP). The CMIP6 phase involves a suite of common model \r\nexperiments as well as an ensemble of CMIP-endorsed Model Inter\u0002comparison Projects (MIPs). See also Climate projection."


id: 551c85beda3ec8f09a5fe00facddb16b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12249
content:
"The positive effects that a policy or measure aimed at one objective \r\nmight have on other objectives, thereby increasing the total benefits \r\nfor society or the environment. Co-benefits are often subject to \r\nuncertainty and depend on local circumstances and implementation \r\npractices, among other factors. Co-benefits are also referred to as \r\nancillary benefits. See also Risk."


id: 7c91c86205b1f1d6350761dc857dc80c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19111
content:
"The components of the Earth System at and below the land and ocean \r\nsurface that are frozen, including snow cover, glaciers, ice sheets, ice \r\nshelves, icebergs, sea ice, lake ice, river ice, permafrost and season\u0002ally frozen ground. See also Climate system."


id: 8a4cc02548892c235936e0747c4f66d5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21506
content:
"The combination of multiple drivers and/or hazards that contributes \r\nto societal and environmental risk (Zscheischler et al., 2018)."


id: 1d460418e7f08a2c26e914bbadc18545
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2330
content:
"arise from the interaction of hazards, which may be characterised by \r\nsingle extreme events or multiple coincident or sequential events that \r\ninteract with exposed systems or sectors. See also Extreme weather/\r\nclimate event and Risk."


id: 3bde81c4abcbf3e57b140d143c299aaf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7726
content:
"The total amount of emissions released over a  specified period of \r\ntime. See also Carbon budget."


id: 671d67ea1446ac9fbaeded1f8a99b680
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15415
content:
"The robustness of a finding based on the type, amount, quality and \r\nconsistency of evidence (e.g., mechanistic understanding, theory, \r\ndata, models, expert judgment) and on the degree of agreement\r\nacross multiple lines of evidence. In this Special Report, confidence is \r\nexpressed qualitatively (Mastrandrea et al., 2010). See Section 1.8.3 for \r\nthe list of confidence levels used. See also Likelihood and Uncertainty."


id: acd05aeb319826bbace75a6713ddf1b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27648
content:
"A situation of deep uncertainty exists when experts or stakeholders \r\ndo not know or cannot agree on: (1) appropriate conceptual models \r\nthat describe relationships among key driving forces in a system; \r\n(2) the probability distributions used to represent uncertainty about \r\nkey variables and parameters; and/or (3) how to weigh and value \r\ndesirable alternative outcomes (Lempert et al., 2003). "


id: 1f9da61d825dbf7ea592c07cc691ec18
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2773
content:
"An underwater ecosystem characterised by structure-building stony \r\ncorals. Warm water coral reefs occur in shallow seas, mostly in the \r\ntropics, with the corals (animals) containing algae (plants) that \r\ndepend on light and relatively stable temperature conditions. Cold \r\nwater coral reefs occur throughout the world, mostly at water depths \r\nof 50-500 m. In both kinds of reef, living corals frequently grow \r\non older, dead material, predominantly made of calcium carbonate \r\n(CaCO3). Both warm and cold-water coral reefs support high biodi\u0002versity of fish and other groups, and are considered to be especially \r\nvulnerable to climate change. See also Ocean acidification (OA)."


id: b48c88febffda95c72cb9f565ad02c94
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29011
content:
"Conversion of forest to non-forest. [Note: For a discussion of the term \r\nforest and related terms such as afforestation, reforestation, and \r\ndeforestation in the context of reporting and accounting Article 3.3 \r\nand 3.4 activities under the Kyoto Protocol, see 2013 Revised Sup\u0002plementary Methods and Good Practice Guidance Arising from the \r\nKyoto Protocol]."


id: 479c32ffaeb9948aa80eeede6781d6ae
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9819
content:
"Monetary assessment of all negative and positive impacts associated \r\nwith a given action. Cost-benefit analysis enables comparison of \r\ndifferent interventions, investments or strategies and reveal how "


id: 93054fc7ebec2075e4a482a09d54086f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23076
content:
"across time. The discounter uses a fixed or possibly time-varying \r\ndiscount rate from year to year that makes future value worth less \r\ntoday (if the discount rate is positive). The choice of discount rate(s) is \r\ndebated as it is a judgement based on hidden and/or explicit values. "


id: 9094386ed8337762c493a6784604a7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22644
content:
"defined statistical sense, without providing a reason for that change. \r\nAn identified change is detected in observations if its likelihood of \r\noccurrence by chance due to internal variability alone is determined \r\nto be small, for example, <10%. Attribution is defined as the process \r\nof evaluating the relative contributions of multiple causal factors to a \r\nchange or event with a formal assessment of confidence."


id: 8c741d70887364477306fed871b6bf98
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21896
content:
"The combined total of different types of non-organic carbon in (seawater) \r\nsolution, comprising carbonate (CO3\r\n2-), bicarbonate (HCO3-\r\n), carbonic \r\nacid (H2CO3) and carbon dioxide (CO2 )."


id: 4190c4646143cb1f3a9c0301c5ef6182
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8727
content:
"Organic carbon types - for example, in the ocean - operationally \r\nseparated by filtration. Filter pore size typically is 0.45 microme\u0002tres but may vary between 0.22 and 0.7 micrometres, with small\u0002er carbon types in the solution (DOC) and larger carbon types \r\n(POC) being filtered out. In the global ocean, the ratio of DOC and \r\nPOC is approximately 20:1. DOC can be further classified as labile DOC \r\n(LDOC) and refractory DOC (RDOC; also known as recalcitrant \r\nDOC). In the global ocean, DOC is mainly (>90%) comprised of \r\nRDOC. RDOC can be generated by microbial carbon pump processes, \r\nand is able to persist for hundreds to thousands of years due to its \r\nresistance to microbial decomposition. LDOC occurs mainly in surface \r\nseawaters and is readily available for biological utilisation or decom\u0002position. See also Carbon cycle."


id: f9dc001d45479f8734616785f4b7336a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41320
content:
"A 'serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society \r\nat any scale due to hazardous events interacting with conditions of \r\nexposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or more of the \r\nfollowing: human, material, economic and environmental losses and \r\nimpacts' (UNISDR, 2017). See also Disaster risk management (DRM), \r\nExposure, Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability."


id: 7ccc6bd3add09ecca0688c5840b50aaf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19152
content:
"A method that derives local- to regional-scale (up  to  100 km) \r\ninformation from larger-scale models or data analyses. Two main \r\nmethods exist: dynamical downscaling and empirical/statistical \r\ndownscaling. The dynamical method uses the output of  regional \r\nclimate models, global models with variable spatial resolution, or \r\nhigh-resolution global models. The empirical/statistical methods \r\nare based on observations and develop statistical relationships that \r\nlink the large-scale atmospheric variables with local/regional climate\r\nvariables. In all cases, the quality of the driving model remains an \r\nimportant limitation on quality of the downscaled information. The \r\ntwo methods can be combined, for example, applying empirical/\r\nstatistical downscaling to the output of a regional climate model, \r\nconsisting of a dynamical downscaling of a global climate model."


id: 25eb15f73bb42f35fc7b266d57c2fb06
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3849
content:
"Processes for designing, implementing, and evaluating strategies, \r\npolicies, and measures to improve the understanding of current \r\nand future disaster risk, foster disaster risk reduction and transfer, \r\nand promote continuous improvement in disaster preparedness, \r\nprevention and protection, response, and recovery practices, with the \r\nexplicit purpose of increasing human security, well-being, quality of \r\nlife, and sustainable development (SD). "


id: d28a84110fd449bb7f2146c579b15b37
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34396
content:
"Rate of the flow of ice through a vertical section of a glacier\r\nperpendicular to the direction of the flow of ice. Often used to refer \r\nto the loss of mass at marine-terminating glacier fronts (mostly \r\ncalving of icebergs and submarine melt), or to mass flowing across \r\nthe grounding line of a floating ice shelf. See also Mass balance/\r\nbudget (of glaciers or ice sheets)."


id: 4ca30ae50a27a42bbe1449c04a1adf31
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10748
content:
"Any natural or human-induced factor that directly or indirectly causes \r\na change in a system (adapted from MA, 2005). See also Forcing."


id: 2a647bd8576b7ab41fa8f041b4e7c011
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4683
content:
"A period of abnormally dry weather long enough to cause a serious \r\nhydrological imbalance. Drought is a relative term; therefore any \r\ndiscussion in terms of precipitation deficit must refer to the particular \r\nprecipitation-related activity that is under discussion. For example, \r\nshortage of precipitation during the growing season impinges on crop "


id: ff633f0d08bcecad385258b8b764cd19
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42334
content:
"production or ecosystem function in general (due to soil moisture\r\ndrought, also termed agricultural drought) and during the runoff\r\nand percolation season primarily affects water supplies (hydrological \r\ndrought). Storage changes in soil moisture and groundwater are \r\nalso affected by increases in actual evapotranspiration in addition to \r\nreductions in precipitation. A period with an abnormal precipitation \r\ndeficit is defined as a meteorological drought. See also Heatwave and\r\nHydrological cycle."


id: 81ff1745b47af9003da3a154288382a8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19992
content:
"Characteristic of many regions where mountains are located, in \r\nwhich past and/or future surface air temperature changes vary \r\nneither uniformly nor linearly with elevation. In many cases, warming \r\nis enhanced within or above a certain elevation range."


id: 1e00718d81058204a79a828bb8abbde8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2473
content:
"The set of technical and institutional capacities to forecast, predict, \r\nand communicate timely and meaningful warning information to \r\nenable individuals, communities, managed ecosystems, and organisa\u0002tions threatened by a hazard to prepare to act promptly and appropri\u0002ately to reduce the possibility of harm or loss. Dependent upon con\u0002text, EWS may draw upon scientific and/or indigenous knowledge, \r\nand other knowledge types. EWS are also considered for ecological \r\napplications, for example, conservation, where the organisation itself \r\nis not threatened by hazard but the ecosystem under conserva\u0002tion is (e.g., coral bleaching alerts), in agriculture (e.g., warnings of \r\nheavy rainfall, drought, ground frost and hailstorms) and in fisheries \r\n(e.g., warnings of storm, storm surge and tsunamis) (UNISDR 2009; \r\nIPCC, 2012a). See also Disaster, Institutions, Local knowledge and\r\nLoss and Damage, and losses and damages."


id: 95fe9667475dfab42abd8742048832a2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23584
content:
"A coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model (AOGCM) in \r\nwhich a representation of the carbon cycle is included, allowing for \r\ninteractive calculation of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2 ) or com\u0002patible emissions. Additional components (e.g., atmospheric chemis\u0002try, ice sheets, dynamic vegetation, nitrogen cycle, but also urban or \r\ncrop models) may be included. See also Climate model. "


id: a5da861f6156e8302538026048ee0b51
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26403
content:
"A plausible representation of the future development of emissions \r\nof substances that are radiatively active (e.g., greenhouse gases, \r\nor aerosols) based on a coherent and internally consistent set \r\nof assumptions about driving forces (such as demographic and \r\nsocioeconomic development, technological change, energy and land \r\nuse) and their key relationships. Concentration scenarios, derived \r\nfrom emission scenarios, are often used as input to a climate model\r\nto compute climate projections. See also Driver, Forcing, Mitigation \r\nscenario, Radiative forcing, Representative concentration pathways \r\n(RCPs, under Pathways), Shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs,\r\nunder Pathways) and Scenario. "


id: e1294c8a59e1be4d28f218c5ddd4f1b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36882
content:
"A functional unit consisting of living organisms, their non-living \r\nenvironment and the interactions within and between them. The \r\ncomponents included in a given ecosystem and its spatial boundaries \r\ndepend on the purpose for which the ecosystem is defined: in some \r\ncases they are relatively sharp, while in others they are diffuse. \r\nEcosystem boundaries can change over time. Ecosystems are nested \r\nwithin other ecosystems and their scale can range from very small to \r\nthe entire biosphere. In the current era, most ecosystems either contain \r\npeople as key organisms, or are influenced by the effects of human \r\nactivities in their environment. See also Ecosystem services. "


id: f3232f86816b12e07731a91a12903af
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40160
content:
"Plants and animals that are only found in one geographic region. See \r\nalso Alien (non-native) species, Ecosystem and Invasive species."


id: 32d22015c607ca1994f11201610ba8e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6208
content:
"A proposed method to increase the natural rate of removal of carbon \r\ndioxide (CO2 ) from the atmosphere using silicate and carbonate \r\nrocks. The active surface area of these minerals is increased by grind\u0002ing, before they are actively added to soil, beaches or the open ocean. \r\nSee also Carbon dioxide removal (CDR), Geoengineering and Seques\u0002tration."


id: 4626f4c3c82a4e2fcb730e4cacfe9154
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9562
content:
"Ecological processes or functions having monetary or non\u0002monetary value to individuals or society at large. These are \r\nfrequently classified as (1) supporting services such as productivity \r\nor biodiversity maintenance, (2) provisioning services such as food \r\nor fibre, (3) regulating services such as climate regulation or carbon \r\nsequestration and (4) cultural services such as tourism or spiritual \r\nand aesthetic appreciation. See also Ecosystem and Nature's \r\nContribution to People (NCP). "


id: 5d90c7502ebd5434b0348b7ece38b573
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13746
content:
"A principle that ascribes equal worth to all human beings, including \r\nequal opportunities, rights, and obligations, irrespective of origins. "


id: 56001c9a0ae361f6c62b185fa8e51661
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12405
content:
"The presence of people; livelihoods; species or ecosystems; \r\nenvironmental functions, services, and resources; infrastructure, or \r\neconomic, social, or cultural assets in places and settings that could \r\nbe adversely affected. See also Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability. "


id: 1572753af918a495f7ddb53c2c4c07be
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 986
content:
"Inequality Uneven opportunities and social positions, and \r\nprocesses of discrimination within a group or society, based on \r\ngender, class, ethnicity, age and (dis)ability, often produced by \r\nuneven development. Income inequality refers to gaps between \r\nhighest and lowest income earners within a country and \r\nbetween countries. "


id: 15dd1a2145a5fbcec551c0145d80442c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1062
content:
"Any cyclonic-scale storm that is not a tropical cyclone. Usually refers \r\nto a middle- or high-latitude migratory storm system formed in \r\nregions of large horizontal temperature variations. Sometimes called \r\nextratropical storm or extratropical low. "


id: 4d1cd45940d0848b9362c79d9f2012ef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10840
content:
"The principle of being fair and impartial, and a basis for understanding \r\nhow the impacts and responses to climate change, including costs and \r\nbenefits, are distributed in and by society in more or less equal ways. \r\nOften aligned with ideas of equality, fairness and justice and applied \r\nwith respect to equity in the responsibility for, and distribution of, \r\nclimate impacts and policies across society, generations, and gender, \r\nand in the sense of who participates and controls the processes of \r\ndecision making. "


id: 58e4780d9ca3315512c580b6e828f3e0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12880
content:
"An extreme weather event is an event that is rare at a particular \r\nplace and time of year. Definitions of 'rare' vary, but an extreme \r\nweather event would normally be as rare as or rarer than the 10th \r\nor 90th percentile of a probability density function estimated from \r\nobservations. By definition, the characteristics of what is called \r\nextreme weather may vary from place to place in an absolute \r\nsense. When a pattern of extreme weather persists for some time, \r\nsuch as a season, it may be classified as an extreme climate event, \r\nespecially if it yields an average or total that is itself extreme \r\n(e.g., high temperature, drought, or total rainfall over a season). \r\nSee  also Heat wave and Climate extreme (extreme weather or \r\nclimate event)."


id: 3a004328f166fef4fb27238af78ca123
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7418
content:
"Distributive equity Equity in the consequences, outcomes, costs \r\nand benefits of actions or policies. In the case of climate change or \r\nclimate policies for different people, places and countries, including \r\nequity aspects of sharing burdens and benefits for mitigation and \r\nadaptation. "


id: ae3b2a50da9979fb2806e4f6b6616bf7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27889
content:
"Gender equity Equity between women and men with regard \r\nto their rights, resources and opportunities. In the case of \r\nclimate change, gender equity recognises that women are often \r\nmore vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and may be \r\ndisadvantaged in the process and outcomes of climate policy. "


id: 6dbbc371c3bb83b97851050f23742f4f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16567
content:
"Impartial and just treatment without favouritism or discrimination in \r\nwhich each person is considered of equal worth with equal opportu\u0002nity. See also Equity and Equality."


id: 517e851c846bc09daac266d00f999653
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11615
content:
"Intergenerational equity Equity between generations that, in  the \r\ncontext of climate change, acknowledges that the effects of past \r\nand present emissions, vulnerabilities and policies impose costs and \r\nbenefits for people in the future and of different age groups. "


id: 49f2fc2b89c3729b3b5be2e73cda4a81
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10253
content:
"The degree to which climate goals and response options are considered \r\npossible and/or desirable. Feasibility depends on geophysical, \r\necological, technological, economic, social and institutional conditions \r\nfor change. Conditions underpinning feasibility are dynamic, spatially \r\nvariable, and may vary between different groups. "


id: b3f3118abb595209bc610cb4e104d16e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28903
content:
"Procedural equity Equity in the process of decision making \r\nincluding recognition and inclusiveness in participation, equal \r\nrepresentation, bargaining power, voice and equitable access to \r\nknowledge and resources to participate."


id: a6fc7f215a081aadb24494597e0a599d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26586
content:
"Economic feasibility An indicator of the benefits and costs of \r\na climate adaptation or response, often expressed as a ratio of \r\nthe two, used in order to judge whether it is possible or wise to \r\nproceed with the option. "


id: 5a9c0312d49661d81b7f7d9cbc3419ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13200
content:
"Data and information used in the scientific process to establish \r\nfindings. In this Special Report, the degree of evidence reflects the \r\namount, quality, and consistency of scientific/technical information \r\non which the Lead Authors are basing their findings. See also\r\nAgreement, Confidence, Likelihood and Uncertainty. "


id: 4d385d915d575c6672756a793006cb9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10867
content:
"Social and institutional feasibility Institutional feasibility has \r\ntwo key parts: (1) the extent of administrative workload, both for \r\npublic authorities and for regulated entities, and (2) the extent \r\nto which the policy is viewed as legitimate, gains acceptance, is \r\nadopted, and is implemented. "


id: fc4356fe68390067941b55f1caea1a01
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41748
content:
"Snow that has survived at least one ablation season but has not been \r\ntransformed to glacier ice. Its pore space is at least partially intercon\u0002nected, allowing air and water to circulate. Firn densities typically are \r\n400-830 kg m-3. See also Cryosphere. "


id: db4c1b77cf258029a645d1f2c8415c71
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35851
content:
"The overflowing of the normal confines of a stream or other water \r\nbody, or the accumulation of water over areas that are not normally \r\nsubmerged. Floods can be caused by unusually heavy rain, for \r\nexample during storms and cyclones. Floods include river (fluvial) \r\nfloods, flash floods, urban floods, rain (pluvial) floods, sewer \r\nfloods, coastal floods and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). See \r\nalso Runoff."


id: 9fe669e465637087229557e82358f3d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25341
content:
"'The range and value of those species and organismal traits that influ\u0002ence ecosystem functioning' (Tilman 2001). See also Biodiversity."


id: 54d33ecc4d0325ea00e7bfd711d1137d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12191
content:
"A situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, \r\nsocial and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food \r\nthat meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active \r\nand healthy life (FAO, 2001). [Note: Whilst the term 'food security' \r\nexplicitly includes nutrition within it 'dietary needs ... for an active \r\nand healthy life', in the past the term has sometimes privileged the \r\nsupply of energy, especially to the hungry. Thus, the term 'food and \r\nnutrition security' is often used (with the same definition as food \r\nsecurity) to emphasise that the term food covers both energy and \r\nnutrition (FAO, 2009).] See also Food system and Malnutrition."


id: 4ccdc5fe7adde0ffc03eccaa556dbea2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10778
content:
"A broad set of methods and technologies that aim to deliber\u0002ately alter the climate system in order to alleviate the impacts of \r\nclimate change. Most, but not all, methods seek to either (1) reduce \r\nthe amount of absorbed solar energy in the climate system (solar \r\nradiation management, or solar radiation modification, SRM) or \r\n(2)  increase net carbon sinks from the atmosphere at a scale suf\u0002ficiently large to alter climate (i.e., carbon dioxide removal, CDR).\r\nScale and intent are of central importance. Two key characteristics \r\nof geoengineering methods of particular concern are that they use or \r\naffect the climate system (e.g., atmosphere, land or ocean) globally \r\nor regionally and/or could have substantive unintended effects that \r\ncross national boundaries. Geoengineering is different from weather \r\nmodification and ecological engineering, but the boundary can be \r\nunclear (IPCC, 2012b, p. 2). See also Blue carbon."


id: 9aaec7cf4a7a96e468efa6967757d6b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24455
content:
"All the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, \r\ninfrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities that relate to the \r\nproduction, processing, distribution, preparation and consumption of \r\nfood, and the output of these activities, including socioeconomic and \r\nenvironmental outcomes (HLPE, 2017). [Note: Whilst there is a global \r\nfood system (encompassing the totality of global production and \r\nconsumption), each location's food system is unique, being defined \r\nby that place's mix of food produced locally, nationally, regionally or \r\nglobally]. See also Food security."


id: 8eb04f6249cbae5d2df80fa00109db8d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22291
content:
"The driver of a change in the climate system, usually through an \r\nimbalance between the radiative energy received by and leaving the \r\nEarth's surface. See also Radiative forcing and Short-lived climate \r\nforcers (SLCF)."


id: e77a4d3662aeba754b90588f4ca5606d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38026
content:
"A perennial mass of ice, and possibly firn and snow, originating \r\non the land surface by accumulation and compaction of snow and \r\nshowing evidence of past or present flow. A glacier typically gains \r\nmass by accumulation of snow, and loses mass by ablation. Land \r\nice masses of continental size (>50,000 km2\r\n) are referred to as \r\nice sheets (Cogley et al., 2011). See also Calving (of glaciers or ice \r\nsheets), Cryosphere, Grounding line and Mass balance/budget (of \r\nglaciers or ice sheets)."


id: ead181abe0cd05984d403e141661f574
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38670
content:
"A vegetation type dominated by trees. Many definitions of the term \r\nforest are in use throughout the world, reflecting wide differences \r\nin biogeophysical conditions, social structure and economics. \r\n[Note: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as \r\nafforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the IPCC Special \r\nReport on Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (IPCC, 2000). \r\nSee also information provided by the United Nations Framework \r\nConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2013) and the Report on \r\nDefinitions and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from \r\nDirect Human-induced Degradation of Forests and Devegetation of \r\nOther Vegetation Types (IPCC, 2003)]. "


id: e84144b65cbc2a5974b39978b55118e2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38195
content:
"Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF)/Glacier lake outburst \r\nA sudden release of water from a glacier lake, including any of the \r\nfollowing types - a glacier-dammed lake, a pro-glacial moraine\u0002dammed lake or water that was stored within, under or on the glacier."


id: 24af4dbf0a0ef68f5fd7f04a99d76615
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3650
content:
"Participatory governance favours direct public engagement in \r\ndecision and policy making using a variety of techniques such as \r\nreferenda, community deliberation, citizen juries or participatory \r\nbudgeting. The approach can be applied in formal and informal \r\ninstitutional contexts from national to local levels, but is usually \r\nassociated with devolved decision making (Fung and Wright, 2003; \r\nSarmiento and Tilly, 2018)."


id: 2b838f6583e780f589dc0369eac8a69a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4909
content:
"Estimated global average of near-surface air temperatures over land\r\nand sea ice, and sea surface temperature (SST) over ice-free ocean\r\nregions, with changes normally expressed as departures from a value \r\nover a specified reference period. When estimating changes in GMST, \r\nnear-surface air temperatures over both land and oceans are also used."


id: 70cb897bf1ca042f87e3da6e79c4232d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17108
content:
"Polycentric governance involves multiple centres of decision \r\nmaking with overlapping jurisdictions. While the centres have \r\nsome degree of autonomy, they also take each other into \r\naccount, coordinating their actions and seeking to resolve \r\nconflicts (Carlisle and Gruby, 2017; Jordan et al., 2018; McGinnis \r\nand Ostrom, 2012)."


id: 25a2c72105756ec12f9618c00f19590d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3807
content:
"An increase in global mean surface temperature (GMST) averaged over \r\na 30-year period, or the 30-year period centred on a particular year or \r\ndecade, expressed relative to pre-industrial levels unless otherwise \r\nspecified. For 30-year periods that span past and future years, the \r\ncurrent multi-decadal warming trend is assumed to continue. See also\r\nClimate change and Climate variability. "


id: 344701da6ff8f65369e0974f3739e4fa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6438
content:
"In this Special Report, governance refers to the effort to establish, \r\nreaffirm or change formal and informal institutions at all scales to \r\nnegotiate relationships, resolve social conflicts and realise mutual \r\ngains (Paavola, 2007; Williamson, 2000). It refers to how the \r\neconomy and society are governed or regulated; and how collec\u0002tive interests are defined, reconciled and institutionalised (Peters \r\nand Pierre, 2001). Governance may be an act of governments \r\n(e.g., a government restricting resource use), non-governmen\u0002tal organisation (e.g., issuing green certification), private actors \r\n(e.g., resource users establishing rules or norms for restricting use of \r\na common resource) or any combination of these. Governance does \r\nnot only include establishing institutions such as laws or policies, but \r\nalso their implementation, enforcement and monitoring. The term \r\n'governance' is used in diverse and contested ways."


id: 4221e26ef00163b63e9ab7671eb2d542
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8837
content:
"A pair of satellites to measure the Earth's gravity field anomalies \r\nfrom 2002 to 2017. These fields have been used, among other things, \r\nto study mass changes of the polar ice sheets and glaciers. See also \r\nMarine ice sheet instability (MISI) and Mass balance/budget (of  \r\nglaciers or ice sheets)."


id: 22a5956668acbfbb93dc7078493ee384
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3315
content:
"The interconnected set of natural and constructed ecological systems, \r\ngreen spaces and other landscape features. It includes planted and \r\nindigenous trees, wetlands, parks, green open spaces and original \r\ngrassland and woodlands, as well as possible building and street \r\nlevel design interventions that incorporate vegetation. Green \r\ninfrastructure provides services and functions in the same way as \r\nconventional infrastructure (Culwick and Bobbins, 2016). See also \r\nEcosystem and Ecosystem services."


id: 72c919c880cc24b56c5540c928360d9d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17437
content:
"Adaptive governance An emerging term in the literature for \r\nthe evolution of formal and informal institutions of governance \r\nthat prioritise planning, implementation and evaluation of \r\npolicy through iterative social learning; in the context of climate \r\nchange, governance facilitating social learning to steer the use \r\nand protection of natural resources, and ecosystem services, \r\nparticularly in situations of complexity and uncertainty."


id: f7fca2f0e31cb8621e048a575bcc6f7a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41002
content:
"Gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropo\u0002genic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within \r\nthe spectrum of radiation emitted by the Earth's ocean and land sur\u0002face, by the atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property causes the \r\ngreenhouse effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), nitrous \r\noxide (N2O), methane (CH4 ) and ozone (O3 ) are the primary GHGs in \r\nthe Earth's atmosphere. Human-made GHGs include sulphur hexafluo\u0002ride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and \r\nperfluorocarbons (PFCs); several of these are also O3-depleting (and are \r\nregulated under the Montreal Protocol). "


id: 85414bd0c5472821e8f2d0ed853cf225
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20584
content:
"Climate governance includes efforts to share the burden of \r\nemission reduction amongst countries, sectors and groups of \r\nsociety (mitigation), and to resolve conflicts involved in, or to \r\nrealise mutual gains through, adapting to climate change. "


id: 34b211bcbe6e2700bb52aec457c6fcb7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6512
content:
"Deliberative governance involves decision making through \r\ninclusive public conversation which allows opportunity for \r\ndeveloping policy options through public discussion rather than \r\ncollating individual preferences through voting or referenda \r\n(although the latter governance mechanisms can also be \r\nproceeded and legitimated by public deliberation processes)."


id: 21ac006e8e6708385e2c7fa14337da61
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3137
content:
"Withdrawal of a greenhouse gas (GHG) and/or a precursor from the \r\natmosphere by a sink. See also Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and \r\nNegative emissions."


id: fa4c195c08256fba9c0ff761e37cbb3b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41406
content:
"The sum of gross value added, at purchasers' prices, by all \r\nresident and non-resident producers in the economy, plus any \r\ntaxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the \r\nproducts in a country or a geographic region for a given period, \r\nnormally one year. GDP is calculated without deducting for \r\ndepreciation of fabricated assets or depletion and degradation of \r\nnatural resources. "


id: 28cab32be2530c6e8db30c50987eb7ea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4390
content:
"Multi-level governance refers to the dispersion of governance \r\nacross multiple levels of jurisdiction and decision making (Hooghe and \r\nMarks, 2003), including trans-regional and trans-national, regional, \r\nnational and local levels. The concept emphasises that modern \r\ngovernance generally consists in, and is more flexible when there is, \r\na vertical 'layering' of governance processes at different levels."


id: c2dc3a3df5f412c2c6969ede3641f436
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31558
content:
"Substantive rights Basic human rights, including the right to the \r\nsubstance of being human such as life itself, liberty and happiness. "


id: 4ccefad8e4042fc0d6ecce967b7f767b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10781
content:
"The junction between a glacier or ice sheet and an ice shelf; the place \r\nwhere ice starts to float. This junction normally occurs over a zone, \r\nrather than at a line. "


id: 59ae6521c4cb2d3c4ba2868ea86d17f9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13014
content:
"A condition that is met when the vital core of human lives is \r\nprotected, and when people have the freedom and capacity to live \r\nwith dignity. In the context of climate change, the vital core of human \r\nlives includes the universal and culturally specific, material and non\u0002material elements necessary for people to act on behalf of their \r\ninterests and to live with dignity."


id: 7a88d4035493047094bae7c215133c44
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18750
content:
"The ability of a place to support human life by providing protection \r\nfrom hazards which challenge human survival, and by assuring \r\nadequate space, food and freshwater. "


id: a1e19f01238b71462ed72ff2fa9d39eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25709
content:
"The potential occurrence of a natural or human-induced physical event \r\nor trend that may cause loss of life, injury, or other health impacts, \r\nas well as damage and loss to property, infrastructure, livelihoods, \r\nservice provision, ecosystems and environmental resources. See also\r\nDisaster, Exposure, Loss and Damage, and losses and damages, Risk\r\nand Vulnerability."


id: 46a1005579a89b11dfcc1a7ba5a48533
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9631
content:
"Any system in which human organisations and institutions play a \r\nmajor role. Often, but not always, the term is synonymous with society \r\nor social system. Systems such as agricultural systems, urban systems, \r\npolitical systems, technological systems and economic systems are all \r\nhuman systems in the sense applied in this report. "


id: 2e4f1f440a74c93603b1d5376277b4c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5421
content:
"A period of abnormally hot weather. Heat waves and warm spells have \r\nvarious and in some cases overlapping definitions. See also Climate \r\nextreme (extreme weather or climate event), Extreme weather event \r\nand Marine heatwave. "


id: c7fc8b6942f9010a4d4782fb21301cef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32491
content:
"The cycle in which water evaporates from the ocean and the land\r\nsurface, is carried over the Earth in atmospheric circulation as water \r\nvapour, condenses to form clouds, precipitates over the ocean and \r\nland as rain or snow, which on land can be intercepted by trees and \r\nvegetation, potentially accumulating as snow or ice, provides runoff\r\non the land surface, infiltrates into soils, recharges groundwater, \r\ndischarges into streams, and ultimately, flows into the oceans as \r\nrivers, polar glaciers and ice sheets, from which it will eventually \r\nevaporate again. The various systems involved in the hydrological \r\ncycle are usually referred to as hydrological systems. "


id: c44d86ff44668d19f36bd32d76cd1650
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31826
content:
"The current interglacial geological epoch, the second of two epochs \r\nwithin the Quaternary period, the preceding being the Pleistocene. \r\nThe International Commission on Stratigraphy defines the start of the \r\nHolocene at 11,700 years before 2000 (ICS, 2019)."


id: 9307eb28fef1b361b41396e7fc97ff45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23079
content:
"The responses of persons or groups to a particular situation, here \r\nlikely to relate to climate change. Human behaviour covers the range \r\nof actions by individuals, communities, organisations, governments \r\nand at the international level. "


id: 4eb7af21c382604b2a0d2828b8a95285
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11125
content:
"Large piece of freshwater ice broken off from a glacier or an ice shelf \r\nduring calving and floating in open water (at least five metres height \r\nabove sea level). Smaller pieces of floating ice known as 'bergy bits' \r\n(less than 5 metres above sea level) or 'growlers' (less than 2 metres \r\nabove sea level) can originate from glaciers or ice shelves, or from \r\nthe breaking up of a large iceberg. Icebergs can also be classified by \r\nshape, most commonly being either tabular (steep sides and a flat \r\ntop) or non-tabular (varying shapes, with domes and spires) (NOAA, \r\n2019). In lakes, icebergs can originate by breaking off shelf ice, which \r\nforms through freezing of a lake surface. See also Calving (of glaciers \r\nor ice sheets) and Marine ice cliff instability (MICI)."


id: 2f99b4fd0b55312d69b863a193dcc84a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5637
content:
"Adaptation behaviour Human actions that directly or indirectly \r\naffect the risks of climate change impacts. "


id: e8b56cb4c38f5d904144192cbdf4b8ee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38289
content:
"The permanent or semi-permanent move by a person for at least one \r\nyear and involving crossing an administrative, but not necessarily \r\na national, border. "


id: 2a360f23ae86ba253051edfa960fb890
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4637
content:
"A cylinder of ice drilled out of a glacier or ice sheet to gain information \r\non past changes in climate and composition of the atmosphere \r\npreserved in the ice or in air trapped in ice."


id: e2d4a75d36fa54f6080df2be15a9d2c5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37204
content:
"Rights that are inherent to all human beings, universal, inalienable, \r\nand indivisible, typically expressed and guaranteed by law. They \r\ninclude the right to life, economic, social, and cultural rights, and the \r\nright to development and self-determination (UNOHCHR, 2018). "


id: ee104d535e4f004d6bd5dc0d46e3620d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39258
content:
"the 18th century and spreading to Europe and later to other countries \r\nincluding the United States. The invention of the steam engine was an \r\nimportant trigger of this development. The industrial revolution marks \r\nthe beginning of a strong increase in the use of fossil fuels, initially coal, \r\nand hence emission of carbon dioxide (CO2 ). See also Pre-industrial."


id: 3afc7ac1315598e80d3320e086641ec1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7568
content:
"snow. An ice sheet flows outward from a high central ice plateau \r\nwith a small average surface slope. The margins usually slope more \r\nsteeply, and most ice is discharged through fast-flowing ice streams \r\nor outlet glaciers, often into the sea or into ice shelves floating on \r\nthe sea. There are only two ice sheets in the modern world, one on \r\nGreenland and one on Antarctica. The latter is divided into the East \r\nAntarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS), the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) and \r\nthe Antarctic Peninsula ice sheet. During glacial periods, there were \r\nother ice sheets. See also Ablation, Calving (of glaciers or ice sheets), \r\nGrounding line, Hydrological cycle, Marine ice cliff instability (MICI), \r\nMarine ice sheet instability (MISI) and Mass balance/budget (of \r\nglaciers or ice sheets)."


id: 8764308466c22a5d8e3be2fce79efe96
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20979
content:
"The 'prescriptions', that is the rules, norms and conventions, used by \r\nhumans 'to organize all forms of repetitive and structured interactions \r\nincluding those within families, neighborhoods, markets, firms, \r\nsports leagues, churches, private associations, and governments at \r\nall scales' (Ostrom, 2005, p. 3). Institutions can be formal, such as \r\nlaws and policies, or informal, such as traditions, customs, norms \r\nand conventions. Individuals and organisations, such as parliaments, \r\nregulatory agencies, private firms, and community bodies, develop \r\nand act in response to institutions and the incentives they frame. \r\nInstitutions can guide, constrain and shape human interaction through \r\ndirect control, incentives and processes of socialisation. "


id: 401a017abb8fd43d2dda7205e225978f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8464
content:
"A floating slab of ice originating from land of considerable thickness \r\nextending from the coast (usually of great horizontal extent with a \r\nvery gently sloping surface), resulting from the flow of ice sheets, \r\ninitially formed by the accumulation of snow, and often filling \r\nembayments in the coastline of an ice sheet. Nearly all ice shelves are \r\nin Antarctica, where most of the ice discharged into the ocean flows \r\nvia ice shelves. See also Calving (of glaciers or ice sheets), Glacier,\r\nHydrological cycle, Marine ice cliff instability (MICI) and Marine ice \r\nsheet instability (MISI)."


id: ca34c561c6517085580dd6b116af4af8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32915
content:
"A method of analysis that combines results and models from the \r\nphysical, biological, economic and social sciences and the interactions \r\namong these components in a consistent framework to evaluate the \r\nstatus and the consequences of environmental change and the policy \r\nresponses to it."


id: 9c9147c003b6c5d21c6ab0a661cc9c41
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24796
content:
"A stream of ice with strongly enhanced flow that is part of an ice \r\nsheet. It is often separated from surrounding ice by strongly sheared, \r\ncrevassed margins. See also Outlet glacier."


id: 865930bbed0c9393b74e5bc8b58bd93c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20800
content:
"The involuntary movement, individually or collectively, of persons from \r\ntheir country or community, notably for reasons of armed conflict, civil \r\nunrest, or natural or man-made disasters (adapted from IOM, 2011). \r\nSee also Migration (of humans) and Planned relocation (of humans)."


id: cd2262e5435a0b956bcee4c5f8dd53d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33424
content:
"The consequences of realised risks on natural and human systems, \r\nwhere risks result from the interactions of climate-related hazards\r\n(including extreme weather/climate events), exposure, and vulner\u0002ability. Impacts generally refer to effects on lives, livelihoods, health \r\nand well-being, ecosystems and species, economic, social and cultur\u0002al assets, services (including ecosystem services), and infrastructure. \r\nImpacts may be referred to as consequences or outcomes, and can \r\nbe adverse or beneficial. See also Adaptation, Loss and Damage, and \r\nlosses and damages and Natural systems. "


id: ac19c97c269ebb7a9c17637d48af5068
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27515
content:
"A species that is not native to a specific location or nearby, lacking \r\nnatural controls, and has a tendency to rapidly increase in abundance, \r\ndisplacing native species. Invasive species may also damage the \r\nhuman economy or human health. See also Alien (non-native) \r\nspecies, Ecosystem and Endemic species."


id: f5681a17cf6491ecb556c07f110dd18e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40542
content:
"The understandings, skills and philosophies developed by societies \r\nwith long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings. \r\nFor many indigenous peoples, IK informs decision making about \r\nfundamental aspects of life, from day-to-day activities to longer term \r\nactions. This knowledge is integral to cultural complexes, which also \r\nencompass language, systems of classification, resource use practices, \r\nsocial interactions, values, ritual and spirituality. These distinctive \r\nways of knowing are important facets of the world's cultural diversity \r\n(UNESCO, 2018). See also Local knowledge (LK)."


id: aa384b33d8bbf7629ec1bd9271ec23de
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27176
content:
"A perturbed state of a dynamical system is defined as irreversible \r\non a given timescale if the recovery timescale from this state due to \r\nnatural processes is significantly longer than the time it takes for the \r\nsystem to reach this perturbed state. In the context of this Special \r\nReport, the recovery time scale of interest is hundreds to thousands \r\nof years. See also Tipping point. "


id: 195a2ddeb2c83a4b61f9976cc6e4edf0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1676
content:
"is concerned with ensuring that people get what is due to them setting \r\nout the moral or legal principles of fairness and equity in the way \r\npeople are treated, often based on the ethics and values of society. "


id: 1eeabb708262e8de77540110f54a13e2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2641
content:
"Climate justice Justice that links development and human rights\r\nto achieve a human-centred approach to addressing climate \r\nchange, safeguarding the rights of the most vulnerable people \r\nand sharing the burdens and benefits of climate change and its \r\nimpacts equitably and fairly (MRFJC, 2018). "


id: 3a397aca1c3e9b8f4c38834b4a87e251
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7449
content:
"Sum of land use practices (e.g., sowing, fertilising, weeding, \r\nharvesting, thinning and clear-cutting) that take place within broader \r\nland use categories (Pongratz et al., 2018). "


id: 7caae9acbdaa4c949d6e72b01102f40a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19132
content:
"The process of assisting the recovery of land from a degraded state\r\n(IPBES, 2018; McDonald et al. 2015)."


id: d0333a68cfab34c5f1476502ab822ce8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33992
content:
"Distributive justice Justice in the allocation of economic and \r\nnon-economic costs and benefits across society. "


id: 3b4decafa6c10c9ef5fb5da481d52a05
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7621
content:
"Inter-generational justice Justice in the distribution of economic \r\nand non-economic costs and benefits across generations. "


id: 7e367f2efb546c1716e00ea7c5650a0f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19375
content:
"The total of arrangements, activities and inputs applied to a parcel of \r\nland. The term 'land use' is also used in the sense of the social and \r\neconomic purposes for which land is managed (e.g., grazing, timber \r\nextraction, conservation and city dwelling). In national greenhouse \r\ngas (GHG) inventories, land use is classified according to the IPCC \r\nland use categories of forest land, cropland, grassland, wetlands, \r\nsettlements, and other lands (see the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for \r\nNational GHG Inventories for details). See also Land management."


id: d67d16acc14946ef58134fcb6df76bd4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35044
content:
"Procedural justice Justice in the way outcomes are brought \r\nabout including who participates and is heard in the processes of \r\ndecision making. "


id: 3640d46801b8ed827ef37212d0014c21
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6786
content:
"Social justice Just or fair relations within society that seek to \r\naddress the distribution of wealth, access to resources, opportunity, \r\nand support according to principles of justice and fairness. "


id: 9d6218bbfc6a489af1a797a079f51bf8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24923
content:
"The chance of a specific outcome occurring, where this might be \r\nestimated probabilistically. Likelihood is expressed in this Special \r\nReport using a standard terminology (Mastrandrea et al., 2010). See \r\nSection 1.9.2 in this Special Report for the list of likelihood qualifiers \r\nused. See also Agreement, Evidence, Confidence and Uncertainty. "


id: adfbe2f4ed2385959cf7423caa0dea2b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27852
content:
"The resources used and the activities undertaken in order for people \r\nto live. Livelihoods are usually determined by the entitlements and \r\nassets to which people have access. Such assets can be categorised \r\nas human, social, natural, physical, or financial. "


id: 1111c94de4c59f14e3b3f75a9188b94e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 196
content:
"The understandings and skills developed by individuals and populations, \r\nspecific to the places where they live. Local knowledge informs decision \r\nmaking about fundamental aspects of life, from day-to-day activities \r\nto longer term actions. This knowledge is a key element of the social \r\nand cultural systems which influence observations of and responses to \r\nclimate change; it also informs governance decisions (UNESCO, 2018). \r\nSee also Indigenous knowledge (IK)."


id: c27290e366640f128b6da4ecd6e1ac8b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31491
content:
"Change in sea level relative to a datum (such as present-day mean \r\nsea level) at spatial scales smaller than 10km. See also Regional sea \r\nlevel change and Sea level change (sea level rise/sea level fall)."


id: 6e490874c48ad7fa84b5f73f42a3673a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16671
content:
"A situation in which the future development of a system, including \r\ninfrastructure, technologies, investments, institutions and behav\u0002ioural norms, is determined or constrained ('locked in') by historic \r\ndevelopments. "


id: 7fa8e518865fe4682576c23c5122a678
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19596
content:
"The terrestrial portion of the biosphere that comprises the natural \r\nresources (soil, near-surface air, vegetation and other biota, and \r\nwater), the ecological processes, topography, and human settlements \r\nand infrastructure that operate within that system (FAO, 2007; \r\nUNCCD, 1994). See also Ecosystem services and Land use."


id: acb65144250c0645c5cb473674f366be
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27632
content:
"loss and damage associated with impacts of climate change, including \r\nextreme events and slow onset events, in developing countries that are \r\nparticularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.' The \r\nexpression 'losses and damages' (lowercase letters) has been taken to \r\nrefer broadly to harm from (observed) impacts and (projected) risks\r\n(Mechler et al., 2018). "


id: 2e909f74c3e9b139b27ee60c6f7fb91c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5471
content:
"Verification 'The process of formal verification of reports, \r\nfor example, the established approach to verify national \r\ncommunications and national inventory reports to the UNFCCC' \r\n(UN REDD, 2009)."


id: 558697f7080485c6b88bebb7ab84392d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12316
content:
"Meridional (north-south) overturning circulation in the ocean\r\nquantified by zonal (east-west) sums of mass transports in depth \r\nor density layers. In the North Atlantic, away from the subpolar \r\nregions, the MOC (which is in principle an observable quantity) is \r\noften identified with the thermohaline circulation (THC), which is a \r\nconceptual and incomplete interpretation. It must be borne in mind \r\nthat the MOC is also driven by wind, and can also include shallower \r\noverturning cells such as occur in the upper ocean in the tropics \r\nand subtropics, in which warm (light) waters moving poleward are \r\ntransformed to slightly denser waters and subducted equatorward \r\nat deeper levels. "


id: b8e7f9ef16818f285739fd5b60d67764
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29738
content:
"Actions that may lead to increased risk of adverse climate-related \r\noutcomes, including via increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, \r\nincreased vulnerability to climate change, or diminished welfare, now \r\nor in the future. Maladaptation is usually an unintended consequence. \r\nSee also Adaptation and Adaptive capacity."


id: 4a070ebe9c4e3867891399b19e6a105a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10265
content:
"A period of extreme warm near-sea surface temperature (SST) that \r\npersists for days to months and can extend up to thousands of kilo\u0002metres. See also Climate extreme (extreme weather or climate event), \r\nExtreme weather event and Heat wave."


id: 1705dad4ad912a47f996236e0f25d099
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1271
content:
"Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) The \r\nmain current system in the South and North Atlantic Oceans. \r\nAMOC transports warm upper-ocean water northwards, and cold, \r\ndeep water southwards, as part of the global ocean circulation \r\nsystem. Changes in the strength of AMOC can affect other com\u0002ponents of the climate system. "


id: 483515af70eebee40af164a48f53aac5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9917
content:
"A hypothetic mechanism of an ice cliff failure. In case a marine\u0002terminated ice sheet loses its buttressing ice shelf, an ice cliff can be \r\nexposed. If the exposed ice cliff is tall enough (about 800 m of the \r\ntotal height, or about 100 m of the above-water part), the stresses \r\nat the cliff face exceed the strength of the ice, and the cliff fails \r\nstructurally in repeated calving events. See also Iceberg and Marine \r\nice sheet instability (MISI)."


id: e5e23d1c6655cf68767f8f3bb0ea1b74
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37744
content:
"One of the six greenhouse gases (GHGs) to be mitigated under \r\nthe Kyoto Protocol and is the major component of natural gas and \r\nassociated with all hydrocarbon fuels. Under future global warming, \r\nthere is risk of increased methane emissions from thawing permafrost, \r\ncoastal wetlands and sub-sea gas hydrates. See also Mitigation."


id: c8d37205a94e67f8d75024e230d367a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32660
content:
"A mechanism of irreversible (on the decadal to centennial time scale) \r\nretreat of a grounding line for the marine-terminating glaciers, in \r\ncase the glacier bed slopes towards the ice sheet interior. See also\r\nHydrological cycle, Ice shelf, Marine ice cliff instability (MICI) and \r\nSea ice."


id: 3125951a62d3e29f2b5099dced2dbbb3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5899
content:
"Microbial processes that transform organic carbon from rapidly\u0002degradable states to biologically-unavailable forms, resulting in long\u0002term carbon storage in the ocean. The unavailable states of organic \r\ncarbon can be due to their intrinsic refractory nature, or to extremely \r\nlow concentrations of each of the diverse individual molecules. The \r\nmicrobial carbon pump can take place at any depth in the water \r\ncolumn and is the principal mechanism generating and sustaining\r\nrefractory dissolved organic carbon (RDOC) in the ocean. See also\r\nBiological (carbon) pump, Blue carbon and Dissolved organic carbon \r\n(DOC) and particulate organic carbon (POC)."


id: c821c042cab87bfe174ed40fa5b5b42e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32526
content:
"Difference between the mass input (accumulation) and the mass loss \r\n(ablation) of an ice body (e.g., a glacier or ice sheet) over a stated \r\ntime period, which is often a year or a season. Surface mass balance \r\nrefers to the difference between surface accumulation and surface \r\nablation. See also Calving (of glaciers or ice sheets) and Discharge \r\n(of ice)."


id: 73030cee45a953717c4fa8567a37e9cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17488
content:
"Measurement 'Processes of data collection over time, providing \r\nbasic datasets, including associated accuracy and precision, for \r\nthe range of relevant variables. Possible data sources are field \r\nmeasurements, field observations, detection through remote \r\nsensing and interviews' (UN REDD, 2009)."


id: 4d826c947fb28ea98f206a62d4dfbeb5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10917
content:
"'Movement of a person or a group of persons, either across an \r\ninternational border, or within a State. It is a population movement, \r\nencompassing any kind of movement of people, whatever its length, \r\ncomposition and causes; it includes migration of refugees, displaced \r\npersons, economic migrants, and persons moving for other purposes, \r\nincluding family reunification' (IOM, 2018). "


id: e0aaef078ac640c5dd2fab863a6608f4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36781
content:
"Reporting 'The process of formal reporting of assessment results \r\nto the UNFCCC, according to predetermined formats and according \r\nto established standards, especially the Intergovernmental Panel \r\non Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines and GPG (Good Practice \r\nGuidance)' (UN REDD, 2009)."


id: 3d117fb49f8f8f20dbc64b515a103ece
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7926
content:
"underlying a particular quantitative set of scenarios. Narratives are \r\nalso referred to in the literature as 'storylines'. See also Pathways. "


id: 1a67dbc95d75a8d00a8df8118fa0ff2e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1846
content:
"of residence, regardless of (1) the person's legal status; (2) whether \r\nthe movement is voluntary or involuntary; (3) what the causes for \r\nthe movement are; or (4) what the length of the stay is' (IOM, 2018). "


id: 5bd2a5db910402b0f13ebb46c851320c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13415
content:
"A term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on \r\nClimate Change (UNFCCC) whereby a country that has joined the Paris \r\nAgreement outlines its plans for reducing its emissions. Some countries' \r\nNDCs also address how they will adapt to climate change impacts, \r\nand what support they need from, or will provide to, other countries to \r\nadopt low-carbon pathways and to build climate resilience. According to \r\nArticle 4 paragraph 2 of the Paris Agreement, each Party shall prepare, \r\ncommunicate and maintain successive NDCs that it intends to achieve. "


id: 7fb521641ca4721b0f47fc1ca300d8a7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19603
content:
"Mitigation measures In climate policy, mitigation measures are \r\ntechnologies, processes or practices that contribute to mitigation, \r\nfor example renewable energy technologies, waste minimisation \r\nprocesses, public transport commuting practices. See also\r\nMitigation option."


id: 6c2e315b10c36a586b42cedfb2015547
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16331
content:
"The dynamic physical and biological components of the environment \r\nthat would operate in the absence of human impacts. Most, if not \r\nall, natural systems are also now affected by human activities to \r\nsome degree. "


id: 6af9667e2755eb6833733ffacaf5608e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16113
content:
"Mitigation scenario A plausible description of the future \r\nthat describes how the (studied) system responds to the \r\nimplementation of mitigation policies and measures. "


id: 298f6d55a52992db10154f027c4eead1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4536
content:
"'All the contributions, both positive and negative, of living nature \r\n(i.e., diversity of organisms, ecosystems, and their associated ecological \r\nand evolutionary processes) to the quality of life for people. Beneficial \r\ncontributions from nature include such things as food provision, water \r\npurification, flood control, and artistic inspiration, whereas detrimental \r\ncontributions include disease transmission and predation that dam\u0002ages people or their assets. Many NCP may be perceived as benefits \r\nor detriments depending on the cultural, temporal or spatial context' \r\n(Diaz et al., 2018). See also Biodiversity and Ecosystem services."


id: 84ed114ebb5ab46b5470a70f03c31899
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20525
content:
"A group of parallel model simulations characterising historical climate\r\nconditions, climate predictions, or climate projections. Variation of \r\nthe results across the ensemble members may give an estimate of \r\nmodelling-based uncertainty. Ensembles made with the same model \r\nbut different initial conditions only characterise the uncertainty \r\nassociated with internal climate variability, whereas multi-model \r\nensembles including simulations by several models also include the \r\nimpact of model differences. Perturbed parameter ensembles, in which \r\nmodel parameters are varied in a systematic manner, aim to assess the \r\nuncertainty resulting from internal model specifications within a single \r\nmodel. Remaining sources of uncertainty unaddressed with model \r\nensembles are related to systematic model errors or biases, which may \r\nbe assessed from systematic comparisons of model simulations with \r\nobservations wherever available. See also Projection."


id: 2862331faaa6666caea7f9bf27add8b9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4311
content:
"Removal of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from the atmosphere by \r\ndeliberate human activities, that is, in addition to the removal \r\nthat would occur via natural carbon cycle processes. See also \r\nAnthropogenic, Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and Greenhouse gas \r\nremoval (GGR)."


id: 5e95447fd2855b8d10fd979dd2334b1d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13930
content:
"A situation of net-negative emissions is achieved when, as result of \r\nhuman activities, more greenhouse gases (GHGs) are removed from \r\nthe atmosphere than are emitted into it. Where multiple GHGs are \r\ninvolved, the quantification of negative emissions depends on the \r\nclimate metric chosen to compare emissions of different gases (such \r\nas global warming potential, global temperature change potential, \r\nand others, as well as the chosen time horizon). See also Greenhouse \r\ngas removal (GGR), Net-zero emissions and Net-zero CO2 emissions."


id: 7f22fa60a43d01f6fbdf850c632e31be
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19519
content:
"Mechanisms put in place at national to local scales to respectively \r\nmonitor and evaluate efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) \r\nemissions and/or adapt to the impacts of climate change with the \r\naim of systematically identifying, characterising and assessing \r\nprogress over time. See also Adaptation."


id: 982e80e8cc7d23586e34b27a55823699
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23985
content:
"Net-zero carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions are achieved when\r\nanthropogenic CO2 emissions are balanced by anthropogenic CO2\r\nremovals over a specified period. See also Carbon dioxide removal \r\n(CDR), Greenhouse gas removal (GGR), Net zero emissions and Net \r\nnegative emissions."


id: 6273c1786a4b9d24c97a05a7d8474907
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14600
content:
"Net-zero emissions are achieved when anthropogenic emissions of\r\ngreenhouse gases (GHGs) to the atmosphere are balanced by anthro\u0002pogenic removals over a specified period. Where multiple GHGs are \r\ninvolved, the quantification of net-zero emissions depends on the \r\nclimate metric chosen to compare emissions of different gases (such \r\nas global warming potential, global temperature change potential, \r\nand others, as well as the chosen time horizon). See also Greenhouse \r\ngas removal (GGR), Net-zero CO2 emissions, Negative emissions and\r\nNet-negative emissions."


id: 20fdb11aa09f74d3fef4694a978cde7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3026
content:
"The Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Con\u0002vention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted in December \r\n2015 in Paris, France, at the 21st session of the Conference of the \r\nParties (COP) to the UNFCCC. The agreement, adopted by 196 Parties \r\nto the UNFCCC, entered into force on 4 November 2016 and as of \r\nMay 2018 had 195 Signatories and was ratified by 177 Parties. One of \r\nthe goals of the Paris Agreement is 'Holding the increase in the global \r\naverage temperature to well below 2oC above pre-industrial levels \r\nand pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5oC above \r\npre-industrial levels', recognising that this would significantly reduce \r\nthe risks and impacts of climate change. Additionally, the Agreement \r\naims to strengthen the ability of countries to deal with the impacts \r\nof climate change. The Paris Agreement is intended to become fully \r\neffective in 2020. See also Kyoto Protocol and Nationally determined \r\ncontributions (NDCs)."


id: c28dbc1e0ad24dc4dfd881caa2609c2d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31513
content:
"The interconnected body of saline water that covers 71% of the \r\nEarth's surface, contains 97% of the Earth's water and provides 99% \r\nof the Earth's biologically habitable space. It includes the Arctic, \r\nAtlantic, Indian, Pacific and Southern Oceans, as well as their mar\u0002ginal seas and coastal waters. See also Blue carbon, Coast, Ocean \r\nacidification (OA), Ocean deoxygenation and Southern Ocean."


id: 53b16f08f882cf4b6695a95c19334d32
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11994
content:
"A reduction in the pH of the ocean, accompanied by other chemical \r\nchanges (primarily in the levels of carbonate and bicarbonate ions), over \r\nan extended period, typically decades or longer, which is caused primar\u0002ily by uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) from the atmosphere, but can \r\nalso be caused by other chemical additions or subtractions from the \r\nocean. Anthropogenic OA refers to the component of pH reduction that \r\nis caused by human activity (IPCC, 2011, p. 37). See also Carbon cycle,\r\nClimate change and Global warming."


id: 492fb5388c713df6095eb4771881af0c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10100
content:
"The temporal evolution of natural and/or human systems towards \r\na future state. Pathway concepts range from sets of quantitative and \r\nqualitative scenarios or narratives of potential futures to solution ori\u0002ented decision making processes to achieve desirable societal goals. \r\nPathway approaches typically focus on biophysical, techno-economic, \r\nand/or sociobehavioural trajectories and involve various dynamics, \r\ngoals, and actors across different scales. "


id: a807a7c040e79b82bd992b8c8b6770e3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26774
content:
"The loss of oxygen in the ocean. It results from ocean warming, which \r\nreduces oxygen solubility and increases oxygen consumption and\r\nstratification, thereby reducing the mixing of oxygen into the ocean \r\ninterior. Deoxygenation can also be exacerbated by the addition of \r\nexcess nutrients in the coastal zone."


id: 2f48a6f92ec5fc87f45e6dd04543e061
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5586
content:
"Adaptation pathways A series of adaptation choices involving \r\ntrade-offs between short-term and long-term goals and values. \r\nThese are processes of deliberation to identify solutions that are \r\nmeaningful to people in the context of their daily lives and to \r\navoid potential maladaptation. "


id: 5f7f7b70d9206a8f50d892135c61ebf3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14110
content:
"A glacier, usually between rock walls, that is part of, and drains an ice \r\nsheet. See also Ice stream and Hydrological cycle. "


id: 4fe5aa470eee9b932c7270d685a18fd1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11349
content:
"Development pathways Trajectories based on an array of social, \r\neconomic, cultural, technological, institutional and biophysical fea\u0002tures that characterise the interactions between human and natural \r\nsystems and outline visions for the future, at a particular scale. See \r\nalso Climate-resilient development pathways (CRDPs) and Human \r\nsystems."


id: 57c9044cdace9117373af1a78d25bb5c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12704
content:
"Emission pathways Modelled trajectories of global anthropogen\u0002ic emissions over the 21st century are termed emission pathways. \r\nEmission pathways are classified by their temperature trajectory \r\nover the 21st century: pathways giving at least 50% probability \r\nbased on current knowledge of limiting global warming to below \r\n1.5oC are classified as 'no overshoot'; those limiting warming to \r\nbelow 1.6oC and returning to 1.5oC by 2100 are classified as '1.5oC \r\nlimited overshoot'; while those exceeding 1.6oC but still returning "


id: a2dd517a5fb13a70e47d677fbfc0d36e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25871
content:
"The triatomic form of oxygen, and a gaseous atmospheric\r\nconstituent. In the troposphere, O3 is created both naturally and \r\nby photochemical reactions involving gases resulting from human \r\nactivities (e.g., smog). Tropospheric O3 acts as a greenhouse gas \r\n(GHG). In the stratosphere, O3 is created by the interaction between \r\nsolar ultraviolet radiation and molecular oxygen (O2). Stratospheric \r\nO3 plays a dominant role in the stratospheric radiative balance. Its "


id: 1b0a0cc1a2f2e183cff73fcf18e7d912
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1956
content:
"The pelagic zone consists of the entire water column of the \r\nopen ocean. It is subdivided into the 'epipelagic zone' (<200 m, \r\nthe  uppermost part of the ocean that receives enough sunlight to \r\nallow photosynthesis), the 'mesopelagic zone' (200-1000 m depth) \r\nand the 'bathypelagic zone' (>1000 m depth). The term 'pelagic' can \r\nalso refer to organisms that live in the pelagic zone."


id: f46afeec8c1e712b2450188361659608
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40376
content:
"Representative concentration pathways (RCPs) Scenarios\r\nthat include time series of emissions and concentrations of the \r\nfull suite of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and aerosols and chemi\u0002cally active gases, as well as land use/land cover (Moss et al., \r\n2008). The word 'representative' signifies that each RCP provides \r\nonly one of many possible scenarios that would lead to the spe\u0002cific radiative forcing characteristics. The term 'pathway' empha\u0002sises the fact that not only the long-term concentration levels, \r\nbut also the trajectory taken over time to reach that outcome are \r\nof interest (Moss et al., 2010). RCPs were used to develop climate \r\nprojections in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project CMIP5. "


id: 4df92017834da08c4c0f27a850fc4e4f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10979
content:
"Ground (soil or rock, and included ice and organic material) that \r\nremains at or below 0oC for at least two consecutive years (Harris \r\net al., 1988). Note that permafrost is defined via temperature rather \r\nthan ice content and, in some instances, may be ice-free."


id: 27d1f2426011b836045ce4ab5214d4b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4196
content:
"Near-surface permafrost Permafrost within ~3-4 m of the \r\nground surface. The depth is not precise, but describes what \r\ncommonly is highly relevant for people and ecosystems. Deeper \r\npermafrost is often progressively less ice-rich and responds more \r\nslowly to warming than near-surface permafrost. Presence or \r\nabsence of near-surface permafrost is not the only significant \r\nmetric of permafrost change, and deeper permafrost may persist \r\nwhen near-surface permafrost is absent."


id: e1209af34d4e399e959669ca3cb48bde
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36872
content:
"RCP2.6: One pathway where radiative forcing peaks at \r\napproximately 3 W m-2 and then declines to be limited at \r\n2.6 W m-2 in 2100 (the corresponding Extended Concentration \r\nPathway (ECP) assuming constant emissions after 2100). "


id: 83cd0633519b97e3e9d38c8e4aefc0c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20334
content:
"RCP4.5 and RCP6.0: Two intermediate stabilisation pathways \r\nin which radiative forcing is limited at approximately 4.5 W m-2\r\nand 6.0 W m-2 in 2100 (the corresponding ECPs assuming \r\nconstant concentrations after 2150). "


id: 7d9aa43a8ada91f39a7ae285d2215aed
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19271
content:
"RCP8.5: One high pathway which leads to >8.5 W m-2 in 2100 \r\n(the corresponding ECP assuming constant emissions after \r\n2100 until 2150 and constant concentrations after 2250). See \r\nalso Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs)."


id: fae943fc12d66533886a96c4e9f78a19
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41527
content:
"Permafrost thaw Progressive loss of ground ice in permafrost, \r\nusually due to input of heat. Thaw can occur over decades to cen\u0002turies over the entire depth of permafrost ground, with impacts \r\noccurring while thaw progresses. During thaw, temperature fluc\u0002tuations are subdued because energy is transferred by phase \r\nchange between ice and water. After the transition from perma\u0002frost to non-permafrost, ground can be described as thawed. "


id: e7dba41e056c12920b39dc138bda6f2c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38102
content:
"Shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) were developed to \r\ncomplement the RCPs with varying socioeconomic challenges \r\nto adaptation and mitigation (O'Neill et al., 2014). Based on \r\nfive narratives, the SSPs describe alternative socioeconomic \r\nfutures in the absence of climate policy intervention, comprising \r\nsustainable development (SSP1), regional rivalry (SSP3), inequal\u0002ity (SSP4), fossil-fuelled development (SSP5), and a middle-of-the\u0002road development (SSP2) (O'Neill et al., 2017; Riahi et al., 2017). \r\nThe combination of SSP-based socioeconomic scenarios and RCP\u0002based climate projections provides an integrative frame for cli\u0002mate impact and policy analysis. "


id: 9f2631ded0231ce11d6f67b0a05e601d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25217
content:
"Sustainable development pathways (SDPs) Trajectories aimed \r\nat attaining the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in the \r\nshort term and the goals of sustainable development in the long \r\nterm. In the context of climate change, such pathways denote tra\u0002jectories that address social, environmental, and economic dimen\u0002sions of sustainable development, adaptation and mitigation, and \r\ntransformation, in a generic sense or from a particular method\u0002ological perspective such as integrated assessment models and \r\nscenario simulations. "


id: 78dd5678c8518c7e913df0483c338ec5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18453
content:
"A dimensionless measure of the acidity of a solution given by its con\u0002centration of hydrogen ions (H+). pH is measured on a logarithmic \r\nscale where pH = -log10(H+). Thus, a pH decrease of 1 unit corre\u0002sponds to a 10-fold increase in the concentration of H+, or acidity. See \r\nalso Ocean acidification (OA)."


id: 36fe1587b626e2658831df2f7fbd4372
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6902
content:
"A form of human mobility response in the face of sea level rise and \r\nrelated impacts. Planned relocation is typically initiated, supervised \r\nand implemented from national to local level and involves small \r\ncommunities and individual assets but may also involve large \r\npopulations. Also termed resettlement, managed retreat, or managed \r\nrealignment. See also (Internal) Displacement (of humans) and Sea \r\nlevel change (sea level rise/sea level fall)."


id: 44ad27715f3874b77c6136c0f58294a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9311
content:
"Change in organismal trait values in response to an environmental \r\ncue, and which does not require change in underlying \r\nDNA sequence. "


id: 94bd99cb7c48f25a21d0af84a6780f22
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23377
content:
"A potential future evolution of a quantity or set of quantities, often \r\ncomputed with the aid of a model. Unlike predictions, projections \r\nare conditional on assumptions concerning, for example, future \r\nsocioeconomic and technological developments that may or may not \r\nbe realised. See also Climate projection, (Model) ensemble, Scenario\r\nand Pathways."


id: 39652dc02c54bab67d3cabe7395409c4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7309
content:
"The set of interlinked relationships between people, the state, soci\u0002ety and markets as defined by law, politics, economics, customs and \r\npower that determine the outcome of trade and transactions and the \r\ndistribution of wealth in a country or economy."


id: b548de15fabf4dd1fe24f9deea785a6f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29130
content:
"The change in the net, downward minus upward, radiative flux \r\n(expressed in W m-2) at the tropopause or top of atmosphere due to \r\na change in an external driver of climate change, such as a change \r\nin the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), the concentration of \r\nvolcanic aerosols or in the output of the Sun. The traditional radia\u0002tive forcing is computed with all tropospheric properties held fixed at \r\ntheir unperturbed values, and after allowing for stratospheric temper\u0002atures, if perturbed, to readjust to radiative-dynamical equilibrium. \r\nRadiative forcing is called instantaneous if no change in stratospheric \r\ntemperature is accounted for. The radiative forcing once rapid adjust\u0002ments are accounted for is termed the effective radiative forcing. \r\nRadiative forcing is not to be confused with cloud radiative  forc\u0002ing, which describes an unrelated measure of the impact of clouds \r\non the radiative flux at the top of the atmosphere. "


id: 1dcd1ad63f25f12192489f48ec1c2aa7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2430
content:
"A complex concept with several definitions stemming from different \r\nschools of thought. It can refer to material circumstances (such as \r\nneed, pattern of deprivation or limited resources), economic conditions \r\n(such as standard of living, inequality or economic position) and/or \r\nsocial relationships (such as social class, dependency, exclusion, lack \r\nof basic security or lack of entitlement). See also Equality and Poverty \r\neradication."


id: 40a36b919700540620e1fea970b9032b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8557
content:
"A set of measures to end poverty in all its forms everywhere. See also \r\nSustainable Development Goals (SDGs)."


id: ea73b8cf8e78a51929e1a77814f79f68
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38611
content:
"Atmospheric compounds that are not greenhouse gases (GHGs) or \r\naerosols, but that have an effect on GHG or aerosol concentrations \r\nby taking part in physical or chemical processes regulating their \r\nproduction or destruction rates."


id: c3263080bf5207da6cdbc076ca2ecbf7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31607
content:
"Elements of a classification framework, first developed in the IPCC \r\nThird Assessment Report, which aims to facilitate judgments about \r\nwhat level of climate change may be dangerous (in the language of \r\nArticle 2 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate \r\nChange, UNFCCC) by aggregating risks from various sectors, \r\nconsidering hazards, exposures, vulnerabilities, capacities to adapt, \r\nand the resulting impacts. "


id: c8556ef2b383c682977ad0e4c0a248f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32551
content:
"The multi-century period prior to the onset of large-scale industrial \r\nactivity around 1750. In this Special Report, as in IPCC 2018a, the \r\nreference period 1850-1900 is used to approximate pre-industrial \r\nglobal mean surface temperature. See also Industrial Revolution."


id: 5a0de7fc1a51c23574b59dff4ca758f1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13089
content:
"Costs carried by individuals, companies or other private entities \r\nthat undertake an action, whereas social costs include additionally \r\nthe external costs on the environment and on society as a whole. \r\nQuantitative estimates of both private and social costs may be \r\nincomplete, because of difficulties in measuring all relevant effect. "


id: 204c2a6a34ae0a7da1cbea75dba68886
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2898
content:
"A relatively large-scale land or ocean area characterised by specific \r\ngeographical and climatological features. The climate of a  land\u0002based region is affected by regional and local scale features like \r\ntopography, land use characteristics and large water bodies, as well \r\nas remote influences from other regions, in addition to global climate \r\nconditions. The IPCC defines a set of standard regions for analyses \r\nof observed climate trends and climate model projections (see IPCC, \r\n2018a, Figure 3.2; IPCC 2012a). "


id: d4b457cfbf2d4b78b8afa8cc807a700b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34740
content:
"The synthesis of organic compounds by plants and microbes, on land\r\nor in the ocean, primarily by photosynthesis using light and carbon \r\ndioxide (CO2 ) as sources of energy and carbon, respectively. It can \r\nalso occur through chemosynthesis, using chemical energy, for exam\u0002ple, in deep sea vents."


id: 5303ca6355938b8b9fad9c64d3d03e99
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11863
content:
"Gross primary production (GPP) The total amount of carbon \r\nfixed by photosynthesis over a specified time period."


id: eac1caa32489b0dbdbc2115cae3073fe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38659
content:
"Change in sea level relative to a datum (such as present-day mean \r\nsea level) at spatial scales of about 100 km."


id: e1b64d4bdc647d3029037394286e5cb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36980
content:
"Net primary production (NPP) The amount of carbon \r\naccumulated through photosynthesis minus the amount lost by \r\nrespiration over a specified time period."


id: 68fc809b2654e44a5030f620da8af6b1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15741
content:
"Sea level measured by a tide gauge with respect to the land upon \r\nwhich it is situated. See also Coast, Small Island Developing States "


id: b00b118a5e6966b25f2805aff5c54b57
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28214
content:
"(SIDS), Local sea level change, Regional sea level change, Sea level \r\nchange (sea level rise/sea level fall), Steric sea level change and\r\nAnthropogenic subsidence."


id: 8315691cfc7abcc7484f189ffdc79878
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20187
content:
"The qualitative and/or quantitative scientific estimation of risks. See \r\nalso Risk, Risk management and Risk perception."


id: 1e2eccd08263896cf03e640a9a18a98b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2509
content:
"Plans, actions, strategies or policies to reduce the likelihood and/or \r\nmagnitude of adverse potential consequences, based on assessed or \r\nperceived risks. See also Risk assessment and Risk perception."


id: 29e43afea2e3597ddc88e4e22ea4de08
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4595
content:
"The subjective judgment that people make about the characteristics \r\nand severity of a risk. See also Risk assessment and Risk management."


id: 1bd04d6c096735194055e830a9b68dd1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2078
content:
"The flow of water over the surface or through the subsurface, which \r\ntypically originates from the part of liquid precipitation and/or snow-/\r\nice-melt that does not evaporate, transpire or refreeze, and returns to \r\nwater bodies. See also Hydrological cycle."


id: 9b18f3a5ab61faf41ed84bff733172a2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24539
content:
"The capacity of interconnected social, economic and ecological \r\nsystems to cope with a hazardous event, trend or disturbance, \r\nresponding or reorganising in ways that maintain their essential \r\nfunction, identity and structure. Resilience is a positive attribute when \r\nit maintains capacity for adaptation, learning and/or transformation\r\n(Arctic Council, 2016). See also Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability."


id: e03286ab01cd1978b5ace91e0255635b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36693
content:
"A plausible description of how the future may develop based on a \r\ncoherent and internally consistent set of assumptions about key driving \r\nforces (e.g., rate of technological change, prices) and relationships. \r\nNote that scenarios are neither predictions nor forecasts, but are used \r\nto provide a view of the implications of developments and actions. See \r\nalso Climate projection, Driver, Emission scenario, Mitigation scenario, \r\n(Model) ensemble, Pathways and Projection."


id: 1919899cd1345178f3afbd65e26f8d65
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1631
content:
"In environmental context, restoration involves human interventions \r\nto assist the recovery of an ecosystem that has been previously \r\ndegraded, damaged or destroyed."


id: 74138074af943f962fb82123458bb1e0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17663
content:
"Ice found at the sea surface that has originated from the freezing of \r\nseawater. Sea ice may be discontinuous pieces (ice floes) moved on the \r\nocean surface by wind and currents (pack ice), or a motionless sheet \r\nattached to the coast (land-fast ice). Sea ice concentration is the fraction \r\nof the ocean covered by ice. Sea ice less than one year old is called first\u0002year ice. Perennial ice is sea ice that survives at least one summer. It may \r\nbe subdivided into second-year ice and multi-year ice, where multiyear \r\nice has survived at least two summers. See also Cryosphere."


id: a1a9e3b1ac8976018c862e3a252e436d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25660
content:
"The potential for adverse consequences for human or ecological \r\nsystems, recognising the diversity of values and objectives associated \r\nwith such systems. In the context of climate change, risks can arise \r\nfrom potential impacts of climate change as well as human responses \r\nto climate change. Relevant adverse consequences include those on \r\nlives, livelihoods, health and well-being, economic, social and cultural \r\nassets and investments, infrastructure, services (including ecosystem \r\nservices), ecosystems and species."


id: 3de51bf6d95468f9348b95e8665dbfea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8057
content:
"In the context of climate change impacts, risks result from dynamic \r\ninteractions between climate-related hazards with the exposure\r\nand vulnerability of the affected human or ecological system to the \r\nhazards. Hazards, exposure and vulnerability may each be subject to \r\nuncertainty in terms of magnitude and likelihood of occurrence, and \r\neach may change over time and space due to socioeconomic changes \r\nand human decision making."


id: bfa4e9b103a0f385c153a21092de429e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30987
content:
"In the context of climate change responses, risks result from the poten\u0002tial for such responses not achieving the intended objective(s), or from \r\npotential trade-offs with, or negative side-effects on, other societal \r\nobjectives, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Risks \r\ncan arise for example from uncertainty in implementation, effective\u0002ness or outcomes of climate policy, climate-related investments, tech\u0002nology development or adoption, and system transitions."


id: 449f2f5f4ea17bcb5f3eebf795fe2c02
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9304
content:
"include the effect of changes in the shape of ocean basins induced \r\nby the change in the ocean mass and its distribution. See also \r\nAnthropogenic subsidence, Local sea level change, Regional sea level \r\nchange and Steric sea level change."


id: 8b8b81682c5bfb1816ffa2a6f34d342b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21719
content:
"A set of compounds that are primarily composed of those with short \r\nlifetimes in the atmosphere compared to well-mixed greenhouse \r\ngases (GHGs), and are also referred to as near-term climate forcers. \r\nThis set of compounds includes methane (CH4 ), which is also a well\u0002mixed greenhouse gas, as well as ozone (O3) and aerosols, or their \r\nprecursors, and some halogenated species that are not well-mixed \r\nGHGs. These compounds do not accumulate in the atmosphere at \r\ndecadal to centennial timescales, and so their effect on climate is \r\npredominantly in the first decade after their emission, although their \r\nchanges can still induce long-term climate effects such as sea level \r\nchange. Their effect can be cooling or warming. A subset of exclusively \r\nwarming SLCFs is referred to as short-lived climate pollutants. See also \r\nForcing and Sea level change (sea level rise/sea level fall)."


id: 90599d46db671dffa89571545eb279fe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22597
content:
"The SLE of a mass of water, ice, or water vapour is that mass, converted \r\nto a volume using a density of 1000 kg m-3, and divided by the present\u0002day ocean surface area of 3.625 x 1014 m2\r\n. Thus, 362.5 Gt of water mass \r\nadded to the ocean correspond to 1 mm of global mean sea level rise. \r\nHowever, more accurate estimates of SLE must account for additional \r\nprocesses affecting mean sea level rise, such as shoreline migration, \r\nchanges in ocean area, and for vertical land movements. See also Sea \r\nlevel change (sea level rise/sea level fall)."


id: 7a7a7bbbc5f5ad4fc3ecb24db3d93c0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18741
content:
"Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse \r\ngas (GHG), an aerosol or a precursor of a GHG from the atmosphere\r\n(United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNFCCC, \r\nArticle 1.8). See also Blue carbon, Sequestration and Uptake."


id: b461b604f62953b254b8f1373e1bfa05
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28971
content:
"The subsurface bulk temperature in the top few metres of the ocean, \r\nmeasured by ships, buoys, and drifters. From ships, measurements of \r\nwater samples in buckets were mostly switched in the 1940s to samples \r\nfrom engine intake water. Satellite measurements of skin temperature \r\n(uppermost layer; a fraction of a millimetre thick) in the infrared or \r\nthe top centimetre or so in the microwave are also used, but must be \r\nadjusted to be compatible with the bulk temperature. See also Global \r\nmean surface temperature (GMST)."


id: 86c0258621115ffc547c77d1b2971fc2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20870
content:
"as recognised by the United Nations Office of the High Representative \r\nfor the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries \r\nand Small Island Developing States, are a distinct group of developing \r\ncountries facing specific social, economic and environmental \r\nvulnerabilities (UN-OHRLLS, 2011). They were recognised as a special \r\ncase both for their environment and development at the Rio Earth \r\nSummit in Brazil in 1992. Fifty-eight countries and territories \r\nare presently classified as SIDS by the UN-OHRLLS, with 38 being \r\nUN member states and 20 being Non-UN-Members or Associate \r\nMembers of the Regional Commissions (UN-OHRLLS, 2018). "


id: 328a76d222affbc821825e2a4db8e13c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6148
content:
"The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 \r\noutlines seven clear targets and four priorities for action to prevent \r\nnew and reduce existing disaster risks. The voluntary, non-binding \r\nagreement recognises that the State has the primary role to reduce \r\ndisaster risk but that responsibility should be shared with other \r\nstakeholders including local government, the private sector and other \r\nstakeholders, with the aim for the substantial reduction of disaster \r\nrisk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, \r\nphysical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, \r\nbusinesses, communities and countries."


id: 19244e85d33c401bfd3d3d2cc40e2fe4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1639
content:
"An integrated system that includes human societies and ecosystems, \r\nin which humans are part of nature. The functions of such a system \r\narise from the interactions and interdependence of the social and \r\necological subsystems. The system's structure is characterised by \r\nreciprocal feedbacks, emphasising that humans must be seen as \r\na part of, not apart from, nature (Arctic Council, 2016; Berkes and \r\nFolke, 1998). "


id: bb87a9f4f1d2d984aa3f9adcfbe207bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30213
content:
"The long-term removal of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) or other forms of \r\ncarbon from the atmosphere, with secure storage on climatically sig\u0002nificant time scales (decadal to century). The period of storage needs \r\nto be known for climate modelling and carbon accounting purposes. \r\nSee also Blue carbon, Carbon dioxide removal (CDR), Sink and Uptake."


id: 3eb813fa4d24ec048372361749639c23
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8224
content:
"A process of social interaction through which people learn new \r\nbehaviours, capacities, values and attitudes. "


id: 4b335af0cc6e05b59643cacb2dafe882
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10477
content:
"Water stored in the soil in liquid or frozen form. Root-zone soil \r\nmoisture is of most relevance for plant activity. See also Drought and\r\nPermafrost. "


id: 586d4dbe685639657a37566f68fe23e2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12807
content:
"Relatively shallow water covering the shelf of continents or around \r\nislands. The limit of shelf seas is conventionally considered as 200 m \r\nwater depth at the continental shelf edge, where there is usually a steep \r\nslope to the deep ocean floor. During glacial periods, most shelf seas \r\nare lost since they become land as the build-up of ice sheets caused \r\na decrease of global sea level. See also Coasts, Glacier and Ice shelf."


id: 5703332c12f63c204e18078e53453fff
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12561
content:
"for water mixing. The strengthening of near-surface stratification \r\ngenerally results in warmer surface waters, decreased oxygen \r\nlevels in deeper water, and intensification of ocean acidifica\u0002tion (OA) in the upper ocean. See also Ocean deoxygenation."


id: 9725a146b796cff6ff5817bda1cea9ba
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23785
content:
"The intentional modification of the Earth's shortwave radiative budget \r\nwith the aim of reducing warming. Artificial injection of stratospheric \r\naerosols, marine cloud brightening, and land surface albedo\r\nmodification are examples of proposed SRM methods. SRM does not \r\nfall within the definitions of mitigation and adaptation (IPCC, 2012b, \r\np. 2). Note that in the literature, SRM is also referred to as solar radiation \r\nmanagement, or albedo enhancement. See also Geoengineering."


id: 5697cae5db01e458b75915eef9f3c83d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12492
content:
"involves ensuring the persistence of natural and human systems, \r\nimplying the continuous functioning of ecosystems, the conservation \r\nof high biodiversity, the recycling of natural resources and, in the \r\nhuman sector, successful application of justice and equity. See also \r\nNatural systems and Sustainable development (SD)."


id: b12a2401efe099ff99c67db150f7f428
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28394
content:
"A physicochemical process that transports dissolved inorganic carbon \r\nfrom the ocean's surface to its interior. The solubility pump is primarily \r\ndriven by the solubility of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) (with more CO2 dis\u0002solving in colder water) and the large-scale, thermohaline patterns of \r\nocean circulation. See also Biological (carbon) pump and Dissolved \r\ninorganic carbon."


id: 3cc3e30128011ea1b4875be533ef7094
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7875
content:
"Development that meets the needs of the present without \r\ncompromising the ability of future generations to meet their own \r\nneeds (WCED, 1987) and balances social, economic and environmental \r\nconcerns. See also Development pathways (under Pathways), \r\nSustainability and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). "


id: 34b09fa8e3144fd6da56a1806a3bea87
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6508
content:
"Any process or activity which releases a greenhouse gas (GHG), an aerosol\r\nor a precursor of a GHG into the atmosphere (United Nations Framework \r\nConvention on Climate Change, UNFCCC, Article 1.9). See also Sink."


id: 91e3fc407f2545e2efa43a97f284d7f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22885
content:
"The 17 global goals for development for all countries established by \r\nthe United Nations through a participatory process and elaborated in \r\nthe 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UN, 2015), including \r\nending poverty and hunger; ensuring health and well-being, \r\neducation, gender equality, clean water and energy, and decent \r\nwork; building and ensuring resilient and sustainable infrastructure, \r\ncities and consumption; reducing inequalities; protecting land and \r\nwater ecosystems; promoting peace, justice and partnerships; and \r\ntaking urgent action on climate change. See also Resilience and \r\nSustainability. "


id: 176a1f2959c869edc88f7852f17ef08d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1340
content:
"The ocean region encircling Antarctica  that connects the Atlantic, \r\nIndian and Pacific Oceans together, allowing inter-ocean exchange. \r\nThis region is the main source of much of the deep water of the \r\nworld's ocean and also provides the primary return pathway for this \r\ndeep water to the surface (Marshall and Speer, 2012; Toggweiler and \r\nSamuels, 1995). The drawing up of deep waters and the subsequent \r\ntransport into the ocean interior has major consequences for the \r\nglobal heat, nutrient, and carbon balances, as well as the Antarctic \r\ncryosphere and marine ecosystems."


id: 9717d44cdf27c14f3cd4c0ccab73da19
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23778
content:
"Stabilisation (of GHG or CO2-equivalent concentration) \r\nA state in which the atmospheric concentration of one greenhouse \r\ngas (GHG) (e.g., carbon dioxide, CO2) or of a CO2-equivalent basket \r\nof GHGs (or a combination of GHGs and aerosols) remains constant \r\nover time. See also Atmosphere."


id: 9d243c92618b2ecb1377eac2161b0a95
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24883
content:
"A statistical association between climate variables at widely \r\nseparated, geographically-fixed spatial locations. Teleconnections are \r\ncaused by large spatial structures such as basin-wide coupled modes \r\nof ocean-atmosphere variability, Rossby wave-trains, mid-latitude \r\njets, and storm tracks."


id: 8e3a3210975ad49aa79f928053c9aa2a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22215
content:
"Change in sea level due to thermal expansion and salinity variations. \r\nThermal expansion refers to the increase in volume (and decrease \r\nin density) that results from warming water. See also Anthropogenic \r\nsubsidence, Coast, Local sea level change, Regional sea level change,\r\nRelative sea level, Sea level change (sea level rise/sea level fall) and \r\nSmall Island Developing States (SIDS)."


id: d8e430002c538423bb328168ae43185a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35450
content:
"The temporary exceedance of a specified level of global warming, \r\nsuch as 1.5oC. Overshoot implies a peak followed by a decline in \r\nglobal warming, achieved through anthropogenic removal of carbon \r\ndioxide (CO2 ) exceeding remaining CO2 emissions globally. See also \r\nCarbon dioxide removal (CDR) and Emission pathways (under Path\u0002ways)."


id: ffca0a5ef476f2b65c41b5f85f02e036
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42391
content:
"The temporary increase, at a particular locality, in the height of the \r\nsea due to extreme meteorological conditions (low atmospheric \r\npressure and/or strong winds). The storm surge is defined as being \r\nthe excess above the level expected from the tidal variation alone at \r\nthat time and place. See also Extreme weather/climate event."


id: 7e1a655fdc8ea0d285ad4fd653523286
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19358
content:
"Processes, such as collapse, subsidence and erosion, by which char\u0002acteristic landforms result from the thawing of ice-rich permafrost\r\n(Harris et al., 1988)."


id: a7b5d4e317b1705158555bebad78377e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26723
content:
"knowable. It may have many types of sources, from imprecision in \r\nthe data to ambiguously defined concepts or terminology, incomplete \r\nunderstanding of critical processes, or uncertain projections of human \r\nbehaviour. Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitative \r\nmeasures (e.g., a probability density function) or by qualitative \r\nstatements (e.g., reflecting the judgment of a team of experts) \r\n(see IPCC, 2004; Mastrandrea et al., 2010; Moss and Schneider, 2000). \r\nSee also Agreement, Confidence, Deep Uncertainty and Likelihood. "


id: c045ba621d8ed42cd8ffc09954004fed
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31132
content:
"Time when a specific anthropogenic signal related to climate change \r\nis statistically detected to emerge from the background noise of \r\nnatural climate variability in a reference period, for a specific region\r\n(Hawkins and Sutton, 2012)."


id: cc6c58b0c81cdbbdd32bb495adce10c3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33284
content:
"A level of change in system properties beyond which a  system \r\nreorganises, often in a non-linear manner, and does not return to \r\nthe initial state even if the drivers of the change are abated. For the \r\nclimate system, the term refers to a critical threshold at which global \r\nor regional climate changes from one stable state to another stable \r\nstate. Tipping points are also used when referring to impact: the \r\nterm can imply that an impact tipping point is (about to be) reached \r\nin a  natural or human system. See also Abrupt climate change, \r\nAdaptation, Irreversibility and Natural Systems."


id: 15beae91ca8636e082166e6143546935
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1044
content:
"The UNFCCC was adopted in May 1992 and opened for signature at \r\nthe 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. It entered into force in March \r\n1994 and as of May 2018 had 197 Parties (196 States and the European \r\nUnion). The Convention's ultimate objective is the 'stabilisation of \r\ngreenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would \r\nprevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system'. \r\nThe provisions of the Convention are pursued and implemented by two \r\ntreaties: the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement."


id: 7cfdce5e0075c8527e8f049b01479a9f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19176
content:
"Societal (social) transformation A profound and often deliberate \r\nshift initiated by communities toward sustainability, facilitated by \r\nchanges in individual and collective values and behaviours, and \r\na fairer balance of political, cultural and institutional power in society. "


id: 5477429f5d9c1b2d2c3a44f353d41b26
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12131
content:
"The transfer of substances (such as carbon) or energy (e.g., heat) from \r\none compartment of a system to another; for example, in the Earth \r\nsystem from the atmosphere to the ocean or to the land. See also\r\nSequestration and Sink. "


id: d0397f06e6ba6fc0c1c1e348b36a0406
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33998
content:
"Transformative change A system-wide change that requires \r\nmore than technological change through consideration of social \r\nand economic factors that with technology can bring about rapid \r\nchange at scale. "


id: dd2600654f97b1828c9cc13f8df37e5b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36173
content:
"The propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected. Vulnerability \r\nencompasses a variety of concepts and elements including sensitivity \r\nor susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt. See \r\nalso Adaptation, Exposure, Hazard and Risk. "


id: 1e017dcfbf2b903c4b4ea21e62437942
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2475
content:
"A state of existence that fulfils various human needs, including mate\u0002rial living conditions and quality of life, as well as the ability to pursue \r\none's goals, to thrive, and feel satisfied with one's life. Ecosystem \r\nwell-being refers to the ability of ecosystems to maintain their diver\u0002sity and quality. See also Biodiversity, Climate-resilient development \r\npathways (CRDPs), Human rights and Sustainable Development \r\nGoals (SDGs)."


id: 800eac0fed5af58d801f5120ef6db821
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19658
content:
"The process of changing from one state or condition to another \r\nin a given period of time. Transition can be in individuals, firms, \r\ncities, regions and nations, and can be based on incremental or \r\ntransformative change. "


id: 8b2f7a87c5fc9e1e2c88789ad88ed9a2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21651
content:
"The general term for a strong, cyclonic-scale disturbance that origi\u0002nates over tropical oceans. Distinguished from weaker systems (often \r\nnamed tropical disturbances or depressions) by exceeding a thresh\u0002old wind speed. A tropical storm is a tropical cyclone with one-minute \r\naverage surface winds between 18 and 32 m s-1. Beyond 32 m s-1, a \r\ntropical cyclone is called a hurricane, typhoon or cyclone, depending \r\non geographic location. See also Extratropical cyclone. "


id: 7f144e57edb7d0d25a105a423e2c7c01
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19508
content:
"Abram, N., J.-P. Gattuso, A. Prakash, L. Cheng, M.P. Chidichimo, S. Crate, H. Enomoto, M. Garschagen, N. Gruber, \r\nS. Harper, E. Holland, R.M. Kudela, J. Rice, K. Steffen, and K. von Schuckmann, 2019: Framing and Context of the \r\nReport. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Portner, D.C. Roberts, \r\nV. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegria, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, \r\nB.  Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 73-129. \r\nhttps://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.003."


id: 85500cc6749f5189cd14ba714471db3e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20592
content:
"This special report assesses new knowledge since the IPCC 5th \r\nAssessment Report (AR5) and the Special Report on Global Warming \r\nof 1.5oC (SR15) on how the ocean and cryosphere have and are \r\nexpected to change with ongoing global warming, the risks and \r\nopportunities these changes bring to ecosystems and people, \r\nand   mitigation, adaptation and governance options for reducing \r\nfuture risks. Chapter  1 provides context on the importance of the \r\nocean and cryosphere, and the framework for the assessments in \r\nsubsequent chapters of the report."


id: 5768e8c94e774fcfcc766fac82d95cfd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12639
content:
"All people on Earth depend directly or indirectly on the \r\nocean and cryosphere. The fundamental roles of the ocean and \r\ncryosphere in the Earth system include the uptake and redistribution \r\nof anthropogenic carbon dioxide and heat by the ocean, as well as \r\ntheir crucial involvement of in the hydrological cycle. The cryosphere \r\nalso amplifies climate changes through snow, ice and permafrost \r\nfeedbacks. Services provided to people by the ocean and/or \r\ncryosphere include food and freshwater, renewable energy,  health \r\nand wellbeing, cultural values, trade and transport. {1.1, 1.2, 1.5}"


id: c6e53c611d7ab41f47f65544b1392e00
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32305
content:
"Evidence and understanding of the human causes of climate \r\nwarming, and of associated ocean and cryosphere changes, \r\nhas increased over the past 30 years of IPCC assessments (very \r\nhigh confidence). Human activities are estimated to have caused \r\napproximately 1.0oC of global warming above pre-industrial levels \r\n(SR15). Areas of concern in earlier IPCC reports, such as the expected \r\nacceleration of sea level rise, are now observed (high confidence). \r\nEvidence for expected slow-down of AMOC is emerging in sustained \r\nobservations and from long-term palaeoclimate reconstructions \r\n(medium confidence), and may be related with anthropogenic forcing \r\naccording to model simulations, although this remains to be properly \r\nattributed. Significant sea level rise contributions from Antarctic ice \r\nsheet mass loss (very high confidence), which earlier reports did not \r\nexpect to manifest this century, are already being observed. {1.1, 1.4}"


id: 491bfc3444d999a1bc2099e8d60e349c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10087
content:
"Sustainable development is at risk from emerging and \r\nintensifying ocean and cryosphere changes. Ocean and \r\ncryosphere changes interact with each of the United Nations \r\nSustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Progress on climate action \r\n(SDG 13) would reduce risks to aspects of sustainable development \r\nthat are fundamentally linked to the ocean and cryosphere and \r\nthe services they provide (high confidence1\r\n). Progress on achieving the \r\nSDGs can contribute to reducing the exposure or vulnerabilities of \r\npeople and communities to the risks of ocean and cryosphere change \r\n(medium confidence). {1.1}"


id: a3d1d74e81e05c3032ae09b886c58419
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26017
content:
"Communities living in close connection with polar, mountain, \r\nand coastal environments are particularly exposed to the \r\ncurrent and future hazards of ocean and cryosphere change.\r\nCoasts are home to approximately 28% of the global population, \r\nincluding around 11% living on land less than 10 m above sea level. \r\nAlmost 10% of the global population lives in the Arctic or high \r\nmountain regions. People in these regions face the greatest exposure \r\nto ocean and cryosphere change, and poor and marginalised people \r\nhere are particularly vulnerable to climate-related hazards and risks \r\n(very high confidence). The adaptive capacity of people, communities \r\nand nations is shaped by social, political, cultural, economic, \r\ntechnological, institutional, geographical and demographic factors.\r\n{1.1, 1.5, 1.6, Cross-Chapter Box 2 in Chapter 1}"


id: 1de2d192445570573fe2c85fdc54f097
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2449
content:
"Characteristics of ocean and cryosphere change include \r\nthresholds of abrupt change, long-term changes that cannot be \r\navoided, and irreversibility (high confidence). Ocean warming, \r\nacidification and deoxygenation, ice sheet and glacier mass loss, and \r\npermafrost degradation are expected to be irreversible on time scales \r\nrelevant to human societies and ecosystems. Long response times \r\nof decades to millennia mean that the ocean and cryosphere are \r\ncommitted to long-term change even after atmospheric greenhouse \r\ngas concentrations and radiative forcing stabilise (high confidence). \r\nIce-melt or the thawing of permafrost involve thresholds (state \r\nchanges) that allow for abrupt, nonlinear responses to ongoing \r\nclimate warming (high confidence). These characteristics of ocean \r\nand cryosphere change pose risks and challenges to adaptation. \r\n{1.1, Box 1.1, 1.3}"


id: 27f929bd4c9dea9568c49e83c83ee856
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4230
content:
"Robust assessments of ocean and cryosphere change, and the \r\ndevelopment of context-specific governance and response \r\noptions, depend on utilising and strengthening all available \r\nknowledge systems (high confidence). Scientific knowledge from \r\nobservations, models and syntheses provides global to local scale \r\nunderstandings of climate change (very high confidence). Indigenous \r\nknowledge (IK) and local knowledge (LK) provide context-specific and \r\nsocio-culturally relevant understandings for effective responses and \r\npolicies (medium confidence). Education and climate literacy enable \r\nclimate action and adaptation (high confidence). {1.8, Cross-Chapter \r\nBox 4 in Chapter 1} "


id: 9aad07d4c6b7e69e7ec6326c94ea3a83
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24452
content:
"Long-term sustained observations and continued modelling \r\nare critical for detecting, understanding and predicting ocean \r\nand cryosphere change, providing the knowledge to inform \r\nrisk assessments and adaptation planning (high confidence). \r\nKnowledge gaps exist in scientific knowledge for important regions, \r\nparameters and processes of ocean and cryosphere change, including \r\nfor physically plausible, high impact changes like high end sea level \r\nrise scenarios that would be costly if realised without effective \r\nadaptation planning and even then may exceed limits to adaptation. \r\nMeans such as expert judgement, scenario building, and invoking \r\nmultiple lines of evidence enable comprehensive risk assessments \r\neven in cases of uncertain future ocean and cryosphere changes. \r\n{1.8.1, 1.9.2; Cross-Chapter Box 5 in Chapter 1}"


id: b27943c054fb955dd29d717c583b6f0d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28633
content:
"strengthen the global response to the threats of climate change, \r\nincluding by 'holding the increase in global average temperature \r\nto well below 2oC above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to \r\nlimit the temperature increase to 1.5oC' (UNFCCC, 2015)."


id: 67c0270f0059535cab1a20e4336d802b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15524
content:
"The characteristics of ocean and cryosphere change (Section  1.3) \r\npresent particular challenges to climate-resilient development \r\npathways (CRDPs). Ocean acidification and deoxygenation, ice sheet \r\nand glacier mass loss, and permafrost degradation are expected to be \r\nirreversible on time scales relevant to human societies and ecosystems \r\n(Lenton et al., 2008; Solomon et al., 2009; Frolicher and Joos, 2010; \r\nCai et al., 2016; Kopp et al., 2016). Ocean and cryosphere changes \r\nalso have the potential to worsen anthropogenic climate change, \r\nglobally and regionally; for example, by additional greenhouse gas \r\nemissions released through permafrost thaw that would intensify \r\nanthropogenic climate change globally, or by increasing the \r\nabsorption of solar radiation through snow and ice loss in the Arctic "


id: 9049949308b5a0ec90359c553612d5dd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22587
content:
"Human activities are estimated to have so far caused approximately \r\n1oC of global warming (0.8oC-1.2oC likely range; above pre-industrial \r\nlevels; IPCC, 2018). The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) \r\nconcluded that, 'Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and \r\nsince the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented \r\nover decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, \r\nthe amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, \r\nand the concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased' (IPCC, \r\n2013). Subsequently, Parties to the Paris Agreement aimed to "


id: f2dde1b11efa126bc5cbfcbdad5c99f3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40123
content:
"that is causing regional climate to warm at more than twice the \r\nglobal rate (AMAP, 2017; Steffen et al., 2018). Ocean and cryosphere \r\nchanges place particular pressures on the adaptive capacities of \r\ncultures who maintain centuries to millennia-old relationships to \r\nthe planet's polar, mountain, and coastal environments, as well as \r\non cities, states and nations whose territorial boundaries are being \r\ntransformed by ongoing sea level rise (Gerrard and Wannier, 2013). \r\nThe scale and cross-boundary dimensions of changes in the ocean \r\nand cryosphere challenge the ability of current local, regional and \r\ninternational governance structures to respond (Section  1.7). \r\nProfound economic and institutional transformations are needed if \r\nclimate-resilient development is to be achieved, including ambitious \r\nmitigation efforts to avoid the risks of large-scale and abrupt ocean \r\nand cryosphere changes. "


id: dd458a5e478f9b8ed11a371c6aae27d6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36191
content:
"The global ocean is the interconnected body of saline water that encompasses polar to equatorial climate zones and covers 71% of the \r\nEarth surface. It includes the Arctic, Pacific, Atlantic, Indian and Southern Oceans, as well as their marginal seas. The ocean contains \r\nabout 97% of the Earth's water, supplies 99% of the Earth's biologically habitable space, and provides roughly half of the primary \r\nproduction on Earth. "


id: a0e1fda52c9e199acd9dad01805ee6b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25528
content:
"Coasts are where ocean and land processes interact, and includes coastal cities, deltas, estuaries, and other coastal ecosystems \r\nsuch as mangrove forests. Low elevation coastal zones (less than 10 m above sea level) are densely populated and particularly exposed \r\nto hazards from the ocean (Chapters 4 to 6, Cross-Chapter Box 9). Moving into the ocean, the continental shelf represents the shallow \r\nocean areas (depth <200 m) that surround continents and islands, before the seafloor descends at the continental slope into the deep \r\nocean. The edge of the continental shelf is often used to identify the coastal ocean from the open ocean. Ocean depth and distance from \r\nthe coast may influence the governance and economic access that applies to ocean areas (Cross-Chapter Box 3 in Chapter 1). "


id: 9c29f7e06e521a55d25fbea7e38b255d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24733
content:
"The average depth of the global ocean is about 3,700 m, with a maximum depth of more than 10,000 m. The ocean is vertically \r\nstratified with less dense water sitting above more dense layers, determined by the seawater temperature, salinity and pressure. The \r\nsurface of the ocean is in direct contact with the atmosphere, except for sea ice covered regions. Sunlight penetrates the water column \r\nand supports primary production (by phytoplankton) down to 50-200 m depth (epipelagic zone). Atmospheric-driven mixing occurs \r\nfrom the sea surface and into the mesopelagic zone (200-1,000 m). The distinction between the upper ocean and deep ocean depends \r\non the processes being considered. "


id: 53507e1816f48d093f48fab7a37782bc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11931
content:
"The ocean is a fundamental climate regulator on seasonal to millennial time scales. Seawater has a heat capacity four times larger \r\nthan air and holds vast quantities of dissolved carbon. Heat, water, and biogeochemically relevant gases (e.g., O2 and CO2) exchange \r\nat the air-sea interface, and ocean currents and mixing caused by winds, tides, wave dynamics, density differences and turbulence \r\nredistribute these throughout the global ocean (Box 1.1, Figure 1). "


id: 790c917c6f700bb751e5b423c5ab01f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18484
content:
"The cryosphere refers to frozen components of the Earth system that are at or below the land and ocean surface. These include snow, \r\nglaciers, ice sheets, ice shelves, icebergs, sea ice, lake ice, river ice, permafrost and seasonally frozen ground. Cryosphere is widespread \r\nin polar regions (Chapter 3) and high mountains (Chapter 2), and changes in the cryosphere can have far-reaching and even global \r\nimpacts (Chapters 2 to 6, Cross-Chapter Box 9). "


id: 4695f012163ab2ff7169d0de4d260011
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9623
content:
"Snow is common in polar and mountain regions. It can ultimately either melt seasonally or transform into ice layers that build glaciers \r\nand ice sheets. Snow feeds groundwater and river runoff together with glacier melt causes natural hazards (avalanches, rain-on-snow \r\nflood events) and is a critical economic resource for hydropower and tourism. Snow plays a major role in maintaining high mountain \r\nand Arctic ecosystems, affects the Earth's energy budget by reflecting solar radiation (albedo effect), and influences the temperature \r\nof underlying permafrost."


id: 5c4915b1c137c9a98d4eefb1afda5fb8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13488
content:
"Ice sheets and glaciers are land-based ice, built up by accumulating snowfall on their surface. Presently, around 10% of Earth's \r\nland area is covered by glaciers or ice sheets, which in total hold about 69% of Earth's freshwater (Gleick, 1996). Ice sheets and \r\nglaciers flow, and at their margins ice and/or melt water is discharged into lakes, rivers or the ocean. The largest ice bodies on Earth \r\nare the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. Marine-based sections of ice sheets (e.g., West Antarctic Ice Sheet) sit upon bedrock that \r\nlargely lies below sea level and are in contact with ocean heat, making them vulnerable to rapid and irreversible ice loss. Ice sheets \r\nand glaciers that lose more ice than they accumulate contribute to global sea level rise. "


id: 20a9d6f3007c3aeb98cc386ae9db810d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2974
content:
"Ice shelves are extensions of ice sheets and glaciers that float in the surrounding ocean. The transition between the grounded part of \r\nan ice sheet and a floating ice shelf is called the grounding line. Changes in ice shelf size do not directly contribute to sea level rise, \r\nbut buttressing of ice shelves restrict the flow of land-based ice past the grounding line into the ocean. "


id: fb8af40d14b93d84c1d4e89016b6407a
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41627
content:
"Sea ice forms from freezing of seawater, and sea ice on the ocean surface is further thickened by snow accumulation. Sea ice may be \r\ndiscontinuous pieces moved on the ocean surface by wind and currents (pack ice), or a motionless sheet attached to the coast or to ice \r\nshelves (fast ice). Sea ice provides many critical functions: it provides essential habitat for polar species and supports the livelihoods \r\nof people in the Arctic (including Indigenous peoples); regulates climate by reflecting solar radiation; inhibits ocean-atmosphere \r\nexchange of heat, momentum and gases (including CO2); supports global deep ocean circulation via dense (cold and salty) water \r\nformation; and aids or hinders transportation and travel routes in the polar regions. "


id: c8ac5ff91857b5ace530a87770b53da7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32625
content:
"Permafrost is ground (soil or rock containing ice and frozen organic material) that remains at or below 0oC for at least two consecutive \r\nyears. It occurs on land in polar and high mountain areas, and also as submarine permafrost in shallow parts of the Arctic and Southern \r\nOceans. Permafrost thickness ranges from less than 1 m to greater than 1,000 m. It usually occurs beneath an active layer, which thaws \r\nand freezes annually. Unlike glaciers and snow, the spatial distribution and temporal changes of permafrost cannot easily be observed. \r\nPermafrost thaw can cause hazards, including ground subsidence or landslides, and influence global climate through emissions of \r\ngreenhouse gases from microbial breakdown of previously frozen organic carbon."


id: c333c0897086b5c0700ee8699d9fc262
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31614
content:
"Box 1.1, Figure 1 | Schematic illustration of key components and changes of the ocean and cryosphere, and their linkages in the Earth system through the movement \r\nof heat, water, and carbon dioxide (Section 1.2). Climate change-related effects in the ocean include sea level rise, increasing ocean heat content and marine heat \r\nwaves, ocean deoxygenation, and ocean acidification (Section 1.4.1). Changes in the cryosphere include the decline of Arctic sea ice extent, Antarctic and Greenland \r\nice sheet mass loss, glacier mass loss, permafrost thaw and decreasing snow cover extent (Section 1.4.2). For illustration purposes, a few examples of where humans \r\ndirectly interact with ocean and cryosphere are shown. "


id: d8f65b047d3c9ba911e4ff68e363f39b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35467
content:
"dissolved organic matter) as the total vegetation on land (Jiao et al., \r\n2010; Hansell, 2013). Primary production in the ocean, which is as \r\nlarge as that on land (Field et al., 1998), fuels complex food-webs \r\nthat provide essential food for people. "


id: f636cd37f5a07b43cd495c9c09fc9ff4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40679
content:
"Ocean circulation and mixing redistribute heat and carbon over \r\nlarge distances and depths (Delworth et al., 2017). The ocean moves \r\nheat laterally from the tropics towards polar regions (Rhines et al., \r\n2008). Vertical redistribution of heat and carbon occurs where warm, \r\nlow-density surface ocean waters transform into cool high-density \r\nwaters that sink to deeper layers of the ocean (Talley, 2013), taking \r\nhigh carbon concentrations with them (Gruber et al., 2019). Driven \r\nby winds, ocean circulation also brings cold water up from deep \r\nlayers (upwelling) in some regions, allowing heat, oxygen and carbon \r\nexchange between the deep ocean and the atmosphere (Oschlies \r\net al., 2018; Shi et al., 2018) and fuelling biological production \r\n(Sarmiento and Gruber, 2006)."


id: bbd1b8d57192f92c03764a675e3347e9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30277
content:
"The ocean and cryosphere play a key role in the Earth system. \r\nPowered by the Sun's energy, large quantities of energy, water and \r\nbiogeochemical elements (predominantly carbon, nitrogen, oxygen \r\nand hydrogen) are exchanged between all components of the Earth \r\nsystem, including between the ocean and cryosphere (Box  1.1, \r\nFigure 1). "


id: 4f7f30adcd02323db0b10c2b0b8da985
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11272
content:
"The ocean and cryosphere are interconnected in a multitude of ways \r\n(Box  1.1, Figure  1). Evaporation from the ocean provides snowfall \r\nthat builds and sustains the ice sheets and glaciers that store large \r\namounts of frozen water on land (Section 4.2.1). The vast ice sheets \r\nin Antarctica and Greenland currently hold about 66 m of potential \r\nglobal sea level rise (Fretwell et al., 2013), although the loss of a large \r\nfraction of this potential would require millennia of ice sheet retreat. \r\nOcean temperature and sea level affect ice sheet, glacier and ice shelf \r\nstability in places where the base of ice bodies are in direct contact \r\nwith ocean water (Section 3.3.1). The nonlinear response of ice-melt \r\nto ocean temperature changes means that even slight increases in \r\nocean temperature have the potential to rapidly melt and destabilise \r\nlarge sections of an ice sheet or ice shelf (Section 3.3.1.5)."


id: c16d877b104be639ea8ef7839b7ddfc4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31335
content:
"Water is exchanged between the ocean, atmosphere, land and \r\ncryosphere as part of the hydrological cycle driven by solar heating \r\n(Box 1.1, Figure 1; Trenberth et al., 2007; Lagerloef et al., 2010; Durack \r\net al., 2016). Evaporation from the surface ocean is the main source of \r\nwater in the atmosphere, which is moved back to the Earth's surface \r\nas precipitation (Gimeno et al., 2012). The hydrological cycle is closed \r\nby the eventual return of water to the ocean by rivers, streams, and \r\ngroundwater flow, and through ice discharge and melting of ice \r\nsheets and glaciers (Yu, 2018). Hydrological extremes related to \r\nthe ocean include floods from extreme rainfall (including tropical \r\ncyclones) or ocean circulation-related droughts (Sections 6.3, 6.5), \r\nwhile cryosphere-related flooding can be caused by rapid snow melt \r\nand melt water discharge events (Sections 2.3, 3.4)."


id: 3ecd642d731736583cbeaab4b52d8b95
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8238
content:
"Ninety-two percent of the carbon on Earth that is not locked up \r\nin geological reservoirs (e.g.,  in sedimentary rocks or coal, oil and \r\ngas reservoirs) resides in the ocean (Sarmiento and Gruber, 2002). \r\nMost of this is in the form of dissolved inorganic carbon, some of \r\nwhich readily exchanges with CO2 in the overlying atmosphere. This \r\nrepresents a major control on atmospheric CO2 and makes the ocean \r\nand its carbon cycle one of the most important climate regulators in \r\nthe Earth system, especially on time scales of a few hundred years \r\nand more (Sigman and Boyle, 2000; Berner and Kothavala, 2001). The \r\nocean also contains as much organic carbon (mostly in the form of "


id: 62c3d47a44f16964016f9c310ffca420
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14674
content:
"It takes hundreds of years to millennia for the entire deep ocean \r\nto turn over (Matsumoto, 2007; Gebbie and Huybers, 2012), while \r\nrenewal of the large ice sheets requires many thousands of years \r\n(Huybrechts and de Wolde, 1999). Long response times mean that \r\nthe deep ocean and the large ice sheets tend to lag behind in their \r\nresponse to the rapidly changing climate at Earth's surface, and that \r\nthey will continue to change even after radiative forcing stabilises \r\n(e.g., Golledge et al., 2015; Figure 1.1a). Such 'committed' changes \r\nmean that some ocean and cryosphere changes are essentially \r\nirreversible on time scales relevant to human societies (decades to \r\ncenturies), even in the presence of immediate action to limit further \r\nglobal warming (e.g., Section 4.2.3.5). "


id: e42191bb9810ebbfe8530798bf51b1c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37437
content:
"AR5 (IPCC, 2013; IPCC, 2014) provides ample evidence of profound \r\nand pervasive changes in the ocean and cryosphere (Sections 1.4.1, \r\n1.4.2), and along with the recent SR15 report (IPCC, 2018), is the \r\npoint of departure for the updated assessments made in SROCC."


id: 91281d5d63b223f3dbe5670e99f173e3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22740
content:
"Earth's climate, ocean and cryosphere vary across a wide range \r\nof time scales. This includes the seasonal growth and melting of \r\nsea ice, interannual variation of ocean temperature caused by the \r\nEl  Nino-Southern Oscillation and ice age cycles across tens to \r\nhundreds of thousands of years."


id: 840654b496091e141ade8b99fd9ead10
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20380
content:
"Climate variability can arise from internally generated (i.e., unforced) \r\nfluctuations in the climate system. Variability can also occur in \r\nresponse to external forcings, including volcanic eruptions, changes \r\nin the Earth's orbit around the Sun, oscillations in solar activity and \r\nchanging atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations."


id: 6c5ee3f65510e63734857836225e416c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16359
content:
"The rate of sea level rise since the mid-19th century has been larger \r\nthan the mean rate of the previous two millennia (high confidence). \r\nOver the period 1901 to 2010, global mean sea level rose by 0.19 \r\n(0.17-0.21) m (high confidence) (Church et al., 2013; Table SM1.1). \r\nSea level rise continues due to freshwater added to the ocean by \r\nmelting of glaciers and ice sheets, and as a result of ocean expansion \r\ndue to continuous ocean warming, with a projected acceleration \r\nand century to millennial-scale commitments for ongoing rise \r\n(Section 4.2.3). In SROCC, recent developments of ice sheet modelling \r\nare assessed (Sections 1.8, 4.3, Cross-Chapter Box 8 in Chapter 3) \r\nand the projected sea level rise at the end of 21st century is higher \r\nthan reported in AR5 but with a larger uncertainty range (Sections \r\n4.2.3.2, 4.2.3.3)."


id: c7d05ee428751e9b317291da632dc27b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"By 2011, the ocean had taken up about 30 +- 7% of the anthropogenic \r\nCO2 that had been released to the atmosphere since the industrial \r\nrevolution (Ciais et al., 2013; Section  5.2). In response, ocean pH \r\ndecreased by 0.1 since the beginning of the industrial era (high \r\nconfidence), corresponding to an increase in acidity of 26% (Table \r\nSM1.1) and leading to both positive and negative biological and \r\necological impacts (high confidence) (Gattuso et al., 2014). Evidence \r\nis increasing that the ocean's oxygen content is declining (Oschlies \r\net al., 2018). AR5 did not come to a final conclusion with regard \r\nto potential long-term changes in ocean productivity due to short \r\nobservational records and divergent scientific evidence (Boyd et al., \r\n2014; Section  5.2.2). Ocean acidification and deoxygenation are \r\nprojected to continue over the next century with high confidence\r\n(Sections 3.2.2.3, 5.2.2)."


id: b12c42093fba5d356a8757e68d85fc25
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content:
"the Antarctic ice sheet also likely increased from 30 (-37-97) Gt yr-1\r\nover the period 1992-2001, to 147 (72-221) Gt yr-1 over the period \r\n2002-2011 (IPCC, 2013). The average rate of ice loss from glaciers \r\naround the world (excluding glaciers on the periphery of the ice \r\nsheets), was very likely 226 (91-361) Gt yr-1 over the period 1971-\r\n2009, and 275 (140-410) Gt yr-1 over the period 1993-2009 (IPCC, \r\n2013). The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are continuing to lose \r\nmass at an accelerating rate (Section 3.3) and glaciers are continuing \r\nto lose mass worldwide (Section  2.2.3, Cross-Chapter Box  6 in \r\nChapter 2). Confidence in the quantification of glacier and ice sheet \r\nmass loss has increased across successive IPCC reports (Table SM1.1) \r\ndue to the development of remote sensing observational methods \r\n(Section 1.8.1). "


id: 629818e7d7752e0440cec4bf010ddb9b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14633
content:
"Changes in the cryosphere documented in AR5 included the \r\nwidespread retreat of glaciers (high confidence), mass loss from \r\nthe Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets (high confidence) \r\nand declining extents of Arctic sea ice (very high confidence) \r\nand Northern Hemisphere spring snow cover (very high confidence; \r\nIPCC, 2013; Vaughan et al., 2013)."


id: 2d87339c1d301efbf5f0bce651679fab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"A particularly rapid change in Earth's cryosphere has been the \r\ndecrease in Arctic sea ice extent in all seasons (Section 3.2.1.1). AR5 \r\nassessed that there was medium confidence that a nearly ice-free \r\nsummer Arctic Ocean is likely to occur before mid-century under a \r\nhigh emissions future (IPCC, 2013), and SR15 assessed that ice-free \r\nsummers are projected to occur at least once per century at 1.5o\r\nC \r\nof warming, and at least once per decade at 2o\r\nC of warming above \r\npre-industrial levels (IPCC, 2018). Sea ice thickness is decreasing \r\nfurther in the Northern Hemisphere and older ice that has survived \r\nmultiple summers is rapidly disappearing; most sea ice in the Arctic \r\nis now 'first year' ice that grows in the autumn and winter but melts \r\nduring the spring and summer (AMAP, 2017)."


id: 42f7bfbbb883474d585370472f5c6259
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8980
content:
"Changes in seasonal snow are best documented for the Northern \r\nHemisphere. AR5 reported that the extent of snow cover has \r\ndecreased since the mid-20th century (very high confidence). \r\nNegative trends in both snow depth and duration are also detected \r\nwith station observations (medium confidence), although results \r\ndepend on elevation and observational period (Section 2.2.2). AR5 \r\nassessed that permafrost temperatures have increased in most \r\nregions since the early 1980s (high confidence), and the rate of \r\nincrease has varied regionally (IPCC, 2013). Methane and carbon \r\ndioxide release from soil organic carbon is projected to continue in \r\nhigh mountain and polar regions (Box  2.2), and SROCC has used \r\nmultiple lines of evidence to reduce uncertainty in permafrost change \r\nassessments (Cross-Chapter Box 5 in Chapter 1, Section 3.4.3.1.1). "


id: 95af4abd6db600c1f5321f518bcf323e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"AR5 assessed that the annual mean loss from the Greenland ice sheet \r\nvery likely substantially increased from 34 (-6-74) Gt yr-1 (billion \r\ntonnes yr-1) over the period 1992-2001, to 215 (157-274) Gt yr-1 over \r\nthe period 2002-2011 (IPCC, 2013). The average rate of ice loss from "


id: f6cfa2d4c85eafbdf65b61f3a515865
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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vector_id: 40791
content:
"Scenarios are a plausible description of how the future may develop based on a coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions \r\nabout key driving forces and relationships. Pathways refer to the temporal evolution of natural and/or human systems towards a future \r\nstate. In SROCC, assessments of future change frequently use climate model projections forced by pathways of future radiative forcing \r\nchanges related to different socioeconomic scenarios. "


id: 7bd1bc79f86d1829243adfb6ef3c8963
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18995
content:
"Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) are a set of time series of plausible future concentrations of greenhouse gases, aerosols \r\nand chemically active gases, as well as land use changes (Moss et al., 2008; Moss et al., 2010; van Vuuren et al., 2011a; Figure SM1.1). \r\nThe word representative signifies that each RCP provides only one of many possible pathways that would lead to the specific radiative \r\nforcing characteristics. The term pathway emphasises the fact that not only the long-term concentration levels, but also the trajectory \r\ntaken over time to reach that outcome are of interest. "


id: 3d7d198e0252bff29ac144b4f0fefba9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"In SROCC, the CMIP5 simulations forced with RCPs are used extensively to assess future ocean and cryosphere changes. In particular, \r\nRCP2.6 and RCP8.5 are used to contrast the possible outcomes of low-emission versus high-emission futures, respectively \r\n(Table CB1.1). In some cases the SROCC assessments use literature that is based on the earlier Special Report on Emission Scenarios  \r\n(SRES; IPCC, 2000), and details of these and their approximate RCP equivalents are provided in Tables SM1.3 and SM1.4."


id: 1dedd23df0eb98d1b275f28cee6550bc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2454
content:
"SROCC commonly provides future change assessments for two key intervals: A near term interval of 2031-2050 is comparable \r\nto a single generation time scale from present day, and incorporates the interval when global warming is likely to reach 1.5o\r\nC \r\nif warming continues at the current rate (IPCC, 2018). An end-of-century interval of 2081-2100 represents the average climate "


id: b89fc07de278c3d30121487d07565522
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29693
content:
"Table CB1.1 | Projected change in global mean surface air temperature and key ocean variables for the near term (2031-2050) and end-of-century (2081-2100) \r\nrelative to the recent past (1986-2005) reference period from CMIP5. See Table SM1.2 for the list of CMIP5 models and ensemble member used for calculating these \r\nprojections. Small differences in the projections given here compared with AR5 (e.g., Table 12.2 in Collins et al., 2013) reflect differences in the number of models \r\navailable now compared to at the time of the AR5 assessment (Table SM1.2). "


id: 26cbcf307b88633cce5d68bf83039643
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"a\r\n Calculated following the same procedure as the IPCC 5th Assessment Report (AR5) (Table 12.2 in Collins et al., 2013). The 5-95% model range of global mean \r\nsurface air temperature across CMIP5 projections was assessed in AR5 as the likely range, after accounting for additional uncertainties or different levels of confidence \r\nin models."


id: cbd9d390b11e0491268dced621573cd0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33187
content:
"b\r\n The 5-95% model range for global mean sea surface temperature, surface pH and dissolved oxygen (100-600 m) as referred to in the SROCC assessment as the \r\nvery likely range (Section 1.9.2, Figure 1.4)."


id: 36d11ce72a19d61755f8c53f6df60701
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6870
content:
"conditions reached at the end of the standard CMIP5 future climate simulations and is relevant to long-term infrastructure planning \r\nand climate-resilient development pathways (CRDPs) (Cross-Chapter Box 2 in Chapter 1). In some cases where committed changes \r\nexist over multi-century time scales, such as the assessment of future sea level rise (Section 4.3.2) or deep ocean oxygen changes \r\n(Section 5.2.4.2, Table 5.5), SROCC also considers model evidence for long-term changes beyond the end of the current century."


id: 411a5161ddcf9f10d24172188eeb1cc0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8635
content:
"Table CB1.1 compiles information on key indicators of climate change in the atmosphere and ocean. This information is given for\r\ndifferent RCPs and for changes in the near term and end-of-century assessment intervals, relative to the recent past, noting that this \r\ndoes not capture changes that have already taken place since the pre-industrial baseline. SR15 assessed that global mean surface \r\nwarming from the pre-industrial (1850-1900) to the recent past (1986-2005) reference period was 0.63o\r\nC (likely range of 0.57oC-\r\n0.69o\r\nC), and during the present day interval (2006-2015) was 0.87oC (likely range of 0.75oC-0.99oC) higher than the average over \r\nthe 1850-1900 pre-industrial period (very high confidence; IPCC, 2018)."


id: ff0b9ba9ac03eda3c1eb7fb3b9b390bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42274
content:
"These key climate and ocean change indicators allow for some harmonisation of the risk assessments in the chapters of SROCC. \r\nProjections of future change across a wider range of ocean and cryosphere components is also provided in Figure 1.5. Ocean and \r\ncryosphere changes and risks by the end-of-century (2081-2100) are expected to be larger under high greenhouse gas emission \r\nscenarios, compared with low greenhouse gas emission scenarios (very high confidence) (Table CB1.1, Figure 1.5)."


id: 5ebcf01456d60c49754249146e723010
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13958
content:
"scale can range from very small to the entire biosphere. Today, most \r\necosystems either contain humans as key organisms, or are influenced \r\nby the effects of human activities in their environment. In SROCC, a \r\nsocial-ecological system describes the combined system and all of its \r\nsub-components and refers specifically to the interaction of natural \r\nand human systems."


id: dbe1b678d1b3670c65a355e3b2ff55bb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35971
content:
"SROCC assesses the risks (i.e., potential for adverse consequences) \r\nand impacts (i.e.,  manifested risk) resulting from climate-related \r\nchanges in the ocean and cryosphere. Knowledge on risk is essential \r\nfor conceiving and implementing adequate responses. Cross-Chapter \r\nBox  2 in Chapter  1 introduces key concepts of risk, adaptation, \r\nresilience and transformation, and explains why and how they matter \r\nfor this report. "


id: af2d5cc51a6960fe05fc9987ed6debc8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28061
content:
"In SROCC, the term 'natural system' describes the biological and \r\nphysical components of the environment, independent of human \r\ninvolvement but potentially affected by human activities. 'Natural \r\nsystems' may refer to portions of the total system without necessarily \r\nconsidering all its components (e.g.,  an ocean upwelling system). \r\nThroughout the assessment usage of 'natural system' does not imply \r\na system unaltered by human activities. "


id: a35d685bb961bb8546fc3896d8d92ebd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25947
content:
"'Human systems' include physiological, health, socio-cultural, \r\nbelief, technological, economic, food, political, and legal systems, \r\namong others. Humans have depended upon the Earth's ocean \r\n(WOA, 2016; IPBES, 2018b) and cryosphere (AMAP, 2011; Hovelsrud \r\net al., 2011; Watt-Cloutier, 2018) for many millennia (Redman, 1999). \r\nContemporary human populations still depend directly on elements \r\nof the ocean and cryosphere, and the ecosystem services they provide, \r\nbut at a much larger scale and with greater environmental impact \r\nthan in pre-industrial times (Inniss and Simcock, 2017). "


id: aca7c4840f2edc3813eb5b9c0b37fe65
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"An ecosystem is a functional unit consisting of living organisms, their \r\nnon-living environment, and the interactions within and between \r\nthem. Ecosystems can be nested within other ecosystems and their "


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created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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"This box introduces key concepts used in the Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) in relation to \r\nrisk, adaptation, resilience, and transformation. Building on an assessment of the current literature, it provides a conceptual framing \r\nfor the report and for the assessments within its chapters. Full definitions of key terms are provided in the SROCC Annex I: Glossary."


id: c4b8cc2ebbd5115d56166954b2ff8df2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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"SROCC considers risk from climate change-related effects on the ocean and cryosphere as the result of the interaction between: \r\n(1) environmental hazards triggered by climate change, (2) exposure of humans, infrastructure and ecosystems to those hazards, \r\nand  (3) systems' vulnerabilities. Risk refers to the potential for adverse consequences, and impacts refer to materialised effects \r\nof climate change. Next to assessing risk and impacts specifically resulting from climate change-related effects on the ocean, coast and \r\ncryosphere, SROCC is also concerned with the options to reduce climate-related risk. "


id: c5f5d39f1570386ee1dadad4f3467206
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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"Beyond mitigation, adaptation is a key avenue to reduce risk (Section 1.6). Adaptation can also include exploiting new opportunities; \r\nhowever, this box focuses on risk, and thus, the latter is not discussed in detail here. Adaptation efforts link into the causal fabric of \r\nrisk by reducing existing and future vulnerability, exposure, and/or (where possible) hazards (Figure CB2.1). Addressing the different \r\nrisk components (hazards, exposure and vulnerability) involves assessing and selecting options for policy. "


id: 45e0d814b1c5ef5a0642846fee377b0c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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"and action. Such decision-making entails evaluation of the effectiveness, efficiency, efficacy and acceptance of actions. Adaptation \r\nresponses are more effective when they promote resilience to climate change, consider plausible futures and unexpected events, \r\nstrengthen essential or desired characteristics as well as values of the responding system and/or make adjustments to avoid \r\nunsustainable pathways (high agreement, medium evidence; Section 2.3; Box 2.4; 4.4.4; 4.4.5)."


id: 1a500431b10d42aa8b9b097c43506639
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"Adaptation requires adaptive capacity, which for human systems includes assets (financial, physical, and/or ecological), capital (social \r\nand institutional), knowledge and technical know-how (Klein et al., 2014). The extent of adaptive capacity determines adaptation \r\npotential, but does not necessarily translate into effective adaptation if awareness of the need to act, the willingness to act and/or the \r\ncooperation needed to act is lacking (high confidence; Sections 2.3; Box 2.4; 4.3.2.6.3; 5.5.2.4)."


id: eb7e0ee835e31537a65716ee64f61eb7
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"Residual risks (i.e., the risk that endures following adaptation and risk reduction efforts) remain even where adaptation is possible \r\n(very high confidence; Chapters 2-6; Section 6.3.2; Table 6.2). Residual risks have bearing on the emerging debate about loss and \r\ndamage (Huq et al., 2013; Warner and van der Geest, 2013; Boyd et al., 2017; Djalante et al., 2018; Mechler et al., 2018; Roy et al., \r\n2018). This report addresses loss and damage in relation to slow onset processes, including ocean changes (Section 5.4.2.3), sea level \r\nrise (Section 4.3), and glacier retreat (Section 2.3.6), and polar cryosphere changes (Section 3.4.3.3.4), as well as rapid onset hazards \r\nsuch as tropical cyclones (Chapter  6). The assessment encompasses non-economic losses, including the impacts on intrinsic and "


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"spiritual attributes with which high mountain societies value their landscapes (Section 2.3.5); the interconnected relationship with, \r\nand reliance upon, the land, water and ice for culture, livelihoods and wellbeing in the Arctic (Section 3.4.3.3); and cultural heritage \r\nand displacement addressed in the Cross-Chapter Box on low-lying islands and coasts (Cross-Chapter Box 9; Burkett, 2016; Markham \r\net al., 2016; Tschakert et al., 2017; Huggel et al., 2018). "


id: d0e02ea162402c279caaa2546e0eb219
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"Applying the concept of resilience in mitigation and adaptation planning builds the capacity of a social-ecological system to navigate \r\nanticipated changes and unexpected events (Biggs et al., 2012; Varma et al., 2014; Sud et al., 2015). Resilience also emphasises \r\nsocial-ecological system dynamics, including the possibility of crossing critical thresholds and experiencing a regime shift (i.e., state \r\nchange). Seven general strategies for building social-ecological resilience have been identified (Figure CB2.2; Ostrom, 2010; Biggs \r\net al., 2012; Quinlan et al., 2016). The concept of resilience also allows analysts, accessors of risk and decision makers to recognise \r\nhow climate-change related risks often cannot be fully avoided or alleviated despite adaptation. For SROCC, this is especially relevant \r\nalong low-lying coasts, high mountain areas and the polar regions (medium evidence, high agreement; Sections 2.3; 2.4; 3.5, 6.8, 6.9)."


id: 63207571ffcee9dc51faf9db44760830
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"Many efforts are underway to apply resilience thinking in assessments, management practices, policy making and the day-to\u0002day practices of affected sectors and local communities. For example, leaders of the Pacific small island developing states use \r\nthe Framework for Resilient Development in the Pacific, which integrates climate change and disaster risk management (Pacific \r\nCommunity, 2016; Cross-Chapter Box 9). In the Philippines, a new framework has been developed to conduct full inventories of "


id: ab0db4d0bd2ff7379ed27540faaa9ed0
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content:
"actual and projected loss and damage due to climate change and associated disasters such as from cyclones. Creating such an \r\ninventory is difficult due to the disconnect between tools for climate change assessment and those for post disaster assessment \r\n(Florano, 2018). In Arctic Alaska, evaluative frameworks are being applied to determine needs, responsibilities, and alternative actions \r\nassociated with coastal village relocations (Bronen, 2015; Cross-Chapter Box 9). In all these initiatives, resilience is a key consideration \r\nfor enabling CRDPs."


id: f028042bc227573a0b3a4a2d42d996ee
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"SROCC provides more evidence for global shifts in the distribution of \r\nmarine organisms, and in how the phenology of animals is responding \r\nto ocean change (Sections 3.2.3, 5.2). The signature of climate \r\nchange is now detected in almost all marine ecosystems. Similar \r\ntrends of changing habitat due to climate change are reported for \r\nthe cryosphere (Sections 2.2, 3.4.3.2). The risk of irreversible loss of \r\nmany marine and coastal ecosystems increases with global warming, \r\nespecially at 2oC or more (high confidence; IPCC, 2018). Risk also \r\nincreases for habitat displacements, both poleward (Section  3.2.4) \r\nand to greater ocean depths (Section 5.2.4), or habitat reductions, \r\nsuch as that caused by glacier retreat (Section 2.2.3). "


id: e543fa90ddc6d20a7551279c36879ce5
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"Hazards faced by marine and coastal organisms, and the ecosystem \r\nservices they provide are generally dependent on future greenhouse \r\ngas emission pathways, with moderate likelihood under a \r\nlow-emission future, but high to very high likelihood under higher \r\nemission scenarios (very high confidence) (Mora et al., 2013; Gattuso \r\net al., 2015). Hazards to marine ecosystems assessed in AR5 (IPCC, \r\n2014) included degradation of coral reefs (high confidence), ocean \r\ndeoxygenation (medium confidence) and ocean acidification (high \r\nconfidence). Shifts in the ranges of plankton and fish were identified \r\nwith high confidence regionally, but with uncertain trends globally. "


id: 98818ed085534c8f3d33b2f21dc93982
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"through the resulting direct albedo feedback and amplification of \r\nArctic climate warming (e.g.,  Pistone et al., 2014) that then locally \r\nincreases surface melting of the Greenland ice sheet (Liu et al., 2016; \r\nStroeve et al., 2017). Additionally, ice loss from ice sheets contribute \r\nto the global-scale exposure of sea level rise, and more local-scale \r\nmodifications and losses of coastal habitats and ecosystems (Sections \r\n3.2.3 and 4.3.3.5). Interactions within and between natural systems also \r\ninfluence the spatial reach of risks associated with cryosphere change. \r\nPermafrost degradation, for example, interacts with ecosystems and \r\nclimate on various spatial and temporal scales, and feedbacks from \r\nthese interactions range from local impacts on topography, hydrology \r\nand biology, to global-scale impacts via biogeochemical cycling (e.g., \r\nmethane release) on climate (Sections 2.2, 2.3, 3.4; Kokelj et al., 2015; \r\nGrosse et al., 2016)."


id: 7e1669858c5080fb78edec9e11f14606
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"Exposure to hazards in cryosphere systems occur in the immediate \r\nvicinity of cryosphere components, and at regional to global scales \r\nwhere cryosphere changes link to other natural systems. For example, \r\ndecreasing Arctic sea ice increases exposure for organisms that depend \r\nupon habitats provided by sea ice, but also has far-reaching impacts "


id: 50e59d7c7bc159b5a52626c036f133ca
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"This report documents how people residing in coastal and cryosphere \r\nregions are already exposed to climate change hazards, and which \r\nof these hazards are projected to increase in the future. For example, \r\nmountain communities have been exposed to increased rockfall, rock "


id: 1c93c980f0c8d49c58270ed91206c16d
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"avalanches and landslides due to permafrost degradation and glacier \r\nshrinkage, and to changes in snow avalanche type and seasonal \r\ntiming (Section  2.3.1). Cryosphere changes that can impact water \r\navailability in mountain regions and for downstream populations \r\n(Sections 2.3.1, 2.3.4, 2.3.5) have implications for drinking water, \r\nirrigation, livestock grazing, hydropower production and tourism \r\n(Section  2.3). Some declining mountain glaciers hold sacred and \r\nsymbolic meanings for local communities who will experience \r\nspiritual losses (Section  2.3.4, 2.3.5, and 2.3.6). Exposures to \r\nextreme warming, and continued sea ice and permafrost loss in the \r\nArctic, challenge Indigenous communities with close interdependent \r\nrelationships of economy, lifestyles, cultural identity, self-sufficiency, \r\nIndigenous knowledge,  health and wellbeing with the Arctic \r\ncryosphere (Section 3.4.3, 3.5). "


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"reduced access to and control over the social, financial, technological \r\nand environmental resources that are required for adaptation and \r\ntransformation (Oppenheimer et al., 2014; AMAP, 2015), thus limiting \r\noptions for coping and adapting to change (Hijioka et al., 2014). \r\nHowever, even populations with greater wealth and privilege can be \r\nvulnerable to some climate change risks (Cardona et al., 2012; Smith \r\net al., 2014), especially if sources of wealth and wellbeing depend \r\nupon established infrastructure that is poorly suited to ocean or \r\ncryosphere change. "


id: 52fda3c90b236ada461442228f45901a
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"Institutions and governance can shape vulnerability and adaptive \r\ncapacity, and it can be challenging for weak governance structures to \r\nrespond effectively to extreme or persistent climate change hazards \r\n(Sections 6.4 and 6.9; Cross-Chapter Box 3 in Chapter 1; Berrang-Ford \r\net al., 2014; Hijioka et al., 2014). Furthermore, populations can be \r\nnegatively impacted by inappropriate climate change mitigation \r\nand/or adaptation policies, particularly ones that further marginalise \r\ntheir knowledge, culture, values and livelihoods (Field et al., 2014; \r\nCross-Chapter Box 4 in Chapter 1). "


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"The population living in low elevation coastal zones (land less than \r\n10 m above sea level) is projected to increase to more than one \r\nbillion by 2050 (Section 4.3.2.2). These people and communities are \r\nparticularly exposed to future sea level rise, rising ocean temperature \r\n(including marine heat waves; Section 6.4), enhanced coastal erosion, \r\nincreasing wind, wave height, storm intensity and ocean acidification \r\n(Section 4.3.4). These exposures bring associated risks for livelihoods \r\nlinked to fisheries, tourism and trade, as well as loss of life, damaged \r\nassets, and disruption of basic services including safe water supplies, \r\nsanitation, energy and transportation networks (Chapters 4, 5, and 6; \r\nCross-Chapter Box 9). "


id: 252800d57cfccf5758b250151d84b272
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"Vulnerability is not static in place and time, nor homogeneously \r\nexperienced. The vulnerabilities of individuals, groups, and populations \r\nto climate change is dynamic and diverse, and reflects changing \r\nsocietal and environmental conditions (Thomas et al., 2019). SROCC \r\nexamines vulnerability following the conceptual definition presented \r\nin Cross-Chapter Box  2 in Chapter  1, and vulnerability in human \r\nsystems is treated in relative rather than absolute terms."


id: 858f1cfd8dcac58aa38eb0109812b95e
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"The vulnerability of mountain, Arctic and coastal communities is \r\naffected by social, political, historical, cultural, economic, institutional, \r\nenvironmental, geographical and/or demographic factors such as \r\ngender, age, race, class, caste, Indigeneity and disability (Thomas et al., \r\n2019; Sections 2.3.6 and 3.5; Cross-Chapter Box 9). Disparities and \r\ninequities in such factors may result in social exclusion, inequalities \r\nand non-climatic challenges to health and wellbeing, economic \r\ndevelopment and basic human rights (Adger et al., 2014; Olsson \r\net al., 2014; Smith et al., 2014). Those less advantaged often also have "


id: b49c6b5031da993cdae848e7012a9972
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"Well-chosen human interventions can enhance the adaptive capacity \r\nof natural systems to climate change. Such interventions through \r\nmanipulating an ecosystem's structural or functional properties \r\n(e.g.,  restoration of mangroves) may minimise climate change \r\npressures, enhance natural resilience and/or re-direct ecosystem \r\nresponses to reduce cascading risks on societies. In human systems, \r\nadaptation can involve both infrastructure (e.g., enhanced sea \r\ndefences) and community-based action (e.g., changes in policies \r\nand practices). Adaptation options to ongoing climate change are \r\nmost effective when considered together with mitigation strategies \r\nbecause there are limits to effective adaptation, mitigation actions \r\ncan make adaptation more difficult, and some adaptation measures \r\nmay increase greenhouse gas emissions."


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"1992) are considered in SR15 (IPCC, 2018). SROCC assesses \r\nseveral ocean and cryosphere-specific measures for mitigation and \r\nadaptation including options for to address the causes of climate \r\nchange, support biological and ecological adaptation, and enhance \r\nsocietal adaptation (Figure 1.2). Other measures have been proposed, \r\nincluding solar radiation management and several other forms of \r\ncarbon dioxide removal, but these are not addressed in SROCC as \r\nthey are covered in other products of the IPCC Sixth Assessment \r\nCycle (SR15 and AR6 Working Group III) and are outside the scope of \r\nSROCC. SROCC does assess indirect mitigation measures that involve \r\nthe ocean and the cryosphere (Figure 1.2) by supporting biological \r\nand ecological adaptation, such as through reducing nutrient and \r\norganic carbon pollution (which moderates ocean acidification in \r\neutrophied areas) and conservation (which preserves biodiversity \r\nand habitats) in coastal regions (Bille et al., 2013)."


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"Adaptation and mitigation decisions are connected with economic \r\nconcerns. In SROCC, two main economic approaches are used. The \r\nfirst comprises the Total Economic Value method and the valuation \r\nof ecosystem services. SROCC considers the paradigm of sustainable \r\ndevelopment, and the linkages between climate impacts on ecosystem \r\nservices (Section 5.4.1) and the consequences on SDGs including food \r\nsecurity or poverty eradication (Section 5.4.2). The second economic \r\napproach used are formal decision analysis methods, which help to \r\nidentify options (also called alternatives) that perform best or well \r\nwith regards to given objectives. These methods include cost-benefit \r\nanalysis, multi-criteria analysis and robust decision-making and are \r\nspecifically relevant for appraising long-term investment decisions in \r\nthe context of coastal adaptation (Section 4.4.4.6)."


id: 7f3b45ff65bf835bc96ef2c23709aba1
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"A literature-based expert assessment shows that ocean-related \r\nmitigation measures have trade-offs, with the greatest benefits \r\nderived by combining global and local measures (high confidence; \r\nGattuso et al., 2018). Local measures, such as pollution reduction and \r\nconservation, provide significant co-benefits and few adverse side \r\neffects (high confidence; Sections 5.5.1, 5.5.2). They can be relatively \r\nrapidly implemented, but are generally less effective in addressing \r\nthe global problem (high confidence; Sections 5.5.1, 5.5.2). Likewise, \r\nlocal efforts to decrease air pollution near mountain glaciers and \r\nother cryosphere components, for example reducing black carbon \r\nemissions, can bring regional-scale benefits for health and in reducing \r\nsnow and ice-melt (Shindell et al., 2012; Box 2.2)."


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"systems to climate change pressures (e.g., Box 5.4 in Section 5.5.2). \r\nThrough acclimatisation and evolutionary adaptation to the pressures \r\nfrom climate change (and all other persistent pressures), populations, \r\nspecies and ecosystems present a constantly changing context for \r\nthe adaptation of human systems to climate change. "


id: 84ce323a2d0e3aee8c7165ddcbcad5be
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"In AR5, a range of changes in ocean and cryosphere natural systems \r\nwere linked with medium to high confidence to pressures associated \r\nwith climate change (Cramer et al., 2014). Climate change impacts \r\non natural ecosystems are variable in space and time. The multiplicity \r\nof pressures these natural systems experience impedes attribution \r\nof population or ecosystem responses to a specific ocean and/or \r\ncryosphere change. Moreover, the interconnectivity of populations \r\nwithin ecosystems means that a single 'adaptive response' of a \r\npopulation, or the aggregate response of an ecosystem (the adaptive \r\nresponses of the interconnected populations), is influenced not just \r\nby direct pressures of climate change, but occurs in concert with \r\nthe adaptive responses of other species in the ecosystem, further \r\ncomplicating efforts to disentangle specific patterns of adaptation."


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"There are several human adaptation options for climate change \r\nimpacts on the ocean and cryosphere. Adaptive responses include \r\nnature- and ecosystem-based approaches (Renaud et al., 2016; Serpetti \r\net al., 2017). Additionally, more social-based approaches for human \r\nadaptation range from community-based and infrastructure-based \r\napproaches to managed retreat, along with other forms of internal \r\nmigration (Black et al., 2011; Hino et al., 2017). Building on AR5 (Wong \r\net al., 2014), Chapter 4 describes four main modes of adaptation to \r\nmean and extreme sea level rise: protect, advance, accommodate, \r\nand retreat. This report demonstrates that all modes of adaptation \r\ninclude mixes of institutional, individual, socio-cultural, engineering, \r\nbehavioural and/or ecosystem-based measures (e.g., Section 4.4.2). "


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"Notwithstanding the network of pressures and adaptations, much \r\neffort has gone into resolving the mechanisms, interactions and \r\nfeedbacks of natural systems associated with the ocean and \r\ncryosphere. Chapters 4, 5 and 6, as well as Cross-Chapter Box  9, \r\nassess new knowledge on the adaptive responses of wetlands, \r\ncoral reefs, other coastal habitats, and the populations of marine \r\norganisms encountering ocean-based risks, including. Likewise, \r\nChapters 2 and 3 describe emerging knowledge on how ecosystems \r\nin high-mountain and polar areas are adapting to cryosphere decline. "


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"The effectiveness and performance of different adaptation options \r\nacross spatial and social scales is influenced by their social \r\nacceptance, political feasibility, cost-efficiency, co-benefits and \r\ntrade-offs (Jones et al., 2012; Adger et al., 2013; Eriksen et al., 2015). \r\nScientific evaluation of past successes and future options, including \r\nunderstanding barriers, limits, risks and opportunities, are complex \r\nand inadequately researched (Magnan and Ribera, 2016). In the end, \r\nadaptation priorities will depend on multiple parameters including \r\nthe extent and rate of climate change, the risk attitudes and social \r\npreferences of individuals and institutions (and the returns they may \r\ngain) (Adger et al., 2009; Brugger et al., 2015; Evans et al., 2016; Neef \r\net al., 2018) and access to finances, technology, capacity and other \r\nresources (Berrang-Ford et al., 2014; Eisenack et al., 2014)."


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"that determine how the river-based ecosystem services that sustain \r\nfood, water and energy are used and distributed (Rasul, 2014; Warner, \r\n2016; Lele et al., 2018; Pahl-Wostl et al., 2018). Small Island States \r\nface rising seas that threaten habitability of their homeland and the \r\npossibility of losing their nation-state, cultural identity and voices \r\nin international governance (Gerrard and Wannier, 2013; Philip, \r\n2018; Section 1.4, Cross-Chapter Box 9), highlighting the need for \r\ntransboundary components to governance."


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"SROCC conceptualises governance as deciding, managing, \r\nimplementing and monitoring policies in the context of ocean and \r\ncryosphere change. Institutions are defined as formal and informal \r\nsocial rules that shape human behaviour (Roggero et al., 2017). \r\nGovernance guides how different actors negotiate, mediate their \r\ninterests and share their rights and responsibilities (Forino et al., \r\n2015; See SROCC Annex I: Glossary and Cross-Chapter Box  3 in \r\nChapter 1 for definition). Governance and institutions interface with \r\nclimate and social-ecological change process across local, regional \r\nand global scales (Fischer et al., 2015; Pahl-Wostl, 2019). "


id: d43f50913e3b220ee2f1def87b65a520
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"These governance challenges cannot be met without working across \r\nmultiple organisations and institutions, bringing varying capacities, \r\nframeworks and spatial extents (Cross-Chapter Box 3 in Chapter 1). \r\nProgress in governance for ocean and cryosphere change will require \r\nfilling gaps in legal frameworks (Amsler, 2016), aligning spatial \r\nmismatches (Eriksen et al., 2015; Young, 2016; Cosens et al., 2018), \r\nimproving the ability for nations to cooperate effectively (Downie \r\nand Williams, 2018; Hall and Persson, 2018) and integrating across \r\ndivided policy domains, most notably of climate change adaptation \r\nand disaster risk reduction (e.g., where slow sea level change also \r\nalters the implications for civil defense planning and the management \r\nof extreme events; Mysiak et al., 2018). "


id: 6eedb256be159afbb150c4f7ea12de94
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"SROCC explores how the interlinked social-ecological systems affect \r\nchallenge current governance systems in the context of ocean and \r\ncryosphere change. These challenges include three aspects. First, \r\nthe scale of changes to ocean and cryosphere properties driven by \r\nglobal warming, and in the ecosystems they support and services \r\nthey provide, are poorly matched to existing scales of governance \r\n(Sections 2.2.2.1; 2.3.1.3; 3.2.1; 3.5.3). Second, the nature of changes \r\nin ecosystem services resulting from changes in ocean and cryosphere \r\nproperties, including services provided to humans living far from the \r\nmountains and coasts, are poorly matched to existing institutions \r\nand processes of governance (Section  4.4.4). Third, many possible \r\ngovernance responses to these challenges could be of limited or \r\ndiminished effectiveness unless they are coordinated on scales \r\nbeyond that of currently available governance options (Section 6.9.2; \r\nBox 5.5)."


id: d17b0697f6886d404d938a45fce4f3ac
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"Harmonising local, regional and global governance structures would \r\nprovide an overarching policy framework for action and allocation \r\nof necessary resources for adaptation. Coordinating the top-down \r\nand bottom-up governance processes (Bisaro and Hinkel, 2016; Sabel \r\nand Victor, 2017; Homsy et al., 2019) to increase effectiveness of \r\nresponses, mobilise and equitably distribute adequate resources and \r\naccess private and public sector capabilities requires a polycentric \r\napproach to governance (Ostrom, 2010; Jordan et al., 2015). \r\nPolycentric governance connotes a complex form of governance with \r\nmultiple centres of decision making working with some degree of \r\nautonomy (Carlisle and Gruby, 2017; Baldwin et al., 2018; Mewhirter \r\net al., 2018; Hamilton and Lubell, 2019). "


id: 529c8f2ef02dc1cee193e1ef4021bac2
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content:
"Hydrological processes in the high mountain cryosphere connect \r\nthrough upstream and downstream areas of river basins (Molden \r\net al., 2016; Chen et al., 2018), including floodplains and deltaic \r\nregions (Kilroy, 2015; Cross-Chapter Box 3 in Chapter 1). These cross \r\nboundary linkages challenge local-scale governance and institutions "


id: b74e8b5aba8814c24747ba495fff2d5d
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content:
"The Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC), together with the Special Report on Global \r\nWarming of 1.5oC (SR15) (IPCC, 2018), highlights the critical role of governance in implementing effective climate adaptation. \r\nChapter 2 explores local community institutions offering autonomous adaptation in the Alps, Andes, Himalayas and other mountain"


id: a9b3571f17766b04ec5c368153469c32
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"Figure CB3.1 | Spatial distribution of multi-faceted governance arrangements for the ocean, coasts and cryosphere (Panel A) sovereignty, sovereign rights, \r\njurisdictions and freedoms defined for different ocean zones and sea by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (Panel B). Figure CB3.1 is \r\ndesigned to be illustrative and is not comprehensive of all governance arrangements for the ocean, coasts and cryosphere. "


id: b8b8d995e602f412533013b72f12db37
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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"Governance, exercised through legal, administrative and other social processes, is essential to prevent, mitigate and adapt to \r\nthe  challenges and risks posed by a changing climate. These governance processes determine roles in the exercising of power \r\nand  hence decision-making (Graham et al., 2003). Governance may be an act of governments (e.g.,  passing laws or providing"


id: 4a8d77f77c2cf86bf1593dc92d56ecd7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"incentives or information such that citizens can respond more effectively to climate change); private sector actions (e.g., insurance); \r\na co-operative effort among local actors governing themselves through customary law (e.g., by establishing entitlements or norms \r\nregulating the common use of scarce resources); a collaborative multi-level effort involving multiple actors (state, private and civil \r\nsociety; e.g., UNFCCC); or a multi-national effort (e.g., Antarctic Treaty; see Figure CB3.2). The complexities of governance arrangements \r\nin the ocean, coasts and cryosphere (Figure CB3.1), and the interactions and emergence of relationships between different governance \r\nactors in multiple configurations across various spatial scales (Figure CB3.2) are illustrated below."


id: b1128a74af9ba5e64091fe12ccb3a0a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"Case Study 3 - Coastal Governance: Risk management for sea level changes in the City of Cape Town, South Africa. Sea level \r\nrise and coastal flooding are the focus of the City of Cape Town's coastal climate adaptation efforts. The Milnerton coastline High \r\nWater Mark, a non-static line marking the high tide, is creating a governance conflict by moving landwards (due to sea level rise) \r\nand intersecting with private property boundaries, threatening public beaches and the dune cordon and placing private property \r\nand  municipal infrastructure at risk in storm conditions (Sowman et al., 2016). Private property owners are using a mixture \r\nof formal, ad hoc, and in some cases illegal, coastal barrier measures to protect their assets from sea level and storm risks, but \r\nthese are creating additional erosion impacts on the coastline. Legally, the City of Cape Town is not responsible for remediating "


id: 1ad1a44f67821a51d42f027e5940c9fb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"private land impacted by coastal erosion (Smith et al., 2016). However, city officials feel compelled to take action for the common good \r\nusing a progressive, multi-stakeholder participatory approach. This involves opening up opportunities for dialogue and co-producing \r\nknowledge, instead of a purely legalistic and state-centric compliance approach (Colenbrander et al., 2015). The city's actions are \r\nboth mindful of international frameworks on climate change and responsive to national and provincial legislation and policy. A major \r\nchallenge that remains is how to navigate the power struggles that will be triggered by this consultative process, as different actors \r\ndefine and negotiate their interests, roles and responsibilities (see Section 4.4.3; Table 4.9). "


id: 1d35790a9799268c3fb8afc9f3c54350
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"Assessments of how climate change interacts with the planet and \r\npeople are largely based on scientific knowledge from observations, \r\ntheories, modelling and synthesis to understand physical and \r\necological systems (Section 1.8.1), societies (e.g., Cross-Chapter Box 2 \r\nin Chapter 1, Section 1.5) and institutions (e.g., Cross-Chapter Box 3 \r\nin Chapter 1). However, humans integrate information from multiple \r\nsources to observe and interact with their environment, respond to \r\nchanges, and solve problems. Accordingly, SROCC also recognises \r\nthe importance of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge in \r\nunderstanding and responding to changes in the ocean and cryosphere \r\n(Sections 1.8.2, 1.8.3; Cross-Chapter Box 4 in Chapter 1)."


id: 7e99783940e7ff66a157c306c4bd3534
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content:
"Long-term sustained observations are critical for detecting and \r\nunderstanding the processes of ocean and cryosphere change (Rhein \r\net al., 2013; Vaughan et al., 2013). Scientific knowledge of the ocean \r\nand cryosphere has increased through time and geographical space \r\n(Figure  1.3). In situ ocean subsurface temperature and salinity \r\nobservations have increased in spatial and temporal coverage \r\nsince the middle of the 19th century (Abraham et al., 2013), and \r\nnear global coverage (60oS-60oN) of the upper 2,000 m has been \r\nachieved since 2007 due to the international Argo network (Riser \r\net al., 2016; Figure  1.3). Improved data quality and data analysis \r\ntechniques have reduced uncertainties in global ocean heat uptake \r\nestimates (Sections 1.4.1, 5.2.2). In addition to providing deep ocean "


id: 1a339b9e5fe8c8748a79318556187058
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"Models are numerical approximations of the Earth system that allow \r\nhypotheses about the mechanisms of ocean and cryosphere change \r\nto be tested, support attribution of observed changes to specific \r\nforcings (Section  1.3), and are the best available information for \r\nassessing future change (Figure  1.3). General Circulation Models \r\n(GCMs) typically simulate the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice, and land \r\nsurface, and sometimes also incorporate terrestrial and marine \r\necosystems. Earth System Models (ESM) are climate models that \r\nexplicitly include the carbon cycle and may include additional \r\ncomponents (e.g.,  atmospheric chemistry, ice sheets, dynamic \r\nvegetation, nitrogen cycle, but also urban or crop models). The \r\nsystematic set of global-scale model experiments (Taylor et al., 2012) \r\nused in SROCC were produced by CMIP5 (Cross-Chapter Box  1 in \r\nChapter 1), including both GCMs and ESMs. "


id: dda278bb734dcaeafe43f707cacb380
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"natural systems (Wohling, 2009). Some forms of IK and LK are \r\nalso not amenable to being captured in peer-reviewed articles or \r\npublished reports, and efforts to translate IK and LK into qualitative \r\nor quantitative data may mute the multidimensional, dynamic and \r\nnuanced features that give IK and LK meaning (DeWalt, 1994; \r\nRoncoli et al., 2009; Goldman and Lovell, 2017). Nonetheless, efforts \r\nto collaborate with IK and LK knowledge holders (Baptiste et al., \r\n2017; Karki et al., 2017; Lavrillier and Gabyshev, 2017; Roue et al., \r\n2017; David-Chavez and Gavin, 2018) and to systematically assess \r\npublished IK and LK literature in parallel with scientific knowledge \r\nresult in increasingly effective usage of the multiple knowledge \r\nsystems to better characterise and address ocean and cryosphere \r\nchange (Huntington et al., 2017; Nalau et al., 2018; Ford et al., 2019)."


id: 12c23c22ad0110cecb738fc677f56747
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"Humans create, use, and adapt knowledge systems to interact with \r\ntheir environment (Agrawal, 1995; Escobar, 2001; Sillitoe, 2007), and \r\nto observe and respond to change (Huntington, 2000; Gearheard et al., \r\n2013; Maldonado et al., 2016; Yeh, 2016). Indigenous knowledge \r\n(IK) refers to the understandings, skills, and philosophies developed \r\nby societies with long histories of interaction with their natural \r\nsurroundings. It is passed on from generation to generation, flexible, \r\nand adaptive in changing conditions, and increasingly challenged \r\nin the context of contemporary climate change. Local knowledge \r\n(LK) is what non-Indigenous communities, both rural and urban, \r\nuse on a daily and lifelong basis. It is multi-generational, embedded \r\nin community practices and cultures and adaptive to changing \r\nconditions (FAO, 2018). Each chapter of SROCC cites examples of IK \r\nand LK related to ocean and cryosphere change."


id: f922609c5c2a53548ec0f215acfda85e
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"IK and LK stand on their own, and also enrich and complement each \r\nother and scientific knowledge. For example, Australian Aboriginal \r\ngroups' Indigenous oral history provides empirical corroboration of \r\nthe sea level rise 7,000 years ago (Nunn and Reid, 2016), and their \r\nseasonal calendars direct hunting, fishing, planting, conservation and \r\ndetection of unusual changes today (Green et al., 2010). LK works in \r\ntandem with scientific knowledge, for example, as coastal Australian \r\ncommunities consider the impacts and trade-offs of sea level rise \r\n(O'Neill and Graham, 2016)."


id: 22819565850a734c1cc97de8da750e7d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"To hold global average temperature to well below 2oC above \r\npre-industrial levels, substantial changes in the day-to-day activities of \r\nindividuals, families, communities, the private sector, and governance \r\nbodies will be required (Ostrom, 2010; Creutzig et al., 2018). Enabling \r\nthese changes at a meaningful societal scale requires sensitivity to \r\ncommunities and their use of multiple knowledge systems to best \r\nmotivate effective responses to the risks and opportunities posed by \r\nclimate change (medium confidence) (1.8.2, Cross-Chapter Box 4 in \r\nChapter 1). Meaningful engagement of people and communities with \r\nclimate change information depends on that information cohering \r\nwith their perception of how the world works (Crate and Fedorov, \r\n2013). The values and identities people hold affect how acceptable \r\nthey find the behavioural changes, technological solutions and \r\ngovernance that climate change action requires (Moser, 2016). "


id: 33387e173f05bea01efc6531c6d20f7a
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"Both IK and LK are increasingly used in climate change research \r\nand policy efforts to engage affected communities to facilitate \r\nsite-specific understandings of, and responses to, the local effects of \r\nclimate change (Hiwasaki et al., 2014; Hou et al., 2017; Mekonnen \r\net al., 2017). IK and LK enrich CRDPs particularly by engaging \r\nmultiple stakeholders and the diversity of socioeconomic, cultural \r\nand linguistic contexts of populations affected by changes in the \r\nocean and cryosphere (Cross-Chapter Box 4 in Chapter 1). "


id: 559dd9af84cecc3aee6f1166675d6820
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"Human psychology complicates engagement with climate change, \r\ndue to complex social factors, including values (Corner et al., 2014), \r\nidentity (Unsworth and Fielding, 2014), ideology (Smith and Mayer, \r\n2019) and the framing of climate messaging. Additionally, psychology "


id: 5cfca7993d0e74ef261f41fa8f1ab3d9
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"change on natural and human environments (e.g., extreme weather) \r\nor human-caused modifications to the environment (e.g., adaptation) \r\nwill raise further psychological challenges. This includes psychological \r\nimpacts to the emotional wellbeing of people adversely affected \r\nby climate change (Ogunbode et al., 2018), resulting in solastalgia \r\n(Albrecht et al., 2007), a distress akin to homesickness while in their \r\nhome environment (McNamara and Westoby, 2011)."


id: c8bd8ba196bafb23ad03fcf77b6fbeb1
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content:
"effects adaptation actions, motivated by perceptions that others \r\nare already adapting, avoidance of an unpleasant state of mind, \r\nfeelings of self-efficacy and belief in the efficacy of the adaptation \r\naction (van Valkengoed and Steg, 2019). Better understandings of \r\nthe psychological implications across diverse communities and social \r\nand political contexts will facilitate a just transition of both emissions \r\nreduction and adaptation (Schlosberg et al., 2017). Impacts of climate "


id: f7c9e539d2d148daaf15f2bc0dbb250b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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"This Cross-Chapter Box describes how Indigenous knowledge (IK) and local knowledge (LK) are different and unique sources \r\nof knowledge, which are critical to observing, responding to, and governing the ocean and cryosphere in a changing climate (See SROCC \r\nAnnex I: Glossary for definitions). International organisations recognise the importance of IK and LK in global assessments, including\r\nUN Environment, UNDP, UNESCO, IPBES, and the World Bank. IK and LK are referenced throughout SROCC, understanding that \r\nmany climate change impacts affect, and will require responses from, local communities (both Indigenous and non-Indigenous) who\r\nmaintain a close connection with the ocean and/or cryosphere."


id: 6df0f1d5f721c0fc4b0c3b79b096216d
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"Observations: IK and LK observations document glacier and sea ice dynamics, permafrost dynamics, coastal processes, etc. \r\n(Sections 2.3.2.2.2, 2.5, 3.2.2, 3.4.1.1, 3.4.1.1, 3.4.1.2, 4.3.2.4.2, 5.2.3 and Box 2.4), and how they interact with social-cultural factors \r\n(West and Hovelsrud, 2010). Researchers have begun documenting IK and LK observations only recently (Sections 2.3.1.1, 3.2, 3.4, \r\n3.5, Box 4.4, 5.4.2.2.1)."


id: 48a51aff669b6755e630ab23f644c05c
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"Responses: Either IK or LK alone (Yager, 2015), or used with scientific knowledge (Nusser and Schmidt, 2017) inform responses \r\n(Sections 2.3.1.3.2, 2.3.2.2.2, 3.5.2, 3.5.4, 4.4.2, Box 4.4, 5.5.2, 6.8.4, 6.9.2). Utilising multiple knowledge systems requires continued \r\ndevelopment, accumulation, and transmission of IK, LK and scientific knowledge towards understanding the ecological and cultural\r\ncontext of diverse peoples (Crate and Fedorov, 2013; Jones et al., 2016), resulting in the incorporation of relevant priorities and \r\ncontexts into adaptation responses (Sections 3.5.2, 3.5.4, 4.4.4, 5.5.2, 6.8.4, 6.9.2, Box 2.3)."


id: f31a6a680d63850342b64d68f82a4d2b
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"Governance: Using IK and LK in climate decision and policy making includes customary Indigenous and local institutions (Karlsson and \r\nHovelsrud, 2015), as in the case when Indigenous communities are engaged in an integrated approach for disaster risk reduction in \r\nresponse to cryosphere hazards (Carey et al., 2015). The effective engagement of communities and stakeholders in decisions requires \r\nusing the multiple knowledge systems available (Chilisa, 2011; Sections 2.3.1.3.2, 2.3.2.3, 3.5.4, 4.4.4, Table 4.4, 5.5.2, 6.8.4, 6.9.2; \r\nSections 2.3.1.3.2, 2.3.2.3, 3.5.4, 4.4.4, Table 4.9, 5.5.2, 6.8.4, 6.9.2)."


id: b097c62af3c2769b96b2f26353f97fe0
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"IK and LK in the Pacific: Historically, Pacific communities, who depend on marine resources for essential protein (Pratchett et al., 2011), \r\nuse LK for management systems to determine access to, and closure of, fishing grounds, the latter to respect community deaths, sacred \r\nsites, and customary feasts. Today a hybrid system, Locally Managed Marine Protected Areas (LMMAs), is common and integrates local \r\ngovernance with NGO or government agency interventions (Jupiter et al., 2014). The expected benefits of these management systems\r\nsupport climate change adaptation through sustainable resource management (Roberts et al., 2017) and mitigation through improved \r\ncarbon storage (Vierros, 2017). The challenges to wider use include both how to upscale LMMAs (Roberts et al., 2017; Vierros, 2017), \r\nand how to assess them as climate change adaptation and mitigation solutions (Rohe et al., 2017; Section 5.4)."


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content:
"LK in the Alps: Mountain guides and other local residents engaged in supporting mountain tourism draw on LK for livelihood \r\nmanagement. A study at Mont Blanc lists specific cryosphere changes which they have observed, including glacial shrinkage and \r\nreduction in ice and snow cover. As a result, the categorisation of the difficulty of a number of routes has changed, and the timing \r\nof the climbing season has shifted earlier (Mourey and Ravanel, 2017; Section 2.3.5)."


id: fde66f183461919b245e320ac92e7a35
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content:
"LK to manage flooding: Climate change is increasing glacial melt water and rain-induced disasters in the Himalayan region and \r\naffected communities in China, Nepal, and India use LK to adapt (Nadeem et al., 2012). For instance, rains upstream in Gandaki \r\n(Nepal) flood downstream areas of Bihar, India. Local communities' knowledge of forecasting floods has evolved over time through \r\nthe complexities of caste, class, gender and ecological flux, and is critical to flood forecasting and disaster risk reduction. Local \r\ncommunities manage risk by using a diverse set of knowledge, including phenomenological (e.g., river sound), ecological (e.g., red ant \r\nmovement) and riverine (e.g., river colour) indicators, alongside meteorological and official information (Acharya and Prakash, 2018; \r\nSection 2.3.2.3)."


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"Knowledge Holders' Recommendations for Utilising IK and LK in Assessment Reports\r\nPerspectives from the Himalayas: IK and LK holders in the Himalayas have conducted long-term systematic observations in these remote \r\nareas for centuries. Contemporary IK details change in phenology, weather patterns, and flora and fauna species, which enriches scientific \r\nknowledge of glacial retreat and potential glacial lake outbursts (Sherpa, 2014). The scientific community can close many knowledge gaps \r\nby engaging IK and LK holders as counterparts. Suggestions towards this objective are to work with affected communities to elicit their \r\nknowledge of change, especially IK and LK holders with more specialised knowledge (farmers, herders, mountain guides, etc.), and use \r\nlocation- and culture-specific approaches to share scientific knowledge and use it with IK and LK."


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"SROCC assesses literature on ocean and cryosphere change and \r\nassociated impacts and responses, focusing on advances in knowledge \r\nsince AR5. The literature used is primarily published, peer-reviewed \r\nscientific, social science and humanities research. In some cases, grey \r\nliterature sources (for example, published reports from governments, \r\nindustry, research institutes and non-government organisations) are \r\nused where there are important gaps in available peer-reviewed \r\nliterature. It is recognised that published knowledge from many parts \r\nof the world most vulnerable to ocean and cryosphere change is still \r\nlimited (Czerniewicz et al., 2017). "


id: bd60256a4dbfcac6cba9171b3bb91956
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Where possible, SROCC draws upon established methodologies \r\nand/or frameworks. Cross-Chapter Boxes in Chapter  1 address \r\nmethodologies used for projections of future change (Cross-Chapter \r\nBox 1 in Chapter 1), for assessing and reducing risk (Cross-Chapter \r\nBox 2 in Chapter 1), for governance options relevant to a problem \r\nor region (Cross-Chapter Box  3 in Chapter  1), and for using IK \r\nand LK (Cross-Chapter Box 4 in Chapter 1). It is recognised in the \r\nassessment process that multiple and non-static factors determine \r\nhuman vulnerabilities to climate change impacts, and that \r\necosystems provide essential services that have both commercial \r\nand non-commercial value (Section 1.5). Economic methods are also \r\nimportant in SROCC, for estimating the economic value of natural \r\nsystems, and for aiding decision-making around mitigation and \r\nadaptation strategies (Section 1.6)."


id: 293af74370ea495374db4ce4cb69cad9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"SROCC uses calibrated language for the communication of \r\nconfidence in the assessment process (Mastrandrea et al., 2010; \r\nMach et al., 2017). Calibrated language is designed to consistently \r\nevaluate and communicate uncertainties that arise from incomplete \r\nknowledge due to a lack of information, or from disagreement about \r\nwhat is known or even knowable. The IPCC calibrated language \r\nuses qualitative expressions of confidence based on the robustness \r\nof evidence for a finding, and (where possible) uses quantitative \r\nexpressions to describe the likelihood of a finding (Figure 1.4)."


id: 1e1b2f1c74ad2a289ad9dc2445b53a6e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2497
content:
"Qualitative expressions (confidence scale) describe the validity \r\nof a finding based on the type, amount, quality and consistency of \r\nevidence, and the degree of agreement between different lines \r\nof evidence (Figure  1.4, step 2). Evidence includes all knowledge \r\nsources, including IK and LK where available. Very high and high\r\nconfidence findings are those that are supported by multiple lines \r\nof robust evidence with high agreement. Low or very low confidence \r\ndescribe findings for which there is limited evidence and/or low \r\nagreement among different lines of evidence, and are only presented \r\nin SROCC if they address a major topic of concern. "


id: 8bcf163e5bfc7190fed97fc743e233d0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21770
content:
"* Evolution of the Antarctic Ice Sheet beyond the end of the 21st century is characterised by \r\ndeep uncertainty as ice sheet models lack realistic representations of some of the \r\n underlying physical processes. {Cross-Chapter Box 8 in Chapter 3}"


id: 9cd37aa27922e53ac12264e735380e7f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24829
content:
"Figure 1.4 | Schematic of the IPCC usage of calibrated language, with examples \r\nof confidence and likelihood statements from this report. Figure  developed \r\nafter Mastrandrea et al. (2010), Mach et al. (2017) and Sutton (2018)."


id: 45289d3da917da8895aeea49ce805e43
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9394
content:
"Ramanathan, 2017; Spratt and Dunlop, 2018; Sutton, 2018). In \r\nresponse to the need to reframe policy relevant assessments according \r\nto risk (Section 1.5; Mach et al., 2016; Weaver et al., 2017; Sutton, \r\n2018), an effort is made in SROCC to report on potential changes \r\nfor which there is low scientific confidence or a low likelihood of \r\noccurrence, but that would have large impacts if realised (Mach \r\net al., 2017). In some cases where evidence is limited or emerging, \r\nphenomena may instead be discussed according to physically \r\nplausible scenarios of impact (e.g., Table 6.1). "


id: c46a4af81f666ba9871e2e1df9581f05
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31857
content:
"In some cases, deep uncertainty (Cross-Chapter Box 5 in Chapter 1) \r\nmay exist in current scientific assessments of the processes, rate, \r\ntiming, magnitude, and consequences of future ocean and cryosphere \r\nchanges. This includes physically plausible high-impact changes, \r\nsuch as high-end sea level rise scenarios that would be costly if \r\nrealised without effective adaptation planning and even then may \r\nexceed limits to adaptation. Means such as expert judgement, \r\nscenario building, and invoking multiple lines of evidence enable \r\ncomprehensive risk assessments even in cases of uncertain future \r\nocean and cryosphere changes."


id: 9c5292cb634c326603dc4e155797cec7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24757
content:
"It is increasingly recognised that effective risk management requires \r\nassessments not just of 'what is most likely' but also of 'how bad \r\nthings could get' (Mach et al., 2017; Weaver et al., 2017; Xu and "


id: c4130e245a23090c45390c6852eeeb52
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31780
content:
"Characterising, assessing and managing risks to climate change involves dealing with inherent uncertainties. Uncertainties can lead to \r\ncomplex decision-making situations for managers and policymakers tasked with risk management, particularly where decisions relate \r\nto possibilities assessed as having low or unknown confidence/likelihood, yet would have high impacts if realised. While uncertainty \r\ncan be quantitatively or qualitatively assessed (Section 1.9.2; Figure 1.4), a situation of deep uncertainty exists when experts or \r\nstakeholders do not know or cannot agree on: (1) appropriate conceptual models that describe relationships among key driving forces \r\nin a system; (2) the probability distributions used to represent uncertainty about key variables and parameters; and/or, (3) how to \r\nweigh and value desirable alternative outcomes (adapted from Lempert et al., 2003; Marchau et al., 2019b)."


id: 34afa6282ad82785dbc93d462f10eb85
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"The concept of deep uncertainty has been debated and addressed in the literature for some time, with diverse terminology used. \r\nTerms such as great uncertainty (Hansson and Hirsch Hadorn, 2017), contested uncertain knowledge (Douglas and Wildavsky, 1983),\r\nambiguity (Ellsberg, 1961) and Knightian uncertainty (Knight, 1921) among others, are also present in the literature to refer to the \r\nmultiple components of uncertainty that need to be accounted for in decision making. The purpose of this Cross-Chapter Box is to \r\nconstructively engage with the concept of deep uncertainty, by first providing some context for how the IPCC has dealt with deep\r\nuncertainty in the past. This is followed by examples of cases from the ocean and cryosphere assessments in the Special Report on the \r\nOceans and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC), where deep uncertainty has been addressed to advance assessment of risks \r\nand their management."


id: c94eab6a0a0a8b9336f99f609b050d61
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"p y\r\nThe IPCC assessment process provides instances of how deep uncertainty can manifest. In assessing the scientific evidence for \r\nanthropogenic climate change, and its influence on the Earth system in the past and future, IPCC assessments can identify areas where \r\na large range of possibilities exist in the scientific literature or where knowledge of the underlying processes and responses is lacking. \r\nExisting guidelines to ensure consistent treatment of uncertainties by IPCC author teams (Mastrandrea et al., 2010; Section 1.9.2) may \r\nnot be sufficient to ensure the desired consistency or guide robust findings when conditions of deep uncertainty are present (Adler \r\nand Hirsch Hadorn, 2014)."


id: 497041744765dcde67da78e2b039d90d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"The three cases validate the continued iterative process required to meaningfully engage with deep uncertainty in situations of risk, \r\nthrough means such as elicitation, deliberation and application of expert judgement, scenario building and invoking multiple lines \r\nof evidence. These approaches demonstrate feasible ways to address or even reduce deep uncertainty in complex decision situations \r\n(see also Marchau et al., 2019a), considering that possible obstacles and time investment needed to address deep uncertainty, should \r\nnot be underestimated."


id: 5b58dd4cde081ec056c926030c4c871
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13314
content:
"This report does not attempt to assess all aspects of the ocean and \r\ncryosphere in a changing climate. Examples of research themes that \r\nwill be covered elsewhere in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Cycle and \r\nnot SROCC include: assessments of ocean and cryosphere changes in \r\nthe CMIP6 experiments (AR6), cryosphere changes outside of polar \r\nand high mountain regions (e.g., snow cover in temperate and low \r\naltitude settings; AR6), and a thorough assessment of mitigation \r\noptions for reducing climate change impacts (SR15, AR6 WGIII). "


id: f34f906bfbfa7c51bc18889ae0dafa9c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40183
content:
"The chapters that follow in this special report are framed around \r\ngeographies or climatic processes where the ocean and/or \r\ncryosphere are particularly important for ecosystems and people. The \r\nchapter order follows the movement of water from Earth's shrinking \r\nmountain and polar cryosphere into our rising and warming ocean. "


id: 878a2d45eb8039567ac8c2ae550008ae
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21001
content:
"The ocean and cryosphere regulate the climate and weather on Earth, provide food and water, support economies, trade and \r\ntransportation, shape cultures and influence our well-being. Many of the recent changes in Earth's ocean and cryosphere are \r\nthe result of human activities and have consequences on everyone's life. Deep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions will reduce \r\nnegative impacts on billions of people and help them adapt to changes in their environment. Improving education and \r\ncombining scientific knowledge with Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge helps communities to further address the \r\nchallenges ahead."


id: 73acf3a1e1564b61fcc15e5bd1155803
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17599
content:
"The ocean and cryosphere - a collective name for the frozen parts of the Earth - are essential to the climate and \r\nlife giving processes on our planet. "


id: 19d29bf129a2b9ee9900e053b03494ad
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1737
content:
"Changes in the ocean and cryosphere occur naturally, but the speed, magnitude, and pervasiveness of the \r\nglobal changes happening right now have not been observed for millennia or longer. Evidence shows that \r\nthe majority of ocean and cryosphere changes observed in the past few decades are the result of human \r\ninfluences on Earth's climate. "


id: 2ba9363fd8f7685d53c78059f053dc5a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4940
content:
"Every one of us benefits from the role of the ocean and cryosphere in regulating climate and weather. The ocean \r\nhas absorbed about a third of the carbon dioxide humans have emitted from the burning of fossil fuels since the \r\nIndustrial Revolution, and the majority (more than 90%) of the extra heat within the Earth system. In this way, \r\nthe ocean has slowed the warming humans and ecosystems have experienced on land. The reflective surface of \r\nsnow and ice reduce the amount of the sun's energy that is absorbed on Earth. This effect diminishes as snow and \r\nice melts, contributing to amplified temperature rise across the Arctic. The ocean and cryosphere also sustain life \r\ngiving water resources, by rain and snow that come from the ocean, and by melt water from snow and glaciers \r\nin mountain and polar regions."


id: 98543e06ef04c65df223e76eb927bffa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24010
content:
"Nearly two billion people live near the coast, and around 800 million on land less than 10 m above sea level. \r\nThe ocean directly supports the food, economies, cultures and well-being of coastal populations (see FAQ 1.2). \r\nThe livelihoods of many more are tied closely to the ocean through food, trade, and transportation. Fish and \r\nshellfish contribute about 17% of the non-grain protein in human diets and shipping transports at least 80% of \r\ninternational imports and exports. But the ocean also brings hazards to coastal populations and infrastructure, \r\nand particularly to low-lying coasts. These populations are increasingly exposed to tropical cyclones, marine heat \r\nwaves, sea level rise, coastal flooding and saltwater incursion into groundwater resources."


id: 198aaa21098a5621da4b6faa34c356b4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1704
content:
"In high mountains and the Arctic, around 700 million people live in close contact with the cryosphere. These \r\npeople, including many Indigenous Peoples, depend on snow, glaciers and sea ice for their livelihoods, food \r\nand water security, travel and transport, and cultures (see FAQ 1.2). They are also exposed to hazards as the \r\ncryosphere changes, including flood outbursts, landslides and coastal erosion. Changes in the polar and high \r\nmountain regions also have far-reaching consequences for people in other parts of the world (see FAQ 3.1)."


id: bf500f000df648b7cab7024c99e2f121
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30927
content:
"Warming of the climate system leads to sea level rise. Melt from glaciers and ice sheets is adding to the amount \r\nof water in the ocean, and the heat being absorbed by the ocean is causing it to expand and take up more \r\nspace. Today's sea level is already about 20 cm higher than in 1900. Sea level will continue to rise for centuries \r\nto millennia because the ocean system reacts slowly. Even if global warming were to be halted, it would take \r\ncenturies or more to halt ice sheet melt and ocean warming."


id: cf511f0a8d3c73cb62c7c23b6cbc541d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33825
content:
"Enhanced warming in the Arctic and in high mountains is causing rapid surface melt of glaciers and the \r\nGreenland ice sheet. Thawing of permafrost is destabilising soils, human infrastructure, and Arctic coasts, and \r\nhas the potential to release vast quantities of methane and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere that will further \r\nexacerbate climate change. Widespread loss of sea ice in the Arctic is opening up new routes for shipping, but \r\nat the same time is reducing habitats for key species and affecting the livelihoods of Indigenous cultures. In \r\nAntarctica, glacier and ice sheet loss is occurring particularly quickly in places where ice is in direct contact with \r\nwarm ocean water, further contributing to sea level rise. "


id: 385b8125de6258a67c1f99e278d34ac7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7124
content:
"Ocean ecosystems are threatened globally by three major climate change-induced stressors: warming, loss \r\nof oxygen and acidification. Marine heat waves are occurring everywhere across the surface ocean, and are \r\nbecoming more frequent and more intense as the ocean warms. These are causing disease and mass-mortality "


id: 7c8b5f9081206210c8e0339c0d794b9a
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19108
content:
"that put, for example, coral reefs and fish populations at risk. Marine heat waves last much longer than the heat \r\nwaves experienced on land, and are particularly harmful for organisms that cannot move away from areas of \r\nwarm water. "


id: 7f8c52b9030aa47fcc24504bf61ddf7e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19584
content:
"Warming of the ocean reduces not only the amount of oxygen it can hold, but also tend to stratify it. As a result, \r\nless oxygen is transported to depth, where it is needed to support ocean life. Dissolved carbon dioxide that has \r\nbeen taken up by the ocean reacts with water molecules to increase the acidity of seawater. This makes the \r\nwater more corrosive for marine organisms that build their shells and structures out of mineral carbonates, such \r\nas corals, shellfish and plankton. These climate-change stressors occur alongside other human-driven impacts, \r\nsuch as overfishing, excessive nutrient loads (eutrophication), and plastic pollution. If human impacts on the \r\nocean continue unabated, declines in ocean health and services are projected to cost the global economy \r\n428 billion USD yr-1 by 2050, and 1.979 trillion USD yr-1 by 2100. "


id: f60111448ce93a4ef9cc1daa2c458d36
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40638
content:
"The speed and intensity of the future risks and impacts from ocean and cryosphere change depend critically on \r\nfuture greenhouse gas emissions. The more these emissions can be curbed, the more the changes in the ocean \r\nand cryosphere can be slowed and limited, reducing future risks and impacts. But humankind is also exposed to \r\nthe effects of changes triggered by past emissions, including sea level rise that will continue for centuries to come. \r\nImproving education and using scientific knowledge alongside local knowledge and Indigenous knowledge can \r\nsupport the development of context-specific options that help communities to adapt to inevitable changes and \r\nrespond to challenges ahead."


id: 3f14ffe60d807292dd5c6103a389ad3c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8287
content:
"Ocean and cryosphere change affect our ability to meet the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Progress \r\non the SDGs support climate action that will reduce future ocean and cryosphere change, and as well as the adaptation \r\nresponses to unavoidable changes. There are also trade-offs between SDGs and measures that help communities to adjust \r\nto their changing environment, but limiting greenhouse gas emissions opens more options for effective adaptation and \r\nsustainable development."


id: 72856ed5fbd8941a6a49189bb7dc9b91
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17389
content:
"The SDGs were adopted by the United Nations in 2015 to support action for people, planet and prosperity (FAQ \r\n1.2, Figure 1). The 17 goals and their 169 targets strive to end poverty and hunger, protect the planet and reduce \r\ngender, social and economic inequities by 2030."


id: 6d52ccd46918a200681b8aafd4667fd4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16513
content:
"SDG 13 (Climate Action) explicitly recognises that changing climatic conditions are a global concern. Climate \r\nchange is already causing pervasive changes in Earth's ocean and cryosphere (FAQ 1.1). These changes are \r\nimpacting food, water and health securities, with consequences for achieving SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 3 (Good \r\nHealth and Well-Being), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), and SDG 1 (No Poverty). Climate change impacts on \r\nEarth's ocean and cryosphere also affect the environmental goals for SDG 14 (Life below Water) and SDG 15 (Life \r\non Land), with additional implications for many of the other SDGs."


id: 53913fbebec64fa9090fc0c925c21a89
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11977
content:
"Rising temperatures, and changes in ocean nutrients, acidity and salinity are altering SDG 14 (Life Below Water). \r\nThe productivity and distributions of some fish species are changing in ways that alter availability of fish to \r\nlong-established fisheries, whereas the range of fish populations may move to become available in some new \r\ncoastal and open ocean areas. "


id: 94423e3293b33c9b3b4ef9535b5ce5c6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23289
content:
"and Environment and Mountain Research Initiative, with Bern Open \r\nPublishing (BOP), Bern, Switzerland. 12 pp."


id: 7d316ce9d7c568fc1220af6232568851
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19203
content:
"Hock, R., G. Rasul, C. Adler, B. Caceres, S. Gruber, Y. Hirabayashi, M. Jackson, A. Kaab, S. Kang, S. Kutuzov, Al. Milner, \r\nU. Molau, S. Morin, B. Orlove, and H. Steltzer, 2019: High Mountain Areas. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and \r\nCryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Portner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, \r\nK. Mintenbeck, A. Alegria, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, \r\nCambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 131-202. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.004."


id: cd39540f91040b75e08df691ddecac58
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33441
content:
"socioeconomic development (high confidence). Glacier retreat \r\nand permafrost thaw have decreased the stability of mountain slopes \r\nand the integrity of infrastructure (high confidence). The number \r\nand area of glacier lakes has increased in most regions in recent \r\ndecades (high confidence), but there is only limited evidence that \r\nthe frequency of glacier lake outburst floods (GLOF) has changed. In \r\nsome regions, snow avalanches involving wet snow have increased \r\n(medium confidence), and rain-on-snow floods have decreased at \r\nlow elevations in spring and increased at high elevations in winter \r\n(medium confidence). The number and extent of wildfires have \r\nincreased in the Western USA partly due to early snowmelt (medium \r\nconfidence). {2.3.2, 2.3.3}"


id: df59b4409e48ec4a0aead3d9afbf3f30
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36539
content:
"The cryosphere (including, snow, glaciers, permafrost, lake and \r\nriver ice) is an integral element of high mountain regions, which \r\nare home to roughly 10% of the global population. Widespread \r\ncryosphere changes affect physical, biological and human systems in \r\nthe mountains and surrounding lowlands, with impacts evident even \r\nin the ocean. Building on the IPCC's 5th Assessment Report (AR5), \r\nthis chapter assesses new evidence on observed recent and projected \r\nchanges in the mountain cryosphere as well as associated impacts, \r\nrisks and adaptation measures related to natural and human systems. \r\nImpacts in response to climate changes independently of changes in \r\nthe cryosphere are not assessed in this chapter. Polar mountains are \r\nincluded in Chapter 3, except those in Alaska and adjacent Yukon, \r\nIceland and Scandinavia, which are included in this chapter."


id: faf3370df3f415a657ec823229bc7e5b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41536
content:
"Glacier, snow and permafrost decline has altered the frequency, \r\nmagnitude and location of most related natural hazards (high \r\nconfidence). Exposure of people and infrastructure to natural \r\nhazards has increased due to growing population, tourism and "


id: aae7e6ce1d2e40d0ec26f60b1e07e3e2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27291
content:
"snow even in winter will occur more frequently (medium confidence). \r\nRain-on-snow floods will occur earlier in spring and later in autumn, \r\nand be more frequent at higher elevations and less frequent at lower \r\nelevations (high confidence). {2.3.2, 2.3.3}"


id: 7390679905b24778a922962708636549
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17586
content:
"in abundance (high confidence). While the plant productivity has \r\ngenerally increased, the actual impact on provisioning, regulating and \r\ncultural ecosystem services varies greatly (high confidence). {2.3.3}"


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vector_id: 1389
content:
"Tourism and recreation activities such as skiing, glacier \r\ntourism and mountaineering have been negatively impacted \r\nby declining snow cover, glaciers and permafrost (medium \r\nconfidence). In several regions, worsening route safety has reduced \r\nmountaineering opportunities (medium confidence). Variability and \r\ndecline in natural snow cover have compromised the operation of \r\nlow-elevation ski resorts (high confidence). Glacier and snow decline \r\nhave impacted aesthetic, spiritual and other cultural aspects of \r\nmountain landscapes (medium confidence), reducing the well-being \r\nof people (e.g.,  in the Himalaya, eastern Africa, and the tropical \r\nAndes). {2.3.5, 2.3.6}"


id: 804bf66c0dac4f888ffdc64219158b28
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19702
content:
"Adaptation in agriculture, tourism and drinking water supply \r\nhas aimed to reduce the impacts of cryosphere change \r\n(medium confidence), though there is limited evidence on their \r\neffectiveness owing to a lack of formal evaluations, or technical, \r\nfinancial and institutional barriers to implementation. In some \r\nplaces, artificial snowmaking has reduced the negative impacts on \r\nski tourism (medium confidence). Release and storage of water from \r\nreservoirs according to sectoral needs (agriculture, drinking water, \r\necosystems) has reduced the impact of seasonal variability on runoff \r\n(medium confidence). {2.3.1, 2.3.5} "


id: e1667d7d52419538252a6646fbc24f94
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36922
content:
"Cultural assets, such as snow- and ice-covered peaks in many \r\nUNESCO World Heritage sites, and tourism and recreation \r\nactivities, are expected to be negatively affected by future \r\ncryospheric change in many regions (high confidence). Current \r\nsnowmaking technologies are projected to be less effective in \r\na warmer climate in reducing risks to ski tourism in most parts of \r\nEurope, North America and Japan, in particular at 2oC global warming \r\nand beyond (high confidence). Diversification through year-round \r\nactivities supports adaptation of tourism under future climate change \r\n(medium confidence). {2.3.5, 2.3.6}"


id: e83a70f7971d0e371b4869ce0a055b6a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38188
content:
"Most types of natural hazards are projected to change in \r\nfrequency, magnitude and areas affected as the cryosphere \r\ncontinues to decline (high confidence). Glacier retreat and \r\npermafrost thaw are projected to decrease the stability of mountain \r\nslopes and increase the number and area of glacier lakes (high \r\nconfidence). Resulting landslides and floods, and cascading events, \r\nwill also emerge where there is no record of previous events (high \r\nconfidence). Snow avalanches are projected to decline in number \r\nand runout distance at lower elevation, and avalanches involving wet "


id: 8911691539be4ecbe94d8d072d75b785
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21279
content:
"Effective governance is a key enabler for reducing disaster \r\nrisk, considering relevant exposure factors such as planning, \r\nzoning, and urbanisation pressures, as well as vulnerability \r\nfactors such as poverty, which can challenge efforts towards \r\nresilience and sustainable development for communities (medium confidence). Reducing losses to disasters depend on \r\nintegrated and coordinated approaches to account for the hazards \r\nconcerned, the degree of exposure, and existing vulnerabilities. \r\nDiverse knowledge that includes community and multi-stakeholder \r\nexperience with past impacts complements scientific knowledge to \r\nanticipate future risks. {CCB-1, 2.3.2, 2.4}  "


id: f617ed173600a3367146c040b1135a3a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40654
content:
"International cooperation, treaties and conventions exist for \r\nsome mountain regions and transboundary river basins with \r\npotential to support adaptation action. However, there is \r\nlimited evidence on the extent to which impacts and losses \r\narising from changes in the cryosphere are specifically \r\nmonitored and addressed in these frameworks. A wide range \r\nof institutional arrangements and practices have emerged over the \r\npast three decades that respond to a shared global mountain agenda \r\nand specific regional priorities. There is potential to strengthen \r\nthem to also respond to climate-related cryosphere risks and open \r\nopportunities for development through adaptation (limited evidence, \r\nhigh agreement). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Sendai \r\nFramework and Paris Agreement have directed some attention in \r\nmountain-specific research and practice towards the monitoring and \r\nreporting on targets and indicators specified therein. {2.3.1, 2.4} "


id: 540ac69b3d7fb266ad16edb30424a5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12059
content:
"(671 million people) of the global population lived in high mountain \r\nregions in 2010, based on gridded population data (Jones and \r\nO'Neill, 2016) and a distance of less than 100 km from glaciers or \r\npermafrost located in mountains areas as defined in Figure 2.1. This \r\npopulation is expected to grow to 736-844 million across the shared \r\nsocioeconomic pathways by 2050 (Gao, 2019). Many people living \r\noutside of mountain areas and not included in these numbers are \r\nalso affected by changes in the mountain cryosphere."


id: c2d645156f3d4df97b4d1bcd5df0335
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31554
content:
"High mountain regions share common features, including rugged \r\nterrain, a low-temperature climate regime, steep slopes and \r\ninstitutional and spatial remoteness. These features are often linked \r\nto physical and social-ecological processes that, although not unique \r\nto mountain regions, typify many of the special aspects of these \r\nregions. Due to their higher elevation compared with the surrounding \r\nlandscape, mountains often feature cryosphere components, such as \r\nglaciers, snow cover and permafrost, with a significant influence on \r\nsurrounding lowland areas even far from the mountains (Huggel \r\net al., 2015a). Hence the mountain cryosphere plays a major role in \r\nlarge parts of the world. Considering the close relationship between \r\nmountains and the cryosphere, high mountain areas are addressed \r\nin a dedicated chapter within this special report. Almost 10% "


id: 1250c756587bba62c4ede82ae24f7aef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 422
content:
"This chapter assesses recent and projected changes in glaciers, snow \r\ncover, permafrost and lake and river ice in high mountain areas, their \r\ndrivers, as well as their impact on the different services provided by \r\nthe cryosphere and related adaptation, with a focus on literature \r\npublished after AR5. The assessment of cryospheric change is focused \r\non recent decades rather than a perspective over a longer period, "


id: 629700d610f4d78f9003342fb7ec7f8a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14632
content:
"Mountain surface air temperature observations in Western North \r\nAmerica, European Alps and High Mountain Asia show warming \r\nover recent decades at an average rate of 0.3oC per decade, with a \r\nlikely range of +- 0.2oC, thereby outpacing the global warming rate \r\n0.2 +- 0.1oC per decade (IPCC, 2018). Underlying data from global \r\nand regional studies are compiled in Table SM2.2, and Figure  2.2 \r\nprovides a synthesis on mountain warming trends, mostly based \r\non studies using in situ observations. Local warming rates depend \r\non the season (high confidence). For example, in the European Alps, "


id: ee05bf6e94cb54d3722f5e1ab61cfbc4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39253
content:
"combination of regional (high confidence) and elevation-dependent \r\n(medium confidence) enhancement factors. Underlying evidence \r\nof future projections from global and regional studies is provided \r\nin Table SM2.3. Figure  2.3 provides examples of regional climate \r\nprojections of surface air temperature, as a function of elevation and \r\nseason (winter and summer) in North America (Rocky Mountains), \r\nSouth America (Subtropical Central Andes), Europe (European Alps) \r\nand High Mountain Asia (Hindu Kush, Karakoram, Himalaya), based \r\non global and regional climate projections. "


id: aa2d402d12418a3f2d73f312ba06bdcb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27162
content:
"and maximum temperature can display contrasting patterns \r\ndepending on region, season and elevation (Table SM2.2)."


id: bb32775bbe06ab1bdf6d137e3a8442d8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30150
content:
"Attribution studies for changes in surface air temperature specifically \r\nin mountain regions are rare. Bonfils et al. (2008) and Dileepkumar et al. \r\n(2018) demonstrated that anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions \r\nare the dominant factor in the recent temperature increases, partially \r\ncompensated by other anthropogenic factors (land use change \r\nand aerosol emissions for Western USA and Western Himalaya, \r\nrespectively). These findings are consistent with conclusions of AR5 \r\nregarding anthropogenic effects (Bindoff et al., 2013). It is thus likely\r\nthat anthropogenic influence is the main contributor to surface \r\ntemperature increases in high mountain regions since the mid-20th \r\ncentury, amplified by regional feedbacks."


id: 5f1bb3bab4f515919b14b8eb31eb0ff0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14036
content:
"Past precipitation changes are less well quantified than temperature \r\nchanges and are often more heterogeneous, even within mountain \r\nregions (Hartmann and Andresky, 2013). Regional patterns are \r\ncharacterised by decadal variability (Mankin and Diffenbaugh, \r\n2015) and influenced by shifts in large-scale atmospheric circulation \r\n(e.g., in Alaska; Winski et al., 2017). While mountain regions do not \r\nexhibit clear direction of trends in annual precipitation over the past \r\ndecades (medium confidence that there is no trend), snowfall has \r\ndecreased, at least in part due to higher temperatures, especially at \r\nlower elevation (Table SM2.4, high confidence)."


id: 1ed7ca4147aeec756b8f5e223350092f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2629
content:
"Until the mid-21st century, regardless of the climate scenario \r\n(Cross-Chapter Box  1 in Chapter  1), surface air temperature is \r\nprojected to continue increasing (very high confidence) at an \r\naverage rate of 0.3oC per decade, with a likely range of +-0.2oC per \r\ndecade, locally even more in some regions, generally outpacing \r\nglobal warming rates (0.2 +- 0.1oC per decade; IPCC, 2018) (high \r\nconfidence). Beyond mid-21st century, atmospheric warming in \r\nmountains will be stronger under a high greenhouse gas emission \r\nscenario (RCP8.5) and will stabilise at mid-21st levels under a low \r\ngreenhouse gas emission scenario (RCP2.6), similar to global change \r\npatterns (very high confidence). The warming rate will result from the "


id: d537297dfd0463b277ebe1a036ff6f83
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34836
content:
"Atmospheric humidity, incoming shortwave and longwave radiation, \r\nand near-surface wind speed and direction also influence the high \r\nmountain cryosphere. Detecting their changes and associated \r\neffects on the cryosphere is even more challenging than for surface \r\nair temperature and precipitation, both from an observation \r\nand modelling standpoint. Therefore, most simulation studies \r\nof cryosphere changes are mainly driven by temperature and \r\nprecipitation (see, e.g., Beniston et al., 2018, and references therein)."


id: 8886ef987a75aab698ad7f1b0adbb9cd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21184
content:
"Atmospheric moisture content, which is generally increasing in \r\na warming atmosphere (Stocker et al., 2013), affects latent and \r\nlongwave heat fluxes (Armstrong and Brun, 2008) with implications \r\nfor the timing and rate of snow and ice ablation, and in some areas \r\nchanges in atmospheric moisture content could be a significant driver \r\nof cryosphere change (Harpold and Brooks, 2018). Short-lived climate \r\nforcers, such as sulphur and black carbon aerosols (You et al., 2013), \r\nreduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface, with \r\npotential impacts on snow and ice ablation. Solar brightening caused \r\nby declining anthropogenic aerosols in Europe since the 1980s was "


id: 914c7b39dbe4fef889b6896fcf75e968
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22769
content:
"shown to have only a minor effect on atmospheric warming at high \r\nelevation (Philipona, 2013), and effects on the cryosphere were not \r\nspecifically discussed."


id: a0c8809b0e263e164d06618439a6246f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25497
content:
"Wind controls preferential deposition of precipitation, post\u0002depositional snow drift and affects ablation of snow and glaciers \r\nthrough turbulent fluxes. Near-surface wind speed has decreased on \r\nthe Tibetan Plateau between the 1970s and early 2000s, and stabilised \r\nor increased slightly thereafter (Yang et al., 2014a; Kuang and Jiao, \r\n2016). This is consistent with existing evidence for a decrease in \r\nnear-surface wind speed on mid-latitude continental areas since the \r\nmid-20th century (Hartmann et al., 2013). In general, the literature on \r\npast and future changes of near-surface wind patterns in mountain \r\nareas is very limited."


id: a1a42e4abfea0068ee74c716fe7644c1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25654
content:
"Snow on the ground is an essential and widespread component of \r\nthe mountain cryosphere. It affects mountain ecosystems and plays \r\na major role for mass movement and floods in the mountains. It \r\nplays a key role in nourishing glaciers and provides an insulating and \r\nreflective cover at their surface. It influences the thermal regime of \r\nthe underlying ground, including permafrost, with implications for \r\necosystems. Climate change modifies key variables driving the onset \r\nand development of the snow cover (e.g., solid precipitation), and \r\nthose responsible for its ablation (e.g., air temperature, radiation). \r\nThe snow cover, especially in low-lying and mid-elevation areas of \r\nmountain regions, has long been identified to be particularly sensitive \r\nto climate change. "


id: 7f60706b63588dfd48b4a13c44f457c4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19567
content:
"Most of the snow cover changes can be attributed, at lower \r\nelevation, to more precipitation falling as liquid precipitation (rain) \r\nand to increases in melt at all elevations, mostly due to changes in \r\natmospheric forcings, especially increased air temperature (Kapnick \r\nand Hall, 2012; Marty et al., 2017) which in turn are attributed to \r\nanthropogenic forcings at a larger scale (Section  2.2.1). Formal \r\nanthropogenic attribution studies provide similar conclusions in \r\nWestern North America (Pierce et al., 2008; Najafi et al., 2017)."


id: 676d11fd43699d82d9fd80c11e4c4720
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15463
content:
"the balance between snow accumulation and melt at the glacier \r\nsurface, driven primarily by atmospheric conditions. Rapid changes in \r\nmountain glaciers have multiple impacts for social-ecological systems, \r\naffecting not only biophysical properties such as runoff volume \r\nand sediment fluxes in glacier-fed rivers, glacier related hazards, \r\nand global sea level (Chapter  4) but also ecosystems and human \r\nlivelihoods, socioeconomic activities and sectors such as agriculture \r\nand tourism, as well as other intrinsic assets such as cultural values. \r\nWhile glaciers worldwide have experienced considerable fluctuations \r\nthroughout the Holocene driven by multidecadal variations of \r\nsolar and volcanic activity, and changes in atmospheric circulation "


id: 3c5d2fbe92578432e3425e681b6c89b4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7808
content:
"The high mountain areas considered in this chapter (Figure  2.1), \r\nincluding all glacier regions in the world except those in Antarctica, \r\nGreenland, the Canadian and Russian Arctic, and Svalbard (which are \r\ncovered in Chapter  3) include ~170,000 glaciers covering an area \r\nof ~250,000 km2\r\n (RGI Consortium, 2017) with a total ice volume of \r\n87 +- 15 mm sea level equivalent (Farinotti et al., 2019). These glaciers \r\nspan an elevation range from sea level, for example in south-east \r\nAlaska, to >8,000 m a.s.l. in the Himalaya and Karakoram, and occupy \r\ndiverse climatic regions. Their mass budget is determined largely by "


id: 93c896cf1031aec01eefb93965d5c65b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23208
content:
"(Solomina et al., 2016), this section focuses on observed glacier \r\nchanges during recent decades and changes projected for the 21st \r\ncentury (Cross-Chapter Box 6 in Chapter 2)."


id: ac6d08a5ddb3263cbde5c65171eac52b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27574
content:
"Deposition of light absorbing particles, growth of algae and bacteria \r\nand local amplification phenomena such as the enhancement of \r\nparticles concentration due to surface snow and ice melt, and \r\ncryoconite holes, have been shown to enhance ice melt (e.g., Ginot \r\net al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2017; Williamson et al., 2019) but there \r\nis limited evidence and low agreement that long-term changes in \r\nglacier mass are linked to light absorbing particles (Painter et al., \r\n2013; Sigl et al., 2018). Debris cover can modulate glacier melt but \r\nthere is limited evidence on its role in recent glacier changes (Gardelle \r\net al., 2012; Pellicciotti et al., 2015). Rapid retreat of calving outlet \r\nglaciers in Patagonia was attributed to changes in glacier dynamics \r\n(Sakakibara and Sugiyama, 2014)."


id: 191f664738f38e62a2cd93748352b44f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1636
content:
"Satellite and in situ observations of changes in glacier area, length \r\nand mass show a globally largely coherent picture of mountain \r\nglacier recession in the last decades (Zemp et al., 2015), although \r\nannual variability and regional differences are large (Figure 2.4; very \r\nhigh confidence). The global trend is statistically significant despite \r\nconsiderable interannual and regional variations (Medwedeff and Roe, \r\n2017). Since AR5's global 2003-2009 estimate based on Gardner et al. \r\n(2013), several new estimates of global-scale glacier mass budgets \r\nhave emerged using largely improved data coverage and methods \r\n(Bamber et al., 2018; Wouters et al., 2019; Zemp et al., 2019)."


id: 25556acc2977899ab628cb4d8bda0ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3756
content:
"It is very likely that atmospheric warming is the primary driver for the \r\nglobal glacier recession (Marzeion et al., 2014; Vuille et al., 2018). \r\nThere is limited evidence (high agreement) that human-induced \r\nincreases in greenhouse gases have contributed to the observed \r\nmass changes (Hirabayashi et al., 2016). It was estimated that the \r\nanthropogenic fraction of mass loss of all glaciers outside Greenland \r\nand Antarctica increased from 25 +- 35% during 1851-2010 to \r\n69 +- 24% during 1991-2010 (Marzeion et al., 2014). "


id: bf083edcf43bad0b951933fb6bfd58
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30879
content:
"Region averaged glacier mass budgets have been nearly balanced \r\nin the Karakoram since at least the 1970s (Bolch et al., 2017; Zhou \r\net al., 2017; Azam et al., 2018), while slightly positive balances since \r\n2000 have been reported in the western Kunlun Shan, eastern Pamir, \r\nand the central and northern Karakoram mountains (Gardelle et al., \r\n2013; Brun et al., 2017; Lin et al., 2017; Berthier and Brun, 2019). \r\nThis anomalous behavior has been related to specific mechanisms \r\ncountering the effects of atmospheric warming, for example, an \r\nincrease in cloudiness (Bashir et al., 2017) and snowfall (Kapnick \r\net al., 2014) spatially heterogeneous glacier mass balance sensitivity \r\n(Sakai and Fujita, 2017), feedbacks due to intensified lowland \r\nirrigation (de Kok et al., 2018), and changes in summer atmospheric \r\ncirculation (Forsythe et al., 2017)."


id: 7c3be77a0c320c943fdb4243eb960cdc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19070
content:
"There is medium evidence (high agreement) that recent glacier mass \r\nchanges have modified glacier flow. A study covering all glaciers \r\nin High Mountain Asia showed glacier slowdown for regions with \r\nnegative mass budgets since the 1970s and slightly accelerated \r\nglacier flow for Karakoram and West Kunlun regions where mass \r\nbudgets were close to balance (Dehecq et al., 2019). Waechter et al. \r\n(2015) report reduced flow velocities in the St. Elias Mountains in \r\nNorth America, especially in areas of rapid ice thinning near glacier "


id: 6b12a3417597af64da207cb4867931ec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16132
content:
"termini. In contrast Mouginot and Rignot (2015) found complex \r\nice flow patterns with simultaneous acceleration and deceleration \r\nfor glaciers of the Patagonian Icefield as well as large interannual \r\nvariability during the last three decades concurrent with general \r\nthinning of the ice field."


id: ccf029d6d1a118e3830343297ee1dfc8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33398
content:
"Century-scale projections for all glaciers on Earth including those around the periphery of Greenland and Antarctica are presented here. \r\nProjections of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are presented in Chapter 4. Future changes in glacier mass have global implications \r\nthrough their contribution to sea level change (Chapter 4) and local implication, for example, by affecting freshwater resources (Section 2.3.1). \r\nGlacier decline can also lead to loss of palaeoclimate information contained in glacier ice (Thompson et al., 2017)."


id: f3e937b7f48144de56401abd24732c4a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40291
content:
"AR5 included projections of 21st century glacier evolution from four process-based global-scale glacier models (Slangen and Van\r\nDe Wal, 2011; Marzeion et al., 2012; Giesen and Oerlemans, 2013; Radic et al., 2014). Results have since been updated (Bliss et al., \r\n2014; Slangen et al., 2017; Hock et al., 2019) using new glacier inventory data and/or climate projections, and projections from two \r\nadditional models have been presented (Hirabayashi et al., 2013; Huss and Hock, 2015). These six models were driven by climate \r\nprojections from 8-21 General Circulation Models (GCMs) from the CMIP5 (Taylor et al., 2012) forced by various RCPs, and results are \r\nsystematically compared in Hock et al. (2019)."


id: 6ead730a4d7e1c1f389da634da34443f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16740
content:
"Based on these studies there is high confidence that glaciers in polar and high mountain regions will lose substantial mass by the \r\nend of the century. Results indicate global glacier mass losses by 2100 relative to 2015 of 18% (likely range 11-25%) (mean of \r\nall projections with range referring to +- one standard deviation) for scenario RCP2.6 and 36% (likely range 26-47%) for RCP8.5, \r\nbut relative mass reductions vary greatly between regions (Figure CB6.1). Projected end-of-century mean mass losses relative to\r\n2015 tend to be largest in mountain regions dominated by smaller glaciers and relatively little ice cover, exceeding on average\r\n80%, for example, the European Alps, Pyrenees, Caucasus/Middle East, Low Latitudes and North Asia for RCP8.5 (see Figure 2.1 for \r\nregion definitions). While these glaciers' contribution to sea level is negligible their large relative mass losses have implications for \r\nstreamflow (Section 2.3.1, FAQ 2.1)."


id: 642e2429d8d24f3edb1c43744c417a80
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14912
content:
"The magnitude and timing of these projected mass losses is assigned medium confidence because the projections have been \r\ncarried out using relatively simple models calibrated with limited observations in some regions and diverging initial glacier volumes. \r\nFor example, mass loss by iceberg calving and subaqueous melt processes that can be particularly important components of glacier \r\nmass budgets in polar regions (McNabb et al., 2015) have only been included in one global-scale study (Huss and Hock, 2015). \r\nIn  addition instability mechanisms that can cause rapid glacier retreat and mass loss are not considered (Dunse et al., 2015; \r\nSevestre et al., 2018; Willis et al., 2018)."


id: c608f09610285f0b495d53921689aa73
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32152
content:
"The global-scale projections (Figure CB6.1) are consistent with results from regional-scale studies using more sophisticated models. \r\nKraaijenbrink et al. (2017) projected mass losses for all glaciers in High Mountain Asia of 64 +- 5% (RCP8.5) by the end of the century \r\n(2071-2100) compared to 1996-2015. A high-resolution regional glaciation model including ice dynamics indicated that by 2100 \r\nglacier volume in western Canada will shrink by ~70% (RCP2.6) to ~90% (RCP8.5) relative to 2005 (Clarke et al., 2015). Zekollari \r\net al. (2019) projected that the glaciers in the European Alps will largely disappear by 2100 (94 +- 4% mass loss relative to 2017) for \r\nRCP8.5, while projected mass losses are 63 +- 11% for RCP2.6."


id: ebf2412755d350949e1ad78f7aea5cad
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38875
content:
"AR5 concluded with high confidence that due to a pronounced imbalance between current glacier mass and climate, glaciers are \r\nexpected to further recede even in the absence of further climate change. Studies since AR5 agree and provide further evidence \r\n(Mernild et al., 2013; Marzeion et al., 2018)."


id: 1cb7bd9e43ef27b285f6a950470c2144
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2236
content:
"individual sites (e.g., Phillips et al., 2009). Permafrost close to 0oC \r\nwarms at a lower rate than colder permafrost because ground-ice \r\nmelt slows warming. Similarly, bedrock warms faster than debris \r\nor soil because of low ice content. For example, several European \r\nbedrock sites (Table  2.1) have warmed rapidly, by up to 1oC per \r\ndecade, during the past two decades. By contrast, total warming of \r\n0.5oC-0.8oC has been inferred for the second half of the 20th century \r\nbased on thermal gradients at depth in an ensemble of European \r\nbedrock sites (Isaksen et al., 2001; Harris et al., 2003). Warming has \r\nbeen shown to accelerate at sites in Scandinavia (Isaksen et al., \r\n2007) and in mountains globally within the past decade (Biskaborn \r\net al., 2019). During recent decades, rates of permafrost warming in \r\nthe European Alps and Scandinavia exceeded values of the late 20th \r\ncentury (limited evidence, high agreement)."


id: 401cb528e6050b05a53bb8e945b45553
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8468
content:
"This section assesses permafrost, but not seasonally frozen ground, \r\nin high mountain areas. As mountains also exist in polar areas, some \r\noverlap exists between this section and Chapter 3. Observations of \r\npermafrost are scarce (Tables 2.1 and 2.2, PERMOS, 2016; Bolch et al., \r\n2018) and unevenly distributed among and within mountain regions. \r\nUnlike glaciers and snow, permafrost is a subsurface phenomenon \r\nthat cannot easily be observed remotely. As a  consequence, its \r\ndistribution and change are less understood than for glaciers or \r\nsnow, and in many mountain regions it can only be inferred (Gruber \r\net al., 2017). Permafrost thaw and degradation impact people via \r\nrunoff and water quality (Section 2.3.1), hazards and infrastructure \r\n(Section 2.3.2) and greenhouse gas emissions (Box 2.2)."


id: fabb5de88ce0dca1eba2dc1aed07f360
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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vector_id: 41489
content:
"The observed thickness of the active layer (see Annex I: Glossary), \r\nthe layer of ground above permafrost subject to annual thawing and \r\nfreezing, increased in the European Alps, Scandinavia (Christiansen \r\net al., 2010), and on the Tibetan Plateau during the past few \r\ndecades (Table 2.2), indicating permafrost degradation. Geophysical \r\nmonitoring in the European Alps during approximately the past \r\n15 years revealed increasing subsurface liquid water content (Hilbich \r\net al., 2008; Bodin et al., 2009; PERMOS, 2016), indicating gradual \r\nground-ice loss."


id: c25c86e47d176597b476b586b13ceb1a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31476
content:
"Between 3.6-5.2  million km2\r\n are underlain by permafrost in the \r\neleven high mountain regions outlined in Figure  2.1 (medium \r\nconfidence) based on data from two modelling studies (Gruber, 2012; \r\nObu et al., 2019). For comparison, this is 14-21 times the area of \r\nglaciers (Section 2.2.3) in these regions (Figure 2.1) or 27-29% of the \r\nglobal permafrost area. The distribution of permafrost in mountains \r\nis spatially highly heterogeneous, as shown in detailed regional \r\nmodelling studies (Boeckli et al., 2012; Bonnaventure et al., 2012; \r\nWestermann et al., 2015; Azocar et al., 2017; Zou et al., 2017)."


id: 23c3c6f71481c85c12b3c31813fc9818
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3485
content:
"Permafrost in the European Alps, Scandinavia, Canada, Mongolia, the \r\nTien Shan and the Tibetan Plateau has warmed during recent decades \r\nand some observations reveal ground-ice loss and permafrost \r\ndegradation (high confidence). The heterogeneity of mountain \r\nenvironments and scarcity of long-term observations challenge the \r\nquantification of representative regional or global warming rates. \r\nA recent analysis finds that permafrost at 28 mountain locations in \r\nthe European Alps, Scandinavia, Canada as well as High Mountain \r\nAsia and North Asia, warmed on average by 0.19 +- 0.05oC per decade \r\nbetween 2007-2016 (Biskaborn et al., 2019). Over longer periods, \r\nobservations in the European Alps, Scandinavia, Mongolia, the Tien \r\nShan and the Tibetan Plateau (see also Cao et al., 2018) show general \r\nwarming (Table  2.1, Figure  2.5) and degradation of permafrost at "


id: 32051170427fd80e566e5f9d3ad8c95a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6059
content:
"Decadal-scale permafrost warming and degradation are driven \r\nby air temperature increase and additionally affected by changes \r\nin snow cover, vegetation and soil moisture. Bedrock locations, \r\nespecially when steep and free of snow, produce the most direct \r\nsignal of climate change on the ground thermal regime (Smith and \r\nRiseborough, 1996), increasing the confidence in attribution. Periods \r\nof cooling, one or few years long, have been observed and attributed \r\nto extraordinary low-snow conditions (PERMOS, 2016). Extreme \r\nincreases of active-layer thickness often correspond with summer \r\nheat waves (PERMOS, 2016) and permafrost degradation can be \r\naccelerated by water percolation (Luethi et al., 2017). Similarity and "


id: b5c1b7e3ffc73fe82afb5c317e82ab89
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29203
content:
"synchronicity of interannual to decadal velocity changes of rock \r\nglaciers within the European Alps (Bodin et al., 2009; Delaloye et al., \r\n2010) and the Tien Shan (Sorg et al., 2015), suggest common regional \r\nforcing such as summer air temperature or snow cover."


id: 86a1835553f8c8dafc53c8072bf47b29
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20848
content:
"Because air temperature is the major driver of permafrost change, \r\npermafrost in high mountain regions is expected to undergo \r\nincreasing thaw and degradation during the 21st century, with \r\nstronger consequences expected for higher greenhouse gas emission \r\nscenarios (very high confidence). Scenario simulations for the Tibetan \r\nPlateau until 2100 estimate permafrost area to be strongly reduced, \r\nfor example by 22-64% for RCP2.6 and RCP8.5 and a  spatial \r\nresolution of 0.5o (Lu et al., 2017). Such coarse-scale studies (Guo \r\net al., 2012; Slater and Lawrence, 2013; Guo and Wang, 2016), \r\nhowever, are of limited use in quantifying changes and informing \r\nimpact studies in steep terrain due to inadequate representation of \r\ntopography (Fiddes and Gruber, 2012). Fine-scale simulations, on the \r\nother hand, are local or regional, limited in areal extent and differ "


id: 5cf881da68706303bdcdefe66ef64e67
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13624
content:
"Table 2.1 |  Observed changes in permafrost mean annual ground temperature (MAGT) in mountain regions. Values are based on individual boreholes or ensembles of \r\nseveral boreholes. The MAGT refers to the last year in a period and is taken from a depth of 10-20 m unless the borehole is shallower. Region names refer to Figure 2.1. \r\nNumbers in brackets indicate how many sites are summarised for a particular surface type and area; the underscored value is an average. Elevation is metres above sea \r\nlevel (m a.s.l.)."


id: 9c2da20322789784ab13eee587911ace
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24736
content:
"Table 2.2 |  Observed changes of active-layer thickness (ALT) in mountain regions. Numbers in brackets indicate how many sites are summarised for a particular surface \r\ntype and area. Region names refer to Figure 2.1. Elevation is metres above sea level (m a.s.l.)."


id: d195fdae58774fd2a413fc11f57100bc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34221
content:
"A significant (p < 0.05) trend towards shorter ice cover duration was \r\nfound for another Austrian alpine lake during 1972-2015 (Niedrist \r\net al., 2018)."


id: 5d3d649ae3b14f0255eb1898b802cbf1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13678
content:
"Highly variable trends were also found in the timing and magnitude \r\nof river ice jams during 1903-2015, as reported by Rokaya et al. \r\n(2018) for Canadian rivers, including rivers in the mountains. Most of \r\nthe variability in river ice trends could be explained by variable water \r\nflow, in particular due to flow regulation."


id: 6d73fe8b3f85bf3e7b91266bd6d1c226
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16523
content:
"There is high confidence that air temperature and solar radiation are \r\nthe most important drivers to explain observed changes of lake ice \r\ndynamics (Sharma et al., 2019). In mountainous regions where the \r\ninterannual variability in ice cover duration is high, additional drivers \r\nbecome important, for example, morphometry, wind exposure, \r\nsalinity, and hydrology, in particular hydrological processes driven by \r\nglaciers (Kropacek et al., 2013; Song et al., 2014; Yao et al., 2016; Gou \r\net al., 2017). Despite high spatial and temporal variability in lake and \r\nriver ice cover dynamics in mountain regions there is limited evidence\r\n(high agreement) that further air temperature increases will result in \r\na general trend towards later freezing, earlier break-up, and shorter \r\nice cover duration in the future (Gebre et al., 2014; Du et al., 2017)."


id: 4de0d1deba4d3d0bb380990279c1f2ca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10971
content:
"Overall, there is only limited evidence on changes in lake and river ice \r\nspecifically in the mountains, indicating a trend, but not universally, \r\ntowards shorter lake ice cover duration consistent with increased \r\nwater temperature."


id: 38ad07059269f6b3579692a20bc17a59
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7177
content:
"Based on limited evidence, AR5 reported shorter seasonal ice \r\ncover duration during the past decades (low confidence), however, \r\ndid not specifically address changes in mountain lakes and rivers. \r\nObservations of extent, timing, duration and thickness of lake and \r\nriver ice rely mostly on in situ measurements (e.g.,  Sharma et al., \r\n2019) and, increasingly on remote sensing (Duguay et al., 2014). Lake \r\nand river ice studies focusing specifically on mountain regions are \r\nrare but observations from lakes in the European Alps, Scandinavia \r\nand the Tibetan Plateau show highly variable trends in ice cover \r\nduration during the past decades."


id: 51c1520c101c5c5be1298bd49b66650d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11671
content:
"AR5 reported increased winter flows and a shift in timing towards \r\nearlier spring snowmelt runoff peaks during previous decades (robust \r\nevidence, high agreement). In glacier-fed river basins, it was projected \r\nthat melt water yields from glaciers will increase for decades in many \r\nregions but then decline (very high confidence). These findings have \r\nbeen further supported and refined by a wealth of new studies \r\nsince AR5."


id: 459f7da8de17cb50c9b4fabfc7d18190
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9465
content:
"The mountain cryosphere is an important source of freshwater in \r\nthe mountains themselves and in downstream regions. The runoff \r\nper unit area generated in mountains is on average approximately \r\ntwice as high as in lowlands (Viviroli et al., 2011) making mountains \r\na significant source of fresh water in sustaining ecosystem and \r\nsupporting livelihoods in and far beyond the mountain ranges \r\nthemselves. The presence of snow, glaciers, and permafrost generally \r\nexert a strong control on the amount, timing and biogeochemical \r\nproperties of runoff (FAQ 2.1). Changes to the cryosphere due \r\nto climate change can alter freshwater availability with direct \r\nconsequences for human populations and ecosystems."


id: a5ee557b41102af3c5c01ad8ed8ec195
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26417
content:
"Recent studies indicate considerable changes in the seasonality \r\nof runoff in snow and glacier dominated river basins (very high \r\nconfidence; Table SM2.9). Several studies have reported an increase \r\nin average winter runoff over the past decades, for example in \r\nWestern Canada (Moyer et al., 2016), the European Alps (Bocchiola, \r\n2014; Bard et al., 2015) and Norway (Fleming and Dahlke, 2014), "


id: 32659ddea1f5e756e3d5bdcc7283d718
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6120
content:
"(Bliss et al., 2014; Huss and Hock, 2018) indicating generally earlier \r\npeak water in regions with little ice cover and smaller glaciers \r\n(e.g., Low Latitudes, European Alps and Pyrenees, and the Caucasus) \r\nand later peak water in regions with extensive ice cover and large \r\nglaciers (e.g., Alaska, Southern Andes). In some regions (e.g., Iceland) \r\npeak water from most glacier area is projected to occur earlier for \r\nRCP2.6 than RCP8.5, caused by decreasing glacier runoff as glaciers \r\nfind a new equilibrium. In contrast melt-driven glacier runoff \r\ncontinues to rise for the higher emission scenario. There is very high \r\nconfidence that spring peak runoff in many snow-dominated basins \r\naround the world will occur earlier in the year, up to several weeks, \r\nby the end of the century caused by earlier snowmelt (e.g., Coppola \r\net al., 2014; Bard et al., 2015; Yucel et al., 2015; Islam et al., 2017; \r\nSultana and Choi, 2018). "


id: 95bfbeca0e0b10a6ceb88417697260cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23538
content:
"due to more precipitation falling as rain under warmer conditions. \r\nSummer runoff has been observed to decrease in basins, for example \r\nin Western Canada (Brahney et al., 2017) and the European Alps \r\n(Bocchiola, 2014), but to increase in several basins in High Mountain \r\nAsia (Mukhopadhyay and Khan, 2014; Duethmann et al., 2015; \r\nReggiani and Rientjes, 2015; Engelhardt et al., 2017). Both increases, \r\nfor example, in Alaska (Beamer et al., 2016) and the Tien Shan (Wang \r\net al., 2015; Chen et al., 2016), and decreases, for example, in Western \r\nCanada (Brahney et al., 2017) have also been found for average \r\nannual runoff. In Western Austria, Kormann et al. (2015) detected an \r\nincrease in annual flow at high elevations and a decrease at low \r\nelevations between 1980-2010."


id: e737bf23531dd9d6da8f7dc4856df920
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37976
content:
"In summary, there is very high confidence that glacier and snow \r\ncover decline have affected and will continue to change the amounts \r\nand seasonality of river runoff in many snow-dominated and/or \r\nglacier-fed river basins. The average winter runoff is expected to \r\nincrease (high confidence), and spring peak maxima will occur earlier \r\n(very high confidence). Although observed and projected trends \r\nin annual runoff vary substantially among regions and can even \r\nbe opposite in sign, there is high confidence that average annual \r\nrunoff from glaciers will have reached a peak, with declining runoff \r\nthereafter, at the latest by the end of the 21st century in all regions \r\nregardless emission scenario. The projected changes in runoff are \r\nexpected to affect downstream water management, related hazards \r\nand ecosystems (Section 2.3.2, 2.3.3). "


id: 1aa844c05622b1b67ba5c345d897f15d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1892
content:
"Projected changes in annual runoff in glacier dominated basins are \r\ncomplex including increases and decreases over the 21st century \r\nfor all scenarios depending on the time period and the timing of \r\npeak water (high confidence) (Figure 2.6). Local and regional-scale \r\nprojections in High Mountain Asia, the European Alps, and Western \r\nCanada and USA suggest that peak water will generally be reached \r\nbefore or around the middle of the century. These finding are \r\nconsistent with results from global-scale modelling of glacier runoff "


id: f4591953674f89a63b43b3c704c840cb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40367
content:
"Glaciers supply water that supports human communities both close to the glacier and far away from the glacier, for example \r\nfor agriculture or drinking water. Rising temperatures cause mountain glaciers to melt and change the water availability. At \r\nfirst, as the glacier melts, more water runs downhill away from the glacier. However, as the glacier shrinks, the water supply \r\nwill diminish and farms, villages and cities might lose a valuable water source. "


id: 1431cff9c01ed20ab97f49071c2cdf21
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 771
content:
"Furthermore, glacier decline can change the timing in the year and day when the most water is available in \r\nrivers that collect water from glaciers. In mid- or high latitudes, glacier runoff is greatest in the summer, when \r\nthe glacier ice continues to melt after the winter snow has disappeared, and greatest during the day when air \r\ntemperature and solar radiation are at their highest (FAQ 2.1, Figure 1). As peak water occurs, more intense \r\nglacier melt rates also increase these daily runoff maxima significantly. In tropical areas, such as parts of the \r\nAndes, seasonal air temperature variations are small, and alternating wet and dry seasons are the main control \r\non the amount and timing of glacier runoff throughout the year."


id: 4e7082aed8440a378f361cf8eea539ea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11078
content:
"The effects of glaciers on river runoff further downhill depend on the distance from the glacier. Close to the \r\nglaciers (e.g., within several kilometres), initial increases in yearly glacier runoff until peak water followed by \r\ndecreases can affect water supply considerably, and larger peaks in daily runoff from the glaciers can cause \r\nfloods. Further away from the glaciers the impact of glacier shrinkage on total river runoff tends to become \r\nsmall or negligible. However, the melt water from glaciers in the mountains can be an important source of water \r\nin hot and dry years or seasons when river runoff would otherwise be low, and thereby also reducing variability \r\nin total river runoff from year to year, even hundreds of kilometres away from the glaciers. Other components \r\nof the water cycle such as rainfall, evaporation, groundwater and snowmelt can compensate or strengthen the \r\neffects of changes in glacier runoff as the climate changes."


id: 913246d2158660ff3e0691f9c300181f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22754
content:
"aromatic hydrocarbons, and heavy metals (Hodson, 2014) and are \r\nassociated with the deposition and release of black carbon. There is \r\nlimited evidence that some of these pollutants found in surface waters \r\nin the Gangetic Plain during the dry season originate from Himalayan \r\nglaciers (Sharma et al., 2015), and glaciers in the European Alps store \r\nthe largest known quantity of POPs in the Northern Hemisphere \r\n(Milner et al., 2017). Although their use has declined or ceased "


id: 80339cf8e4d24f3d7cf4dd2f6d6857d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19683
content:
"Glacier decline can influence water quality by accelerating the release \r\nof stored anthropogenic legacy pollutants, with impacts to downstream \r\necosystem services. These legacy pollutants notably include persistent \r\norganic pollutants (POPs), particularly polychlorinated biphenyls \r\n(PCBs) and dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT), polycyclic "


id: 31f228bedd11e7cade40586f7944cc70
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6041
content:
"a cumulative annual loss of roughly 15 Tera g C yr-1 of glacial DOC \r\nby 2050 from melting glaciers and ice sheets (Hood et al., 2015). \r\nPermafrost degradation is also a major and increasing source of \r\nbioavailable DOC (Abbott et al., 2014; Aiken et al., 2014). Major ions \r\ncalcium, magnesium, sulphate and nitrate (Colombo et al., 2018) are \r\nalso released by permafrost degradation as well as acid drainage \r\nleaching into alpine lakes (Ilyashuk et al., 2018)."


id: 14658cfe58428d17923f8eb5f42cc28c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 812
content:
"worldwide, PCBs have been detected in runoff from glacier melt due \r\nto the lag time of release from glaciers (Li et al., 2017). Glaciers also \r\nrepresent the most unstable stores of DDT in European and other \r\nmountain areas flanking large urban centres and glacier derived DDT \r\nis still accumulating in lake sediments downstream from glaciers \r\n(Bogdal et al., 2010). However, bioflocculation (the aggregation of \r\ndispersed organic particles by the action of organisms) can increase \r\nthe residence time of these contaminants stored in glaciers thereby \r\nreducing their overall toxicity to freshwater ecosystems (Langford \r\net al., 2010). Overall the effect on freshwater ecosystems of these \r\ncontaminants is estimated to be low (medium confidence) (Milner \r\net al., 2017)."


id: 1e19ebd32397a5063d1a32881b62a681
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vector_id: 2494
content:
"Increasing water temperature has been reported in some high \r\nmountain streams (e.g., Groll et al., 2015; Isaak et al., 2016) due to \r\ndecreases in glacial runoff, producing changes in water quality and \r\nspecies richness (Section  2.3.3). In contrast, water temperature in \r\nregions with extensive glacier cover are expected to show a transient \r\ndecline, due to an enhanced cooling effect from increased glacial \r\nmelt water (Fellman et al., 2014). "


id: ea745be9ea36543812f9d6208584d949
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38612
content:
"In summary, changes in the mountain cryosphere will cause significant \r\nshifts in downstream nutrients (DOC, nitrogen, phosphorus) and \r\ninfluence water quality through increases in heavy metals, particularly \r\nmercury, and other legacy contaminants (medium evidence, high \r\nagreement) posing a potential threat to human health. These threats \r\nare more focused where glaciers are subject to substantial pollutant \r\nloads such as High Mountain Asia and Europe, rather than areas like \r\nAlaska and Canada."


id: 56db7cd0152396cfa63d091238985203
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12530
content:
"There is robust evidence (medium agreement) that water input to \r\nhydropower facilities will change in the future due to cryosphere-related \r\nimpacts on runoff (Section 2.3.1.1). For example, in the Skagit river \r\nbasin in British Columbia and Northern Washington (Lee et al., 2016) \r\nand in California (Madani and Lund, 2010) projections (SRES A1B) show \r\nmore runoff in winter and less in summer. In India, snow and glacier \r\nrunoff to hydropower plants is projected to decline in several basins\r\n(Ali et al., 2018). In some cases, catchments that are close together "


id: ddcbeaa9af58f426e421bbac3a61d9ff
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36285
content:
"are projected to evolve in contrasting directions in terms of runoff, \r\nfor example in the European Alps (Gaudard et al., 2013; Gaudard \r\net al., 2014). Increased runoff due to changes in the cryosphere will \r\nincrease the risk of overflows (non-productive discharge), particularly \r\nduring winter and spring melt, with the greatest impacts on run-of\u0002river power plants (e.g., in Canada; Minville et al., 2010; Warren and \r\nLemmen, 2014) (medium confidence)."


id: f6ed6faf0c71eaafcc20e85c258b32ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40811
content:
"are exposed to risk which stems from cryosphere changes (high \r\nconfidence) (Figure  2.8). The relative poverty of many mountain \r\ncommunities contributes to their vulnerability to the impacts of these \r\ncryosphere changes (McDowell et al., 2014; Carey et al., 2017; Rasul \r\nand Molden, 2019) (medium evidence, high agreement). Glacier and \r\nsnowmelt water contribute irrigation water to adjacent lowlands \r\nas well. Pastoralism, an important livelihood strategy in mountain \r\nregions, is also impacted by cryosphere changes, but described in \r\nSection 2.3.7."


id: ed09ad19700406cc10e865a1ba4a88ea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39070
content:
"There is medium evidence (medium agreement) that reduction in \r\nstreamflow due to glacier retreat or reduced snow cover has led \r\nto reduced water availability for irrigation of crops and declining \r\nagricultural yields in several mountain areas (Table SM2.11), for \r\nexample in the tropical Andes (e.g.,  Bury et al., 2011) and High \r\nMountain Asia (e.g., Nusser and Schmidt, 2017). In the Southern \r\nAndes, increased streamflow in the Elqui River in Chile, due to glacier \r\nretreat or changing snow cover, has led to increased water availability \r\nfor irrigation and increased agricultural yields (Young et al., 2010)."


id: 1f95db72cd3e9926eac649556aabb66e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2766
content:
"Only a few studies have addressed the economic effects on \r\nhydropower due directly to changes in the cryosphere. For example \r\nin Peru, Vergara et al. (2007) studied the effect of both reduced \r\nglacier runoff and runoff with no glacier input once the glaciers \r\nhave completely melted for the Canon del Pato hydropower plant in \r\nPeru, and found an economic cost of between 5-20 million USD yr-1, \r\nwith the lower figure for the cost of energy paid to the producer \r\nand the higher figure the society cost. Costs calculated for all of \r\nPeru, where ~80% of electricity comes from hydropower range from \r\n60-212 million USD yr-1. If the cost of rationing energy is considered, \r\nthe national cost is estimated as 1,500 million USD yr-1."


id: e7fd6aa10c377d2e29c2975ae1d9937
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38128
content:
"Other factors than changes in the cryosphere, such as market policies \r\nand regulation, may have greater significance for socioeconomic \r\ndevelopment of hydropower in the future (Section 2.3.1.4, Gaudard \r\net al., 2016). Hence, despite the efforts of hydropower agencies \r\nand regulatory bodies to quantify changes or to develop possible \r\nadaptation strategies (IHA, 2018), only a few organisations are \r\nincorporating current knowledge of climate change into their \r\ninvestment planning. The World Bank uses a decision tree approach \r\nto identify potential vulnerabilities in a hydropower project incurred \r\nfrom key uncertain factors and their combinations (Bonzanigo \r\net al., 2015)."


id: 112142022230aa556c5857bac1d5965a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 210
content:
"High mountains have supported agricultural livelihoods for centuries. \r\nRural communities are dependent on adequate levels of soil moisture \r\nat planting time, derived in part in many cases from irrigation \r\nwater which includes glacier and snowmelt water; as a result, they "


id: e1e125cbda8ba8dc734384cd654c7a4d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37023
content:
"Local institutions and embedded social relations play a vital role \r\nin enabling mountain communities to respond to the impacts of \r\nclimate driven cryosphere change. Indigenous pastoral communities \r\nwho have tapped into new water sources to irrigate new areas have \r\nalso strengthened the control of access to existing irrigated pastures \r\nin Peru (Postigo, 2014) and Bolivia (Yager, 2015). In an example of \r\nindigenous populations in the USA, two tribes who share a large \r\nreservation in the Northern Rockies rely on rivers which receive glacier \r\nmelt water to irrigate pasture, and maintain fisheries, domestic water \r\nsupplies, and traditional ceremonial practices. Tribal water managers \r\nhave sought to install infrastructure to promote more efficient water \r\nuse and protect fisheries, but these efforts have been impeded by \r\nland and water governance institutions in the region and by a history \r\nof social marginalisation (McNeeley, 2017). "


id: 5fe592c94a51f0fab9f78cff1438f446
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14182
content:
"entire communities, an indication of the limits to adaptation - this \r\ndisplacement is also due in some cases to natural hazards."


id: ae7d0ffa0bec5f01350bff01fd15368e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27934
content:
"High mountain communities have sought new financial resources \r\nfrom wage labour (Section 2.3.7), tourism (Mukherji et al., 2019) and \r\ngovernment sources to support adaptation activities. Local water \r\nuser associations in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have adopted less \r\nwater intensive crops and reorganised the use and maintenance of \r\nirrigation systems, investing government relief payments after floods \r\n(Stucker et al., 2012). Similar measures are reported from India and \r\nPakistan (Dame and Mankelow, 2010; Clouse, 2016; Nusser and \r\nSchmidt, 2017), Nepal (McDowell et al., 2013) and Peru (Postigo, \r\n2014). In contrast, fewer adaptation measures have been adopted in \r\nUzbekistan, due to low levels of capital availability and to agricultural \r\npolicies, including centralised water management, crop production \r\nquotas and weak agricultural extension, which limit the response \r\ncapacity of farmers (Aleksandrova et al., 2014). "


id: 7b79073fd993783faa97ec3a51c53e99
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18929
content:
"Agriculture in Ladakh, a cold arid mountain region (~100,000 km2) in the western Himalaya of India with median elevation of 3,350 m \r\na.s.l. and mean annual precipitation of less than 100 mm, is highly dependent on streams for irrigation in the agricultural season in the \r\nspring and summer (Nusser et al., 2012; Barrett and Bosak, 2018). Glaciers in Ladakh, largely located at 5,000-6,000 m a.s.l. and small \r\nin size have retreated at least since the late 1960s although less pronounced than in many other Himalayan regions (Chudley et al., \r\n2017; Schmidt and Nusser, 2017). However, the effect of glaciers on streamflow in Ladakh is poorly constrained, and measurements\r\non changes in runoff and snow cover are lacking (Nusser et al., 2018)."


id: 263543744b52bc892e5f1b42a432b590
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3890
content:
"A study examined 14 ice reservoirs, including ice stupas, and concluded that they serve as 'site-specific water conservation strategies; \r\nand that they can be regarded as appropriate local technologies to reduce seasonal water scarcity at critical times (Nusser et al., \r\n2018). It listed the benefits of ice reservoirs as improved water availability in spring, reduction of seasonal water scarcity and resulting \r\ncrop failure risks, and the possibility of growing cash crops. However, the study questioned their usefulness as a long-term adaptation \r\nstrategy, because their operation depends on winter runoff and freeze-thaw cycles, both of which are sensitive to interannual \r\nvariability, and often deviate from the optimum range required for effective functioning of the reservoirs. It also raised questions \r\nabout the financial costs and labour requirements, which vary across the four types of ice reservoirs."


id: b253e15dd08ba61eb7abe2b9946a2b84
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28611
content:
"growth and other socioeconomic stressors are expected to outpace \r\nthe impact of climate change induced changes on water availability \r\nregardless the emission scenario."


id: 613824734054e831c66513d4876cac60
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14401
content:
"Only a few studies provide detailed empirical assessments of the \r\neffects of cryosphere change on the amounts of drinking water \r\nsupply. Decreases in drinking water supplies due to reduced glacier \r\nand snowmelt water have been reported for rural areas in the Nepal \r\nHimalaya (McDowell et al., 2013; Dangi et al., 2018), but the tropical \r\nAndes have received the most attention, including both urban \r\nconglomerates and some rural areas, where water resources are \r\nespecially vulnerable to climate change due to water scarcity and \r\nincreased demands (Chevallier et al., 2011; Somers et al., 2018), \r\namidst rapidly retreating glaciers (Burns and Nolin, 2014)."


id: af13c438405de22a19dcf007ef0447f3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28048
content:
"Cryospheric changes induced by climate change, and their effects \r\non hydrological regime and water availability, bear relevance for the \r\nmanagement and governance of water as a resource for communities \r\nand ecosystems (Hill, 2013; Beniston and Stoffel, 2014; Carey et al., \r\n2017), particularly in areas where snow and ice contribute significantly \r\nto river runoff (medium confidence) (Section  2.3.1.1). However, \r\nwater availability is one aspect relevant for water management and \r\ngovernance, given that multiple and diverse decision making contexts \r\nand governance approaches and strategies can influence how the \r\nwater resource is accessed and distributed (medium confidence) \r\n(De Stefano et al., 2010; Beniston and Stoffel, 2014)."


id: 86ec47c228ab308b76ce49d04115c74f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20902
content:
"In summary, there is limited evidence (medium agreement) that \r\nglacier decline places increased risks to drinking water supply. In \r\nthe Andes, future increases in water demand due to population "


id: c73ea4882593dd67a49c76c1c50738f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32370
content:
"on direct evidence, but also on laboratory experiments, theoretical \r\nconsiderations and calculations, and numerical modelling."


id: df741f8cea31870f4056281643c1512c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36561
content:
"Transboundary cooperation at regional scales are reported to \r\nfurther support efforts that address the potential risks to water \r\nresources in terms of its availability and its access and distribution \r\ngovernance (Dinar et al., 2016). Furthermore, the UN 2030 Agenda \r\nand its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (UN, 2015) may \r\noffer additional prospects to strengthen water governance under \r\na changing cryosphere, given that monitoring and reporting on key \r\nwater-related targets and indicators, and their interaction across \r\nother SDGs, direct attention to the provision of water as a key \r\ncondition for development (Section  2.4). However, there is limited \r\nevidence to date to assess their effectiveness on an evidentiary basis."


id: dfe0cdaa8083df2b6121de78668d6e5f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36635
content:
"High mountains are particularly prone to hazards related to snow, \r\nice and permafrost as these elements exert key controls on mountain \r\nslope stability (Haeberli and Whiteman, 2015). This section assesses \r\nknowledge gained since previous IPCC reports, in particular SREX \r\n(e.g., Seneviratne et al., 2012), and AR5 Working Group II (Cramer \r\net al., 2014). In this section, observed and projected changes in hazards \r\nare covered first, followed by exposure, vulnerability and resulting \r\nimpacts and risks, and finally disaster risk reduction and adaptation. \r\nCryospheric hazards that constitute tipping points are also listed in \r\nTable 6.1 in Chapter 6. "


id: 7c5ec2cc7ff113374ca78bf90ad73d82
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19083
content:
"Hazards assessed in this section range from localised effects on \r\nmountain slopes and adjacent valley floors (distance reach of up \r\nto several kilometres) to events reaching far into major valleys \r\nand even surrounding lowlands (reach of tens to hundreds of \r\nkilometres), and include cascading events. Changes in the cryosphere \r\ndue to climate change influence the frequency and magnitude of \r\nhazards, the processes involved, and the locations exposed to the \r\nhazards (Figure  2.7). Natural hazards and associated disasters are \r\nsporadic by nature, and vulnerability and exposure exhibit strong \r\ngeographic variations. Assessments of change are based not only "


id: fe62c9c4d6e41203c4580c7154fd15f2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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vector_id: 42130
content:
"around the Western Tibetan plateau which exhibited balanced or \r\neven positive glacier mass budgets in recent decades (Brun et al., \r\n2017). Enhanced melt water production was suggested to be able \r\nto trigger or enhance surge-type instability, in particular for glaciers \r\nthat contain ice both at the melting point and considerably below \r\n(Dunse et al., 2015; Yasuda and Furuya, 2015; Nuth et al., 2019)."


id: 28b5e6813c46977bc82b3261a2d94bb8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4377
content:
"Snow avalanches can occur either spontaneously due to \r\nmeteorological factors such as loading by snowfall or liquid water \r\ninfiltration following, for example, surface melt or rain-on-snow, or \r\ncan be triggered by the passage of people in avalanche terrain, the \r\nimpact of falling ice or rocks, or by explosives used for avalanche \r\ncontrol (Schweizer et al., 2003). There is no published evidence found \r\nthat addresses the links between climate change and accidental \r\navalanches triggered by recreationists or workers. Changes in snow \r\ncover characteristics are expected to induce changes in spontaneous \r\navalanche activity including changes in friction and flow regime \r\n(Naaim et al., 2013; Steinkogler et al., 2014)."


id: 21c39a34eccdb2b0f295b2b8dd27fcd0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3155
content:
"Ice break-off and subsequent ice avalanches are natural processes \r\nat steep glacier fronts. How climate driven changes in geometry and \r\nthermal regime of such glaciers influenced ice avalanche hazards over \r\nyears to decades depended strongly on local conditions, as shown for \r\nthe European Alps (Fischer et al., 2013; Faillettaz et al., 2015). The few \r\navailable observations are insufficient to detect trends. Where steep \r\nglaciers are frozen to bedrock, there is, however, medium evidence\r\nand high agreement from observations in the European Alps and \r\nfrom numerical simulations that failures of large parts of these \r\nglaciers were and will be facilitated in the future due to an increase \r\nin basal ice temperature (Fischer et al., 2013; Faillettaz et al., 2015; \r\nGilbert et al., 2015)."


id: c4c6a15dce8895ab63b8a5f6d92d9ccb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31935
content:
"ure 2.7 |  Anticipated changes in high mountain hazards under climate change, driven by changes in snow cover, glaciers and permafrost, overlay changes in t\r\nosure and vulnerability of individuals, communities, and mountain infrastructure."


id: 1e86dd5102014ae60ad2a9c318824471
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2572
content:
"glaciers and subsequent floods has been subglacial volcanic activity \r\n(Section  2.3.2.1.4). There is also high confidence that the number \r\nand area of glacier lakes will continue to increase in most regions \r\nin the coming decades, and new lakes will develop closer to steep \r\nand potentially unstable mountain walls where lake outbursts can be \r\nmore easily triggered by the impact of landslides (Frey et al., 2010; \r\nICIMOD, 2011; Allen et al., 2016a; Linsbauer et al., 2016; Colonia \r\net al., 2017; Haeberli et al., 2017)."


id: 4b7e638999708118c7dd1e116b2b3d92
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10534
content:
"relationship between avalanche activity, climate change and disaster \r\nrisk reduction activities in North America. In summary, in particular \r\nin Europe, there is medium confidence in an increase in avalanche \r\nactivity involving wet snow, and a decrease in the size and run-out \r\ndistance of snow avalanches over the past decades."


id: 80dd001cf8ed778310c9522412933008
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19806
content:
"Il Jeong and Sushama (2018) projected an increase in rain-on\u0002snow events in winter and a decrease in spring, for the period \r\n2041-2070 (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) in North America, corroborated \r\nby Musselman et al. (2018). Their frequency in the Swiss Alps is \r\nprojected to increase at elevations higher than 2,000 m a.s.l. (SRES \r\nA1B, 2025, 2055, and 2085) (Beniston and Stoffel, 2016). This study "


id: a65f4afc76fa2640ab8f4fa2215e5c19
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26490
content:
"showed that the number of rain-on-snow events may increase by \r\n50%  with  a regional temperature increase of 2oC to 4oC, and \r\ndecrease with  a temperature rise exceeding 4oC. In Alaska, an \r\noverall increase of rain-on-snow events is projected, however with \r\na projected decline in the southwestern/southern region (Bieniek \r\net al., 2018). In summary, evidence since AR5 suggests that the \r\nfrequency of rain-on-snow events is projected to increase and occur \r\nearlier in spring and later in autumn at higher elevation and to \r\ndecrease at lower elevation (high confidence)."


id: c7391157918858a5908293a25c5bea22
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32367
content:
"Empirical evidence from past events shows that cryosphere \r\nrelated landslides and floods can have severe impacts on lives and \r\nlivelihoods, often extending far beyond the directly affected region, \r\nand persisting for several years. Glacier lake outburst floods alone \r\nhave over the past two centuries directly caused at least 400 deaths \r\nin Europe, 5,745 deaths in South America, and 6,300 deaths in Asia \r\n(Carrivick and Tweed, 2016), although these numbers are heavily \r\nskewed by individual large events occurring in Huaraz and Yungay, \r\nPeru (Carey, 2005) and Kedarnath, India (Allen et al., 2016b)."


id: 3604404381f9287b4f8428d7c739183b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6752
content:
"Early warning systems necessitate strong local engagement and \r\ncapacity building to ensure communities know how to prepare for and \r\nrespond to emergencies, and to ensure the long-term sustainability \r\nof any such project. In Pakistan and Chile, for instance, glacier flood \r\nwarnings, evacuation and post-disaster relief have largely been \r\ncommunity led (Ashraf et al., 2012; Anacona et al., 2015b)."


id: 98225b8ff0490d53dcb83d1b7d07a457
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23977
content:
"transdisciplinary and cross-regional collaboration that places human \r\nsocieties at the centre of studies provides a basis for more effective \r\nand sustainable adaptation strategies (McDowell et al., 2014; Carey \r\net al., 2017; McDowell et al., 2019; Vaidya et al., 2019)."


id: ddc07764fba7211f3cf1136aa565f78
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36277
content:
"Cutter et al. (2012) highlight the post-recovery and reconstruction \r\nperiod as an opportunity to build new resilience and adaptive \r\ncapacities. Ziegler et al. (2014) exemplify consequences when such \r\nprocess is rushed or poorly supported by appropriate long-term \r\nplanning, as illustrated following the 2013 Kedarnath glacier flood \r\ndisaster, where guest houses and even schools were being rebuilt \r\nin the same exposed locations, driven by short-term perspectives. As \r\nchanges in the mountain cryosphere, together with socioeconomic, \r\ncultural and political developments are producing conditions beyond \r\nhistorical precedent, related responses are suggested to include \r\nforward-thinking planning and anticipation of emerging risks and \r\nopportunities (Haeberli et al., 2016)."


id: 8f3d8a23db7c4b1e4c799adb931a8bc0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22405
content:
"In summary, the evidence from regions affected by cryospheric floods, \r\navalanches and landslides generally confirms the findings from the \r\nSREX report (Chapter 3), including the requirement for multi-pronged \r\napproaches customised to local circumstances, integration of \r\nIndigenous knowledge and local knowledge (Cross-Chapter Box  4 \r\nin Chapter 1) together with improved scientific understanding and \r\ntechnical capacities, strong local participation and early engagement \r\nin the process, and high-level communication and exchange between \r\nall actors. Particularly for mountain regions, there is high confidence\r\nthat integration of knowledge and practices across natural and social \r\nsciences, and the humanities, is most efficient in addressing complex \r\nhazards and risks related to glaciers, snow, and permafrost."


id: f04e9d36a70d8612ab9aef7e834b4644
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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vector_id: 39663
content:
"Researchers, policymakers, international donors and local \r\ncommunities do not always agree on the timing of disaster risk \r\nreduction projects and programs, impeding full coordination (Huggel \r\net al., 2015b; Allen et al., 2018). Several authors highlight the value of \r\nimproved evidential basis to underpin adaptation planning. Thereby, "


id: 1ea319f7c337586a4d55b15d48d2c5b4
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content:
"The Cordillera Blanca of Peru contains most of the glaciers in the tropics, and its glacier coverage declined significantly in the recent \r\npast (Burns and Nolin, 2014; Mark et al., 2017). Since the 1940s, glacier hazards have killed thousands (Carey, 2005) and remain \r\nthreatening. Glacier wastage has also reduced river runoff in most of its basins in recent decades, particularly in the dry season (Baraer \r\net al., 2012; Vuille et al., 2018). Residents living adjacent to the Cordillera Blanca have long recognised this glacier shrinkage, including \r\nrural populations living near glaciers and urban residents worried about glacier lake floods and glacier landslides (Jurt et al., 2015; \r\nWalter, 2017). Glacier hazards and the glacier runoff variability increase exposure and uncertainty while diminishing adaptive capacity \r\n(Rasmussen, 2016)."


id: 4a49c3cf3b29005be1eff3cfc820058c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"Vulnerability to hydrologic variability and declining glacier runoff is also shaped by intertwining human and biophysical drivers playing \r\nout in dynamic hydro-social systems (Bury et al., 2013; Rasmussen 2016; Drenkhan et al., 2015; Carey et al., 2017). Water security is \r\ninfluenced by both water availability (supply from glaciers) as well as by water distribution, which is affected by factors such as water \r\nlaws and policies, global demand for agricultural products grown in the lower Santa River basin, energy demands and hydroelectricity \r\nproduction, potable water usage, and livelihood transformations over time (Carey et al., 2014; Vuille et al., 2018). In some cases, the \r\nformation of new glacial lakes can create opportunities as well as hazards, such as new tourist attractions and reservoirs of water, \r\nthereby showing how socioeconomic and geophysical forces intersect in complex ways (Colonia et al., 2017)."


id: b04ec41a50b10f08b116cc7f7632e317
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content:
"1 includes Hindu Kush, Karakoram, Hengduan Shan, and Tien Shan; 2\r\n tropical Andes, Mexico, eastern Africa, and Indone\r\n3 includes Finland, Norway, and Sweden; 4 includes adjacent areas in Yukon Territory and British Columbia, Canada; 5 Migration refers to an increase or decrease in net migration, not to beneficial/adverse value."


id: 5a1cf1e4cbe2d95bd23989f9aac94199
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"abundances, community structure, and ecosystem functioning in \r\nhigh mountain areas (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018). The size and \r\nisolation of mountain habitats (Steinbauer et al., 2016; Cotto et al., \r\n2017), which may vary strongly with the topography of mountain \r\nridges (Elsen and Tingley, 2015; Graae et al., 2018), affects critically \r\nthe survival of species as they migrate across mountain ranges, \r\nincreasing in general the risks for many species from climate change \r\n(Settele et al., 2014; Dobrowski and Parks, 2016)."


id: 32fe09846a89366b787e47c475d82e01
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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"disappeared in regions with distinctive flora (Evangelista et al., \r\n2016; Gimenez-Benavides et al., 2018; Lamprecht et al., 2018; \r\nPanetta et al., 2018) (medium evidence, high agreement)."


id: bf29c28a4b14c6e1991f6972b0bef4cd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"and Moore, 2014). Increased water temperature remaining below \r\nthermal tolerance limits for fish and occurring earlier in the year can \r\nbenefit overall fish growth and increase fitness (Comola et al., 2015) \r\n(medium evidence, medium agreement)."


id: ad1b4e208b2bd6b2afe6902b6c412faf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:27
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content:
"Biota in mountain freshwater ecosystems is affected by cryospheric \r\nchange through alterations in both the quantity and timing of \r\nrunoff from glaciers and snowmelt. Where melt water from glaciers \r\ndecreases, river flows have become more variable, with water \r\ntemperature and overall channel stability increasing and habitats \r\nbecoming less complex (Giersch et al., 2017; Milner et al., 2017) \r\n(medium evidence, medium agreement)."


id: e551d9f9142ab4504991475cccd4a76
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37646
content:
"In summary, cryospheric change will alter freshwater communities \r\nwith increases in local biodiversity but range shrinkage and \r\nextinctions for some species causes regional biodiversity to decrease \r\n(robust evidence, medium agreement, i.e., high confidence)."


id: d3f949d9a4008d9cd143319baaad9125
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"The mountain cryosphere provides important aesthetic, cultural, and \r\nrecreational services to society (Xiao et al., 2015). These services \r\nsupport tourism, providing economic contributions and livelihood \r\noptions to mountain communities and beyond. The relevant changes \r\nin the cryosphere affecting mountain tourism and recreation include \r\nshorter seasons of snow cover, more winter precipitation falling \r\nas rain instead of snow, and declining glaciers and permafrost "


id: ccb2f047e22bce9a25935a5f8d58d88c
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"In summer, cryosphere changes are impacting glacier-related \r\nactivities (hiking, sightseeing, skiing, climbing and mountaineering) \r\n(Figure 2.8). In recent years, several ski resorts operating on glaciers \r\nhave ceased summer operations due to unfavourable snow conditions \r\nand excessive operating costs (e.g., Falk, 2016). Snow management \r\nand snowmaking are increasingly used on glaciers (Fischer et al., \r\n2016). Glacier retreat has led to increased moraine instability which \r\ncan compromise hiker and climber safety along established trails and \r\ncommon access routes, for example, in Iceland (Welling et al., 2019), \r\nthough it has made some areas in the Peruvian Andes more accessible \r\nto trekkers (Vuille et al., 2018). In response, some hiking routes have "


id: 1994519f04684d6e38cfcce7bb4a1066
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"Figure 2.9 |  (a) Documented number of individual adaptation actions distributed across seven of the high mountain regions addressed in this Chapter, with pie charts \r\nndicating the number of adaptation measures for sectors addressed in this chapter (left pie chart), and the relative proportion of these classified as either 'formal', \r\nautonomous' or 'undefined' (right pie chart). Note that for regions with less than five reported adaptation measures were excluded from the figure (i.e., Caucasus, Iceland \r\nand Alaska), however these are detailed in Table SM2.9. (b) Number of publications reported in the assessed literature over time. In some cases, multiple adaptation \r\nmeasures are discussed in a single publication (Table SM2.9)."


id: 641b29f9f69beda98af3bb750b35c548
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"Annapurna Conservation Area of Nepal, the loss of glaciers which \r\nthey have observed threatens their ethnic identity (Konchar et al., \r\n2015). Villagers in the Italian Alps also report that glacier retreat \r\nweakens their identity (Jurt et al., 2015)."


id: 97f20e6f6984b3ad3f68c752d3b69e5b
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"less attractive as a destination, and the reduced water availability \r\naffects the ability of hotels and campsites to serve visitors (Becken \r\net al., 2013)."


id: 912da691082708db3955b8a06982f2cb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
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content:
"In summary, financial risks to mountain communities that depend \r\non tourism for income, are high and include losses to revenues \r\ngenerated from recreation primarily in the winter season. Adaptation \r\nto cryosphere change for ski tourism focuses on snowmaking and is \r\nexpected to be moderately effective for many locations in the near \r\nterm (2031-2050), but it is unlikely to substantially reduce the risks in \r\nmost locations in the longer term (end of century) (high confidence). \r\nDetermining the extent to which glacier retreat and permafrost thaw \r\nimpact upon overall visitor numbers in summer tourism, and how any \r\nlosses or increased costs are offset by opportunities, is inconclusive. \r\nFurthermore, tourism is also impacted by cryospheric change that \r\nimpacts on water resources availability, increasing competition for \r\nits use (Section 2.3.1.3)."


id: bc52b350165f4291b7cb4fa03a8d8022
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
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"An additional cultural value is the contribution of glaciers to the \r\nunderstanding of human history. Glacier retreat has supported \r\nthe increase of knowledge of past societies by providing access \r\nto archaeological materials and other cultural resources that had \r\npreviously been covered by ice. The discovery of Oetzi, a mummified \r\nBronze Age man whose remains were discovered in 1991 in the Alps \r\nnear the Italian-Austrian border, marked the beginning of scientific \r\nresearch with such materials (Putzer and Festi, 2014). Subsequent \r\npapers described objects that were uncovered in retreating glaciers \r\nand shrinking ice patches in the Wrangell-Saint Elias Range (Dixon "


id: 744fb7b0912d227038d767a036ed1359
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
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content:
"Cultural values include spiritual, intrinsic and existence values, as well \r\nas aesthetic dimensions, which are also an element of tourism and \r\nrecreation (Section  2.3.5), though they focus more directly on ties \r\nto sacred beings or to inherent rights of entities to exist. However, \r\nthese values overlap, since the visual appeal of natural landscapes \r\nlinks with a sense of the immensity of mountain landscapes, glaciers \r\nand fresh snow (Paden et al., 2013; Gagne et al., 2014). Moreover, \r\ndifferent stakeholders, such as local communities, tourists and \r\npolicymakers, may place different emphasis on specific cultural values \r\n(Schirpke et al., 2016). For the indigenous Manangi community of the "


id: 5d7bcb2e0799ae7bb7cae6269fb37fab
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"et al., 2005), the Rocky Mountains (Lee, 2012) and Norway (Bjorgo \r\net al., 2016). This field provides new insight into human cultural \r\nhistory and contributes to global awareness of climate change (Dixon \r\net al., 2014). Though climate change permits the discovery of new \r\nartefacts and sites, it also threatens these objects and places, since \r\nthey become newly exposed to harsh weather (Callanan, 2016)."


id: 4e13f5311381cfbf1ed7815261230097
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
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content:
"High mountain communities have historically included mobility \r\nin their sets of livelihood strategies, as a means to gain access to \r\nproduction zones at different elevations within mountain zones \r\nand in lowland areas, and as a response to the strong seasonality \r\nof agricultural and pastoral livelihoods. Cryosphere changes in high \r\nmountain areas have influenced human mobility and migration \r\nduring this century by altering water availability and increasing \r\nexposure to mass movements and floods and other cryospheric \r\ninduced disasters (Figure 2.7) (Barnett et al., 2005; Carey et al., 2017; \r\nRasul and Molden, 2019). These changes affect three forms of human \r\nmobility: transhumant pastoralism, temporary or permanent wage \r\nlabour migration and displacement, in which entire communities \r\nresettle in new areas."


id: fdbd97f6d3e8deec74e9a2143096400
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
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content:
"Several studies show that wage labour migration is more frequent \r\namong young adults than among other age groups, supporting the \r\nobservation in AR5 that climate change migrants worldwide are \r\nconcentrated in this age (limited evidence, high agreement). This \r\nage-specific pattern is found in a valley in Northern Pakistan in \r\nwhich agriculture relies on glacier melt water for irrigation; as river \r\nflow decreases, the returns to agricultural labour have declined, and \r\nemigration has increased, particularly among the youth, who are "


id: ab5009ab93de9fd524f5177778d18632
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"Wage labour migration is also a centuries old practice in the \r\nHimalaya, the Andes and the European Alps (Macfarlane, 1976; Cole, \r\n1985; Viazzo, 1989). Studies show that migration is a second-order \r\neffect of cryosphere changes, since the first-order effects, a decrease \r\nin agricultural production (Section 2.3.1.3.2), have led to increased "


id: 942109900cb515afc7c72e7a5fc55893
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content:
"to relocate, cryosphere changes have contributed to instances of \r\ndisplacement. Unreliable water availability and increased risks of \r\nnatural hazards are responsible for resettlement of villages in certain \r\nhigh mountain areas (McDonald, 1989; Parveen et al., 2015). A village \r\nin Western Nepal moved to lower elevation after decreasing snowfall \r\nreduced the flow of water in the river on which their pastoralism and \r\nagriculture depended (Barnett et al., 2005). Three villages in Nepal \r\nfaced severe declines in agricultural and pastoral livelihoods because \r\ndecreased snow cover led to reduced soil moisture and to the drying \r\nup of springs, which were the historical source of irrigation water; \r\nin conjunction with an international non-governmental organisation \r\n(INGO), the residents planned a move to a lower area (Prasain, 2018). "


id: a1dd92a8bfc2878d313e15dbe3b11e7f
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content:
"The governance of key resources that are affected by climate-related \r\nchanges in the cryosphere, such as water, is a relevant aspect for \r\nclimate resilient sustainable development in mountains at the \r\ncatchment level (Section  2.3.1.4). In this section, we address \r\nbroader policy frameworks that are expected to shape a solution \r\nspace through global action. An important development since AR5, \r\nat the global level, is the adoption of key frameworks that include \r\nthe Paris Agreement (UNFCCC, 2015), UN 2030 Agenda and its \r\nSDGs (UN, 2015), and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk \r\nReduction (UNISDR, 2015), which call for integrated and coordinated \r\nclimate adaptation action that is also relevant for and applicable in \r\nmountain regions."


id: b63476a73960750c964734b73fd793f4
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"In international climate policy, the importance of averting, minimising \r\nand addressing loss and damage associated with adverse impacts of \r\nclimate change is articulated in the Paris Agreement under Article 8, \r\nmore specifically (UNFCCC, 2015). However, despite evident impacts \r\nof climate change on the mountain cryosphere (Section  2.3.2), \r\nthere is limited evidence or reference in the literature to loss and \r\ndamage for mountains, globally (Huggel et al., 2019). With already \r\ncommitted and unavoidable climate change, its effects on the high \r\nmountain cryosphere (Section  2.2) and related impacts and risks \r\n(Section 2.3), substantial adverse effects are expected in the coming "


id: cc5f60ce75a075b4c565ab10782f0478
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vector_id: 33273
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"In addition to affecting pastoral transhumance and increasing wage \r\nlabour migration, cryosphere changes impact human mobility by \r\ncreating cases of displacement. These cases differ from wage labour \r\nmigration because they involve entire communities. As a result, \r\nthey are irreversible, unlike cases in which individuals undertake \r\nlong-term or permanent migration from their communities but retain \r\nthe possibility of returning, because, for example, some relatives or \r\nformer neighbours have remained in place. In this way, these cases of \r\ndisplacement represent cryosphere driven challenges to habitability. \r\nThough natural hazards have historically led some communities "


id: d90277041e7b45d359952cb139d40a47
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"Other relevant frameworks include the Convention Concerning the \r\nProtection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, enacted to \r\nprotect the planet's most significant and irreplaceable places from \r\nloss or damage (UNESCO, 1972). In it, conservation strategies are \r\nlisted that aim at preserving natural and cultural heritage across \r\nregions, including sites that contain glaciers (Section 2.3.6), and are \r\nsuggested as means to further support efforts towards the promotion \r\nof knowledge, collective cultural memory and climate policy (Bosson \r\net al., 2019)."


id: b5e4ab65593bdd8a4e0f1a17a61de6a8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
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vector_id: 29224
content:
"Overall, there are promising prospects through international policy \r\nframeworks to support governance and adaptation to climate-related \r\nchanges in the mountain cryosphere whilst addressing sustainable \r\ndevelopment, with evidence suggesting that treaties and conventions \r\nare relevant enablers to support cooperation and implementation \r\nat the mountain region scale (Dinar et al., 2016). However, there \r\nis limited evidence to systematically assess for effectiveness in \r\naddressing specific challenges posed by changes in the mountain \r\ncryosphere, globally."


id: 10b3ba7410021b96dfa3525ee2541f4a
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content:
"These observational knowledge gaps currently impede efforts to \r\nquantify trends, and to calibrate and evaluate models that simulate \r\nthe past and future evolution of the cryosphere and its impacts. \r\nSpecific uncertainties are associated with projections of future \r\nclimate change trends at high elevations due mostly to current "


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"limits in regional climate models and downscaling methods to \r\ncapture the subtle interplays between large-scale climate change \r\nand local phenomena influenced by complex topography and high \r\nrelief (Section 2.2.1). Coarse-scale simulations of future permafrost \r\nconditions in high mountains are fraught with difficulties in capturing \r\nfine-scale variation of topography, surface cover and near-surface \r\nmaterials (Section  2.2.4). Improved cross-disciplinary studies \r\nbringing together current observation and modelling approaches in \r\neach specific field hold potential to contribute to addressing these \r\ngaps in the future."


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"With ecosystems, particularly the terrestrial component, uncertainty \r\nexists at which community changes can be directly linked to \r\ncryospheric change as distinct from those due to atmospheric \r\nwarming. In some cases, the changes can be linked, for example, where \r\na receding glacier creates new habitat, but rising air temperature \r\nallow some species to establish that would not otherwise be able \r\nto. A major research gap is in our understanding of the fate of \r\nlegacy pollutants such as mercury downstream of their release from \r\nglaciers and permafrost in terms of quantity and regional differences, \r\nfreshwater sinks, and potential effects to ecosystems and human \r\nhealth. Similarly, the effect of permafrost thaw on water quality and \r\necosystems due to the increasing release of natural heavy metals and \r\nnutrients represents a gap in knowledge."


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"While adaptation measures are reported for high mountain \r\ncryosphere changes (Figure 2.9 a), it stands as a relatively new and \r\ndeveloping area of research since AR5 (Figure 2.9 b), with particular \r\ngaps in terms of systematically evaluating their cost-benefits and \r\nlong-term effectiveness as 'fit-for-purpose' solutions in the mountain \r\ncontext. Improved inter-comparability of successful adaptation cases, \r\nincluding the transferability of evidence for how adaptation can \r\naddress both climate change and sustainable development objectives \r\nin different mountain regions, are prospects to support an evidentiary \r\nbasis for future assessments of adaptation to cryosphere changes in \r\nthe high mountains (Adler et al., 2019; McDowell et al., 2019)."


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"We acknowledge the kind contributions of Matvey Debolskiy \r\n(Unversity of Alaska Fairbanks, USA), Florian Hanzer (University of \r\nInnsbruck, Austria), Andreas F. Prein (National Center for Atmospheric \r\nResearch, Boulder, CO, USA), Silvia Terzago (Institute of Atmospheric "


id: e017a48a82f5114bfcbe658d46720ef4
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
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vector_id: 36672
content:
"Sciences and Climate, National Research Council, Torino, Italy) and \r\nNatalia Zazulie (CONICET/University of Buenos Aires, Argentina) \r\nwho contributed to drafting figures."


id: eb48e103ef1b5fc20b98e4483b1bb145
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"Two global-scale estimates of recent glacier mass changes have \r\nbeen published since AR5 (Wouters et al., 2019; Zemp et al., 2019) \r\nthat include area-averaged estimates for large-scale glacier regions \r\nas defined by the Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI Consortium, \r\n2017). Zemp et al. (2019) is based on extrapolation of geodetic and \r\nglaciological observations, while Wouters et al. (2019) use gravimetric \r\nmeasurements from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment \r\n(GRACE). For some regions, additional estimates are available mostly \r\nbased on remote sensing data (Table 2.A.1)."


id: f712aa8af8da3aad0641a12677fe4420
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"These estimates were used to derive an average mass change rate \r\nfor the period 2006-2015 for each glacier region covered in both \r\nChapter  2  and 3. Where several estimates were available for this \r\nperiod or similar periods, these were averaged and uncertainties \r\nobtained from standard error propagation assuming the estimates \r\nto be independent. The GRACE estimates were only considered in \r\nregions with extensive ice cover due to generally large uncertainties \r\nin regions with little ice cover (Wouters et al., 2019). The estimates \r\nfor the polar regions by Box et al. (2018) were not used since they \r\nare based on an earlier version of the data by Wouters et al. (2019)."


id: 2514deb18b95e6155e6ee17ead6ae208
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vector_id: 3716
content:
"Individual regional estimates for overlapping periods between \r\n2000 and 2017 were recalculated to represent the period 2006-\r\n2015, prior to averaging with other existing estimates. For Western \r\nCanada and USA the mass change rate by Menounos et al. (2019) "


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content:
"Table 2A.1 |  Regional estimates of glacier mass budget in three different units. Only estimates from the studies marked in bold were used to derive the average SROCC \r\nestimates. Regional glacier area A and volume V are taken from the Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI Consortium, 2017) and Farinotti et al. (2019), respectively. Method \r\ngeod. refers to the geodetic method (using elevation changes) and gl. refers to the glaciological method (based on in situ mass-balance observations). Results are given for \r\nvarious aggregated areas including among others all regions combined (global), and global excluding the Antarctic (A) and Greenland (G) periphery. All regional estimates \r\n(in kg m-2 yr-1) are shown in Figures 2.4 and 3.8). SLE is sea level equivalent."


id: ed6a38248d7110bfaa62344c87ecb078
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39135
content:
"****including Alaska, Iceland, and Scandinavia (covered in Chapter 2), and Arctic Canada, Greenland periphery, Russian Arctic and Svalbard (covered in Chapter 3)."


id: ee98918694fc08b6e92bbaa43c5a2f52
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39355
content:
"Sandra Cassotta (Denmark), Chris Derksen (Canada), Alexey Ekaykin (Russian Federation), \r\nAnne Hollowed (USA), Gary Kofinas (USA), Andrew Mackintosh (Australia/New Zealand), \r\nJess Melbourne-Thomas (Australia), Monica M.C. Muelbert (Brazil), Geir Ottersen (Norway), \r\nHamish Pritchard (United Kingdom), Edward A.G. Schuur (USA)"


id: e86c18ab0c168c09837a5a0bd703e259
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38225
content:
"Meredith, M., M. Sommerkorn, S. Cassotta, C. Derksen, A. Ekaykin, A. Hollowed, G. Kofinas, A. Mackintosh, \r\nJ. Melbourne-Thomas, M.M.C. Muelbert, G. Ottersen, H. Pritchard, and E.A.G. Schuur, 2019: Polar Regions. \r\nIn: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Portner, D.C. Roberts, \r\nV.  Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegria, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, \r\nB. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 203-320. \r\nhttps://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.005."


id: ef891a8a28f456abd1daffa5c5d9df39
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39520
content:
"2000 m  (high confidence), despite occupying ~25% of the global \r\nocean area. In recent years (2005-2017), the Southern Ocean was \r\nresponsible for an increased proportion of the global ocean heat \r\nincrease (45-62%) (high confidence). {3.2.1.2.1}"


id: 5ded2a301d37aaa7cf17a7b9f0f2d3d9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13827
content:
"This chapter assesses the state of physical, biological and social \r\nknowledge concerning the Arctic and Antarctic ocean and cryosphere, \r\nhow they are affected by climate change, and how they will evolve \r\nin future. Concurrently, it assesses the local, regional and global \r\nconsequences and impacts of individual and interacting polar system \r\nchanges, and it assesses response options to reduce risk and build \r\nresilience in the polar regions. Key findings are:"


id: cecf01fbac47c846e350252375619eb6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33726
content:
"Climate-induced changes in seasonal sea ice extent and \r\nthickness and ocean stratification are altering marine primary \r\nproduction (high confidence), with impacts on ecosystems \r\n(medium confidence). Changes in the timing, duration and intensity \r\nof primary production have occurred in both polar oceans, with \r\nmarked regional or local variability (high confidence). In the Antarctic, \r\nsuch changes have been associated with locally-rapid environmental \r\nchange, including retreating glaciers and sea ice change (medium \r\nconfidence). In the Arctic, changes in primary production have \r\naffected regional species composition, spatial distribution, and \r\nabundance of many marine species, impacting ecosystem structure \r\n(medium confidence). {3.2.1; 3.2.3, 3.2.4} "


id: 1050a5005125bc063b3e621d0fa06d9e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 60
content:
"The polar regions are losing ice, and their oceans are changing \r\nrapidly. The consequences of this polar transition extend to \r\nthe whole planet, and are affecting people in multiple ways."


id: 160d2da0ecec6b2d431e8390cc1cdd9c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1096
content:
"Arctic surface air temperature has likely1 increased by more \r\nthan double the global average over the last two decades, with \r\nfeedbacks from loss of sea ice and snow cover contributing to \r\nthe amplified warming. For each of the five years since the IPCC \r\n5th Asesssment Report (AR5) (2014-2018), Arctic annual surface \r\nair temperature exceeded that of any year since 1900. During the \r\nwinters (January to March) of 2016 and 2018, surface temperatures \r\nin the central Arctic were 6oC above the 1981-2010 average, \r\ncontributing to unprecedented regional sea ice absence. These trends \r\nand extremes provide medium evidence2\r\n with high agreement of the \r\ncontemporary coupled atmosphere-cryosphere system moving well \r\noutside the 20th century envelope. {Box 3.1; 3.2.1.1}"


id: 354b0ef98759796de31bbfc06c11fed0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6623
content:
"In both polar regions, climate-induced changes in ocean and \r\nsea ice, together with human introduction of non-native \r\nspecies, have expanded the range of temperate species and \r\ncontracted the range of polar fish and ice-associated species \r\n(high confidence). Commercially and ecologically important fish \r\nstocks like Atlantic cod, haddock and mackerel have expanded their \r\nspatial distributions northwards many hundreds of kilometres, and \r\nincreased their abundance. In some Arctic areas, such expansions have \r\naffected the whole fish community, leading to higher competition \r\nand predation on smaller sized fish species, while some commercial \r\nfisheries have benefited. There has been a  southward shift in the \r\ndistribution of Antarctic krill in the South Atlantic, the main area \r\nfor the krill fishery (medium confidence). These changes are altering \r\nbiodiversity in polar marine ecosystems (medium confidence). {3.2.3; \r\nBox 3.4}"


id: 1a976a9483935f56909cb11accff57ef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1878
content:
"The Arctic and Southern Oceans are continuing to remove \r\ncarbon dioxide from the atmosphere and to acidify (high \r\nconfidence). There is medium confidence that the amount of CO 2\r\ndrawn into the Southern Ocean from the atmosphere has experienced \r\nsignificant decadal variations since the 1980s. Rates of calcification (by \r\nwhich marine organisms form hard skeletons and shells) declined in the \r\nSouthern Ocean by 3.9 +- 1.3% between 1998 and 2014. In the Arctic \r\nOcean, the area corrosive to organisms that form shells and skeletons \r\nusing the mineral aragonite expanded between the 1990s and 2010, \r\nwith instances of extreme aragonite undersaturation. {3.2.1.2.4}"


id: e401b110426e1dc16f2633c3a9e95c63
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37408
content:
"Arctic sea ice extent continues to decline in all months of \r\nthe year (very high confidence); the strongest reductions in \r\nSeptember (very likely -12.8 +- 2.3% per decade; 1979-2018) \r\nare unprecedented in at least 1000 years (medium confidence).\r\nArctic sea ice has thinned, concurrent with a  shift to younger ice: \r\nsince 1979, the areal proportion of thick ice at least 5 years old has \r\ndeclined by approximately 90% (very high confidence). Approximately \r\nhalf the observed sea ice loss is attributable to increased atmospheric \r\ngreenhouse gas concentrations(medium confidence). Changes in Arctic \r\nsea ice have potential to influence mid-latitude weather on timescales \r\nof weeks to months (low to medium confidence). {3.2.1.1; Box 3.2}"


id: 6b6edbccab8577539132055d9f4ed095
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16199
content:
"Both polar oceans have continued to warm in recent years, \r\nwith the Southern Ocean being disproportionately and \r\nincreasingly important in global ocean heat increase (high \r\nconfidence). Over large sectors of the seasonally ice-free Arctic, \r\nsummer upper mixed layer temperatures increased at around 0.5oC \r\nper decade during 1982-2017, primarily associated with increased \r\nabsorbed solar radiation accompanying sea ice loss, and the inflow \r\nof ocean heat from lower latitude increased since the 2000s (high \r\nconfidence). During 1970-2017, the Southern Ocean south of 30oS \r\naccounted for 35-43% of the global ocean heat gain in the upper "


id: 14bb6a2b05141a54ef5704edb42722cb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 875
content:
"(1979-2018). While the drivers of historical decadal variability are \r\nknown with medium confidence, there is currently limited evidence \r\nand low agreement concerning causes of the strong recent decrease \r\n(2016-2018), and low confidence in the ability of current-generation \r\nclimate models to reproduce and explain the observations. {3.2.1.1}"


id: a7e5760c10c7b571b217193220cf9cbc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26749
content:
"and industry are addressing infrastructure failures associated with \r\nflooding and thawing permafrost, and coastal communities and \r\ncooperating agencies are in some cases planning for relocation \r\n(high confidence). In spite of these adaptations, many groups are \r\nmaking decisions without adequate knowledge to forecast near- and \r\nlong-term conditions, and without the funding, skills and institutional \r\nsupport to engage fully in planning processes (high confidence). \r\n{3.5.2, 3.5.4, Cross-Chapter Box 9}"


id: 7a45a05e1b7ab5770eeb12a044ba7889
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18707
content:
"Shipping activity during the Arctic summer increased over the \r\npast two decades in regions for which there is information, \r\nconcurrent with reductions in sea ice extent (high confidence). \r\nTransit times across the Northern Sea Route have shortened due \r\nto lighter ice conditions, and while long-term, pan-Arctic datasets \r\nare incomplete, the distance travelled by ships in Arctic Canada \r\nnearly tripled during 1990-2015 (high confidence). Greater levels \r\nof Arctic ship-based transportation and tourism have socioeconomic \r\nand political implications for global trade, northern nations, and \r\neconomies linked to traditional shipping corridors; they will also \r\nexacerbate region specific risks for marine ecosystems and coastal \r\ncommunities if further action to develop and adequately implement \r\nregulations does not keep pace with increased shipping (high \r\nconfidence). {3.2.1.1; 3.2.4.2; 3.2.4.3; 3.4.3.3.2; 3.5.2.7}"


id: 2d31198c414a0c54f42bd7555a840470
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5234
content:
"Permafrost temperatures have increased to record high levels \r\n(very high confidence), but there is medium evidence and low \r\nagreement that this warming is currently causing northern \r\npermafrost regions to release additional methane and \r\ncarbon dioxide. During 2007-2016, continuous-zone permafrost \r\ntemperatures in the Arctic and Antarctic increased by 0.39 +- 0.15oC \r\nand 0.37 +- 0.10oC respectively. Arctic and boreal permafrost region \r\nsoils contain 1460-1600 Gt organic carbon (medium confidence). \r\nChanges in permafrost influence global climate through emissions of \r\ncarbon dioxide and methane released from the microbial breakdown \r\nof organic carbon, or the release of trapped methane. {3.4.1; 3.4.3}"


id: 4cd0673cc15463122eab1d6b12e82b13
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10783
content:
"Mass loss from Arctic glaciers  (-212 +-  29 Gt yr-1) during \r\n2006-2015 contributed to sea level rise at a  similar rate \r\n(0.6 +- 0.1 mm yr-1) to the GIS (high confidence). Over the same \r\nperiod in Antarctic and subantarctic regions, glaciers separate from \r\nthe ice sheets changed mass by -11 +- 108 Gt yr-1 (low confidence). \r\n{2.2.3, 3.3.2}"


id: 5cf1da3b9b9b38e4e5c0b47854ed62cd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13618
content:
"There is limited evidence and high agreement that recent \r\nAntarctic Ice Sheet (AIS) mass losses could be irreversible \r\nover decades to millennia. Rapid mass loss due to glacier flow \r\nacceleration in the Amundsen Sea Embayment (ASE) of West \r\nAntarctica and in Wilkes Land, East Antarctica, may indicate the \r\nbeginning of Marine Ice Sheet Instability (MISI), but observational \r\ndata are not yet sufficient to determine whether these changes mark \r\nthe beginning of irreversible retreat. {3.3.1; Cross-Chapter Box 8 in \r\nChapter 3; 4.2.3.1.2}"


id: fe3de4acfb2566696ffc93c891efa23
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42099
content:
"The polar regions will be profoundly different in future \r\ncompared with today, and the degree and nature of that \r\ndifference will depend strongly on the rate and magnitude \r\nof global climatic change3. This will challenge adaptation \r\nresponses regionally and worldwide."


id: cbc6913ca147a8573545a0eb3856524b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33175
content:
"Limited knowledge, financial resources, human capital and \r\norganisational capacity are constraining adaptation in many \r\nhuman sectors in the Arctic (high confidence). Harvesters of \r\nrenewable resources are adjusting timing of activities to changes \r\nin seasonality and less safe ice travel conditions. Municipalities "


id: 541699c6019c3a5951ccb620ff5a65bb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12069
content:
"change and on the strategies employed to manage the effects on \r\nstocks and ecosystems (medium confidence). Under high emission \r\nscenarios current management strategies of some high-value stocks \r\nmay not sustain current catch levels in the future (low confidence); \r\nthis exemplifies the limits to the ability of existing natural resource \r\nmanagement frameworks to address ecosystem change. Adaptive \r\nmanagement that combines annual measures and within-season \r\nprovisions informed by assessments of future ecosystem trends \r\nreduces the risks of negative climate change impacts on polar \r\nfisheries (medium confidence). {3.2.4; 3.5.2; 3.5.4}"


id: cc62fa32d93ca81def8ec56b1820fc87
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:28
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33274
content:
"the mass of glaciers. Important differences in the trajectories \r\nof loss emerge from 2050 onwards, depending on mitigation \r\nmeasures taken (high confidence). For stabilised global warming \r\nof 1.5oC, an approximately 1% chance of a given September being sea \r\nice free at the end of century is projected; for stabilised warming at \r\na 2oC increase, this rises to 10-35% (high confidence). The potential \r\nfor reduced (further 5-10%) but stabilised Arctic autumn and spring \r\nsnow extent by mid-century for Representative Concentration \r\nPathway (RCP)2.6 contrasts with continued loss under RCP8.5 (a \r\nfurther 15-25% reduction to end of century) (high confidence). \r\nProjected mass reductions for polar glaciers between 2015 and 2100 \r\nrange from 16 +- 7% for RCP2.6 to 33 +- 11% for RCP8.5 (medium\r\nconfidence). {3.2.2; 3.3.2; 3.4.2, Cross-Chapter Box 6 in Chapter 2}"


