# document

id: 7728ab94cf347484cfd82fa7ebb8912a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18165
content:
"Create enabling policies (e.g. security of land tenure and agricultural insurance policy)\r\nand enhance institutional capacity (e.g. effective extensions services and early warning \r\nsystem) to support farmers' adaptation"


id: f734ebae3e970557439b05aeb4236ff0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40867
content:
"Promote science-based adaptation measures. (e.g. development of drought-tolerant and \r\nshort-maturing varieties, promotion of conservation-agriculture practices and technologies,\r\nuse of weather and climate information to enhance farmers' adaptation"


id: a471a9c91eb3c7705cad19b46480cdf9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26140
content:
"Address farmers' adaptation barriers (e.g. labor shortage, insecure land tenure,\r\nlimited market access, poor governmental and institutional support, poverty,\r\nlack of access to assets and technology, limited water sources, absence of credit facility;\r\ninadequate access to near-term and medium-term climate knowledge, etc.) to advance \r\ntransformational adaption"


id: 75fd02e90d2ad70fab6c81105cbaa02c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17982
content:
"implementing NbS in agricultural landscapes have been documented \r\nboth in agriculture and fisheries sectors that promote production \r\nwhile providing co-benefits such as environmental protection and \r\nsustainability (Miralles-Wilhelm, 2021)."


id: 76e4c2d98b573213dddad1e1abdbd50a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18127
content:
"systems (RAS) have been suggested to increase aquaculture productivity, \r\nenvironmental sustainability and climate change adaptability (Ahmed \r\net  al., 2019c; Tran et  al., 2020). In Bangladesh, several adaptation \r\nmeasures, such as integrated community-based adaptation strategies \r\n(Akber et al., 2017) and integrated coastal zone management (Ahmed \r\nand Diana, 2015), have been recommended to increase climate resilience \r\namong shrimp farmers."


id: e6cd76efd54a6bae8db41c4665dbd5c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37898
content:
"Despite the numerous adaptation measures already employed, there \r\nis sufficient evidence that farmers' current adaptation practices \r\nare inadequate to offset the worsening climate change impacts. A \r\nmore comprehensive approach that integrates economic and social \r\nstrategies with other measures is seen to reduce climate vulnerability. \r\nFor instance, agriculture insurance is viewed as a promising \r\nadaptation approach to reduce risks and increase the financial \r\nresilience of farmers and herders in many Asian countries (Prabhakar "


id: 796c0f0eabe58522a99e194019a1c09
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18559
content:
"More recently, nature-based solutions (NbS) have gained attention \r\nglobally to enhance climate adaptation. In the context of agriculture, \r\nNbS are seen as cost-effective interventions that can increase resilience \r\nin food production while advancing climate mitigation and improving \r\nthe environment (Iseman and Miralles-Wilhelm, 2021). Experiences in "


id: c4eb68265b893f7ed09801543843c731
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31953
content:
"et al., 2018; Matheswaran et al., 2019; Nguyen et al., 2019; Stringer \r\net  al., 2020). Similarly, participation of multiple stakeholders from \r\nall relevant sectors at different levels in adaptation planning and \r\ndecision making is seen as an important factor in improving outcomes \r\n(Arunrat et al., 2017; Hochman et al., 2017; Chandra and McNamara, \r\n2018). Moreover, while adaptation is local and context specific, the \r\nfollowing general adaptation-related strategies are distilled from the \r\ncurrent literature, based on the Asian experience, to enhance current \r\nand future adaptations (see Figure  10.7 for details or examples of \r\neach strategy):"


id: 8d7c82a2ec08606323e675aa7bc93428
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22078
content:
"Asia is home to 54% of the world's urban population, and by 2050, 64% \r\nof Asia's 3.3 billion people will be living in cities. Asia is also home to the \r\nworld's largest urban agglomerations: Tokyo (37 million inhabitants), \r\nNew Delhi (29 million) and Shanghai (26 million) are the top three with \r\nCairo, Mumbai, Beijing and Dhaka home to nearly 20 million people \r\neach (UNDESA, 2018). By 2028, New Delhi is projected to become the \r\nmost populous city in the world. In certain parts of Asia (e.g., some \r\ncities in Japan and the Republic of Korea), a steep decline in urban \r\npopulation is projected, mainly due to declining birth rates (Hori et al., \r\n2020). Within Asia, rates of urbanisation differ sub-regionally. Eastern \r\nAsia has seen the most rapid urban growth with the percentage of \r\nurban population having more than tripled from 18 to 60% between \r\n1950 and 2015, while rates of urbanisation have decreased in West \r\nAsia and remained steady in Central Asia (UNDESA, 2018)."


id: 853eb8b69de8c9b51a04b1f254f42fc3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"Asian cities are seeing growing income inequality, with rural poverty \r\nbeing replaced by urban poverty (ADB, 2013). Regional studies show \r\nhigh and growing inequality within Indian and Chinese urban areas \r\nand decreasing rural-urban income gaps in Thailand and Vietnam \r\n(Baker and Gadgil, 2017; Imai and Malaeb, 2018). Critically, East Asia \r\nand the Asia-Pacific in general continue to house the world's largest \r\npopulation of slum dwellers at 250 million, with most of them in China, \r\nIndonesia and the Philippines, and the highest rates of urban poverty \r\nin Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Indonesia and the Lao PDR (McIlreavy, \r\n2015; Baker and Gadgil, 2017). A lot of urbanisation, especially in \r\nSouth Asia, is also 'hidden' due to poor, competing definitions of what \r\nis 'urban' and limited data (Ellis and Roberts, 2016)."


id: 23036b4a4200d750264ce506c99a97ca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3356
content:
"In Asian cities, climatic hazards such as changes in precipitation and, \r\nduring the Asian monsoon, SLR, cyclones, flooding, dust storms, \r\nheatwaves and permafrost thawing (Byers et  al., 2018; Hoegh\u0002Guldberg et al., 2018; Rogelj et al., 2018; Shiklomanov, 2019), as well \r\nas non-climatic vulnerabilities such as non-climatic hazards (e.g., seismic \r\nhazards), inadequate infrastructure and services, unplanned urbanisation, \r\nsocioeconomic inequalities and existing adaptation deficits (Johnson \r\net  al., 2013; Araos et  al., 2016; de Leon and Pittock, 2017; Meerow, \r\n2017; Dulal, 2019) interact to shape overall urban risk (Shaw et  al., \r\n2016a; Rumbach and Shirgaokar, 2017; Dodman et al., 2019). Caught \r\nat the intersection of high exposure, socioeconomic vulnerability and \r\nlow adaptive capacities, informal settlements in urban and peri-urban \r\nareas are particularly at risk (robust evidence, high agreement) (Meerow, \r\n2017; Rumbach and Shirgaokar, 2017; Byers et al., 2018)."


id: 1466522f6762bd0c11ce98da9b63c03d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 813
content:
"Cities across Asia have large populations exposed to climate risks but \r\nalso present an opportunity for concerted climate action (Revi et al., \r\n2014; Chu et al., 2017; Revi, 2017; Khosla and Bhardwaj, 2019) and \r\nreport numerous examples of adaptation actions at various stages \r\nof planning and implementation (Dulal, 2019; Singh et  al., 2021b). \r\nHowever, challenges specific (though not exclusive) to Asian cities such \r\nas uneven economic development, rapid land-use changes, increasing \r\ninequality, growing exposure to extreme events and environmental \r\nchange, such as land subsidence (with antecedent impacts on people \r\nand infrastructure), and large, socially differentiated vulnerable \r\npopulations, remain key concerns as Asian cities simultaneously tackle \r\nchallenges of sustainable development and equitable climate action."


id: 9e99f1a25369b0da15e729fdcc2d78e0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25130
content:
"By 2050, urban areas are expected to add 2.5 billion people, 90% of \r\nwhom will be in Asia and Africa (UNDESA, 2018). Critically, this urban \r\npopulation increase will be concentrated in India, China and Nigeria, \r\nwith India and China adding 416  million and 255  million urban \r\ndwellers, respectively, between 2018 and 2050 (UNDESA, 2018)."


id: 750377ba061ab571bd734f1930103b60
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Of the multi-hazard global average annual loss (AAL)4\r\n of 293  billion \r\nUSD, 170 billion USD (58%) is in the Asia Pacific region (UNISDR, 2017). \r\nOf the top ten highest AALs associated with multi-hazards, six are in "


id: adbf9161d64ddff6c521ffcef4e2d443
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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vector_id: 27810
content:
"approximately 260 million people (19% of the total population of China) \r\nand 310  million people (39% of the total population), respectively, \r\nfacing more than three heat-danger days annually (Zhang et al., 2021). \r\nThis projected risk exposure is reduced under low-emissions pathways \r\n(SSP1-2.6 and SSP2-4.5), where annual heat-danger days will remain \r\nsimilar to current levels or increase slightly (Zhang et al., 2021)."


id: 9524130f7fd1b566a39cbe17957f8179
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23444
content:
"Urbanisation and climate change interact to drive an urban heat \r\nisland (UHI) effect across Asian cities (Hauck et al., 2016; Chapman \r\net al., 2017; also see Figure 6.4 in Chapter 6). Three regions which are \r\nexpected to see higher maximum wet-bulb temperature than global \r\naverages are southwest Asia around the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, \r\nSouth Asia in the Indus and Ganges river valleys, and eastern China (Im \r\net al., 2017; Perkins-Kirkpatrick et al., 2020)."


id: b2126724b11dd0fbd49cddaa0b907511
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28555
content:
"Warming from 1.5degC to 2degC will increase extreme precipitation events \r\nacross Asia especially over East and South Asia (medium evidence, \r\nhigh agreement) (Zhang et al. 2018; Supari et al., 2020; Zhang et al., \r\n2020b). In East and Central Asia, under 1.5degC warming, extreme 1- and \r\n5-d precipitation will increase by 28 and 15% relative to 1971-2000 \r\n(Zhang et al., 2020b). In China's urban agglomerations, an increase in \r\nglobal warming from 1.5degC to 2degC is likely to increase the intensity of \r\ntotal precipitation of very wet days 1.8 times and double maximum \r\n5-d precipitation (Yu et  al., 2018d). Extreme rainfall has direct and \r\nincreasing consequences on urban flooding risk (Dasgupta et  al., \r\n2013b), which is further exacerbated by urbanisation trends that \r\nreduce permeability, divert water flow and disrupt watersheds (Chen \r\net al., 2015b; Duan et al., 2016)."


id: 2aba98825644d68252650c226140d35a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4742
content:
"Urban extent in drylands in expected to increase from 2000 to 2030 \r\nwith large expansions in West Asia, Central Asia, South Asia and China \r\nand antecedent impacts on exposure to drought and water scarcity \r\n(Guneralp et al., 2015). Urban dryland extent in West Asia will increase \r\nfrom 19,400 to 67,400 km2\r\n (Guneralp et al., 2015). In the Haihe River \r\nbasin in China, the proportion of people exposed to droughts at 1.5degC \r\n(without accounting for population growth) is projected to decrease \r\nby 30.4% but increase by 74.8% at 2degC relative to people exposed \r\nin 1986-2005 (339.65 million) (Sun et al., 2017). About 411 million "


id: e7b5e7bf6ac6471667d13ca34f988716
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
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vector_id: 38073
content:
"In China's urban agglomerations, an increase in the global warming from \r\n1.5degC to 2degC is likely to exacerbate the intensity of extreme maximum \r\ntemperature 4.1 times (Yu et al., 2018d). From 1995 to 2014 China's urban \r\nagglomerations (Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, Yangtze River Delta, Middle \r\nYangtze River, Chongqing-Chengdu and Pearl River Delta) experienced \r\nno more than three heat danger d yr-1, which is projected to increase to \r\n3-13 d by 2041-2060 and 8-67 d by 2081-2100 under high-emissions \r\nshared socioeconomic pathways SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5, resulting in "


id: a9beb757f3361c358b6ca7649721160a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
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content:
"people living in 330 cities above 300,000 population are exposed to \r\ndrought risk, which include three Asian megacities Delhi (India), Karachi \r\n(Pakistan) and Kolkata (India). Drought-related economic losses are \r\nalso high in Dhaka (Bangladesh) (Pervin et al., 2020), Istanbul (Turkey), \r\nManila (the Philippines) and Shenzhen (China), and Manila is also \r\nhighly vulnerable to drought-related mortality (Gu et al., 2015)."


id: 3b49c41efc021c4c0baaa70064a216e4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7616
content:
"Increasing urban drought risk will also have cascading impacts on \r\nregions from where water is imported, exacerbating drought exposure \r\nbeyond urban settlements and limiting water availability in certain \r\nregions (Chuah et al., 2018; Garrick et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020c; \r\nZhao et al., 2020). There is medium evidence (high agreement) that \r\nurban water insecurity is experienced differentially based on income, \r\nrisk exposure, and assets, and that urban drought and water scarcity \r\nis causing material and non-material losses and damage (Singh et al., \r\n2021a). Importantly, in several Asian cities, flood and drought risk \r\nis expected to occur concurrently, especially in South Asia which is \r\nprojected to see the largest increase in urban land exposed to both \r\nfloods and droughts (25-32% increase in flood and drought risk \r\nbetween 2000 and 2030)."


id: 1d4d11e94158e5d52fe4633273d83164
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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vector_id: 2333
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"These global scenarios will have significant impacts on national and \r\nsubnational populations. For example, in Bangladesh, under 0.44 and \r\n2 m mean SLR, direct inundation is estimated to drive migration of "


id: 607c4014ed5d8970b78e6d7450e1fc8d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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"1.75 m), and an additional 8.5, 24 or 15 billion USD at the respective \r\nSLR projections, due to migration6\r\n."


id: 2e5c5f06bb7b50158120dc86fa8e1b03
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
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content:
"Globally, six of the top ten countries/places with the highest AAL \r\nassociated with tropical cyclones are in Asia (Japan, Republic of Korea, \r\nthe Philippines, China, Taiwan, Province of China, and India) (Mori et al., \r\n2021a). The AAL associated with storm surge is primarily concentrated \r\nin Japan, China, Hong Kong SAR of China, and India. The AAL associated \r\nwith wind and storm surge relative to the existing capital stock in \r\nthe country is highest in New Caledonia, Tonga, Vanuatu, Palau, the \r\nPhilippines, Fiji and the Solomon Islands, indicating less resilience. For \r\nexample, in Ise Bay, Japan, the current storm surges are estimated to \r\nlead to property and business damage of approximately 100.04 billion \r\nJPY with current adaptation (protective sea wall), but this can more \r\nthan double to 236.49  billion JPY under climate-change-induced \r\nincreases in storm surge intensity (Jiang et al., 2016)."


id: 57282c8b56601679e39b3e15ed446607
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"Especially in Russia, significant populations and fixed infrastructure \r\nassets are located in urban centres on permafrost that is degrading \r\nsignificantly. Two major risks associated with permafrost degradation \r\nare loss of permafrost bearing capacity and ground subsidence \r\n(Streletskiy et al., 2015). The former determines the ability to support \r\nfoundations of buildings and structures and is a vital characteristic of \r\nsustainability of the economic centres, while the latter impacts the ability \r\nof critical infrastructure (roads, railroads) to provide transportation and \r\nsupport accessibility of remote populations and economic centres on \r\npermafrost. The proximity of some settlements to the coasts or areas \r\nwith uneven topography may further increase risks associated with \r\npermafrost degradation as ice-rich coasts characterised by high rates \r\nof coastal erosion, while settlements located on slopes may experience \r\nhigher rates of mass wasting processes."


id: c9f862842162315d3001e71393fb869f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32861
content:
"Over one-third of Asian cities and about 932 million urban dwellers live \r\nin areas with high risk of flooding (Gu et al., 2015). Of 437 cities at low \r\nrisk of flood exposure but highly vulnerable to flood-related economic \r\nlosses, approximately half are in Asia (Gu et al., 2015)."


id: 3973c3b960f8687dfc258660f1ae3c3e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7319
content:
"Changes in climate have resulted in permafrost warming and increased \r\nthaw depth in undisturbed locations (Biskaborn et al., 2019), but in \r\nbuilt up areas these transformations have been exacerbated by human \r\nactivities (Grebenets et  al., 2012). Norilsk, the largest city built on \r\npermafrost above the Arctic Circle (Shiklomanov et  al., 2017b), was \r\nfound to have one of the highest trends of near-surface permafrost \r\nwarming (Streletskiy et al., 2012). Anomalous high temperatures and \r\nearlier snowmelt in 2020 may have contributed to oil storage collapse \r\nand the resulting spill of 20,000 tons of diesel fuel in Norilsk area \r\n(Rajendan et al., 2021). The ability of foundations to support structures \r\nhas decreased by 10-40% relative to the 1960s in the majority of \r\nsettlements on permafrost in Russia (Streletskiy et  al., 2012) and is \r\nexpected to further decrease by 20-33% by 2050-2059 relative to \r\n2006-2015 (Streletskiy et al., 2019)."


id: 7e20e11ac4d5a96f4e6e382badbdaf19
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Globally, China and India have the highest AALs associated with \r\nriverine floods, with a magnitude of 13 and 6 billion USD, respectively. \r\nOther countries from Asia among the top ten of absolute AALs are \r\nJapan, Bangladesh and Thailand. There is an increased flood risk for \r\nhabitations on the deltas influenced by both riverine and coastal \r\ndrivers of flooding (Szabo et al., 2016a), globally exposing 9.3% more \r\npeople annually to riverine flooding than otherwise estimated without \r\nthe compounded influence (Eilander et al., 2020). Simultaneously, SLR \r\nand subsidence are also expected to increase the risk due to frequent \r\nflood events for these delta regions than the longer-return periods \r\notherwise associated with SLR (Yin et al., 2020)."


id: 17b72bea8366560e3bad0d0be8e4b499
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"Figure 10.8 |  Risks and key adaptation options in select cities across Asia. Cities were chosen to ensure coverage of different sub-regions of Asia, represent different \r\nrisk profiles, different city sizes (based on current population and projected growth) and reported progress on different adaptation strategies (infrastructural, institutional, ecosystem \r\nbased and behavioural). There is a full line of sight in SM10.4."


id: d8ddd7d375693bd64b8242e9b484093
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"in services and affected supply chains (Hallegatte et al., 2019). East \r\nAsia and the Pacific and South Asia have the highest adaptation \r\ndeficits in coastal protection with 75  billion USD in the former and \r\n49 billion USD in the latter (Nicholls et al., 2019). If overall damages \r\nare minimised, low- and middle-income countries may need to invest \r\n0.1-0.5% of their GDP annually up to 2030 for protection against both \r\ncoastal and river floods, varying based on level of acceptable risks, \r\nconstruction costs, urbanisation and climate uncertainties8\r\n."


id: 257bb102ff4f563cd8d7d5b5980c0594
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"South Asia and Africa bear the highest losses from unreliable \r\ninfrastructure, and climate change will increase these losses due to \r\nhazards and necessitate additional infrastructure investments to \r\naddress new risks (Hallegatte et  al., 2019; Lu, 2019)7\r\n. Specifically, \r\npower generation and transport infrastructure incur losses of 30 billion \r\nUSD a year on average from hazards (about 15 billion USD each), with \r\nlow- and middle-income countries shouldering about 18 billion USD of \r\nthe total amount (Koks et al., 2019; Nicholls et al., 2019)."


id: 17ff231da55d08699435f1c4f01a8ada
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"Among the top 20  countries that are rapidly expanding their \r\ninfrastructure stock while facing high disaster risk and low infrastructure \r\nquality, the Asian countries are Lao PDR, the Philippines, Bangladesh, \r\nCambodia, Kyrgyzstan, Bhutan and Vietnam. (UNISDR, 2017; WEF, \r\n2018). The losses are due to direct damage to infrastructure, disruption "


id: 26ef4ae18ad5cebe10be5d46547e2b63
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"implemented adaptation (see also SM10.4). Most adaptation actions \r\nwere focused on disaster risk management (Dulal, 2019), although the \r\nproportion of climate finance spent on disaster preparedness is not \r\nvery high (as Georgeson et al., 2016, show in the megacities of Beijing, \r\nMumbai and Jakarta). Although key port cities across Asia are at high \r\nrisk of climate impacts, it is estimated that adaptation interventions \r\nconstitute only a small proportion of cities' climate efforts (Blok and \r\nTschotschel, 2015). Figure 10.8 shows risks and key adaptation options \r\nin select cities across Asia."


id: e1945c9e51963a5fdcd50ca4fb74492e
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content:
"expected to impact power infrastructure, even necessitating power \r\nplant relocation (Hallegatte et al., 2019). In Bangladesh, to avoid \r\ninundations caused by SLR (SSP2, RCP8.5), approximately one-third \r\nof power plants may need to be relocated by 2030. An additional \r\n30% of power plants are likely to be affected by increased salinity \r\nof cooling water and increased frequency of flooding, while power \r\nplants in the northern region will probably see a decrease in output \r\nbecause of droughts (Hallegatte et al., 2019). In 2013 in Chittagong \r\n(Pervin et al., 2020), users experienced about 16 power outages \r\ndue to storms alone (Hallegatte et al., 2019). Furthermore, low\u0002carbon technology diffusion might make certain infrastructures \r\nredundant, leading to stranded assets."


id: d0a19eb4bcd1802644994b766328a9bc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"Critically, most urban adaptation in South, East and Central Asia is \r\nreactive in nature (Dulal, 2019; Singh et al., 2021b), raising questions \r\non preparedness, proactive building of adaptive capacities and whether \r\npresent actions can lock certain cities or sectors into maladaptive \r\npathways (Friend et al., 2014; Gajjar et al., 2018; Salim et al., 2019; Chi \r\net al., 2020). China, India, Thailand and the Republic of Korea record \r\nthe most number of urban adaptation initiatives, driven mainly by \r\nsupportive government policies (Lee and Painter, 2015; Dulal, 2019). \r\nThe number of actors working on urban adaptation is growing: in \r\naddition to national governments and local municipalities, civil society, \r\nprivate-sector actors (Shaw, 2019) and transnational municipal \r\nnetworks (Funfgeld, 2015) are emerging as important for knowledge \r\nbrokering, capacity building and financing urban adaptation (Karanth \r\nand Archer, 2014; Chu et al., 2017; Bazaz et al., 2018)."


id: 309e17a91a562d91855c66212fb6edae
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"Across Asia, infrastructure impacts are mixed: net importers, such as \r\nChina and India, will see GDP gains, while extreme examples include \r\nRussia, a net exporter, which could see steep declines in fossil fuel \r\nproduction (Mercure et al., 2018). In low- and middle-income countries \r\nglobally, disruption in power supply can impact firms directly (up to \r\n120 billion USD yr-1), with coping costs (up to 65 billion USD yr-1) and \r\nother indirect impacts. Similarly, for households, the direct impact and \r\ncost of coping could be between 2.3 and 190 billion USD yr-1. Although \r\nall power outage is not due to natural hazards, there is a significant \r\nnumber that is attributed to disasters. Besides, outages caused by \r\nnatural hazards tend to be longer and geographically larger than other \r\ncauses (Hallegatte et al., 2019)."


id: 80cb3e0cdbe707ffc2d97345a5039579
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"The challenge of adapting infrastructure to climate change across Asia \r\nis twofold: there are significant infrastructure deficiencies, especially \r\nin low-income countries, and key infrastructures are at high risk due \r\nto climate change (Hallegatte et al., 2019; Lu, 2019). Infrastructural \r\nadaptation options in cities attempt to enable networked energy, \r\nwater, waste and transportation systems to prepare for, and deal \r\nwith, climate risks better (Meerow, 2017) through interventions such \r\nas improved highways and power plants, climate-resilient housing, \r\nimproved water infrastructure and so forth (ADB, 2014)."


id: d418d96be22926c6b8b708da356cf14d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"A review of urban adaptation in South, East and Central Asia found \r\nexamples of 180 adaptation activities across 74 cities (Dulal, 2019). \r\nMost adaptation actions in Asia are in the initial stages (Araos \r\net  al., 2016) with 57% focused on preparatory actions, such as \r\ncapacity building and vulnerability assessment, and 43% focused on "


id: 4afd6350317d84c0bbd609c765493497
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content:
"Figure 10.9 |  Effectiveness of select adaptation options in cities across Asia. Effectiveness is assessed based on the option's ability to reduce risk \r\nliterature."


id: a264c15070d1b70cdf6f5485c1517a9
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"agriculture in Nashik city) (ICLEI, 2014a). However, the efficacy of \r\nsuch measures, especially for larger sustainability and climate\u0002change goals, remains to be seen (ICLEI, 2014a; ICLEI, 2014b; \r\nCaprotti et al., 2015; Anthopoulos, 2017)."


id: bac43391891c1ae5d576dc39e227e7f7
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content:
"tenurial security or regularising informal settlements can incentivise \r\nimprovements to housing quality, thereby alleviating vulnerability of \r\nthe most marginal people (Mitchell et al., 2015)."


id: 9b5ba9f0c526aee6959cd7d8c43e9e9c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"The literature on urban ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA)9\r\n, especially \r\nacross Asia, has grown significantly since AR5 (Demuzere and al., 2014; \r\nYao et al., 2015; Brink et al., 2016; Bazaz et al., 2018; de Coninck et al., \r\n2018; Ren, 2018). This growing literature reflects the wide recognition \r\nthat infrastructural adaptation can often have ecological and social \r\ntrade-offs (Palmer et  al., 2015) and need to be complemented by \r\necosystem-based actions to manage risk more effectively (Du et al., \r\n2020), build adaptive capacity, and in some cases, meet mitigation and \r\nSDGs (Huang et al., 2020)."


id: 1da94fc57113857bea757e759e46dd66
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"Infrastructural interventions can sometimes be maladaptive when \r\nassessed over longer time periods: for example, the Mumbai Coastal \r\nRoad (MCR) project aimed at reducing flood risk and protecting against \r\nSLR will potentially cause damages to intertidal fauna and flora and \r\nlocal fishing livelihoods (Senapati and Gupta, 2017); and Jakarta's \r\nGreat Garuda project aimed at reducing flood risk is expected to \r\nincrease flood risk for the poorest urban dwellers (Salim et al., 2019)."


id: 91121646c51bf9fabfd2052abc775b02
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content:
"Illustrative examples of EbA in Asian cities include sponge cities \r\nin China for sustainable water management, flood mitigation and \r\nminimising heatwave impact (Jiang et al., 2018; Yu et al., 2018d; Wang \r\net  al., 2019a; Zhanqiang et  al., 2019), Singapore's Active, Beautiful, \r\nClean Waters (ABC Waters) Programme, which uses bio-engineering \r\napproaches to protect river channels and prevent localised flooding, \r\nimprove water quality and create community spaces, and Dhaka's \r\ngreen roofs and urban agriculture (Zinia and McShane, 2018)."


id: 57734b8dd7a799e6549f236ac17837f2
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"Land use in cities impacts resource use (e.g., water, energy), risk (a \r\nfunction of population density, service provision and hazard exposure) \r\nand adaptive capacity, all of which influence the efficacy of urban \r\nadaptation (de Coninck et al., 2018). Locally suited land-use planning \r\nand regulation (such as appropriate zoning or building codes and \r\nsafeguarding land rights) can have adaptation co-benefits (Mitchell \r\net  al., 2015; Dhar and Khirfan, 2016): for example, strict building \r\nregulations can protect urban wetlands and associated ecosystem \r\nservices (Jiang et  al., 2015); appropriate land zoning can safeguard \r\ngreen spaces, ensure improvements in permeability and obviate new \r\ndevelopment in risk-prone locations (Duy et al., 2019); and ensuring "


id: 4472af51873ffb7bbb15917911f49b0f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"The EbA approaches to manage floods, capture and store rainwater, \r\nrestore urban lakes and rivers, and reduce surface runoff often blend \r\ninfrastructural and ecosystem-based approaches. For example, in \r\nTokyo, stormwater management is done by sophisticated underground \r\ninfrastructure and an artificial infiltration stormwater system (Saraswat, \r\n2016; Mishra et  al., 2019). China's Sponge City Programme aims to \r\nreduce the impacts of flooding through low-impact development \r\nmeasures, urban greenery and drainage infrastructure, such that 80% of "


id: 78dca05c4ef371c85829e67ad4b42f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"Figure 10.10 |  Evidence of the effectiveness of ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) using examples of four commonly used EbA options10. Effectiveness is \r\nassessed qualitatively based on the evidence (for a full line of sight see SM10.5) and is examined through four framings: potential to reduce risk (e.g., reduced exposure to hazard \r\nmeans to reduce risk); benefits to ecosystems (through improved ecosystem health and high biodiversity); economic benefits (e.g., improved incomes, fewer man-days lost, better \r\nlivelihoods); and human well-being outcomes (e.g., health, quality of life, etc.). The darker shading signifies high effectiveness and the lightest shade signifies low effectiveness of \r\nan EbA option (i.e., the option scores low on the indicator)."


id: 13dfa604e7452013b6b21dea5b72d233
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"urban areas reuse 70% of rainwater by 2020, which would help ensure \r\nthe resilience of these cities to floods (Li et al., 2016b; Stip et al., 2019)."


id: 48bd2b7437e994a83516650b5af41fd5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"et al., 2019). However, it can potentially undermine ecosystem services \r\nthrough land-use changes, water overextraction or applying chemical \r\nfertilisers (Ackerman et al., 2014), exposure of smallholders to volatile \r\nmarkets and crops that are not consumed by farming households \r\nthemselves (thus undermining food security) or increasing the work \r\nburdens on women, as well as health externalities (e.g. through use \r\nof untreated wastewater, or rearing poultry and livestock in unsanitary \r\nconditions). There remain gaps in understanding the differential impacts \r\nof urban agriculture at different scales as well as its effectiveness in \r\nimproving adaptive capacity at scale."


id: fca0b82f859a2c53ca32c1a22f0df946
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"Case studies on urban EbA also raise equity concerns (medium \r\nevidence, medium agreement) such as interventions biased \r\ntowards suburban areas in Haizhu District, Guangzhou (China) (Zhu \r\net  al., 2019); inadequate consideration of low-income, vulnerable \r\npopulations (Blok and Tschotschel, 2015; Meerow, 2017; Mabon and \r\nShih, 2021); and low familiarity with interventions such as artificial \r\nwetlands, water retention ponds as well as green facades and walls \r\ncan restrict inclusiveness (Zinia and McShane, 2018). Furthermore, \r\nurban EbA is constrained by a range of factors such as inadequate \r\ninstitutional structures and processes for connecting different remits \r\nand knowledge systems along with trade-offs in land use for different \r\npurposes (Mabon and Shih, 2021; Singh et al., 2021b)."


id: a7aa72538a2c3693f79f186ce92e1093
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"There is medium evidence with high agreement that climatic risks \r\nare exacerbating internal and international migration across Asia \r\n(see Box 10.2; IDMC, 2019; Maharjan et al., 2020). In coastal cities, \r\nformal 'retreat' measures, such as forced displacement and planned \r\nrelocation (Oppenheimer et al., 2019), are commonly considered 'last \r\nresort' adaptation strategies once other infrastructural and ecosystem\u0002based protect-and-accommodate strategies are exhausted (CCP2.3) \r\n(Haasnoot et al., 2019). In contrast, migration (which can take various \r\nforms from seasonal, temporary mobility to circular or permanent \r\nmovement) is a regular feature across Asian urban settlements \r\n(Box 10.2, CCB MIGRATE, Maharjan et al., 2020)."


id: 7aa715ac7ce6dda77860ae745f816524
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"The EbA interventions are not uniform across Asian cities: in a global \r\nstudy on urban EbA, Brink et al. (2016) found that Eastern Asia, India \r\nand Israel report most EbA interventions and that there is variable and \r\nlimited evidence on effectiveness and scalability (SM10.5). Using a \r\nrisk framing (i.e., the extent to which an option reduces risk), urban \r\nEbA options in Asian cities score as being 'low to medium' effective \r\n(see SM10.5); however, when the assessment is expanded to include \r\nthe ecosystem benefits, economic impacts and human well-being co\u0002benefits of EbA, effectiveness increases. Figure 10.10 shows evidence \r\nof the effectiveness of EbA."


id: 3b44b6b339149e917ffa142d1727ec3f
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"There is robust evidence (medium agreement) that across Asia, \r\nmigration (and increasingly planned relocation) will continue to be a \r\nkey risk management strategy, especially in low-lying flood-prone cities \r\n(e.g., in Southeast and South Asia) and across drylands (e.g., in South \r\nand Central Asia) (Davis et al., 2018; Ajibade, 2019; Lincke and Hinkel, \r\n2021). While there is insufficient evidence to project migration numbers \r\nunder different warming levels, it is well established that migration as \r\nan adaptation strategy is not equally available to all (Ayeb-Karlsson, "


id: d9723d25f83bc512094170c36b63baf7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"2020), and climatic risks might reduce vulnerable populations' ability \r\nto move due to loss of assets, thus reinforcing existing inequalities and \r\ndifferential adaptive capacities (Blondin, 2019; Zickgraf, 2019; Singh \r\nand Basu, 2020; Cundill et al., 2021; Gavonel et al., 2021)."


id: 5f3e476ae73100f2d03643904619d44
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content:
"There is growing empirical evidence of conditions enabling and \r\nconstraining urban adaptation (Table 10.3) with relatively more literature \r\nfrom South, Southeast and East Asia. Governance and capacity-related \r\ndeficits are repeatedly identified as significant barriers to urban \r\nadaptation (robust evidence, high agreement) and interact with financial \r\nand informational constraints to mediate adaptation action."


id: bca17c737f9f12650909908dfbfcea3e
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"There is relatively lower empirical evidence on how microenterprises \r\nand businesses are adapting to increased risk, but recent examples \r\nin Mumbai, India (Schaer and Pantakar, 2018), and Kratie, Cambodia \r\n(Ngin et al., 2020), suggest that businesses primarily adopt temporary \r\nand reactive responses rather than long-term, anticipatory adaptation \r\nmeasures."


id: a2a66d54cca02500fcea1ca07101346f
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Climate change is increasing risks to human health in Asia by increasing \r\nexposure and vulnerability to extreme weather events such as \r\nheatwaves, flooding and drought, and air pollutants, increasing vector\u0002and water-borne diseases, undernutrition, mental disorders and allergic \r\ndiseases (high confidence). Sub-regional diversity in socioeconomic and \r\ndemographic contexts (e.g., ageing, urban compared with agrarian \r\nsociety, increasing population compared with reduced birth rate, "


id: afa53741e2e3bb41d981eecc24d50951
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"A review of innovative DRR approaches notes the use of geographic \r\ninformation system (GIS) and drone-based technologies for mapping \r\nrisk exposure and impacts, mobile-based payments for post-disaster \r\ncompensation, and transnational initiatives and learning networks to \r\npromote urban resilience (Izumi et al., 2019). Furthermore, technology\u0002based innovations, such as using big data (Yu et al., 2018b), improved "


id: d9ab450c11223c840927d4b076ec5a40
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Rising ambient temperature accelerates pollutant formation reactions \r\nand may modify air-pollution-related health effects (medium \r\nconfidence). Higher temperatures are associated with the increased \r\neffects of ozone on mortality (Shi et al., 2020). Climate change causes \r\nintensified droughts and greater wind erosion resulting in increased \r\nintensity and frequency of sand and dust storms (Akhtar et al., 2018). \r\nMortality and hospital admissions for circulatory and respiratory \r\ndiseases are increased after exposures to Asian dust events (high \r\nconfidence) (Hashizume et al., 2020). El Nino has a major influence \r\non weather patterns in various regions. For example, it causes dry \r\nconditions that sometimes result in forest fires and transboundary \r\nhaze that increased all-cause mortality in children by 41% in Malaysia \r\n(Sahani et al., 2014)."


id: cb0c8fbb0e3bd9b584b5edd156f931a2
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"Ambient temperature is associated with the risk of an outbreak of \r\nmosquito-borne disease in South and Southeast Asia (high confidence) \r\n(Servadio et al., 2018). Warmer climates are associated with a higher \r\nincidence of malaria (Xiang et  al., 2018). Moderate rainfall also \r\npromotes malaria infection, while excessive rainfall decreases the risk \r\nof malaria (Wu et al., 2017b). El Nino intensity is positively associated \r\nwith malaria incidence in a single year in India (Dhiman and Sarkar, "


id: eae5fbbb419234f46969eb9220be939
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"2017). The duration and survival rate of dengue mosquito development, \r\nmosquito density, mosquito biting activity, mosquito spatio-temporal \r\nrange and distribution, and mosquito flying distance are all affected \r\nby temperature (high confidence) (Li et  al., 2018b). Temperature, \r\nprecipitation, humidity and air pressure are major weather factors \r\nassociated with dengue fever transmission (high confidence) (Sang \r\net al., 2014; Choi et al., 2016; Xu et al., 2017)."


id: acfd66765b4e5c85d317efc06ade8efc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Climate change alters the hydrological cycle by increasing the \r\nfrequency of extreme weather events such as excess precipitation, \r\nstorm surges, floods and droughts (high confidence). Water-borne \r\ndiseases, such as diarrhoea, leptospirosis and typhoid fever, can \r\nincrease in incidence following heavy rainfall, tropical cyclones and \r\nflooding events (high confidence) (Deng et al., 2015; Levy et al., 2016; \r\nLi et al., 2018b; Matsushita et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019b). Droughts \r\ncan cause increased concentrations of pathogens, which overwhelm \r\nwater-treatment plants and contaminate surface water. A positive \r\nassociation between ambient temperature and bacterial diarrhoea \r\nhas been reported, compared with a negative association with viral \r\ndiarrhoea (Carlton et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018c)."


id: 74c445b77c8c29d43f1d5a787fe653ee
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"Increased concentrations of fine particulate matter and ozone \r\ninfluenced by extreme events such as atmospheric stagnations and \r\nheatwaves are projected to result in an additional 12,100 and 8,900 \r\ndeaths per year due to fine particulate matter and ozone exposure, \r\nrespectively, in China in the mid-century under RCP4.5 (Hong et al., \r\n2019a). Excess ozone-related future premature deaths is noticeable \r\nin 2030 in East Asia and India for RCP8.5 (over 95% of global excess \r\nmortality) (Silva et al., 2016)."


id: cce6b53d97ea62745b8c2caeb6a1e473
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"Asia has the highest prevalence of undernourishment in the world, \r\nwhich was 11.4% in 2017, representing more than 515 million people. \r\nSoutheast Asia has been affected by adverse climate conditions such \r\nas floods and cyclones, with impacts on food availability and prices \r\n(FAO, 2018d). Crop destruction due to tropical cyclones can include salt \r\ndamage from tides blowing inland (medium confidence) (Iizumi and \r\nRamankutty, 2015). Sea level rises result in intrusion of saline water \r\ninto the coastal area of Bangladesh and people living in this area face \r\nan increased risk of hypertension resulting from high salt consumption \r\n(Scheelbeek et al., 2016)."


id: 512a3d5b55627cb89ebcdfae6dbd73b5
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Weather conditions have been linked to mental health. High temperatures \r\nincrease the risk of mental problems including mental disorders, \r\ndepression, distress and anxiety in Vietnam (Trang et al., 2016), Hong \r\nKong SAR of China (Chan et al., 2018) and the Republic of Korea (Lee \r\net al., 2018d). In addition, high temperatures are reported to increase \r\nthe risk of mortality from suicide in Japan, the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, \r\nProvince of China (Kim et al., 2016c), India (Carleton, 2017) and China \r\n(Luan et  al., 2019). Extreme weather events, such as storms, floods, \r\nhurricanes and cyclones, increase injuries and mental disorders (post\u0002traumatic stress disorder and depressive disorders) (Rataj et al., 2016), \r\nthereby negatively affecting well-being (high confidence)."


id: bcb04bea35947e8bd530fc36258f0b70
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"Dengue incidence is projected to increase to 16,000  cases per year \r\nby 2100 in Dhaka, Bangladesh, if ambient temperatures increase by \r\n3.3degC without any adaptation measures or changes in socioeconomic \r\nconditions (Banu et  al., 2014). This would represent an increase in \r\nincidence of over fortyfold compared with 2010. Higher numbers of \r\ndengue fever cases are projected to occur under RCP8.5 than RCP2.6 \r\nin China (Song et  al., 2017). Compared with the average numbers \r\nin 1997-2012, the annual number of days suitable for dengue fever \r\ntransmission in the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s will increase by 15, 25 \r\nand 40 d, respectively, in southern China under RCP8.5. In addition, \r\nareas in which year-round dengue fever epidemics occur will likely\r\nincrease by 4500, 8800 and 20,700 km2\r\n in the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s, \r\nrespectively, under RCP8.5 (Nahiduzzaman et al., 2015)."


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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36457
content:
"Higher temperatures and increased CO2 elevate the level of allergens \r\nsuch as pollen, which can result in increased allergic diseases, such as \r\nasthma and allergic rhinosinusitis. The association between variations in \r\nambient temperature and the occurrence of asthma has been reported \r\nin several Asian countries/regions such as Japan (Yamazaki et al., 2015), \r\nthe Republic of Korea (Kwon et al., 2016), China (Li et al., 2016a) and \r\nHong Kong SAR of China (medium confidence) (Lam et al., 2016)."


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vector_id: 22103
content:
"Climate change is associated with significantly increased mortality (high \r\nconfidence). Figure 10.11 shows projected health impacts due to climate \r\nchange in Asia. The global estimates of excess deaths due to malnutrition, "


id: e3a6fab92a2b43cf99c404ee1681462a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37344
content:
"2050 are approximately 48,000 and 33,000 additional deaths, \r\nrespectively, under the medium-to-high emissions scenario (World \r\nHealth Organization, 2014). Among these additional deaths, 14,900 \r\nand 7,700 deaths, respectively, are projected to occur in South Asia. \r\nAn updated projection with a pathogen-specific approach estimated \r\n25,000 additional annual diarrhoeal deaths in Asia in 2080-2095 \r\nunder the high-emissions scenario (Chua et al., 2021), while in some \r\ncountries, such as Japan, net reductions in temperature-induced \r\ninfectious diarrhoeal cases were estimated, because viral infections \r\nare dominant in these countries during the cold season (Onozuka \r\net al., 2019)."


id: 6e98517a080bec7fa1ad13ef1769bc63
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16723
content:
"communities leading to significant shortages of drinking water in the \r\ncoastal urban areas (Dasgupta et al., 2014c)."


id: 418eef3f8e55bc71967a56a17ad404ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8724
content:
"South and Southeast Asia are projected to be among the highest-risk \r\nregions for reduced dietary iron intake among women of childbearing \r\nage and children under five years due to elevated CO2 concentrations \r\n(medium confidence) (Smith and Myers, 2018). The estimated number \r\nof additional deaths due to climate change in children aged under \r\nfive years attributable to moderate and severe stunting in 2030 and \r\n2050 are approximately 20,700 and 16,500, respectively, in South \r\nAsia, under the medium-to-high emissions scenario (World Health \r\nOrganization, 2014). In Bangladesh, due to climate change, river \r\nsalinity is projected to be increased in coastal and freshwater fishery "


id: 44346e4701606fc1285b3604df73cf21
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9236
content:
"emissions controls focusing on emissions that lead to the formation \r\nof fine particulate matter (PM2.5), next-stage air-quality measures for \r\nreducing emissions that lead to the formation of PM2.5 and are not \r\nyet major components of clean-air policies in many parts of the region, \r\nand measures contributing to development-priority goals with benefits \r\nfor air quality. Health co-benefits outweigh mitigation costs in the \r\nRepublic of Korea up to 2050 (Kim et al., 2020). Low-carbon pathways \r\nconsistent with the 2degC and 1.5degC long-term climate targets defined in \r\nthe Paris Agreement are associated with the largest health co-benefits \r\nwhen coordinated with stringent air pollution controls in Asia followed \r\nby Africa and Middle East (Rafaj et al., 2021)."


id: 856c4a8ec011aa8947808799dc35fd4b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20611
content:
"In order to facilitate local adaptation, especially in a context characterised \r\nby regional diversity and spatio-temporal variation, climate-adaptive \r\ngovernance invites greater policy attention to institution building \r\n(formal and informal) at multiple scales and across sectors (Mubaya \r\nand Mafongoya, 2017). An incremental EbA approach underlines \r\nthe advantage of drawing upon ecosystem services for reducing \r\nvulnerabilities, increasing resilience of communities to adapt to climate \r\nchange, and minimising threats to social systems and human security, \r\nprovided climate change remains below 2degC or, better yet, below the \r\n1.5degC of global warming (Barkdull and Harris, 2018)."


id: 213d15ef2f2767ed64edd16ea1a09200
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3065
content:
"Strategies to increase energy efficiency in urban environments by \r\ncompact urban design and circular-economy policies can reduce GHG \r\nemissions and reap ancillary health benefits; for example, compared \r\nwith conventional single-sector strategies, national CO2 emissions \r\ncan be reduced by 15-36%, and the annual deaths from 25,500 to \r\n57,500 are avoidable from air pollution reduction in 637 Chinese cities \r\n(Ramaswami et al., 2017). In a city in China, the existing mitigation \r\npolicies (e.g., promotion of tertiary and high-tech industry) and the \r\none-adaptation policy (increasing resilience) increased the co-benefits \r\nfor well-being (Liu et al., 2016a)."


id: 3eeb39f04f27a509efdf5b25b1c8e9dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8254
content:
"Focus on multi-level governance, both below and beyond the state level, \r\nis steadily growing (Jogesh and Dubash, 2015; Jorgensen et al., 2015; \r\nBeermann et al., 2016). Discernible diversity across political systems and \r\nsectors in Asia notwithstanding, issues relevant to multi-level climate \r\ngovernance includes interplay between top-down national initiatives, \r\nwhich stem from supranational, regional and sub-regional levels. In the \r\ncase of India, national climate governance has proliferated beyond the \r\nNational Action Plan on Climate Change to include State Action Plans on \r\nClimate Change of over 28 states and union territories, demonstrating \r\ngraphically the shared 'co-benefit' in terms of creating greater space for \r\ninnovation and experimentation (Jorgensen et al., 2015)."


id: 569b4df9cd31d096e390b1b2db81480d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12494
content:
"Changing dietary patterns, particularly reducing red meat consumption \r\nand increasing fruit and vegetable consumption, contributes to reduced \r\nGHG emissions as well as reduced premature deaths. The adoption of \r\nglobal dietary guidelines was estimated to prevent 5.1 million deaths \r\nper year relative to the reference scenario in which the largest number \r\nof avoidable deaths occurred in East Asia and South Asia, and GHG \r\nemissions would be reduced most in East Asia (Springmann et  al., \r\n2016). In China, dietary shifts to meet national dietary reference \r\nintakes reduced the daily carbon footprint by 5-28% depending on the \r\nscenario (Song et al., 2017). In India, the optimised healthy diets (e.g., \r\nlower amounts of wheat and increased amounts of legumes) could \r\nhelp reduce up to 30% water use per person for irrigation and reduce \r\ndiet-related GHG emissions. This would result in 6800 life-years gained \r\nper 100,000 population in 2050 (Milner et al., 2017)."


id: 850ca30d17650a8b729970c14f4386c4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20551
content:
"In Japan's Climate Change Adaptation Act, enacted by the Japanese \r\nDiet in June 2018, the national government shall formulate a national \r\naction plan to promote adaptation in all sectors. This Act recommends \r\nthat prefectures and municipalities designate a 'local climate change \r\nadaptation centre' as a local climate-change data collection and \r\nprovision centre to provide more locally specific information and \r\nsupport for adaptation planning at the level of local municipalities. \r\nThe Japanese government, in partnership with the private sector, has \r\nformulated a new comprehensive strategy, named Society 5.0, which \r\naims at devising a number of technologically innovative solutions \r\n(Mavrodieva and Shaw, 2020)."


id: 5a4f4335fde356e5ebe765f111c881a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13140
content:
"Significantly, the co-benefit concept for international city partnerships \r\nalong with comparative analysis of the challenges, capabilities and \r\nlimitations of urban areas in Asia with regard to CCA governance \r\nremains under-researched (Beermann et al., 2016)."


id: 12d0639ca926053efe6f1b205078d2a9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 518
content:
"In the case of Vietnam, especially at district and community levels, \r\nwhere the policy capacities in hierarchical governance systems to \r\ndeal with climate-change impacts are generally constrained, the value \r\nof clear legal institutions, provision of financing for implementing \r\npolicies and the training opportunities for governmental staff has been \r\nwell demonstrated (Phuong et al., 2018b). A key finding is that any \r\neffort to support local actors (i.e., smallholder farmers) should ensure \r\naugmentation of policy capacity through necessary investments."


id: 5a91f789191729a1410f5742c7b6a505
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13189
content:
"Climate-change governance is characterised by a scalar/stakeholder \r\nturn which includes: (a) acknowledgement of the importance of both \r\nsubnational and transnational-regional scales along with the global \r\nscale; (b) involvement of diverse stakeholders in decision-making \r\nsystems; (c) reliance on bottom-up architectures of governance that \r\nare supported by the framework given by the SDGs; (d) emphasis \r\non developmental and environmental co-benefits; (e) recognition of \r\ndiverse experiences of marginalisation and social stratification, and \r\ntheir impacts on participation in governance-related activities; and (f) \r\ngreater decentralisation and strengthening of local institutions."


id: 29b44da23c3eb91042d9b323fc245957
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4560
content:
"In the case of China, a combination of market-based policies, \r\nemissions trading systems, a growing number of environmental non\u0002governmental organisations (NGOs) and international networks appear \r\nto be serving as an important tool for climate governance (Ramaswami \r\net al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017b). Public private partnership (PPP) too \r\nis receiving increasing focus, especially with regard to climate-related "


id: d6e8361e8a27b43eec741dac988a455c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35113
content:
"In the agriculture sector, farmers in Asia are adapting to climate \r\nchange at the grassroots level (Tripathi and Mishra, 2017). A recent, \r\ncomprehensive and systematic review (Shaffril et al., 2018) shows how \r\nfarmers in diverse sub-regions of Asia have adopted diverse adaptation \r\nstrategies through management of crops, irrigation and water, farms, \r\nfinances, physical infrastructure and social activities. Much more \r\nqualitative research on farmers' perceptions and decision-making \r\nprocesses about adaptation practices is needed in order to capture \r\ntheir location-specific priorities and get a diverse understanding of \r\nthe risks and threats. A study of Vietnamese smallholder farmers' \r\nperceptions of their current and future capacity to adapt to climate \r\nchange (Phuong et al., 2018a) found considerable differences between \r\nfarmers in crop production and livestock production in terms of their \r\nmotives behind adopting particular planned adaptation options."


id: 5a571c1c239ac59ed795f9c004b810af
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13147
content:
"An integrated approach informed by science, which examines \r\nmultiple stressors along with Indigenous knowledge, appears to be \r\nof immense value (Elum et al., 2017). A study on Pakistan concluded \r\nthat poor agricultural communities are among the worst victims of "


id: d9b89600f6d4864cfca9acaa66b74b41
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35599
content:
"this wisdom, a valuable asset for climate adaptation governance, has \r\nbeen passed from generation to generation through oral tradition."


id: 25ef7535142462f4c91113dd0092182f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3853
content:
"partnerships could evolve between government and NGOs in local forest \r\ngovernance, with the former providing technical and financial support, \r\nand the latter directing the communities to those resources, and in the \r\nmaking up for each other's limitations thereby enabling and augmenting \r\ncommunity efforts in forest governance."


id: ce23db3b9768086b1845528d38a04c17
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33599
content:
"A study of Pakistan (Ali and Erenstein, 2017) shows that factors such \r\nas enhanced awareness about various climate risk-coping strategies, \r\nbetter education and agricultural extension services, augmenting \r\nfarm-household assets, lowering the cost of adaptation, improving \r\naccess to services and alternative livelihoods, and providing support \r\nto poorer households appear to have paid rich dividends. Countries \r\nsuch as Bhutan and Sri Lanka have included provisions for 'climate\u0002smart agriculture' in their nationally determined contributions (NDCs) \r\n(Amjath-Babu et al., 2019)."


id: bcc7474b20a688edf4c8ee7282d7936c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30457
content:
"In the domain of forest adaptive governance, ever since the introduction \r\nof Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation plus \r\n(REDD+) at COP 13 in 2007 in Bali, the Indonesian experience suggests \r\nthat some of the major challenges include curbing emissions, changes \r\nin cross-sectoral land-use as well as practice within forestry and lack \r\nof effective, efficient and equitable implementation of diverse forest \r\ngovernance practices. The issue of how forest governance institutions \r\nare conceived and managed, both at national and subnational levels, \r\ninvolving state, private sector and civil society, also needs serious \r\nattention (Agung et al., 2014)."


id: deb9db5189d9ca749cf2ea60039d143c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36445
content:
"Given the concerns surrounding food security, especially in light of the \r\nprinciples of common but differentiated responsibilities, under the NDCs \r\nsubmitted by South Asian nations under the Paris Agreement, emission \r\nreduction commitments are less likely to include the agriculture sector. \r\nProspects for enhancing both adaptive capacity and food security \r\ncould be improved by strengthening resilience and profitability \r\nthrough the introduction of a basket of policy choices and actions \r\nincluding structural reforms, agriculture value-chain interventions \r\nand landscape-level efforts for climate resilience. Correspondingly, \r\nthe substantial adaptation finance gap could be closed with the help \r\nof both private finance (autonomous adaptation) and international \r\nfinancial transfers (Amjath-Babu et al., 2019)."


id: 61e03e20b7c3ff302b734767f5ee68a5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14499
content:
"A study of the Sylhet Division in Bangladesh, deploying a knowledge \r\nquality assessment tool, found significant correlation between a narrow \r\ntechnocratic problem framing, divorced from traditional knowledge \r\nstrongly rooted in local sociocultural histories and relatively low \r\nproject success due to skewed risk-based calculations disconnected \r\nfrom the ground realities (Haque et  al., 2017; Wani and Ariana, \r\n2018). Highlighting the vulnerability of the Bajo tribal communities, \r\nwho inhabit the coastal areas of Indonesia, to climate change, the \r\nstudy showed how they share several examples of their Indigenous \r\nknowledge and traditions of marine resource conservation, and how "


id: e619d3583ea129a3e315a271d30d515b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37781
content:
"The Bangladesh Delta Plan (BDP) 2100 is the plan moving Bangladesh forward for the next 100 years. We have formulated BDP 2100 in \r\nthe way we want to build Bangladesh. (Commission, 2018)."


id: 4a5def6ecd96f8ff36b76963c8b967ba
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10323
content:
"Water is the key and complicated resource of Bangladesh, and therefore BDP 2100 has kept water at the centre of the plan. It aims to \r\npromote wise and integrated use of water and other resources through development of effective institutions and equitable governance \r\nfor in-country and transboundary water resource management."


id: 20661f86a27c08bfc610c9b4ce2e9b45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2919
content:
"Along with water, for the first time in any development planning, BDP 2100 has taken the climate-change issue as an exogenous variable \r\nin developing the macroeconomic framework of the plan. In a brief, it is stated that the principle of BDP 2100 is 'Living with Nature'."


id: 147f28ab32ddccb975fb8fcc7c34e575
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 832
content:
"that there is still much ground to cover. The NAPA of the Maldives \r\nprioritises food security, coastal resources and public health, while \r\nNepal has prioritised ecosystem management and public health, \r\nand food security, among other concerns (Saito, 2013). Importantly, \r\nBangladesh's NAPA has shown that there is potential for 'reflexivity' \r\nin the integration of adaptation objectives with sectoral objectives (Vij \r\net  al., 2018). Conspicuous by their absence are the transboundary\u0002scale adaptation policies in South Asia (Vij et al., 2017)."


id: 5dac290a9853a08f303fd47f651e1af2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13774
content:
"whereas the ICM approach has been found to be effective in promoting \r\nthe overall sustainability of China's coastal cities (Ye et  al., 2015) \r\nusing accurate and reliable data, in addition, the developing unified \r\nstandards could usefully reveal changing conditions and parameters \r\nrelated to ICM performance."


id: 412c14d18f50d0a9c93faa19a0a011c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8645
content:
"There exist numerous barriers to the mainstreaming of CCA measures \r\nacross Asia. The integration of CCA into the dissemination of localised "


id: 8d52ce17f2209d8f077e1a443e6f7ebe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22043
content:
"many significant advances in science and technology have been made, \r\nand the future prospects look bright. The following sections outline \r\nthe present status and future prospects of science and technology in \r\nscaling up adaptation actions in four key sectors, namely (a) DRR, (b) \r\nurbanisation, (c) water and agriculture, and (d) forests and biodiversity."


id: 4d7bb77710f87f78f7a041117e5e9fc2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10909
content:
"Technological advances have enhanced the capabilities of Asian \r\ncountries to monitor and prepare for climate-related hazards. Remote \r\nsensing technologies and GIS are widely used for DRR (Kato et  al., \r\n2017), for example, to assess and mitigate risks of an area to potential \r\nclimate-related disasters (Wu et al., 2018b). The potential impacts of \r\ndifferent types of hazards can be visualised using interactive maps \r\n(Lee, 2017), which help local communities to understand risks and \r\nfind appropriate evacuation areas (Cadiz, 2018). These maps provide a \r\nsituational overview and instant risk assessment (Yang et al., 2012b). \r\nAs an emerging technology, artificial intelligence (AI) can identify \r\nconditioning factors of a landslide disaster (Hong et al., 2019b). Mobile \r\nvirtual reality is used for disaster mitigation training through a three\u0002dimensional visualisation of a past disaster (Ghosh et al., 2018)."


id: 63051c1142e063d2fed431395eea71ff
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14716
content:
"In the urban sector, a wide variety of sensor technologies are being \r\nused to monitor urban land-use and climate changes over time, and \r\nto better understand the potential impacts of future changes. These \r\nsensors range from large optical-thermal-radar satellite instruments \r\nwith (near) global coverage-for example, Landsat (US Geological \r\nService), Sentinel (European Space Agency), ALOS (Japan Aerospace \r\nExploration Agency) and MethaneSAT-to portable sensors embedded \r\nin mobile phones (e.g., phone cameras or temperature sensors) whose \r\ndata are collected into centralised databases through crowdsourcing \r\n(Fenner et al., 2017; Meier et al., 2017). To combine and extract useful \r\ninformation from these heterogeneous sensor data-for example, for "


id: 8d714acc032c72ad1c68302ecc6718ce
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22068
content:
"Much like any other field, CCA is greatly facilitated by science, \r\ntechnology and continuous innovation. These range from the \r\napplication of existing science, to the development of new scientific \r\ntools and methods, to the utilisation of Indigenous knowledge and \r\ncitizen science. Many of the pressing problems in Asia, including water \r\nscarcity, rapid urbanisation, loss of natural habitats, biodiversity, \r\nrising coastal and river basin hazards, and agricultural loss can be \r\neffectively minimised through the adoption of suitable scientific and \r\ntechnological methods. Despite the current challenges in the region, "


id: 21b9460ec12f8f4204d9ab31c1f9e0c1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3147
content:
"The majority of the Asian region is experiencing water stress in terms \r\nof both quantity and quality, due to poor management systems and \r\ngovernance. This has dire consequences for the national GDP as the \r\nmajority of the population belongs to agrarian communities and \r\ntheir water-dependent agriculture system. Despite a substantial \r\ninvestment and progress in research and development, and capacity \r\nbuilding in the recent past, the majority of developing countries in \r\nAsia are struggling to manage both water resources and agriculture \r\nsectors heavily dependent on water resources, in response to rapid \r\nglobal changes. Considering the frequent extreme weather conditions, \r\nprogress in management tasks is even more consequential; hence, \r\ncritically important for these countries, to achieve better CCA, are \r\nadvanced science and technology viz. smart agriculture, robust \r\nEWS using downscaled meteorological information, a participatory \r\napproach, IWRM and so forth."


id: 2c97f213b44c52222ae5b4b2458fbc4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5109
content:
"Technologies and their applications to identify habitat degradation, \r\necosystem functions and biodiversity conservation are increasing in \r\nAsia, with many countries looking to new and improved means for \r\nforest and biodiversity monitoring and conservation. In particular, there \r\nhas been an impressive use of temporal satellite data, particularly from \r\nthe Landsat and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer "


id: 17e86426f04c276217558f0e55121e92
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1410
content:
"There are three key aspects of adaptation to which psychology \r\nand behavioural science contribute: understanding perceptions of \r\nclimate risk, identifying the behavioural drivers of adaptation actions \r\nand analysing the impacts of climate change on human well-being \r\n(Clayton et al., 2015). Overall, there is growing acknowledgement that \r\nindividual adaptation is significantly shaped by perceptions of risk, \r\nperceived self-efficacy (i.e., beliefs about which options are effective \r\nand one's ability to implement specific adaptation interventions), \r\nsociocultural norms and beliefs within which adaptation decisions \r\nare taken, past experiences of risk management and the nature of \r\nthe intervention itself (Grothmann and Patt, 2005; Werg et al., 2013; \r\nClayton et al., 2015; Truelove et al., 2015; Pyhala et al., 2016; Deng "


id: 2d37a5798ca84b51c5de13009aac9f3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5241
content:
"et al., 2017; Sullivan-Wiley and Short Gianotti, 2017; Taylor, 2019; van \r\nValkengoed and Steg, 2019a). This is in addition to more commonly \r\nunderstood factors shaping adaptation behaviour such as technical \r\nknow-how and the cost and benefits associated with an option."


id: d196e466aa8619f070cb45603c8d30b2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34223
content:
"Across Asia, behavioural aspects of adaptation have been studied \r\nto a lesser extent: a global meta-analysis of 106 studies found that \r\nmost research focused on North America and Europe with only 12% \r\nof papers from Asia (van Valkengoed and Steg, 2019a). Within Asia, \r\nbehavioural drivers of adaptation decision making have been studied \r\nprimarily in agriculture (in South, East and Southeast Asia) and disaster \r\nrisk management (from Southeast and East Asia) (Table 10.4) and tend \r\nto focus on technical adaptation interventions rather than how and \r\nwhy people adapt (Sun and Han, 2018)."


id: ff0c6d2f97201a5a4e78f3dca8857c2c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"In agriculture, studies demonstrate how perceptions of risk (e.g., climate \r\nvariability) (Singh et  al., 2016; Zheng and Dallimer, 2016; Burnham \r\nand Ma, 2017; Feng et  al., 2017), sociocultural norms and personal \r\nexperiences (Masud, 2016; Nguyen et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2016), and \r\nperceived efficacy of adaptation interventions in having a positive and \r\ndesirable impact (Halbrendt et  al., 2014; Truelove et  al., 2015; Feng \r\net al., 2017), affect adaptation decisions. Policies on providing early \r\nwarnings of drought or information on prevention techniques shape \r\nfarmer decisions to undertake adaptation interventions (Wang et al., \r\n2015)."


id: c3a5663ffc31daaa526749f73c60a359
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Changes in current lifestyles and consumption patterns are \r\nacknowledged as critical to climate action (de Coninck et al., 2018; \r\nIGES, 2019). With rapidly changing diets and increasing purchasing \r\npower, lifestyle changes in countries across Asia, especially those \r\nwith large populations such as China and India, will be critical to \r\ncontributing to global climate solutions (IGES, 2019). Lifestyle shifts \r\nthat can contribute towards adaptation include:"


id: 78684723724fa186d8c06ee8626eccbc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Overall, understanding behavioural factors shaping adaptation \r\nimplementation and uptake is important (medium evidence, high \r\nagreement). While there is a growing literature on behavioural drivers \r\nof adaptation at the individual and household levels, gaps remain \r\nin understanding how socio-cognitive factors affect adaptation \r\nbehaviour at higher scales (e.g., at local or subnational government, \r\nin the private sector, etc.)13. More empirical evidence is needed in \r\nsectors beyond agriculture and disaster risk management (e.g., factors \r\nmotivating urban adaptation) and better coverage across Asia's sub-"


id: 6218d0d1ce013032a33e1f960a1a8940
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Trust in public action as a mediator of risk management has had \r\nconflicting evidence: some studies have discussed trust as being \r\ncritical to effective preparedness (Kittipongvises and Mino, 2015; \r\nWalch, 2018), while others have found that trust in public actions, \r\nsuch as structural interventions to mitigate flood impacts, can lower \r\nindividual motivations to act since they feel protected (Hung et al., \r\n2018)."


id: 6fbd8a9d6164ab24ca094f0a099d35d8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"regions. Importantly, there are no studies on the behavioural aspects \r\nof adaptation from Central Asia."


id: 92168241089cccdf906255b602a04e26
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"to 2050, and 8% for infrastructure. Adaptation interventions, such as \r\nembankments, were found to provide an avoided losses (adaptation \r\nbenefits) to the tune of 2.2% of the delta's GDP by 2050. Similarly, \r\ninput subsidies in seeds, fertilisers and biofertilisers were found to \r\nbuffer the shocks in agriculture by 10%, and buffer the GDP per capita \r\nby 3% (Arto et al., 2019)."


id: 556f45cc92ba35b859662dc09899bb5a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12306
content:
"Markandya and Gonzalez-Eguino (2019) have estimated the \r\nadaptation costs and residual adaptation costs accrued due to \r\ninsufficient adaptation using integrated assessment models. Using \r\nthe residual damages as a measure of loss and damage, the authors \r\nhave estimated adaptation costs and residual costs under scenarios \r\nof high damages-low discount rate and low damages-high discount \r\nrate. The estimates suggested adaptation costs of 182 and 193 billion \r\nUSD by 2050, and 737 and 783 billion USD by 2100 for South Asia \r\nand East Asia, respectively, under the scenario of high damages-low \r\ndiscount rate. The residual costs for the same scenario were 289 and \r\n76% for 2050 and 238 and 62% for 2100 for South Asia and East \r\nAsia, respectively. Estimates for low damages-high discount rate were \r\nsignificantly lower adaptation costs and residual costs for both of \r\nthese sub-regions of Asia."


id: 826cec79eebdcf27fa778b28e7afa545
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"The CCA efforts can be characterised as fragmented, incoherent and \r\nlacking perspective (Ahmed et al., 2019a), and the picture on adaptation \r\nfinancing can be stated as similarly fragmented with very limited \r\nliterature published in peer-reviewed journals. Adaptation financing is \r\ncrucial for supporting vulnerable countries and enhances adaptation, as \r\nit is evident that the enhanced adaptation finance support has positively \r\naffected the pace of adaptation in low-income countries (Ford et al., \r\n2015). At the organisational level, adaptation financing has provided \r\nmultiple functions that include risk assessment functions, valuation \r\nfunctions and risk disclosure functions (Linnenluecke et al., 2016)."


id: b10bb7114c5ec400dd189ca228ab0219
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Climate change can cause significant impacts and as a result can \r\nimpose considerable adaptation costs on countries and people. Despite \r\nthe importance, the research on adaptation costs is limited in Asia, \r\nespecially on the economy-wide costs, while fragmented literature \r\nis available on sector-level adaptation costs. Most of the available \r\nliterature on adaptation costs at the regional level originate from the \r\nwork carried out by development finance institutions such as ADB."


id: 69906ccf7d4b1c499f7be5bfc52e8cfd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Of the total global public adaptation finance of 28 billion USD, East \r\nAsia and the Asia-Pacific attracted 46% of the total funding, while \r\nSouth Asian countries attracted only 9% of the total funding (UNEP, \r\n2016). These differences reflect the capacity of countries to attract \r\nadaptation finance. Some of the important adaptation-targeted \r\nclimate funds are Pilot Programmes for Climate Resilience, Green \r\nClimate Fund, and Least-Developed Countries Fund, and South Asian \r\ncountries have significantly benefited from these dedicated climate \r\nfunds. Due to the disaster implications of climate change, there is a \r\nneed to allocate adaptation finances for DRR. Estimates suggest that \r\nEast Asia and the Asia-Pacific in general allocated 27% of the total \r\nadaptation funds to DRR, while South Asia allocated 25% (Caravani, \r\n2016). Low-income economies tend to allocate more adaptation funds \r\nto DRR (46%), while lower-middle-income economies allocated 22%."


id: 2f99dff3bc47a005d6ce8194aac0c9a9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Estimates suggest that climate-change impacts could result in a loss \r\nof 2% of the GDP of South Asian countries by 2050 and 9% by 2100 \r\n(Ahmed and Suphachalasai, 2014). These impacts will be felt in major \r\nvulnerable sectors, including agriculture, water, coastal, marine, health \r\nand energy, and will have significant impact on the economic growth \r\nand poverty reduction in the region. Countries could differ widely in \r\nterms of the economic costs they face. In South Asia, the economic \r\ncosts were projected to be 12.6% of the GDP for the Maldives, which is \r\nthe highest among the South Asian countries, and 6.6% for Sri Lanka, \r\nthe least among the South Asian countries. The resultant adaptation \r\ncosts for countries were projected to range from 0.36% (Copenhagen \r\nCancun Scenario for 2050) to 1.32% (business-as-usual scenario) of \r\nthe GDP in various scenarios during 2010-2050 (Medium agreement, \r\nlimited evidence) (Ahmed and Suphachalasai, 2014)."


id: aabb0a9e70676ddf7a96d41cf47e3622
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"The least developed countries lack the capacity to adapt to climate \r\nchange and the Least Developed Country Fund (LDCF) has made \r\nsignificant contributions to adaptation in these countries (High \r\nagreement, limited evidence). Based on the interview-based field \r\nresearch in four least developed countries, Sovacool et  al. (2017) \r\nopined that the LDCF projects are contributing to the adaptive capacity \r\nof these countries (Sovacool et al., 2017). They also found that these \r\nprojects are taking a marginal approach, rather than a radical or \r\ntransformational one, to adaptation."


id: db892f370237b758cb30ffbd6f9ea2ea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Arto et al. (2019) have reported the adaptation costs of the Mahanadi \r\nDelta in India for agriculture, fisheries and infrastructure sectors (Arto \r\net  al., 2019). The cumulative adaptation costs for 2015-2016 were \r\nreported to be 276 million USD for agriculture and 0.163 million USD \r\nfor fisheries. In comparison, the modelled cumulative agricultural \r\nGDP loss due to climate-change impacts was reported to be 5% up "


id: 950d89e616d410a5c224214aeafa7eeb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Losses and damages are climate impacts after implementing adaptation and mitigation actions, signifying the presence of residual risks \r\n(Chapter 1; Kugler and Sariego, 2016; Mechler et al., 2019). These residual risks indicate that despite adaptation, there are soft and \r\nhard adaptation limits (Mechler et al., 2019). This box reviews the adaptation literature across 51 countries in Asia on loss and damage \r\n(L&D), and adaptation barriers and limits, and identifies knowledge and regional gaps. The key messages are that (a) climate-induced \r\nL&D is already occurring across Asia (medium evidence, high agreement), (b) these L&D are very likely to increase at higher warming \r\nlevels (medium evidence, high agreement) and (c) measuring and attributing non-economic and intangible L&D remains a challenge (low \r\nevidence, high agreement)."


id: 31de3425df9811252173e9b222a29440
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Findings on losses and damages in Asia: Evidence on climate-related L&D highlights tangible or material losses and damages such \r\nas loss to life, property, infrastructure and livelihoods (medium evidence, high agreement); and intangible or non-material losses and \r\ndamages such as increasing conflict and civil unrest, erosion of sociocultural practices and decreased well-being (low evidence, high \r\nagreement). The main constraint in assessing past and future L&D is that this terminology is not used prominently or consistently in the \r\ndisaster management and climate risk literature in Asia, which potentially leads to under-reporting. In contrast, there is robust evidence \r\n(high agreement) on adaptation constraints, notably on governance, informational and physical constraints, to adapting, but regional \r\nevidence is very uneven with gaps in Central, North and West Asia. Table 10.5 presents a summary of L&D but draws on national and \r\nsubnational studies."


id: 7e822a72fb2d77edac1a8ad22d0d49aa
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"Way forward: Developing robust metrics and institutions for measuring and reporting L&D at national and regional scales, especially \r\nnon-economic damages and L&D due to slow-onset events, is critical. In addition to vulnerability assessments, assessing L&D and limits \r\nto adaptation can inform adaptation prioritisation and enhance adaptation effectiveness (e.g., Craft and Fisher, 2016; Leiter et al., 2019). \r\nLessons are available from biodiversity and ecosystem services monitoring frameworks that have well-developed metrics and processes \r\n(e.g., Diaz et al., 2020)."


id: 338d777c3ccd59a3b837e9863d0351a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"annually. A combination of public, private, bilateral and multilateral \r\nfunding sources, and carbon-market offsets, were suggested to \r\nachieve this level of funding. In terms of the total resources available, \r\na combination of public, private and bi- and multi-lateral funding could \r\nhelp the region to raise as much as 222.3-412.5 billion USD annually, \r\nwith a possibility to reach higher amounts depending on the future \r\neconomic growth of countries in the region. Soil carbon sequestration \r\nin agricultural soils was found to be a win-win solution for both \r\nmitigation and adaptation as it can help improve soils while increasing \r\nfarm yields and incomes of smallholders (Aryal et al., 2020a)."


id: 435d9985ab48c178bcfa68703b5f00cd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Kissinger et al. (2019) have estimated the climate financing needs in \r\nthe land sector under the Paris Agreement. The estimates suggested \r\nadaptation needs of 2.5 billion USD for Bangladesh, 40.5 million USD \r\nfor Lao PDR and 31  million USD for Mongolia, for the forest sector \r\nalone (Low agreement, limited evidence)."


id: d26c3e0c0d0418fc800609ae6a24f6bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Financing green growth and low-carbon development can provide \r\nresilience benefits (high agreement, limited evidence). Kameyama \r\net al. (2016) have estimated the cost of low-carbon investments that \r\ncan provide resilience benefits in Asia and reported that such low\u0002carbon development will cost in the range of 125-149  billion USD "


id: df68a9d779064c418d4e0c91511321e1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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vector_id: 36555
content:
"2015; Fischer, 2019). Technological applications in the development \r\nof insurance products have seen significant progress, including that \r\nof the blockchain and smart contracts (Gatteschi et al., 2018). There \r\nare technological developments in loss estimation, which has been a \r\nmajor limitation in the traditional insurance approaches in the past \r\nthat either delayed the indemnity payment or misjudged the losses. \r\nApplication of multi-model and multi-stage decision support systems \r\nhas begun to make crop loss assessments for insurance more efficient \r\n(Aggarwal et al., 2020). Technological applications also include remote \r\nsensing (Di et al., 2017) and mobile phone app technologies (Meena \r\net al., 2018) to provide accurate and quick damage assessments, and \r\napplication of Internet-based indemnity approvals have enabled quick \r\npayment of indemnities (OECD, 2017b)."


id: 4cc671c93b712b1cb9914e3f3c8130fe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"New adaptation financing sources have been emerging which could \r\nprovide country-specific adaptation financing suiting local-level \r\nadaptation needs in Asia. The newly established Asia Infrastructure \r\nInvestment Bank (AIDB), and newly emerging developing-country \r\nfinance institutions, are known to provide an additional adaptation \r\nfinance (Neufeldt et  al., 2018); however, despite these emerging \r\nfinancial sources, the region will fall short of the adaptation target in \r\nthe Paris Agreement (Neufeldt et al., 2018)."


id: d950db5694489286c59d5940e2026652
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Several Asian countries, including India, the Philippines and China, \r\nhave a significant experience of offering agricultural insurance against \r\ntyphoons, droughts and floods (Yang, 2018). For the most part, these \r\ninsurance systems have followed a traditional indemnity-based \r\ninsurance which faces several challenges in implementation including \r\nmoral hazard and adverse selection, disagreements and delays in \r\ncrop-damage assessments that relied upon crop-cutting experiments, \r\noften leading to a delay in processing indemnity payments, costly \r\ninsurance premiums and poor insurance expansion (high agreement, \r\nrobust evidence) (Patnaik and Swain, 2017; Ghosh et al., 2019). Other \r\nfactors contributing to poor penetration of insurance include limited \r\nawareness on the importance of insurance, and poor access."


id: a378ac0132f313216d1e41143631203
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"To tackle the problem of costly insurance premiums, governments \r\nhave subsidised the premiums (Ghosh et al., 2019). Premium subsidies \r\nhave been reported to undermine the ability to convey the real cost of \r\nrisks by the insured (price distortion), and have encouraged adverse \r\nselection and moral hazard (Nguyen and Jolly, 2019). On the contrary, \r\nsubsidies have been suggested to address the issue of adverse selection \r\nassociated with the insurance (Zhao et al., 2017c)."


id: ded517c81ee8483da616254a119eb812
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Risk insurance approaches and tools have significantly evolved during \r\nrecent years. The emphasis has been mainly on mitigating the adverse \r\nselection and moral hazard that have been the limitations of traditional \r\narea-based crop insurance approaches (He et al., 2019). This has been \r\nachieved by shifting the indemnity calculations on to the specific \r\nweather parameters and developing a weather index (Greatrex et al., "


id: 5f25105a78c347ebcd27169b4051365d
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content:
"on farmers' income seems to be insignificant especially under the \r\nconditions of low indemnities, low guarantee and wide coverage \r\n(Zhao et  al., 2016a). The subsidy burden of insurance on national \r\ngovernments is found to be significant with an estimated equivalent of \r\n6 billion USD spent by China alone on insurance (Hazell et al., 2017). \r\nIn addition, the insurance programmes in Asian countries are reporting \r\nhigher producer claim ratios, and often governments have to spend \r\nmore than the money being transferred to the insured through the \r\ninsurance programmes (Hazell et al., 2017)."


id: 42478a081bc0782a2ae64beb44a651f7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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vector_id: 8858
content:
"of proper monitoring and evaluation, and limited data for underwriters \r\nto properly evaluate claims have been suggested (Nguyen and Jolly, \r\n2019). Low interest among the potential buyers due to unaffordable \r\ninsurance premiums, lack of provision for partial-loss claim settlement, \r\nbig hassles in the claim settlement process and lack of timely \r\nsettlement of claims are reported (Parappurathu et  al., 2017). In \r\naddition, insurance has been reported to have expanded the coverage \r\nof cash crops at the expense of drought-resistant subsistence crops \r\nwith effects on natural capital and a potential increase in farmer's \r\nvulnerability to market price fluctuations (Muller et al., 2017)."


id: b7d55f81aec2d10fd818f79c3f86601c
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content:
"Regional catastrophic insurance pools have also received attention \r\nin Asia. With the formation of Southeast Asia Disaster Risk Insurance \r\nFacility (Haraguchi and Lall, 2019), the regional insurance pool has \r\nbeen introduced in Southeast Asia, initially being piloted in Lao PDR \r\nand Myanmar and to be expanded to the rest of the ASEAN region. \r\nRegional catastrophic insurance allows vulnerable countries to buffer \r\nclimatic shocks by diversifying the risks beyond country boundaries."


id: 1c337a904a5b9ff8d47e8ec8b3d778bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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vector_id: 2150
content:
"Social protection (SP) encompasses initiatives that involve transfer \r\nincome or assets to the poor, protect the vulnerable against risks \r\nto their livelihood, and enhance the social status and rights of the \r\nmarginalised (Bene et al., 2014; Kothari, 2014). Social protection offers \r\na wide range of instruments (e.g., cash transfers, insurance products, \r\npension schemes and employment guarantee schemes) that can be \r\nused to support households that are exposed to climate changes \r\n(Bank, 2015). It also presents an opportunity to develop inclusive \r\ncomprehensive risk management strategies to address L&D from \r\nclimate change as well as a means to CCA (Aleksandrova, 2019)."


id: 14aa6e8c8f4af90a0a986e16fb55c352
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Despite these developments, several issues still seem to hinder the \r\npenetration of insurance in Asia. Issues such as lack of sufficient \r\nchoices, lack of clear model, lack of legal support, limited or absence "


id: 954e07aadc872c0e46b65ea12a1fb5bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23467
content:
"Asia is already the most disaster-prone region in the world, with over \r\n200,000 lives lost and almost 1 billion people affected by storms and \r\nfloods alone between 2005 and 2014, while a heatwave in North \r\nand Central Asia in 2010 killed 56,000 people (United Nations, 2015). \r\nClimate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of these sudden \r\nand slow-onset disasters, among them, hydrological changes in major \r\nriver basins where 1.5 billion people live (such as the Indus, Ganges, \r\nBrahmaputra, Mekong, Yellow, Yangtze, Tarim, Amu and Syr Darya rivers) \r\n(Bank, 2017a). According to the latest estimates of the International \r\nLabour Organisation (ILO), 55% of the global population (around \r\n4 billion people) remain without any SP benefits, and the SP coverage \r\ngap is highest in Africa (82.2%) and the Asia-Pacific (61%) (ILO, 2017b)."


id: 17371badbb3217ec25216afc6ef7c3eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1300
content:
"Aligning SP with climate-change interventions is an attempt to develop \r\nmore durable pathways out of poverty and climate vulnerability; \r\nexamples from MGNREGA depicting the attempt to align through a \r\nmainstreaming approach has helped women and their households \r\n(Adam, 2015; Steinbach et al., 2016). On another note, the Catastrophe \r\nInsurance Framework, the first model introduced in Shenzen, China, \r\nprovides timely relief for citizens and operates as a safety net, \r\nparticularly for the poorest residents who do not have disposable \r\nincome to cover the costs associated with bodily injuries arising from \r\ndisasters (Telesetsky and He, 2016). The Department of Labour and \r\nEmployment's Integrated Livelihood and Emergency Employment \r\nProgramme in the Philippines is part of the recovery efforts after \r\nTyphoon Haiyan, providing short-term wage employment, and \r\nfacilitates entrepreneurship for people affected by natural calamities \r\nand economic shocks (Bank, 2018b)."


id: 1ab0656c26d7c5224108519cfc0950f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1898
content:
"In each of these instances, governments are using SP to protect \r\npopulations suffering from climate change or are adversely affected \r\nby structural, pro-climate economic reforms (Hallegatte et al., 2015). \r\nHowever, additional research is still needed and new tools need to \r\nbe developed to inform policy design and support the implementation \r\nof 'green' SP, as well as to measure the net-welfare impacts of such "


id: cf6f8e162740d593ab2c934ccc8f895c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33847
content:
"the challenges of the increasing frequency and intensity of natural \r\nand economic crises are straining these traditional financial sources \r\n(Duran-Valverde, 2020). In this context, innovative financing schemes \r\nare seen as critical to achieve the sustainable financing of SP (Asher, \r\n2015; UNICEF, 2019) via social and solidarity economy, as seen in \r\nwomen's autonomous adaptation measures in precautionary savings \r\nand flood preparedness in Nepal (Banerjee et al., 2019), and self-help \r\ngroups as development intermediaries (Anderson, 2019). Still, there are \r\nconstraints of SP to reach those who are most vulnerable to climate \r\nchange and other hazards due to their legal status, such as the fact \r\nthat attention to forcibly displaced populations within the SP field has \r\nbeen limited (Sabates-Wheeler, 2019)."


id: 373d2226f49e8df949af08438853b8ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"international and national support through institutions and financing \r\nis critical for successful capacity building (Hemachandra, 2019), which \r\nmust be designed for the long term and be self-sustaining (Gustafson \r\net al., 2018). National ownership by recipient countries and members \r\nof communities of capacity-building efforts is key to ensuring their \r\nsuccess (Roberts and Pelling, 2016; Mikulewicz, 2017)."


id: 6b449e014ffb18c701931484f3bca065
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Asian areas with the least capacity to respond, such as the Himalayan \r\nregion and densely populated deltas, are hit first and hardest by \r\nclimate impacts (De Souza et al., 2015; Khan, 2017). Acknowledging \r\nthe limitations in terms of capacity and coping mechanisms towards \r\nclimate change, education, training and awareness building is \r\ncentral to sustaining long-term capacity building (Clemens et  al., \r\n2016). Education has a lot more to offer in terms of improvements in \r\naddressing climate change, particularly in the climate hotspots of Asia \r\nwhere mostly poor, disadvantaged communities vulnerable to climate \r\nchange reside (Mani et  al., 2018). In particular, when disseminated, \r\nclimate-change awareness and information need more explanation \r\n(Steg et  al., 2014; Wi and Chang, 2018; Cho, 2020). In addition, "


id: 395e0671ab18fa2f38b634eb7bce3282
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"An integrated approach to knowledge about climate change embraces \r\nboth the importance in bridging knowledge of climate science and \r\nrespecting IKLK, and should be at the heart of any effort to educate \r\ncitizens to have a deeper understanding of the causes and consequence \r\nof climate change in a holistic manner (Aswani et al., 2018). Indigenous \r\nPeoples, comprising about 6% of the global population, play a crucial \r\nrole in the fight against climate change for two interlinked reasons. \r\nFirst, they have a particular physical and spiritual relationship with \r\nland, water and associated ecosystems, and tend to be among the "


id: a0d804ff457533a40e26783047275e56
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"change; thus, citizen science has the potential in bridging this gap and \r\nhas many advantages for climate mitigation and adaptation practice \r\nand policy (Ford et  al., 2016). While citizen science uses citizens as \r\npolicy-passive objects for research in conducting measurements for \r\nbig datasets, citizen social science is gaining momentum where it \r\nrepositions citizens as central co-learners who can widen the climate\u0002science evidence base to achieve a more holistic understanding for the \r\nbenefit of all (Kythreotis et al., 2019)."


id: 34c6ee1b56746a91b2bb93be808faeda
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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content:
"Climate resilient development pathways (CRDPs) are 'trajectories \r\nthat strengthen sustainable development and efforts to eradicate \r\npoverty and reduce inequalities while promoting fair and cross-scalar \r\nadaptation to and resilience in a changing climate' (Roy et al., 2018). \r\nMoving beyond a business-as-usual scenario, CRDPs involve not only \r\nadaptation and mitigation choices but also sustainable development \r\nimplications and societal transformation (Roy et  al., 2018). This \r\nbasic understanding of CRDPs explicitly reflects that climate action \r\n(mitigation and adaptation) and sustainable development are \r\nfundamentally integrated and interdependent."


id: bc2081ab6a2c14280ead0a32a0b0edff
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content:
"Table  10.6 shows education and capacity-building aspects affecting \r\nadaptation by sub-region examples."


id: c7c49aed01a08511f9fe2c8a68dfe878
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"There is high confidence that currently implemented climate action \r\nin Asia (such as climate-smart agriculture, ecosystem-based DRR and \r\ninvesting in urban blue-green infrastructure) can meet adaptation, \r\nmitigation and SDGs simultaneously, presenting opportunities for \r\nclimate resilient development (CRD). However, there also exist \r\nsignificant barriers to CRD such as fragmented, reactive governance; \r\ninadequate evidence on which actions to prioritise and how to \r\nsequence them; and finance deficits. Some Asian countries and regions \r\noffer solutions to overcome these barriers: through use of advanced \r\ntechnologies (in situ observation and remote sensing, a variety of new \r\nsensor technologies, citizen science, AI and machine learning tools); \r\nregional partnerships and learning; improved forecasting capabilities; \r\nand better risk awareness (high confidence)."


id: bde109890102c16152f563bfa6e03199
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
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"Asian countries are repeatedly identified as the most vulnerable \r\nto climatic risks with key sectors such as agriculture, cities and \r\ninfrastructure, and terrestrial ecosystems expected to see high exposure \r\nto multiple hazards (Section 10.3). Owing to rapid development and \r\nlarge populations, Asian countries have large and growing GHG \r\nemissions: in 2018, five of the top ten emitters in the world were Asian-\r\nChina (1), India (3), Japan (5), the Republic of Korea (8) and Indonesia \r\n(10) (Friedlingstein et al., 2019)-although it is critical to note that per\u0002capita emissions and cumulative emissions are relatively lower than \r\nin developed economies (Raupach et al., 2014). However, in the 2020 \r\nSustainability Index and Dashboard, only two Asian countries made it \r\ninto the top 30 countries in the world: Japan (17) and the Republic of \r\nKorea (20) (Sachs et  al., 2020). Finally, Asia has varied capacities to \r\nadapt with high heterogeneity in adaptation progress across the region."


id: 2b1655f1b2bb71e8f9f9e1676b6b2559
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"As a model of communication and engagement, citizen science has \r\nthe potential to promote individual and collective climate-change \r\naction (Groulx et al., 2017). More than information provision is needed \r\nto mobilise public action on climate change (Kyburz-Graber, 2013). \r\nCitizen science links communication and engagement in a manner that \r\nholds important lessons on ways to promote collective responses to \r\nclimate (Wals et al., 2014; Bonney et al., 2016). The power of science\u0002based citizen engagement lies in citizen group contribution in drawing \r\nupon their local knowledge to enrich the knowledge base required for \r\nmanagement decisions (Sayer et al., 2015). Scientific evidence may be \r\nless attuned to the complexity of local realities in managing climate "


id: a106254cc2200981443f27493383a65
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content:
"Table 10.6 |  Education and capacity-building aspects affecting adaptation by sub-regions examples"


id: f96d9f343763e1fe0695503bddc5ebab
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"Table 10.7 |  Adaptation options that can have mitigation and SDG synergies and trade-offs, providing opportunities for the triple wins necessary for climate resilient development \r\npathways"


id: 3ca45da356743554eacd9748436ef927
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"(b) The CCA options in the agriculture sector include soil management, crop diversification, cropping system optimisation and management, water management, sustainable land \r\nmanagement, crop pest and disease management, and direct seeding of rice (Aryal et al., 2020b). Other specific agricultural practices that have adaptation and mitigation synergies \r\ninclude between-tillage and residue management, alternate wetting and drying, site-specific nutrient management, crop diversification for less-water-intensive crops, such as maize, \r\nand improved livestock management (Aryal et al., 2020a)."


id: 43f810d6eb90354b64f9bc2f32fc198c
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"(c) Risk management strategies in agriculture include crop insurance, index insurance, social networking and community-based adaptation, collective international action and \r\nintegrated agro-meteorological advisory services (Aryal et al., 2020b)."


id: df52e79627f547d765978dbe3fe39b9
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"(c) managing multiple and often concurrent risks, including climate\u0002change and disaster risks. Potentially, combinations of adaptation and \r\nmitigation options will be required to lead to CRD (see Figure  18.1 \r\non CRDPs ), and some of them are shown in Table 10.7. For example, \r\nclimate-smart agriculture strengthens food security (SDG 2, Zero \r\nHunger) (Aggarwal et al., 2019); urban disaster management, such as \r\nthe Jakarta Disaster Risk Reduction Education Initiative, contributes to \r\nSDG 11 (Sustainable Cities) (Ajibade et al., 2019)."


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"The following subsections examine CRDPs through three approaches \r\nthat are particularly important in Asia and have a large body of evidence \r\nto assess implications for adaptation, mitigation and sustainable \r\ndevelopment. The three illustrative approaches are: (a) disaster risk \r\nmanagement and adaptation synergies, (b) the food-water-energy \r\nnexus and (c) poverty alleviation and meeting equity goals."


id: d48f0b4cb4fb5f2be6cfe84e3a0ee82
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"Climate risk management in Asia is approached by focusing on hazards \r\nthat are associated with extremes (i.e., extreme weather events with \r\nincreased frequency and severity) as well as climate- and weather\u0002related events. For example, farming has been affected by climatic \r\nvariability and change in a wide variety of ways that include an \r\nincrease in drought periods and intensity, a shortage of irrigation water \r\navailability, an increase in flooding and landslides, pest infestation of \r\ncrops, a rising number of crop diseases, the introduction of invasive \r\nspecies and crop weeds, land degradation and an overall reduction \r\nin crop yields (Khanal et al., 2019). Estimation of the number of daily \r\npatients of heat-related illness based on the weather data and newly \r\nintroduced metrics shows that the effects of age, successive days and \r\nheat adaptation are key variables (Kodera et al., 2019)."


id: e1a7674e13943092a57848245c3aa324
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"Because most developing countries in Asia are highly vulnerable to the \r\nimpacts of climate change due to a number of factors, many studies \r\nhave focused on understanding vulnerability, for instance, gendered \r\nvulnerability at the micro scale, which limits capacity to respond to \r\nboth climatic and socioeconomic stressors (Ferdous and Mallick, \r\n2019); vulnerability of urban poor communities due to the interaction \r\nof environmental and social factors (e.g., low incomes, gender, migrant \r\nstatus) and heightens the impacts of climate change on the poor (Porio, \r\n2014); social-ecological vulnerability where a degraded environment \r\ninfluences hazard patterns and vulnerability of people (Depietri, \r\n2020); and livelihood vulnerability due to perceived climate risks and \r\nadaptation constraints (Fahad and Wang, 2018; Hossain et al., 2020)."


id: 6b4e76eb8a0900be948c9e67d65d4432
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"how practice can build on these lessons in the deltas, among others \r\n(Lwasa, 2015). Approaches in tackling the challenges of climate change \r\nand disasters in the cities of developing countries could be better \r\nunderstood, and shared between cities so they can learn from one \r\nanother (Filho et al., 2019)."


id: d0bd6608d3f51e08d1cf05c4fcd4615f
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"(Hiwasaki et  al., 2014); and increasing information, education and \r\ncommunication activities, and capacity development on DRR at the \r\nlocal level (Tuladhar et al., 2015a)."


id: 41a440a51ecd4315da2b4757c87356e1
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"hydropower development will have direct implications on regional food \r\nsecurity and livelihoods through a major negative effect on the aquatic \r\necosystem (Baran and Myschowoda, 2009; Dugan et al., 2010; Arias \r\net al., 2014). Similarly, in Central Asia, the shifting of water storage for \r\nirrigation to power development has increased risks on reliable water \r\nsupply and quality of water (Granit et al., 2012). Deforestation-driven \r\nagro-environmental changes have led to a decreased forest water \r\nsupply, an increased irrigation water demand and a negative effect on \r\ncropland stability and productivity (Lim et al., 2017a; Lim et al., 2019b)."


id: c649cf8ccb3b55cd4db485f53f115ce4
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"Insights from the environmental justice literature show that an \r\noveremphasis on emission reductions at national levels obscures \r\nthe negative impacts on disadvantaged communities, including low\u0002income communities (Burch and Harris, 2014). The issue of social \r\njustice and adaptation is particularly relevant because of the politics \r\nthat drive how adaptation and recovery efforts, as well as investments, \r\nare targeted towards specific populations, places and capacities \r\n(Klinsky et  al., 2017). Hence, climate justice and equity need to be \r\nhighlighted more explicitly in integrative approaches to mitigation and \r\nadaptation (medium evidence, high agreement) (Moellendorf, 2015; \r\nHenrique KP, 2020)."


id: 24fa4e90378bd534618b8acee8f0b1f4
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"The term 'climate justice' is used to problematise global warming in \r\nethical and political contexts. It does so by employing the concepts \r\nof environmental justice and social justice to examine inequalities \r\nand violation of human collective rights in relation to climate-change \r\nimpacts (Ghimire, 2016)."


id: d5b3430a8718bce9c2174e2f7619a50f
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"At the heart of climate-justice concerns lies the asymmetry that those \r\nwho have contributed least to the problem of climate change (i.e., GHG \r\nemissions) are the ones who will be affected by its adverse impacts \r\nthe most. It is about sharing the burden and benefits equitably (a) \r\namong developed and developing countries in the context of historical \r\nresponsibility, and (b) within nations to uplift the marginalised and \r\naffected populations who have contributed the least to the problem \r\nin the contexts of per-capita equity and local vulnerability (Joshi, 2014; \r\nChaudhuri, 2020; Shawoo, 2020)."


id: d6eaf865694bd4ddf8779fc61b8e5880
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"(redistribution, recognition, restitution, regeneration and resistance) of \r\nsocially just land policy are necessarily intertwined. But the global land \r\nrush amid deepening climate change calls attention to the linkages, \r\nespecially between the pursuit of agrarian justice, on the one hand, \r\nand climate justice, on the other. Here, the relationship is not without \r\ncontradictions and warrants increased attention as both unit of \r\nanalysis and object of political action. Understanding and deepening \r\nagrarian-justice imperatives in climate politics, and understanding and \r\ndeepening climate-justice imperatives in agrarian politics, is needed \r\nmore than ever in the ongoing pursuit of alternatives. For example, \r\nthe intersection between land grabs and climate-change mitigation \r\npolitics in Myanmar has created new political opportunities for scaling \r\nup, expanding and deepening the struggles towards 'agrarian climate \r\njustice'(Sekine, 2021)."


id: 51228e02ee2be6816928c3a5b030796a
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"An ethical analysis of the climate regime reveals an abidingly strong \r\ninterconnection between economic circumstances, geopolitical power \r\nand the justice claims that nations can assert in negotiations (Okereke, \r\n2016). Events within the climate regime highlight the importance of \r\nquestioning the extent to which claims of justice can ever be truly \r\nrealised in the context of international regimes of environmental \r\ngovernance, as well as how much concerns for justice are motivated \r\nby other concerns such as relative economic gains or geopolitical \r\nobjectives (Sikor, 2014)."


id: e72810186061e6fcc0f3ba4d04ded540
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"The global land rush and mainstream climate-change narratives \r\nhave broadened the ranks of state and social actors concerned about \r\nland issues while strengthening those opposed to social-justice\u0002oriented land policies (Borras, 2018). The five deep social reforms "


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"FAQ 10.1 | What are the current and projected key risks related to climate change in each sub-region of Asia?\r\nClimate-change-related risks are projected to increase progressively at 1.5degC, 2degC and 3degC of global warming in many parts of Asia. Heat stress \r\nand water deficit are affecting human health and food security. Risks due to extreme rainfall and sea level rise are exacerbated in vulnerable Asia."


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"Extreme rainfall causes floods in vulnerable rivers. Observed changes in extreme rainfall vary considerably by region \r\nin Asia. Extreme rainfall events (such as heavy rainfall >100 mm per day) have been increasing in South and East Asia. \r\nIn the future, most of East and Southeast Asia are projected to experience more intense rainfall events as soon as by \r\nthe middle of the 21st century. In those regions, the flood risk will become more frequent and severe. It is estimated \r\nthat over one-third of Asian cities and about 932 million urban dwellers are living in areas with high risk of flooding."


id: 9e4c697c1f647bb4be8338308ca891cf
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"Sea level rise is continuing. Higher than the global mean sea level rise is projected on Asian coasts. Storm surge and \r\nhigh wave by tropical cyclones of higher intensity are high risk for a large number of Asian megacities facing the \r\nocean: China, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Vietnam have the highest numbers of coastal populations exposed \r\nand thus are most vulnerable to disaster-related mortality."


id: 12c8e82698ee6c5f7504a962aa75542d
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"Changes in terrestrial biome have been observed that are consistent with warming, such as an upward move of \r\ntreeline position in mountains. Climate change, human activity, lightning and quality of forest governance and \r\nmanagement have increased wildfire severity and area burned in North Asia in recent decades. Changes in marine \r\nprimary production also have been observed: a decrease up to 20% over the past six decades in the western Indian \r\nOcean, due to ocean warming and stratification, has restricted nutrient mixing. The risk of irreversible loss of many \r\necosystems will increase with global warming."


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"The likelihood of adverse impacts to agricultural and food security in many parts of developing Asia will progressively \r\nescalate with the changing climate. The potential of total fisheries production in South and Southeast Asia is also \r\nprojected to decrease."


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"Mirroring the heterogeneity across Asia, different countries and communities are undertaking a range of reactive and proactive strategies to \r\nmanage risk in various sectors. Several of these adaptation actions show promise, reducing vulnerability and improving societal well-being. \r\nHowever, challenges remain around scaling up adaptation actions in a manner that is effective and inclusive while simultaneously meeting \r\nnational development goals."


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"Asia exhibits tremendous variation in terms of ecosystems, economic development, cultures and climate risk \r\nexposure. Mirroring this variation, households, communities and governments have a wide range of coping and \r\nadaptation strategies to deal with changing climatic conditions, with co-benefits for various non-climatic issues such \r\nas poverty, conflict and livelihood dynamics."


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"Currently, Asian countries have rich evidence on managing risk, drawing on long histories of dealing with change. \r\nFor example, to deal with erratic rainfall and shifting monsoons, farmers make incremental shifts such as changing \r\nwhat and when they grow or adjusting their irrigation practices. Communities living in coastal settlements are \r\nusing Early warning systems to prepare for cyclones or raising the height of their houses to minimise flood impacts. \r\nThese types of strategies, seen across all Asian sub-regions, based on local social and ecological contexts, are termed \r\nautonomous adaptations that occur incrementally and help people manage current impacts."


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"Overall, the fundamental challenges that Asia will see exacerbated under climate change are around water and \r\nfood insecurity, poverty and inequality, and increased frequency and severity of extreme events. In some places \r\nand for some people, climate change, even at 1.5degC and more so at 2degC, will significantly constrain the functioning \r\nand well-being of human and ecological systems. Asian cities, villages and countries are rising to this current and \r\nprojected challenge, albeit somewhat unevenly."


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"Indigenous People, comprising about 6% of the global population, play a crucial role in managing climate change for two important reasons. \r\nFirst, they have a physical and spiritual connection with land, water and associated ecosystems, thus making them most vulnerable to any \r\nenvironmental and climatic changes. Second, their ecological and local knowledge are relevant to finding solutions to climate change."


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"Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge (IKLK) play an important role in the formulation of adaptation \r\ngovernance and related strategies (IPCC 2007), and best quality, locality-specific knowledge can help address the \r\nserious lack of education on climate change and uncertainties surrounding quality, salience, credibility and the \r\nlegitimacy of the available knowledge base."


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vector_id: 40278
content:
"Key findings across Asia underline the importance of building, sustaining and augmenting local capacity through \r\naddressing inadequacies in terms of resource base, climate-change awareness, government-community partnerships \r\nand vulnerability assessment. Furthermore, inclusion of as well as related practices will improve adaptation planning \r\nand decision-making processes concerning climate change."


id: 61b3eacd397be1fa97fa1df5a0389198
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14479
content:
"In climate-sensitive livelihoods, an integrated approach informed by science that examines multiple stressors, along \r\nwith IKLK, appears to be of immense value. For instance, in building farmers' resilience, enhancing CCA, ensuring \r\ncross-cultural communication and promoting local skills, Indigenous People's intuitive thinking processes and \r\ngeographic knowledge of remote areas are very important."


id: aaed17aab8a4bb2c9501534ee7536160
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27297
content:
"There is also a widespread recognition that IKLK are important in ensuring successful ecosystem-based adaptation \r\n(EbA). However, this recognition requires more practical application and translation into IKLK-driven EbA projects. \r\nFor instance, in the Coral Triangle region, creating historical timelines and mapping seasonal calendars can help to \r\ncapture IKLK while also feeding this information into climate science and climate adaptation planning. Identifying \r\nindigenous crop species for agriculture by using IKLK is already identified as an important way to localise climate \r\nadaptation: an example is Bali's vital contribution of moral economies to food systems which have long built \r\nresilience among groups of communities in terms of food security and sovereignty, even with the challenges faced \r\ndue to modernising of local food systems."


id: ae07aecbd76d08edba80cad0a586da4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27857
content:
"Many of the pressing problems of Asia, including water scarcity, rapid urbanisation, deforestation, loss of species, \r\nrising coastal hazards and agricultural loss can be effectively negated, or at least minimised, through proper \r\nadoption of suitable science and technological methods. Climate-change adaptation is greatly facilitated by \r\nscience, technology and innovation. This ranges from application of existing science, new development on scientific \r\ntools and methods, application of IKLK and citizen sciences. Deploying Knowledge Quality Assessment Tool found \r\nsignificant co-relation between science-based and IKLK framing would help to address, acknowledge and utilise by \r\nan integrated approach the wisdom of IKLK, a valuable asset for climate adaptation governance. The IKLK-based \r\nenvironmental indicators need to be seen as part of a separate system of knowledge that coexists with, but is not \r\nsubmerged into, another conventional knowledge system."


id: b196f52712cd70601f605d9de95d00d1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28467
content:
"In the context of education and capacity development of climate change, an integrated approach of embracing \r\nboth the importance of climate science and IKLK is acknowledged. The IKLK is increasingly recognised as a powerful \r\ntool for compiling evidence of climate change over time. Such as knowledge of CCA and DRR provide a range of \r\ncomplementary approaches in building resilience and reducing the vulnerability of natural and human systems. \r\nDeveloping knowledge and utilising existing IKLK, skills and dispositions to better cope with already evident and \r\nlooming climate impacts. Engaging communities in the process of documenting and understanding long-term \r\ntrends and practices will enable both IKLK as well as Western scientific assessments of climate change to contribute \r\nin designing appropriate climate adaptation measures."


id: b966b9a69ef99fc7cb292846d9b11b38
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29832
content:
"FAQ 10.4 | How can Asia meet multiple goals of climate-change adaptation and sustainable development within \r\nthe coming decades?"


id: 6a8ca82eaa3c109530748243fc480c10
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16031
content:
"Asian countries are testing ways to develop in a climate-resilient manner to meet the goals related to climate change and sustainable \r\ndevelopment simultaneously. Some promising examples exist, but the window of opportunity to put some of these plans in place is small and \r\nclosing fast, highlighting the need for urgent action across and within countries."


id: 9a45c13c5b1595c5590a3197f8797a07
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24385
content:
"Despite these challenges, there are increasing examples of actions across Asia that are meeting climate adaptation \r\ngoals and SDGs simultaneously, such as through climate-smart agriculture, disaster risk management and NbS. To \r\nenable these system transitions, vertical and horizontal policy linkages, active communication and cooperation \r\nbetween multiple stakeholders, and attention to the root causes of vulnerability are essential. Furthermore, rapid \r\nsystemic transformation can be enabled by policies and finances to incentivise capacity building, new technological \r\ninnovation and diffusion. The effectiveness of such technology-centred approaches can be maximised by combining \r\nthem with attention to behavioural shifts such as by improving education and awareness, building local capacities \r\nand institutions, and leveraging IKLK."


id: ecf14ef665ec7c22f28ef51374f55195
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39054
content:
"Obviously, time is of the essence. If system transitions are delayed, there is high confidence that climatic risks will \r\nincrease human and natural system vulnerability, as well as increase inequality and erode the achievements of \r\nmultiple SDGs. Thus, urgent systemic change that is suited to national and subnational social-ecological contexts \r\nacross Asia is imperative."


id: 4d096bc016241673f15ce64be690897c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10825
content:
"Lead Authors: Francis Chiew (Australia), Mark J. Costello (New Zealand/Norway/Ireland), Kevin \r\nHennessy (Australia), Nina Lansbury (Australia), Uday Bhaskar Nidumolu (Australia), Gretta \r\nPecl (Australia), Lauren Rickards (Australia), Nigel Tapper (Australia), Alistair Woodward (New \r\nZealand), Anita Wreford (New Zealand)"


id: af0cca66d8028cc6bd0e291a265ff5e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28042
content:
"Lawrence, J., B. Mackey, F. Chiew, M.J. Costello, K. Hennessy, N. Lansbury, U.B. Nidumolu, G. Pecl, L. Rickards, N. Tapper, \r\nA.Woodward, and A.Wreford, 2022: Australasia. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. \r\nContribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change \r\n[H.-O. Portner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegria, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Loschke, \r\nV. Moller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1581-1688, \r\ndoi:10.1017/9781009325844.013."


id: 71c7b207c13e010656be076727075925
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17258
content:
"bleaching, fires, poor ski seasons and receding glaciers. Governments, \r\nbusiness and communities have experienced major costs associated \r\nwith extreme weather, droughts and sea level rise (SLR). {11.3, 11.4, \r\n11.5.2, Table 11.2, Boxes 11.1-11.6}"


id: e69a12a0de841e0b036a4087a52580ef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37866
content:
"Climate impacts are cascading and compounding across sectors \r\nand socioeconomic and natural systems (high confidence).\r\nComplex connections are generating new types of risks, exacerbating \r\nexisting stressors and constraining adaptation options. An example \r\nis the impacts that cascade between interdependent systems and \r\ninfrastructure in cities and settlements. Another example is the 2019-\r\n2020 southeast Australia wildfires, which burned 5.8 to 8.1  million \r\nhectares, with 114 listed threatened species losing at least half of \r\ntheir habitat and 49 losing over 80%, over 3,000 houses destroyed, \r\n33 people killed, a further 429 deaths and 3230 hospitalisations due \r\nto cardiovascular or respiratory conditions, AUD$1.95 billion in health \r\ncosts, AUD$2.3 billion in insured losses and AUD$3.6 billion in losses \r\nfor tourism, hospitality, agriculture and forestry. {11.5.1, Box 11.1}"


id: 448c4d3cf53bbf931881bdef8afed983
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9292
content:
"Increasing climate risks are projected to exacerbate existing \r\nvulnerabilities and social inequalities and inequities (high \r\nconfidence). These include inequalities between Indigenous and non\u0002Indigenous Peoples and between generations, rural and urban areas, \r\nincomes and health status, increasing the climate risks and adaptation \r\nchallenges faced by some groups and places. Resultant climate change \r\nimpacts include the displacement of some people and businesses and \r\nthreaten social cohesion and community well-being. {11.3.5, 11.3.6, \r\n11.3.10, 11.4}"


id: 9ef6da30d7e4b5888b2f7165c1b64339
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25197
content:
"Climate trends and extreme events have combined with \r\nexposure and vulnerabilities to cause major impacts for some \r\nhuman systems (high confidence). Socioeconomic costs arising \r\nfrom climate variability and change have increased. Extreme heat has \r\nled to excess deaths and increased rates of many illnesses. Nuisance \r\nand extreme coastal flooding have increased due to sea level rise \r\n(SLR) superimposed upon high tides and storm surges in low-lying \r\ncoastal and estuarine locations, including impacts on cultural sites, \r\ntraditions and lifestyles of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples \r\nin Australia and Tangata Whenua Maori in New Zealand. Droughts \r\nhave caused financial and emotional stress in farm households and \r\nrural communities. Tourism has been negatively affected by coral "


id: 251d7d22bee3378fa0b5faf75110e452
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3722
content:
"Climate risks are projected to increase for a wide range of \r\nsystems, sectors and communities, which are exacerbated by \r\nunderlying vulnerabilities and exposures (high confidence)\r\n{11.3; 11.4}. Nine key risks have been identified, based on magnitude, \r\nlikelihood, timing and adaptive capacity {11.6, Table 11.14}:"


id: d1c58855aea5611d7aecad2a4d43bbc8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34258
content:
"There are important interactions between mitigation and \r\nadaptation policies and their implementation (high confidence). \r\nIntegrated policies in interdependent systems across biodiversity, \r\nwater quality, water availability, energy, transport, land use and \r\nforestry for mitigation can support synergies between adaptation \r\nand mitigation. These have co-benefits for the management of land \r\nuse, water and associated conflicts and for the functioning of cities \r\nand settlements. For example, projected increases in fire, drought, \r\npest incursions, storms and wind place forests at risk and affect their \r\nongoing role in meeting New Zealand's emissions reduction goals. \r\n{11.3.4.3, 11.3.10.2, 11.3.5.3, Box 11.5}"


id: ea7efc25b3461c6f9423f83cc3e8bf8b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38619
content:
"The ambition, scope and progress of the adaptation process have \r\nincreased across governments, non-government organisations, \r\nbusinesses and communities (high confidence). This process \r\nincludes vulnerability and risk assessments, identification of strategies \r\nand options, planning, implementation, monitoring, evaluation and \r\nreview. Initiatives include legislated institutional frameworks for \r\nrisk assessment and national adaptation planning and monitoring \r\nin New Zealand, a National Recovery and Resilience Agency and \r\nNational Disaster Risk Reuction Framework in Australia, deployment \r\nof new national guidance, decision tools, collaborative governance \r\napproaches and the introduction of climate risk and disclosure regimes \r\nfor the private sector. The focus, however, has been on adaptation \r\nplanning, rather than on implementation. {11.5.1, 11.7.1.1, Box 11.6, \r\nTable 11.15a, Table 11.15b, Table 11.17}"


id: 2ef77f3def05b973cd43a902f6a4364a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5538
content:
"Adaptation progress is uneven, due to gaps, barriers and limits to \r\nadaptation and adaptive capacity deficits (very high confidence). \r\nProgress in adaptation planning, implementation, monitoring and \r\nevaluation is lagging. Barriers include lack of consistent policy \r\ndirection, competing objectives, divergent risk perceptions and values, \r\nknowledge constraints, inconsistent information, fear of litigation, up\u0002front costs and lack of engagement, trust and resources. Adaptation \r\nlimits are being approached for some species and ecosystems. Adaptive "


id: d5988590a48f2f864313248c1fc37335
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34889
content:
"benefits, but complex interactions between objectives can create \r\ntrade-offs. {11.7, 11.8.1, 11.8.2}"


id: d0371742ac47a292eb8b5c04fca0331a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33996
content:
"capacity to address the barriers and limits can be built through greater \r\nengagement with groups and communities to build trust and social \r\nlegitimacy through the inclusion of diverse values, including those \r\nof Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and Tangata Whenua \r\nMaori. {11.4, 11.5, 11.6, 11.7, 11.8, Table 11.4, Table 11.5, Table 11.6, \r\nTable 11.16, Box 11.2}"


id: e04c5cb9b2d04fcfcd15f2d420f77e44
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36712
content:
"Delay in implementing adaptation and emission reductions \r\nwill impede climate resilient development, resulting in more \r\ncostly climate impacts and greater scale of adjustments (very \r\nhigh confidence). The region faces an extremely challenging future. \r\nReducing the risks would require significant and rapid emission \r\nreductions to keep global warming to 1.5degC-2.0degC, as well as robust \r\nand timely adaptation. The projected warming under current global \r\nemissions reduction policies would leave many of the region's human \r\nand natural systems at very high risk and beyond adaptation limits. \r\n{11.8, Table 11.1, Table 11.14, Figure 11.6}"


id: c6bc5f69f3709cc3f22a29ae79144635
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32266
content:
"A range of incremental and transformative adaptation options \r\nand pathways is available as long as enablers are in place to \r\nimplement them (high confidence). Key enablers for effective \r\nadaptation include shifting from reactive to anticipatory planning, \r\nintegration and coordination across levels of government and sectors, \r\ninclusive and collaborative institutional arrangements, government \r\nleadership, policy alignment, nationally consistent and accessible \r\ninformation and decision-support tools, along with adaptation funding \r\nand finance, and robust, consistent and strategic policy commitment. \r\nOver 75% of people in Australia and New Zealand agree that climate \r\nchange is occurring and over 60% believe climate change is caused by \r\nhumans, giving climate adaptation and mitigation action further social \r\nlegitimacy. {11.7.3, Table 11.17}"


id: 5700562a6a1a9f26c87dde40376e3c0f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12555
content:
"New knowledge on system complexity, managing uncertainty \r\nand how to shift from reactive to adaptive implementation is \r\ncritical for accelerating adaptation (high confidence). Priorities \r\ninclude a greater understanding of impacts on natural system dynamics; \r\nthe exposure and vulnerability of different groups within society, \r\nincluding Indigenous Peoples; the relationship between mitigation and \r\nadaptation; the effectiveness and feasibility of different adaptation \r\noptions; the social transitions needed for transformative adaptation; \r\nand the enablers for new knowledge to better inform decision-making \r\n(e.g., monitoring data repositories, risk and vulnerability assessments, \r\nrobust planning approaches, sharing adaptation knowledge and \r\npractice). {11.7.3.3}"


id: a37acc3e7f94aae57116686efb0b94e4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25968
content:
"Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and Tangata \r\nWhenua Maori can enhance effective adaptation through the \r\npassing down of knowledge about climate change planning \r\nthat promotes collective action and mutual support across the \r\nregion (high confidence). Supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait \r\nIslander Peoples and Tangata Whenua Maori institutions, knowledge \r\nand values enable self-determination and create opportunities to \r\ndevelop adaptation responses to climate change. Actively upholding \r\nthe UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Maori \r\ninterests under the Treaty of Waitangi at all levels of government \r\nenables intergenerational approaches for effective adaptation. {11.3, \r\n11.4, 11.6, 11.7.3; Cross-Chapter Box INDIG in Chapter 18}"


id: fa60e0030da8fff03600b84637079688
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41418
content:
"A step change in adaptation is needed to match the rising \r\nrisks and to support climate resilient development (very high \r\nconfidence). Current adaptation is largely incremental and reactive. \r\nA shift to transformative and proactive adaptation can contribute \r\nto climate resilient development. The scale and scope of cascading, \r\ncompounding and aggregate impacts require new, larger-scale and \r\ntimely adaptation. Monitoring and evaluation of the effectiveness of \r\nadaptation progress and continual adjustment is critical. The transition \r\nto climate resilient development pathways can generate major co\u0002"


id: 1961ce6087c2c7df423df769ff144a8c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1683
content:
"(Hayward, 2012) (11.7.2). A lack of services, such as schools and medical \r\nservices, in poorer and rural areas and decision-making processes that \r\nprivilege some voices over others exacerbate inequalities (Kearns et al., \r\n2009; Hinkson and Vincent, 2018)."


id: f6d58ab2df8e7686ea8a89a410190eb9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40796
content:
"This chapter assesses the observed impacts, projected risks, vulnerability \r\nand adaptation, and the implications for climate resilient development \r\nfor the Australasia region, based on the literature published up to 1 \r\nSeptember 2021. It should be read in conjunction with other Working \r\nGroup (WG) II chapters, the climate science assessment in the WGI \r\nreport and the greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation assessment \r\nin the WGIII report."


id: 8d6d820c3af9d30379fa64b9f2b71696
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22066
content:
"The Australasia region is defined as the Exclusive Economic Zones \r\n(EEZs) and territories of Australia and New Zealand. In both countries, \r\nclimate adaptation is largely implemented at a sub-national level \r\nthrough the devolution of functions constitutionally or by statute, \r\nalongside disaster risk reduction (COAG, 2011; Lawrence et al., 2015; \r\nMacintosh et al., 2015)."


id: 3ba888b206d68547809d075e85551e69
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7681
content:
"Australia's economy is dominated by financial and insurance services, \r\neducation, mining, construction, tourism, health care and social \r\nassistance (ABS, 2018) with Australian exports accruing mostly from \r\nmining (ABS, 2018; ABS, 2019). In New Zealand, service industries, \r\nincluding tourism, collectively account for around two-thirds of \r\nGDP (NZ Treasury, 2016). The primary sector contributes 6% of New \r\nZealand's GDP and over half of the country's export earnings (NZ \r\nTreasury, 2016)."


id: 8410602bddf0335f249cba01e9d5597d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20390
content:
"The region has an increasingly diverse population through the arrival \r\nof migrants, including those from the Pacific, whose innovations, \r\nskills and transnational networks enhance their and others' adaptive \r\ncapacity (De et al., 2016; Fatoric et al., 2017; Barnett and McMichael, \r\n2018), although language barriers and socioeconomic disadvantage \r\ncan create vulnerabilities for some (11.7.2)."


id: d3b55291de601aa349a560aab845099d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34586
content:
"Existing vulnerabilities expose and exacerbate inequalities between \r\nrural, regional and urban areas, Indigenous and non-Indigenous Peoples, \r\nthose with health and disability needs, and between generations, \r\nincomes and health status, increasing the relative climate change risk \r\nfaced by some groups and places (high confidence) (Jones et al., 2014; \r\nBertram, 2015; Perry, 2017; Hazledine and Rashbrooke, 2018)."


id: b325d2b7becf23a676c653bfd7dc9a8c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28761
content:
"Climate change inaction exacerbates intergenerational inequity, \r\nincluding prospects for the current younger population (Hayward, \r\n2012). Increasing transient worker populations (ABS, 2018) may \r\ndiminish social networks and adaptive capacity (Jiang et al., 2017). The \r\nregion has an ageing population and increasing numbers of people \r\nliving on their own who are highly vulnerable to extreme events, \r\nincluding heat stress and flooding (Zhang et al., 2013)."


id: ea954788effdc83b5b32ab3adeef28bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38632
content:
"Previous IPCC reports (Table 11.1) have documented observed climate \r\nimpacts, projected risks, adaptation challenges and opportunities. \r\nThis chapter presents more evidence of observed climate impacts \r\nand adaptation, better quantification of socioeconomic risks, new \r\ninformation about cascading and compounding risks, greater emphasis \r\non adaptation enablers and barriers, and links to climate resilient \r\ndevelopment."


id: 2889288607d4f5bf0ba5c54ad901fd3d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4341
content:
"Socioeconomic trends are affected by global mega trends (KPMG, \r\n2021), which are expected to influence the region's ability to implement \r\nclimate change adaptation strategies (World Economic Forum, 2014). \r\nDigital technological advances have potential benefits for building \r\nadaptive capacity (Deloitte, 2017a)."


id: b1348e2608c6cac1903ca70599b8fce3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28411
content:
"Economic, demographic and sociocultural trends influence the exposure, \r\nvulnerability and adaptive capacity of individuals and communities (high \r\nconfidence) (Elrick-Barr et al., 2016; Smith et al., 2016; Hayward, 2017; \r\nB. Frame et al., 2018; Plummer et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2018; Gartin \r\net al., 2020). In the absence of proactive adaptation, climate change \r\nimpacts are projected to worsen inequalities between Indigenous and \r\nnon-Indigenous peoples and other vulnerable groups (Green et  al., \r\n2009; Manning et  al., 2014; Ambrey et  al., 2017) (high confidence). \r\nSocioeconomic inequality, low incomes and high levels of debt, poor \r\nhealth and disabilities increase vulnerability and limit adaptation "


id: 2aeebc713fdc19ae1a3a948e064c6b65
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4790
content:
"Regional climate change has continued since AR5 was released in 2014, \r\nwith trends exacerbating many extreme events (very high confidence). \r\nThe following changes are quantified with references in Tables 11.2a \r\nand 11.2b. The region has continued to warm (Figure 11.1), with more "


id: 60e81c651112b98bcdbcd35b155ae8e7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14346
content:
"Table 11.1 |  Summary of key conclusions from the IPCC 5th Assessment Report (AR5) Australasia chapter (Reisinger et al., 2014) and relevant conclusions from the IPCC Special \r\nReports on Global Warming of 1.5degC (IPCC, 2018), Climate Change and Land (IPCC, 2019a) and Oceans and Cryosphere (IPCC, 2019b)."


id: 28032299a321ed13d2e0b098671cf8a1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4237
content:
"Our regional climate is changing (very high confidence) and warming will continue through the 21st century (virtually certain) with more hot days, fewer cold days, \r\nless snow, less rainfall in southern Australia and the northeast of both of New Zealand's islands, more rainfall in western New Zealand, more extreme rainfall, SLR, \r\nincreased fire weather in southern Australia and across New Zealand and fewer cyclones but a greater proportion of intense cyclones.\r\n(Reisinger et al., \r\n2014)"


id: b1cd94bc1d70dbaaba418a5efa2f608e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28500
content:
"Adaptation is occurring and becoming mainstreamed in some planning processes (high confidence). Adaptive capacity is considered generally high in many human \r\nsystems, but adaptation implementation faces major barriers, especially for transformational responses (high confidence). Some synergies and trade-offs exist betwee\r\ndifferent adaptation responses and between mitigation and adaptation, with interactions occurring both within and outside the region (very high confidence)."


id: f49cdbae81cf1c082fe89f24120ce6a5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40409
content:
"Vulnerability remains uncertain due to incomplete consideration of socioeconomic dimensions (very high confidence), including governance, institutions, patterns of \r\nwealth and ageing, access to technology and information, labour force participation and societal values."


id: 9cbf5d4ef6edcea76872e84f9d586ff
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24814
content:
"Emissions reductions under Nationally Determined Contributions from signatories to the Paris Agreement are consistent with a global warming of 2.5degC-3.0degC above \r\npre-industrial temperatures by 2100. Much deeper emission reductions are needed prior to 2030 to limit warming to 1.5degC. There are limits to adaptation and adaptive \r\ncapacity for some human and natural systems at global warming of 1.5degC, with associated losses.\r\n(IPC"


id: 5b331ee31544df7053da3bf81ee50f55
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13295
content:
"Climate impacts will disproportionately affect the welfare of impoverished and vulnerable people because they lack adaptation resources. Strengthening \r\nthe climate-action capacities of national and sub-national authorities, civil society, the private sector, Indigenous People and local communities can support \r\nimplementation of actions."


id: 839a606526a922497104b990140c6b14
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20298
content:
"Appropriate design of policies, institutions and governance systems at all scales can contribute to land-related adaptation and mitigation while facilitating the pursuit \r\nof climate-adaptive development pathways."


id: 4ab84ae7ce2965e934d0ebe8e06ba82b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10383
content:
"Near-term action to address climate change adaptation and mitigation, desertification, land degradation and food security can bring social, ecological, economic and \r\ndevelopment co-benefits. Delaying action (both mitigation and adaptation) will be more costly."


id: 63166ecc4183c12c1424e246d806a6ae
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14724
content:
"The rate of global mean SLR of 3.6 mm yr-1 for 2006-2015 is unprecedented over the last century. Extreme wave heights, coastal erosion and flooding have increased \r\nin the Southern Ocean by around 1.0 cm yr-1 over the period 1985-2018. (IPCC, 20"


id: 6385672b42c905d294e90ba35604e1b5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14805
content:
"Some species of plants and animals have increased in abundance, shifted their range and established in new areas as glaciers receded and the snow-free season \r\nlengthened. Some cold-adapted or snow-dependent species have declined in abundance, increasing their risk of extinction, notably on mountain summits."


id: f6df1f41cbcef7519aedaec06313a105
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40802
content:
"Many marine species have shifted their range and seasonal activities. Altered interactions between species have caused cascading impacts on ecosystem structure and \r\nfunctioning."


id: f5a2c729f454a3949f855611fac1f71f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40583
content:
"Mean SLR projections are higher by 0.1 m compared to AR5 under RCP8.5 in 2100. Extreme sea level events that are historically rare (once per century) are projected \r\nto occur frequently (at least once yr-1) at many locations by 2050."


id: 3366a4928c3a0592e3bd53142cc8a9b9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6295
content:
"Projected ecosystem responses include losses of species habitat and diversity and degradation of ecosystem functions. Warm water corals are at high risk already and \r\nare projected to transition to very high risk even if global warming is limited to 1.5degC."


id: d873c488bdde836766852c3a8b25ce1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35377
content:
"Governance arrangements (e.g., marine protected areas, spatial plans and water management systems) are too fragmented across administrative boundaries and \r\nsectors to provide integrated responses to the increasing and cascading risks. Financial, technological, institutional and other barriers exist for implementing responses."


id: cd23de6ca872ab9b7c2bf08b438b45b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33426
content:
"Enabling climate resilience and sustainable development depends critically on urgent and ambitious emissions reductions coupled with coordinated, sustained and \r\nincreasingly ambitious adaptation actions. This includes better cooperation and coordination among governing authorities, education and climate literacy, sharing of \r\ninformation and knowledge, finance, addressing social vulnerability and equity, and institutional support."


id: c9a2925d4b943d797b16b0276ca1406
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32800
content:
"Reliable measurements are limited for some types of storms, particularly \r\nthunderstorms, lightning, tornadoes and hail (Walsh et al., 2016). Many \r\nhigh-impact events are a combination of interacting physical processes \r\nacross multiple spatial and temporal scales (e.g., fires, heatwaves and \r\ndroughts), and better understanding of these extreme and compound \r\nevents is needed (Zscheischler et al., 2018)."


id: 854e4db2cf875614478b55a18688d907
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20591
content:
"extremely high temperatures and fewer extremely low temperatures. \r\nSnow depths and glacier volumes have declined. Sea level rise and \r\nocean acidification have continued. Northern Australia has become \r\nwetter, while April-October rainfall has decreased in south-western \r\nand south-eastern Australia. In New Zealand, most of the south has \r\nbecome wetter, while most of the north has become drier (Figure 11.2). \r\nThe frequency, severity and duration of extreme fire weather conditions \r\nhave increased in southern and eastern Australia and eastern New \r\nZealand. Changes in extreme rainfall are mixed. There has been a \r\ndecline in tropical cyclone frequency near Australia."


id: 8bcec6005443ccec7bd22d790d8482f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21769
content:
"Some of the observed trends and events can be partly attributed to \r\nanthropogenic climate change, as documented in Chapter 16. Examples \r\ninclude regional warming trends and sea level rise (SLR), terrestrial \r\nand marine heatwaves, declining rainfall and increasing fire weather "


id: 12b5bcc9eafa3622005317c82bc7ca2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 495
content:
"broadly agree with CMIP5 projections except for a group of CMIP6 \r\nmodels with greater warming and a narrower range of summer rainfall \r\nchange in the north and winter rainfall change in the south (Grose \r\net al., 2020). For New Zealand, the CMIP6 projections are similar to \r\nCMIP5, but the CMIP6 models indicate greater warming, a smaller \r\nincrease in summer precipitation and a larger increase in winter \r\nprecipitation (Gutierrez et al., 2021)."


id: d31ee9d4ed04982b96b8064e4abe906b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34485
content:
"There are three main sources of uncertainty in climate projections: \r\nemission scenarios, regional climate responses and internal climate \r\nvariability (CSIRO and BOM, 2015). Emission scenario uncertainty \r\nis captured in Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) for \r\ngreenhouse gases and aerosols. RCP2.6 represents low emissions, \r\nRCP4.5 medium emissions and RCP8.5 high emissions. Regional climate \r\nresponse uncertainty and internal climate variability uncertainty are \r\ncaptured in climate model simulations driven by the RCPs."


id: 6f13bec56f43f7ce814bb6db5b071263
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16812
content:
"Dynamical and statistical downscaling offer the prospect of improved \r\nrepresentation of regional climate features and extreme weather events \r\n(IPCC 2021: Working Group I Chapter 10 (Doblas-Reyes et al., 2021)), \r\nbut the added value of downscaling is complex to evaluate (Ekstrom \r\net  al., 2015; Rummukainen, 2015; Virgilio et  al., 2021). Downscaled \r\nsimulations are available for New Zealand (MfE, 2018) and various \r\nAustralian regions (Gutierrez et al., 2021). Further downscaling was \r\nrecommended by the Royal Commission into National Natural Disaster \r\nArrangements (CoA, 2020e). Projections for rainfall, thunderstorms, \r\nhail, lightning and tornadoes have large uncertainties (Walsh et  al., \r\n2016; MfE, 2018)."


id: af983483dc67cc89fe33264184066887
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28130
content:
"Further climate change is inevitable, with the rate and magnitude \r\nlargely dependent on the emission pathway (very high confidence) \r\n(IPCC, 2021). Preliminary projections based on Climate Model \r\nIntercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) models are described in \r\nthe IPCC Working Group I Atlas. For Australia, the CMIP6 projections "


id: 917e7d19fa60a0a7afa0091604cafcba
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22809
content:
"Future changes in climate variability are affected by the El Nino \r\nSouthern Oscillation (ENSO), Southern Annular Mode (SAM), Indian \r\nOcean Dipole (IOD) and Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO). An \r\nincrease in strong El Nino and La Nina events is projected (Cai, 2015), \r\nalong with more extreme positive phases of the IOD (Cai et al., 2018) \r\nand a positive trend in SAM (Lim et al., 2016), but potential changes \r\nin the IPO are unknown (NESP ESCC, 2020). There is uncertainty about \r\nregional climate responses to projected changes in ENSO (King et al., \r\n2015; Perry et al., 2020; Virgilio et al., 2021)."


id: 54d714ab5b36c1f1937da88970a2ba2f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12194
content:
"Australian climate projections are quantified with references in \r\nTable 11.3a. Further warming is projected, with more hot days, fewer \r\ncold days, reduced snow cover, ongoing sea level rise (SLR) and ocean \r\nacidification (very high confidence). Winter and spring rainfall and soil \r\nmoisture are projected to decrease, with higher evaporation rates, \r\ndecreased wind over southern mainland Australia, increased wind \r\nover Tasmania, and more extreme fire weather in southern and eastern \r\nAustralia (high confidence). Heavy rainfall intensity is projected to \r\nincrease, with more droughts over southern and eastern Australia \r\n(medium confidence). Increased winter rainfall is projected over \r\nTasmania, with decreased rainfall in southwestern Victoria in autumn \r\nand in western Tasmania in summer, fewer tropical cyclones with a \r\ngreater proportion of severe cyclones and decreased soil moisture in \r\nthe north (medium confidence). Hailstorm frequency may increase (low \r\nconfidence)."


id: 5cc753fc6366ee7e220f8ba4f9b831f8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13586
content:
"This section assesses observed impacts, projected risks and adaptation \r\nfor 10 sectors and systems. Boxes provide more details on specific \r\nissues. Risk is considered in terms of vulnerability, hazards (impact \r\ndriver), exposure, reasons for concern and complex and cascading risks \r\n(Chapter 1; Figure 1.2)."


id: b457c7d829fa29a045663d2883b1a36b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28966
content:
"In the near term (2030-2060), climate change is projected to become \r\nan increasingly dominant stress on the region's biodiversity, with \r\nsome ecosystems experiencing irreversible changes in composition \r\nand structure and some threatened species becoming extinct (high \r\nconfidence). Climate change will interact with current ecological \r\nconditions, threats and pressures, with cascading ecological impacts, "


id: bd4cb3cdf24070e285ebd110d49b8575
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30553
content:
"Table 11.3a |  Projected climate change for Australia. Projections are given for different RCPs (RCP2.6 is low, RCP4.5 is medium, RCP8.5 is high) and years (e.g., 20-year period \r\ncentred on 2090). Uncertainty ranges are generally 10th-90th percentile, and median projections are given in square brackets where possible. The four Australian regions are shown \r\nin Chapter 2 of (CSIRO and BOM, 2015). Preliminary projections based on CMIP6 models are included for some climate variables from the IPCC (2021) WGI report."


id: f351fa2b2f542ca28dc45b01433072c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40185
content:
"Table 11.3b |  Projected climate change for New Zealand. Projections are given for different RCPs (RCP2.6 is low, RCP4.5 is medium, RCP8.5 is high) and years (e.g., 20-year period \r\ncentred on 2090). Uncertainty ranges are 5th-95th percentiles, and median projections are given in square brackets where possible. Preliminary projections (10th-90th percentiles) \r\nbased on CMIP6 models are included for some climate variables from the IPCC (2021) WGI report."


id: ed349235b8d2265e2086f643c8f8477d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39113
content:
"A loss of alpine biodiversity in the southeast Australian Alps bioregion \r\nis projected in the near-term as a result of less snow on snow patch \r\nfeldmark and short alpine herb fields as well as increased stress on snow\u0002dependent plant and animal species (high confidence) (Table  11.3, \r\nTable 11.5). In Australia, invasive plants' and weeds' response rates \r\nare expected to be faster than for native species, and climate change \r\ncould foster the appearance of a new set of weed species, with many \r\nbioregions facing increased impacts from non-native plants (medium \r\nconfidence) (Gallagher et  al., 2013; Scott et  al., 2014; March-Salas \r\nand Pertierra, 2020) (Table 11.5), along with declines in some listed \r\nweeds (Duursma et al., 2013; Gallagher et al., 2013). In New Zealand, \r\nclimate change is projected to enable invasive species to expand to \r\nhigher elevations and southwards (medium confidence) (Table 11.5) \r\n(Giejsztowt et al., 2020; MfE, 2020a)."


id: 9458092a571f55a260ac9f51c974599c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23306
content:
"Projected responses of ecosystem processes are uncertain in part due \r\nto complex interactions of climate change with soil respiration, plant \r\nnutrient availability (Hasegawa et al., 2015; Orwin et al., 2015; Ochoa\u0002Hueso et  al., 2017) and changing fire regimes (Table  11.5) (Scheiter \r\net al., 2015; Dowdy et al., 2019). For aquatic biota, responses will reflect \r\nseasonal differences in water temperature (Wallace et al., 2015) and \r\nchanges in rainfall intensity, productivity and biodiversity (Jardine et al., \r\n2015). Extreme floods may have negative impacts on New Zealand \r\nriver biota, by mobilising nutrients, sediments and toxic chemicals and \r\naiding the dispersal of invasive species. These effects are compounded \r\nby homogenisation of rivers through channelisation (Death et al., 2015)."


id: 131f2670321ca4f73361ed6531aaf185
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 577
content:
"In southern Australia, some forest ecosystems (alpine ash, snow gum \r\nwoodland, pencil pine, northern jarrah) are projected to transition to a \r\nnew state or collapse due to hotter and drier conditions with more fires \r\n(high confidence) (Table  11.5). In Australia, most native eucalyptus \r\nforest plants have a range of traits that enable them to persist with \r\nrecurrent fire through recovery buds (sprouters) or regenerate through \r\nseeding (Collins, 2020), affording them a high level of resilience. For \r\nhigh-end projected 2060-2080 fire weather conditions in southeast \r\nAustralia (Clarke and Evans, 2019), stand-killing wildfires could occur \r\nat a severity and frequency greater than the regenerative capacity \r\nof seeders (Enright et al., 2015; Clarke and Evans, 2019). Most New \r\nZealand native plants are not fire resistant and are projected to be \r\nreplaced by fire-resistant introduced species following climate-change\u0002related fires (Perry et al., 2014)."


id: 69ea821c84b62282b39843a96dd9a1be
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15902
content:
"Improved coastal modelling, experiments and in situ studies are \r\nreducing uncertainties at a local scale about the impact of future sea \r\nlevel rise (SLR) on coastal freshwater terrestrial wetlands (medium \r\nconfidence) (Shoo et al., 2014; Bayliss et al., 2018; Grieger et al., 2019). \r\nLow-lying coastal wetlands are susceptible to saltwater intrusion from \r\nsea level rise (SLR) (Shoo et al., 2014; Kettles and Bell, 2015; Finlayson \r\net al., 2017) with consequences for species dependent on freshwater \r\nhabitats (Houston et  al., 2020). Saline habitat conditions will move "


id: 4ec7ac8fbcca3fbc0d20b44106976f0c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11137
content:
"Table 11.4 |  Observed impacts on terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and species in the region where there is documented evidence that these are directly (e.g., a species \r\nthermal tolerances are exceeded) or indirectly (e.g., through changed fire regimes) the result of climate change pressures."


id: d0621c128c20f3cb803f0abfc3ff20d5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34016
content:
"confidence) (Guerin and Lowe, 2013; Reside et al., 2014; Shoo et al., \r\n2014; Keppel et al., 2015; Andrew and Warrener, 2017; Baumgartner \r\net al., 2018; Harris et al., 2018; Jacobs et al., 2018a; Das et al., 2019; \r\nWalker et al., 2019; Molloy et al., 2020). Landscape planning (Bond \r\net al., 2014; McCormack, 2018) helps reduce habitat loss, facilitates \r\nspecies dispersal and gene flow (McLean et al., 2014; Shoo et al., 2014; \r\nLowe et al., 2015; Harris et al., 2018; McCormack, 2018) and allows for \r\nnew ecological opportunities (Norman and Christidis, 2016). Coastal \r\nsqueeze is a threat to freshwater wetlands and requires planning \r\nfor the potential inland shift (Grieger et al., 2019). Adaptations that \r\nmaintain critical volumes and periodicity of environmental flows \r\nwill help protect freshwater biodiversity (Box 11.3) (Yen et al., 2013; \r\nBarnett et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2018b)."


id: f53c83af98f8793fcc40e21aa9f6a1f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40514
content:
"inland and new coastal ecosystem states may emerge, including the \r\nWorld Heritage listed Kakadu's freshwater wetland (Bayliss et al., 2018) \r\n(Table 11.5). Increasingly, sea level rise (SLR) will shrink the intertidal \r\nzone, having implications for wading birds which use this zone (Tait and \r\nPearce, 2019) (Box 11.6). The ecology of freshwater wetlands in New \r\nZealand are projected to be impacted by the intersection of warming, \r\ndrought and heavy rainfall (Pingram et al., 2021) (Table 11.5)."


id: 69bf4fd3af0e861be8e1a1c3dee80d2a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15873
content:
"Managing climate change risks to ecosystems is primarily based \r\non reducing the impact of other anthropogenic pressures, including \r\ninvasive species, and facilitating natural adaptation (high confidence). \r\nThis approach is most feasible within protected areas on public, private \r\nand Indigenous land and sea (Bellard et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2020) but \r\nis also applicable elsewhere (Barnes et al., 2015). Effective strategies \r\npromote ecosystem resilience by changing unsustainable land uses \r\nand management practices, increasing habitat connectivity, controlling \r\nintroduced species, restoring habitats, implementing appropriate fire \r\nmanagement, integrated risk assessment and adaptation planning (B. \r\nFrame et al., 2018; Lindenmayer et al., 2020; Macinnis-Ng et al., 2021). \r\nComplementary approaches include ex situ seed banks (Morrison and \r\nPickering, 2013; Christie et al., 2020)."


id: e26a12763fb34f6a6a6d40b97dc5c8f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37127
content:
"Adaptation research priorities include understanding of the \r\ninteractions and cumulative impacts of existing stressors and \r\nclimate change and the implications for managing ecosystems and \r\nnatural resources (Williams et  al., 2020). For Australia, research on \r\nimplementation strategies for conservation and managing threats, \r\nstress and natural assets is a priority (Williams et  al., 2020). For \r\nNew Zealand, understanding how terrestrial ecosystems and species \r\nrespond to climate change is a priority, and where existing stressors \r\nare affecting freshwater quantity and quality, in situ monitoring \r\nto detect and evaluate projections of climate change impacts on "


id: cad57b9cfe7c28dee137b587dda95454
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33027
content:
"Table 11.5 |  An indicative selection of projected climate-change impacts on terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and species in Australia and New Zealand respectively."


id: 4132e46c75e89f794d68b172412785fc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8649
content:
"biodiversity and a national data repository are lacking (MfE, 2020a). \r\nThe projected increase in invasive species indicates the importance \r\nof a step-up in pest management efforts to ensure native species \r\npersistence as invasive species spread from climate change (Firn \r\net al., 2015). There remains a gap between the knowledge generated, \r\npotential adaptation strategies and their incorporation into \r\nconservation instruments (medium confidence) (Graham et al., 2019\r\nHoeppner and Hughes, 2019), though there is increasing recognitio\r\nof the need to improve governance and management structures fo\r\ntheir implementation (Christie et al., 2020)."


id: 22f43c00ded5e94d70444fbda188ea7a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3349
content:
"50,000 km of coastline (Dhanjal-Adams et  al., 2016), spanning sub\u0002Antarctic islands in the south to tropical waters in the north. New \r\nZealand's marine territory extends from the sub-tropics to sub\u0002"


id: 4007102bfe3ba797a8dc7e8d06c39dc7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8453
content:
"Fire activity depends on weather, ignition sources, land management practices and fuel flammability, availability and continuity (Bradstock \r\net al., 2014). Increased fire activity in southeast Australia associated with climate change has been observed since 1950 (Abram et al., \r\n2021), though trends vary regionally (medium confidence) (Bradstock et al., 2014). In New Zealand, there has been an increased frequency \r\nof major wildfires in plantations (FENZ, 2018) and at the rural-urban interface (medium confidence) (Pearce, 2018). In northern Australia, \r\nincreased wet season rainfall (Gallego et al., 2017) has increased dry season fuel loads (Harris et al., 2008)."


id: b8e63209e3e6c499a3b672a7957fa344
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29736
content:
"In Australia, the frequency and severity of dangerous fire weather conditions is increasing, with partial attribution to climate change \r\n(very high confidence) (Dowdy and Pepler, 2018; Abram et al., 2021) (11.2.1, Figure Box 11.1.1), especially in southern and eastern \r\nAustralia during spring and summer (Harris and Lucas, 2019). Although Australia's eucalyptus forests and woodlands are fire adapted \r\n(Collins, 2020), increasing intensity and frequency of fires may exceed their resilience because of the shorter intervals between high\u0002severity fires (Bowman et al., 2014; Etchells et al., 2020; Lindenmayer and Taylor, 2020a). Recent fires have severely impacted eastern \r\nrainforests, including significant Gondwana refugia (Abram et al., 2021). In New Zealand, the trends in very high and extreme fire weather \r\n(1997-2019) have not yet been attributed to climate change (MfE, 2020a)."


id: f94acc187ec04da1fe45bda093e5ba62
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41222
content:
"For New Zealand, there has been recent increased frequency and magnitude of property losses due to wildfire (Pearce, 2018). The \r\n1660-hectare Port Hills fire in 2017 resulted in the greatest house losses (9) in almost 100 years (Langer et al., 2018), but the subsequent \r\n5540-hectare Lake Ohau fire destroyed 53 houses in 2020 (Waitaki District Council, 2020)."


id: b316d0ea4f4892dcfd176a28be70d292
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28751
content:
"In Australia, between 1987 and 2016, there were 218 deaths, 1000 injuries, 2600 people left homeless and 69,000 people affected by \r\nwildfire (Deloitte, 2017b). Wildfires cost about AUD$1.1 billion per year on average (11.5.2)."


id: 889077711b3d8ada66217bc4a3fec1b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21191
content:
"In the face of climate change and the increased cost of fire damage and suppression, there has been considerable investment in fire risk \r\nreduction (Table Box 11.1.1). Recent analysis of 8800 fires in Australia shows resource constraints in response capacity are a barrier to \r\neffectively containing fires (Collins et al., 2018b), compounded by lengthened and more extreme fire seasons."


id: 552ee9000df4b7c49547eaba5675f456
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12260
content:
"Figure Box 11.1.1 |  Change in the annual (July to June) number of days that the Forest Fire Danger Index (FFDI) exceeds its 90th percentile from July \r\n1985 to June 2020 relative to July 1950 to June 1985 (BoM and CSIRO, 2020; Abram et al., 2021)."


id: 3fe2d33823759fc0ae6062cde8729f5f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8433
content:
"Table Box 11.1.1 |  Examples of adaptation options and enablers to reduce wildfire risk (Hart and Langer, 2011; Mitchell, 2013; Price et al., 2015; Tolhurst \r\nand McCarthy, 2016; Deloitte, 2017b; Miller et al., 2017; Steffen et al., 2017; Kornakova and Glavovic, 2018; Newton et al., 2018; Pearce, 2018; CoA, 2020e; McKemey \r\net al., 2020)."


id: c0c8bb1d8e692e4575afc8c41ea302b0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31213
content:
"Figure Box 11.1.2 |  Cascading impacts on people, economic activity, built assets, ecosystems and species arising from the Black Summer fires of \r\n2019-2020 in eastern and southern Australia (Boer et al., 2020; CoA, 2020e; CoA, 2020b; CoA, 2020a; CSIRO, 2020; Filkov et al., 2020; Johnston et al., 2020; \r\nWard et al., 2020; Wintle et al., 2020; Abram et al., 2021; Godfree et al., 2021)."


id: df7c27bdcf399ae7ad03b8944e13efe2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36567
content:
"Antarctic waters, encompassing an EEZ of 4 million km2, 18,000 km \r\nof coastline and 700 smaller islands and islets, in addition to the two \r\nmain islands (Costello et al., 2010a; MfE, 2016)."


id: 34bf27efc51eb723101e7005a3294d0b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6517
content:
"et al., 2016; Zarco-Perello et al., 2017; Thomsen et al., 2019). Extreme \r\nclimatic events in Australia from 2011 to 2017 led to abrupt and \r\nextensive mortality of key habitat-forming organisms--corals, kelps, \r\nseagrasses and mangroves--along over 45% of the continental \r\ncoastline of Australia (high confidence) (Babcock et al., 2019)."


id: f96a9dad62898a382bf8c1c48211f649
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41244
content:
"The marine environment is important to the culture, health and well\u0002being of the region's diverse Indigenous Peoples, including those who \r\nhad sovereign ownership, governance, resource rights, and stewardship \r\nover 'Sea Country' for many thousands of years before the current sea \r\nlevel stabilised approximately 6000 years ago and before current coastal \r\necosystems were established (Rist et al., 2019). Marine environments \r\ncontribute AUD$69 billion per yearto Australia's economy (Eadie et al., \r\n2011), and NZD$4  billion per year to New Zealand's economy (MfE, \r\n2016). They have a high proportion of rare and endemic species (Croxall \r\net al., 2012) and provide ecosystem services including food production, \r\ncoastal protection, tourism and carbon sequestration (Croxall et  al., \r\n2012; Kelleway et al., 2017). Half of the species within New Zealand's \r\nseas are endemic (Costello et al., 2010b)."


id: 65cf78dc9e95267342348cf697e93716
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15171
content:
"Climate change is having major impacts on the region's oceans (very \r\nhigh confidence) (Table  11.6) (Law et  al., 2016; Sutton and Bowen, \r\n2019). Rising sea surface temperatures (SSTs) have exacerbated marine \r\nheatwaves, notably near western Australia in 2011, the GBR in 2016, \r\n2017 and 2020 and the Tasman Sea in 2015/2016, 2017/2018 and \r\n2018/2019 (Table 11.2) (BoM and CSIRO, 2018; AMS, 2019; NIWA, 2019; \r\nSalinger et al., 2019b; Sutton and Bowen, 2019; BoM, 2020; Salinger \r\net al., 2020; Oliver et al., 2021). Temperature anomalies ranged from \r\n1.2degC to 4.0degC and durations ranged from 90-250 days (Table 11.2)."


id: 9d48f0db3502a3de930561ef917c293a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24905
content:
"Ocean carbon storage and acidification has led to decreased surface \r\npH in the region (Table 11.2), including the sub-Antarctic waters off \r\nthe East Coast of New Zealand's South Island (very high confidence) \r\n(Law et al., 2016). The depth of the Aragonite Saturation Horizon has \r\nshallowed by 50-100 m over much of New Zealand, which may limit \r\nand/or increase the energetic costs of growth of calcifying species \r\n(low confidence) (Anderson et al., 2015; Bostock et al., 2015; Mikaloff\u0002Fletcher et al., 2017)."


id: 5a36d4e8a33c283d1a786e98be81757
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13123
content:
"In the estuaries of southwestern Australia, sustained warming and \r\ndrying trends have caused dramatic declines in freshwater flows of \r\nup to 70% since the 1970s and increased frequency and severity of \r\nhypersaline conditions, enhanced water column stratification and \r\nhypoxia and reduced flushing and greater retention of nutrients \r\n(Hallett et al., 2017)."


id: 57b5e471db7553eb4aa4c34704523da3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12694
content:
"Extensive changes in the life history and distribution of species have \r\nbeen observed in Australia's (very high confidence) (Gervais et  al., \r\n2021) and New Zealand's marine systems (medium confidence) \r\n(Table 11.6) (Cross-Chapter box MOVING SPECIES in Chapter 5). New \r\noccurrences or increased prevalence of disease, toxins and viruses are \r\nevident (de Kantzow et al., 2017; Condie et al., 2019), along with heat \r\nstress mortalities and changes in community composition (Wernberg "


id: 3e034d0127abbdf56373f6e1d6e84c86
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8078
content:
"Table 11.6 |  Observed climate-change-related changes in the marine ecosystems of Australia and New Zealand. Climate-related impacts have been documented at a range of \r\nscales from single-species or region-specific studies to multi-species or community-level changes."


id: 8b23bebaa01eae291f6370c357a9f8bc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21643
content:
"The GBR is the world's largest coral reef system, comprising 3863 reefs over an area of 348,700 km2, stretching for 2300 km. The GBR \r\nis a central cornerstone of the beliefs, knowledges, lores, languages and ways of living for over 70 geographically and culturally diverse \r\nTraditional Owner groups spanning the length of the GBR (Dale et al., 2018), and it contributes an estimated AUD$6.4 billion per year\r\n(pre-COVID) to the Australian economy, mainly via tourism. As the world's most extensive coral reef ecosystem, the GBR is a globally \r\noutstanding and significant entity, with practically the entire ecosystem inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1981 (UNESCO, 1981)."


id: f90cb7074643e269a0d5bf3357eb1054
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41181
content:
"Increased heat exposure also affects the abundance and distribution of associated fish, invertebrates and algae (high confidence) (Stuart\u0002Smith et al., 2018). Thus, coral bleaching is an indicator of thermal effects on coral habitat, fauna and flora. Bleaching is expected to \r\ncontinue for the GBR and Australia's other coral reef systems (virtually certain). Bleaching conditions are projected to occur twice each \r\ndecade from 2035, annually after 2044 under RCP8.5 and annually after 2051 under RCP4.5 (Heron et al., 2017). Global warming of 3degC \r\nwould result in over six times the 2016 level of thermal stress (Lough et al., 2018)."


id: e90a4bc4418a23db8762725572e3cb04
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38357
content:
"Increases in cyclone intensity projected for this century, and other extreme weather events, will greatly accelerate coral reef degradation \r\n(Osborne et al., 2017). Additionally, through interactions between elevated ocean temperature and coastal runoff (nutrient and sediment), \r\nextreme weather events may contribute to an increased frequency and/or amplitude of crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks (Uthicke et al., \r\n2015), further reducing the spatial distribution of coral."


id: b452352238238e558245ace47b8fe104
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28958
content:
"Recovery of coral reefs following repeated disturbance events is slow (Hughes et al., 2019b; IPCC, 2019b), and it takes at least a decade \r\nafter each bleaching event for the very fastest growing corals to recover (high confidence) (Gilmour et al., 2013; Osborne et al., 2017). \r\nEstimates of future levels of thermal stress, measured as degree heating months, which incorporates both the magnitude and duration \r\nof warm season SST anomalies, suggest that achieving the 1.5degC Paris Agreement target would be insufficient to prevent more frequent \r\nmass bleaching events (very high confidence) (Lough et al., 2018), although it may reduce their occurrence (Heron et al., 2017), and \r\noccurrences of warming events similar to 2016 bleaching could be reduced by 25% (King et al., 2017)."


id: b183b4d94ee2818d44256d792ec5d7f4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28453
content:
"Tourist motivations for visiting the GBR are changing, with a recent survey finding that two-thirds of tourists were visiting 'before it was \r\ngone' and a similar number were reporting damage to the reef--an example of 'last chance tourism' (Piggott-McKellar and McNamara, \r\n2016). The Australian government is investing AUD$1.9 billion to support the GBR through science and practical environmental outcomes, \r\nincluding reducing other anthropogenic pressures, which can suppress natural adaptive capacity (CoA, 2019b; GBRMPA, 2019). However, \r\nadaptation efforts on the GBR aimed specifically at climate impacts, for example coral restoration following marine heatwave impacts \r\n(Bostrom-Einarsson et al., 2020), may slow the impacts of climate change in small discrete regions of the reef or reduce short-term \r\nsocioeconomic ramifications, but they will not prevent widespread bleaching (Condie et al. 2021)."


id: 535b95f3c60f8f90d2676987c195d6b4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11938
content:
"Figure Box 11.2.1 |  Top panels: spatial patterns in heat exposure along the GBR in 2016 (left pair) and 2017 (right pair), measured from satellites \r\nas Degree Heating Weeks (DHW, degC-weeks). Middle panels: geographic footprint of recurrent coral bleaching in 2016 (left) and again in 2017 (right), measured by \r\naerial assessments of individual reefs (adapted from (Hughes et al., 2019c)]). Bottom panels: density of coral recruits (mean per recruitment panel on each reef), measured \r\nover three decades, from 1996 to 2016 (n = 47 reefs, 1784 panels) (left), compared to the density of coral recruits in 2018 after the mass mortality of corals in 2016 and \r\n2017 due to the back-to-back bleaching events (n = 17 reefs, 977 panels) (right). The area of each circle is scaled to the overall recruit density of spawners and brooders \r\ncombined. Yellow and blue indicate the proportion of spawners and brooders respectively (from (Hughes et al., 2019b)])."


id: 61669bf91b15d35f87a45800c96f3967
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14435
content:
"Figure Box 11.2.2 |  Variation in the severity of mass-bleaching episodes \r\nrecorded on Australia's GBR over the last four decades (1980-2020). The \r\noverall number of reefs surveyed was substantially higher in 1998, 2002, 2016, 2017 \r\nand 2020 when aerial surveys were undertaken, whereas the severity of other more \r\nlocalised bleaching episodes was documented with in-water surveys (adapted from \r\n(Pratchett et al., 2021). Extent of bleaching in 2020 was similar in severity to that of \r\n2016 but more geographically widespread and included southern reefs."


id: c6d0b7e716c81bb40cbe7a8c6585ce87
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32288
content:
"Nutrient availability and productivity in the sub-tropical waters \r\nof New Zealand are projected to decline due to increased SST and \r\nstrengthening of the thermocline, but they may increase in sub\u0002Antarctic waters, potentially bringing some benefit to fish and other \r\nspecies (low confidence) (Law et al., 2018b). For New Zealand waters \r\nas a whole, declines in net primary productivity of 1.2% and 4.5% are \r\nprojected under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 respectively by 2100, and declines \r\nin the primary production of surface waters by an average 6% from the \r\npresent day under RCP8.5, with sub-tropical waters experiencing the \r\nlargest decline (Tait et al., 2016)."


id: 21d9bc1044b58b85f1fefcb2cd45b0d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3178
content:
"The pH of surface waters around New Zealand is projected to decline \r\nby 0.33 under RCP 8.5 by 2090 (Tait et al., 2016), and the depth at \r\nwhich carbonate dissolves is projected to be significantly shallower \r\n(Mikaloff-Fletcher et  al., 2017), affecting the distribution of some \r\nspecies of calcifying cold water corals (medium confidence) (Law \r\net al., 2016). However, model projections suggest that the top of the \r\nChatham Rise may provide temporary refugia for scleractinian stony \r\ncorals from ocean acidification because the Chatham Rise sits above \r\nthe aragonite saturation horizon (Anderson et al., 2015; Bostock et al., \r\n2015). For sub-tropical corals, skeletal formation will be vulnerable \r\nto the changes in ocean pH, with implications for their longer-term \r\ngrowth and resilience (Foster et al., 2015)."


id: e1b976420bb28bbc3cbcb3a718287c7c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36988
content:
"interactions, including changes in climate inputs, fire patterns \r\n(Box 11.1) and nutrient availability (Raupach et al., 2013; Ukkola et al., \r\n2016; Cheng et al., 2017)."


id: 1166a9b57fb568454b3568da0ba5646c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 257
content:
"Climate change impacts on freshwater resources cascade across \r\npeople, agriculture, industries and ecosystems (Boxes 11.3 and 11.5). \r\nThe challenge of satisfying multiple demands with a finite resource is \r\nexacerbated by high interannual and inter-decadal variability of river \r\nflows, particularly in Australia (Chiew and McMahon, 2002; Peel et al., \r\n2004; McKerchar et al., 2010)."


id: ad7093e63a77f305201adcc6b6d832cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27754
content:
"Climate change is projected to affect groundwater recharge and the \r\nrelationship between surface waters and aquifers and through rising \r\nsea levels where groundwater has a tidal signature (PCE, 2015; MfE, \r\n2017a). Groundwater recharge across southern Australia has decreased \r\nin recent decades (Fu et al., 2019), and this trend is expected to continue \r\n(high confidence) (Barron et  al., 2011; Crosbie et  al., 2013). Climate \r\nchange is also projected to impact water quality in rivers and water \r\nbodies, particularly through higher temperature and low flows (Johnk \r\net  al., 2008) (Box  11.5) and increased sediment and nutrient load \r\nfollowing wildfires (high confidence) (Biswas et al., 2021) (Box 11.1) \r\nand floods (Box 11.4)."


id: b6a46d83662a5c2a9a8f4be8cd9e0e41
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29336
content:
"The projected changes in river flows in New Zealand are consistent \r\nwith the precipitation projections (Table 11.2), with increases in the \r\nwest and south of the South Island and decreases in the east and \r\nnorth of the North Island (Figure 11.4). In the South Island, the runoff \r\nincrease occurs mainly in winter due to increasing moisture-bearing \r\nwesterly airflow, with more precipitation falling as rain and snow \r\nmelting earlier. In the North Island, the runoff decrease occurs in spring \r\nand summer (Caruso et  al., 2017; Collins et  al., 2018a; Jobst et  al., \r\n2018; D. Collins, 2020)."


id: b025a9dd83b58cbe508d93472b670948
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28225
content:
"In New Zealand, precipitation has generally decreased in the north \r\nand increased in the southwest (Figure 11.2) (Harrington et al., 2014), \r\nbut it is difficult to ascertain trends in the relatively short streamflow \r\nrecords. Glaciers in New Zealand's southern alps have lost one third of \r\ntheir mass since 1977 (Mackintosh et al., 2017; Salinger et al., 2019b), \r\nand glacier mass loss in 2018 was at least 10 times more likely to occur \r\nwith anthropogenic forcing than without (Vargo et al., 2020)."


id: 6107e05c8be7a684342e2ac12639f08
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14365
content:
"In Australia, prolonged droughts and projections of a drier future \r\nhave accelerated policy and management change in urban and rural \r\nwater systems. Adaptation initiatives and mechanisms, like significant \r\ngovernment investment to enhance the Bureau of Meteorology online \r\nwater information (Vertessy, 2013; BoM, 2016), funding to improve \r\nagricultural water use and irrigation efficiency (Koech and Langat, \r\n2018), enhanced supply through inter-basin transfers and upgrading \r\nwater infrastructure and an active water trading market (Wheeler \r\net al., 2013; Kirby et al., 2014; Grafton et al., 2016) are helping to buffer \r\nregional systems against droughts and facilitating some adaptation to \r\nclimate change (medium confidence). However, these measures could \r\nalso be maladaptive because they may perpetuate unsustainable water \r\nand land uses under ongoing climate change (Boxes 11.3 and 11.5)."


id: 6c5ee7a4ccff8c67c837ee32754176cb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16360
content:
"Projections indicate that future runoff in southeast and southwest \r\nAustralia are likely to decline (median estimates of 20% and 50% \r\nrespectively under 2.2degC global average warming) (Figure 11.3) (Chiew \r\net al., 2017; Zheng et al., 2019). These projections are broadly similar \r\nto those reported previously and in AR5 (Teng et al., 2012; Reisinger \r\net al., 2014). The range of estimates arises mainly from the uncertainty \r\nin projected future precipitation (Table 11.2a)."


id: f34bc3673303310140c20742f37b5c70
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40180
content:
"The runoff decline in southern Australia is projected to be further \r\naccentuated by higher temperature and potential evapotranspiration \r\n(Potter and Chiew, 2011; Chiew et al., 2014), transpiration from tree \r\nregrowth following more frequent and severe wildfires (Brookhouse \r\net al., 2013) (Box 11.1), interceptions from farm dams (Fowler et al., \r\n2015) and reduced surface-groundwater connectivity (limiting \r\ngroundwater discharge to rivers) in long dry spells (high confidence) \r\n(Petrone et al., 2010; Hughes et al., 2012; Chiew et al., 2014). In the \r\nlonger term, runoff will also be affected by changes in vegetation \r\nand surface-atmosphere feedback in a warmer and higher CO2\r\nenvironment, but the impact is uncertain because of the complex "


id: 453b64074fd3a0568b630062a05e34cb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9407
content:
"6-2075 relative to 1976-2005 for RCP8.5 from hydrological modelling with future climate projections informed by 42 CMIP5 GC"


id: 8209929e5b8cc9c77a235da2d361a2fb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19998
content:
"Figure 11.3 |  Projected changes in mean annual runoff for 2046-2075 relative to 1976-2005 for RCP8.5 from hydrological modelling with future climate \r\nprojections informed by 42 CMIP5 GCMs. Projections for RCP4.5 are about three quarters of the aforementioned projections. Plots show median projection and the 10th and \r\n90th percentile range of estimates. The boundaries are based on hydroclimate regions and major drainage basins. Source: (Zheng et al., 2019)."


id: 3f0bdb521a499dfced6cf4f7bfde177f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8278
content:
"Altered water regimes resulting from the combined effects of climatic \r\nconditions and water policies carry uneven and far-reaching implications \r\nfor communities (high confidence). Acting on Indigenous Peoples' claims \r\nto cultural flows (to maintain their connections with their country) is \r\nincreasingly recognised as an important water management and social \r\njustice issue (Taylor et al., 2017; Hartwig et al., 2018; Jackson, 2018; \r\nJackson and Moggridge, 2019; Moggridge et al., 2019). Compounding \r\nstressors, such as coal and coal seam gas developments, can also \r\nseverely impact local communities, water catchments and water\u0002dependent ecosystems and assets, exacerbating their vulnerability to \r\nclimate change (Navi et al., 2015; Tan et al., 2015; Chiew et al., 2018)."


id: 7139dd0824d338a32d71ef248b61c0c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17178
content:
"change. This includes increasing use of stormwater and sewage \r\nrecycling and managed aquifer recharge (Bekele et  al., 2018; Page \r\net al., 2018; Gonzalez et al., 2020). All major coastal Australian cities \r\nhave desalination plants. Household scale adaptation, like rainwater \r\nharvesting, water-smart gardens, dual flush toilets, water-efficient \r\nshowerheads and voluntary residential use targets, can help reduce \r\nwater demand by up to 40% (Shearer, 2011; Rhodes et  al., 2012; \r\nMoglia et al., 2018). Water utilities across Australia have established \r\nclimate change adaptation guidelines (WSAA, 2016). Coordinated \r\nefforts to reduce demand, design and retrofit infrastructure to reduce \r\nflood risk and harvest water and to practice water-sensitive urban \r\ndesign are evident (WSAA, 2016; Kunapo et al., 2018; Rogers et al., \r\n2020b). Transitioning centralised water systems to a more sustainable \r\nbasis represents adaptation progress but is complex and faces many "


id: 44ac16beb42b43f75737703ddc96ec5e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9310
content:
"are only partially metered or not metered at all, which exacerbates \r\nthe adaptation challenge (Hendy et al., 2018; WaterNz, 2018; Paulik \r\n2019a). Unregulated or absent water supplies accentuate risks to \r\nvulnerable groups of people (MfE, 2020b). Maori view water as the \r\nessence of all life, which makes any impacts on water a governance \r\nand stewardship concern, and increasingly, the subject of legal claims \r\n(MfE, 2020a; MfE, 2020b; MfE, 2020c) (11.4.2). Maori understanding \r\nof time can also open up new spaces for rethinking freshwater \r\nmanagement in a climate change context that does not reinforce or \r\nrearticulate multiple environmental injustices (Parsons et al., 2021)."


id: dda691b7e83a2d60f298e8bf1eefd0b6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36258
content:
"barriers and limits (medium confidence) (Morgan et  al., 2020). \r\nDeveloping multiple redundant or decentralised systems can enhance \r\ncommunity resilience and promote autonomous adaptations that may \r\nbe more sustainable and cost effective in the longer term (Mankad and \r\nTapsuwan, 2011; WSAA, 2016; Iwanaga et al., 2020)."


id: b7311bc7e0f2362540b9d9fe612a69b4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29441
content:
"In New Zealand, many water supplies are at risk from drought, extreme \r\nrainfall events and sea level rise (SLR), exacerbated by underinvestment \r\nin existing water infrastructure (in part due to funding constraints) \r\nand urban densification (high confidence) (CCATWG, 2017; MfE and \r\nStats NZ, 2021). Lessons can be learned from global experience (e.g., \r\nCape Town, South Africa; Section 4.3.4). Water quality has diminished, \r\nwith hotter conditions and drought causing algal blooms, combined \r\nwith intensification of agricultural land uses in some areas, and heavy \r\nrainfall and sea level rise (SLR) causing flooding and sedimentation \r\nof water sources and health impacts (11.3.6; Box 11.5). Some towns "


id: dc797dcc739a12ee80f2e1727d53635c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Water resource adaptation in New Zealand is variable across local \r\ngovernment and water authorities but they all actively monitor water \r\navailability, demand and quality, and most have drought management \r\nplans. The 2019/2020 drought led to water shortages in the most \r\npopulated areas of Waikato, Auckland and Northland, resulting in "


id: 21aa90d71b066ffbdba8b636144c98a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3133
content:
"The MDB is Australia's largest, most economically important and politically complex river system (Figure Box 11.3.1). The MDB supports \r\nagriculture worth AUD$24 billion/year, 2.6 million people in diverse rural communities and important environmental assets including 16 \r\nRamsar listed wetlands (DAWE, 2012). Climate change is projected to substantially reduce water resources in the MDB (high confidence), \r\nwith the median projection indicating a 20% decline in average annual runoff under 2.2degC average global warming (Figure  11.3) \r\n(Whetton and Chiew, 2020). This reduction, plus increased demand for water in hot and dry conditions, would increase the already \r\nintense competition for water (high confidence) (CSIRO, 2008; Hart, 2016)."


id: fad2d1b57d013138ceb6f548fce1c9f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41506
content:
"Reform initiatives such as water markets, improving agriculture water use efficiency (Koech and Langat, 2018), and increasing \r\nenvironmental water are helping buffer the system against droughts (medium confidence) (Moyle et al., 2017), but they can also be \r\nmaladaptive by perpetuating unsustainable water and land use under ongoing climate change. While water markets can allow users \r\nto adapt and shift water to higher value uses, they can also have adverse impacts unless supported by wider policy goals and planning \r\nprocesses (Wheeler et al., 2013; Kirby et al., 2014; Grafton et al., 2016; Qureshi et al., 2018)."


id: c601b07fbae56937c37dde13c2fa400
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"tensions between land, water and people which are exacerbated by \r\nclimate changes and have yet to be addressed (Box  11.5). The first \r\nNational Adaptation Plan and the Resource Management law reform \r\nhave the potential to help resolve these tensions (11.7.1) (CCATWG, \r\n2017; MfE, 2020a)."


id: 19e30e0db9fb43a75db3b9968e4be593
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"water reduction advisories and 5 to 8 weeks' waiting time for water \r\ntank refills and water rationing. The Havelock North water supply \r\ncontamination, which arose after an extreme rainfall event (DIA, \r\n2017a; DIA, 2017b), was exacerbated by fragmented governance and \r\nled to passage of the Taumata Arawai-Water Services Regulator Act \r\nof 2020 and the Water Services Bill of 2020 aimed at the protection \r\nof source water. The 2017 update to the National Policy Statement for \r\nFreshwater Management contains guidelines for implementation at the \r\nregional level (MfE, 2017b), including consideration of climate change, \r\nwhich creates opportunities for adaptation. However, there remain "


id: 1d4278996b6b43bb6f2eb7d7c0c2319f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2327
content:
"Pluvial (flash flood from high intensity rainfall) and fluvial (river) flooding are the most costly natural disasters in Australia, averaging \r\nAUD$8.8 billion per year(Deloitte, 2017b). In New Zealand, insured damages for the 12 costliest flood events from 2007 to 2017 exceeded \r\nNZD$472 million, of which NZD$140 million has been attributed to anthropogenic climate change (Frame et al., 2020). Extreme rainfall \r\nintensity in northern Australia and New Zealand has been increasing, particularly for shorter (sub-daily) duration and more extreme high \r\nrainfall (high confidence) (Westra and Sisson, 2011; Griffiths, 2013; Laz et al., 2014; Rosier et al., 2015) (Table 11.2b). Changes are also \r\noccurring in spatial and temporal patterns and seasonality (Wasko and Sharma, 2015; Zheng et al., 2015; Wasko et al., 2016)."


id: 9fef1139d21ecfcc0a6e18165afed838
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25348
content:
"Extreme rainfall is projected to become more intense (high confidence), but the magnitude of change is uncertain (Evans and McCabe, \r\n2013; Bao et al., 2017) (Table 11.3). The insured damage in New Zealand from more intense extreme rainfall under RCP8.5 is projected \r\nto increase 25% by 2080-2100 (Pastor-Paz et al., 2020). In urban areas, extreme rainfall intensity is projected to increase pluvial flood \r\nrisk (high confidence). In New Zealand, 20,000 km2\r\n of land, 675,000 people, and 411,000 buildings with a NZD$135 billion replacement \r\nvalue are exposed to flood risk (Paulik et al., 2019a)."


id: 50562c6fc1fa12d8e56888e7663a0a06
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"There is some recognition of the need for flood management and planning to adapt to climate change (medium confidence) (COAG, \r\n2011; CCATWG, 2018; CoA, 2020d). Australian flood estimation guidelines recommend a 5% increase in design rainfall intensity per \r\ndegree global average warming (Bates et al., 2015). In New Zealand, the recommended increase ranges from 5% to more than 10% for \r\nshorter-duration and longer-return-period storms (MfE, 2010; Carey-Smith et al., 2018). Both guidelines also indicate the potential for \r\nhigher increases in extreme rainfall intensity."


id: 677ba23920b0428ff3a6b52b6d78c75f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15474
content:
"Adaptation to reduce flooding and its impacts have included improved flood forecasting (Vertessy, 2013; BoM, 2016) and risk management \r\n(AIDR, 2017), accommodating risk through raising floor levels and sealing external doors (Queensland Government, 2011; Wang et al., \r\n2015), deploying temporary levee structures and reducing risk through spatial planning and relocation. Adaptation options in urban \r\nareas include improved stormwater management (Hettiarachchi et al., 2019; Matteo et al., 2019), ecosystem-based approaches such as \r\nmaintaining floodplains, restoring wetlands and retrofitting existing flood control systems to attenuate flows, and water-sensitive urban \r\ndesign (WSAA, 2016; Radcliffe et al., 2017; Radhakrishnan et al., 2017; Rogers et al., 2020b)."


id: 4e4f2aa0453ac2018b3e388c07256672
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11048
content:
"Adaptation to changing flood risks is currently mostly reactive and incremental in response to flood and heavy rainfall events (high \r\nconfidence). For example, the 2010-2011 flooding in eastern Australia resulted in changes to reservoir operations to mitigate floods \r\n(QFCI, 2012) and insurance practice to cover flood damages (Phelan, 2011; Phelan et al., 2011; QFCI, 2012; Schuster, 2013). Nevertheless, \r\nadaptation planning that is pre-emptive and incorporates uncertainties into flood projections is emerging (medium confidence) \r\n(Schumacher, 2020). Examples from New Zealand include the use of Dynamic Adaptive Pathways Planning (DAPP) (Lawrence and \r\nHaasnoot, 2017) with Real Options assessment (Infometrics and PSConsulting, 2015) and designing decision signals and triggers to "


id: ab484d345c42eccf2d93a5aa4e4580ec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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content:
"monitor changes before physical and coping thresholds are reached (Stephens et al., 2018). Implementing adaptive flood risk management \r\nrelies upon an understanding of how such risks change in uncertain and ambiguous ways necessitating adaptive and robust decision\u0002making processes. These can enable learning through participatory adaptive pathways approaches (Lawrence and Haasnoot, 2017; \r\nBosomworth and Gaillard, 2019) and through coordination across different levels of government and statutory mandates, adaptation \r\nfunding and individual and community adaptations (Glavovic et al., 2010; Boston and Lawrence, 2018; McNicol, 2021)."


id: 4347f6f27469a37a056230d2b2f8c318
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"The food, fibre and ecosystem product sectors are economically \r\nimportant in the region. Agriculture contributes around 4% of New \r\nZealand GDP and 2% of Australian GDP and over 50% of New \r\nZealand's and 11% of Australia's exports (NZ Treasury, 2016; Jackson \r\net al., 2020). Forestry contributes 1% of New Zealand GDP and 0.5% \r\nAustralian GDP (NZ Treasury, 2016; Whittle, 2019). With processing \r\nand indirect effects, the primary sector of New Zealand contributes \r\n25% of GDP (Saunders et al., 2016). The region has the lowest level \r\nof agricultural subsidies across the OECD (OECD, 2017) and highly \r\nresponsive producers to market drivers but limited strategic, longer\u0002term approaches to environmental challenges and adaptation \r\n(Wreford et  al., 2019). Both countries receive government financial \r\ndrought assistance (Pomeroy, 2015; Downing et al., 2016)."


id: 8ba6bd9922bb2f5c3008301413a6707b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Impacts resulting from climate change are observed across sectors and \r\nthe region (high confidence). While more intense changes are observed \r\nin Australia, New Zealand is also experiencing impacts, including the \r\neconomic impacts of drought attributable to climate change (Frame \r\net  al. 2020). Overall, modelling indicates that negative impacts will \r\nintensify with increased levels of warming in both countries, with \r\ndeclining crop yield and quality, and negative effects on livestock \r\nproduction and forestry. Although benefits are identified, particularly \r\nin the short term for New Zealand (MfE, 2020a), an absence of studies \r\nthat consider the totality of climatic variables, including extremes, \r\nmoderate the benefits identified from considering only selected \r\nvariables and systems in isolation."


id: cbb33fd1bf3298fd112094b8658a8800
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33162
content:
"Across all types of agriculture, drought and its physical flow-on effects \r\nhave caused financial and emotional disruption and stress in farm \r\nhouseholds and communities (Austin et al., 2018; Bryant and Garnham, \r\n2018; Yazd et  al., 2019) (11.3.6). Severe and uncertain climate \r\nconditions are statistically associated with increases in farmer suicide \r\n(Crnek-Georgeson et  al., 2017; Perceval et  al., 2019). Rural women \r\noften carry extra stress and responsibilities, including increased unpaid \r\nand paid work and emotional load (Whittenbury, 2013; Hanigan et al., \r\n2018; Rich et al., 2018)."


id: 93f57d1329ab2d44912b3340a7aeb5ac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23233
content:
"Incremental adaptation is occurring (Hochman et  al., 2017; Hughes \r\nand Lawson, 2017; Hughes and Gooday, 2021). In the longer term, \r\ntransformative adaptation, including land use change, will be required \r\n(Cradock-Henry et al., 2020a), both as a result of sectoral adaptations \r\nand mitigation (medium confidence) (Grundy et  al., 2016). Specific \r\nchanges are context specific and challenging to project (Bryan \r\net  al., 2016). Future adaptive capacity may be limited by declining \r\ninstitutional and community capacity resulting from high debt, \r\nunavailability of insurance, increasing regulatory requirements and \r\nfunding mechanisms that lock in ongoing exposure to climate risk, \r\ncreating mental health impacts (Rickards et al., 2014; Wiseman and \r\nBardsley, 2016; McNamara and Buggy, 2017; McNamara et al., 2017; \r\nMoyle et al., 2017; Robinson et al., 2018; Ma et al., 2020; Yazd et al., \r\n2020)."


id: c6775db02b9a26391a6f8e5ead2a8979
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32226
content:
"Australian crop yields are projected to decline due to hotter and drier \r\nconditions, including intense heat spikes (high confidence) (Anwar \r\net  al., 2015; Lobell et  al., 2015; Prokopy et  al., 2015; Dreccer et  al., \r\n2018; Nuttall et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018a). Interactions of heat and \r\ndrought could lead to even greater losses than heat alone (Sadras and \r\nDreccer, 2015; Hunt et al., 2018). Australian wheat yields are projected \r\nto decline by 2050, with a median yield decline of up to 30% in \r\nsouthwest Australia and up to 15% in southern Australia, with possible \r\nincreases and decreases in the east (Taylor et al., 2018; Wang et al., \r\n2018a). In temperate fruit, accumulated winter chill for horticulture \r\nis projected to further decline (Darbyshire et  al., 2016). Winegrape \r\nmaturity is projected to occur earlier due to warmer temperatures \r\n(high confidence) (Webb et al., 2014; van Leeuwen and Darriet, 2016; "


id: 123d63fd9bc3c45849a753cad355fba6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 404
content:
"Jarvis et al., 2018; Ausseil et al., 2019b), leading to potential changes \r\nin wine style (Bonada et al., 2015). Rice is susceptible to heat stress, \r\nand average grain yield losses across rice varieties range from 83% \r\nto 53% in experimental trials when heat stress is applied during \r\nplant emergence and grain fill stages (Ali et al., 2019). In Tasmania, \r\nwheat yields are projected to increase, particularly at sites presently \r\ntemperature-limited (Phelan et al., 2014)."


id: 4eca3bb9dd8fda2e9017f999a589e720
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"New Zealand evidence on impacts across crops is very limited. \r\nPrecipitation and temperature changes alone show minor effects on \r\ncrop yield, and winter yields of some crops may increase (e.g., wheat, \r\nmaize) (Ausseil et al., 2019b). For temperate fruit, loss of winter chill \r\nmay reduce yields in some regions and trigger impacts across supply \r\nchains (Cradock-Henry et al., 2019) (11.5.1). Increased pathogens could \r\ndamage the cut flower, guava and feijoa fruit growing and the honey \r\nand related industries (Lawrence et al., 2016). The combined effects of \r\nchanges in seasonality, temperature, precipitation, water availability \r\nand extremes, such as drought, have the potential to escalate impacts, \r\nbut understanding of these effects is limited."


id: 2db471e40f8faf6f1e9f567128b54134
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5333
content:
"Other observed incremental adaptations include later pruning in the \r\ngrape industry to spread harvest period and partially restore wine \r\nbalance, with neutral effects on yield and cost (Moran et  al., 2019; \r\nAusseil et al., 2021). The cotton sector increasingly requires shifts in \r\nsowing dates to avoid financial impacts (Luo et al., 2017). During years \r\nof low water availability, rice growers have been trading water and/or \r\nshifting to dry land farming (Mushtaq, 2016)."


id: b33fcaa4912b4e4b97b172dcefe0ca8a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28776
content:
"Growers in New Zealand are changing the timing of their operations, \r\ngrowing crops within covered enclosures and purchasing insurance \r\n(Cradock-Henry and McKusker, 2015) Teixeira et al. 2018). Investment \r\nof capital in irrigation infrastructure has increased (Cradock-Henry \r\net al., 2018a), although its effectiveness as an adaptation depends on \r\nwater availability (Box 11.5). In industries based on long-lived plants, \r\nsuch as the kiwifruit and grape industries, many of the adaptations \r\n(e.g., breeding and growing heat-adapted and disease-resistant \r\nvarieties) have long lead times and require greater investment than \r\nin the cropping sector (Cradock-Henry et al., 2020a). While breeding \r\nprogrammes for traits with enhanced resilience to future climates \r\nare beginning, there is little evidence of  strategic industry planning \r\n(Cradock-Henry et al., 2018a)."


id: bd267f8480841181054ed925a538fe02
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30529
content:
"For drought management, balancing near-term needs with long-term \r\nadaptation to increasing aridity is essential (Downing et  al., 2016). \r\nInsufficient and maladaptive decisions can have far-reaching effects, \r\nincluding changes to resources, infrastructure, services and supply \r\nchains to which others must adapt (Fleming et al., 2015; Graham et al., \r\n2018). While there is potential for a greater proportion of agriculture \r\nto be located to northern Australia, there are significant and complex \r\nagronomic, environmental, institutional, financial and social challenges \r\nfor successful transformation, including the risk of disruption (medium \r\nconfidence) (Jakku et al., 2016)."


id: 94edc7f77ba88d636727453feffd6043
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23406
content:
"Climate change is projected to shift agro-ecological zones (high \r\nconfidence) (Lenoir and Svenning, 2015; Scheffers et al., 2016). This \r\nincludes the climatically determined cropping strip bounded by the \r\ninner arid rangelands and the wetter coast or mountain ranges in \r\nmainland Australia (Nidumolu et al., 2012; Eagles et al., 2014; Tozer \r\net al., 2014). A narrowing of grain-growing regions is projected with \r\na shift of the inner margin towards the coast under drier and warmer \r\nconditions (Nidumolu et al., 2012; Fletcher et al., 2020). The economic \r\nimpact of the shift depends on adaptation (Sanderson et  al., 2015; \r\nHunt et al., 2019) and how resources, support industries, infrastructure \r\nand settlements adapt. Shifts in agro-ecological zones present some \r\nopportunities, for example warming is projected to be beneficial for \r\nwine production in Tasmania (Harris et al., 2020)."


id: 12ef0e44d0232287f018e7a519bec4cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 538
content:
"increase, for example, new tick- and mosquito-borne diseases such as \r\nbovine ephemeral fever (Kean et al., 2015)."


id: cadf7050a245b2b687683b3f18c405e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33032
content:
"Both the seasonality and annual production of pasture is changing (high \r\nconfidence). In many regions, warming is increasing winter pasture \r\ngrowth (Lieffering, 2016); the effects on spring growth are more mixed, \r\nwith some regions experiencing increased growth (Newton et al., 2014) \r\nand others experiencing reduced spring growth (Perera et al., 2020). \r\nDroughts are causing economic damage to livestock enterprises, with \r\ndrought and market prices significantly affecting profit (Hughes et al., \r\n2019a), in addition to the impacts on animal health and the livelihoods \r\nof pastoralists, periods of drought contribute to land degradation, \r\nparticularly in the cattle regions of northern Australia (Marshall, 2015). \r\nHeat load in cattle leads to reduced growth rates and reproduction, and \r\nextreme heat waves can lead to death (Lees et al., 2019; Harrington, \r\n2020). Temperatures over 32degC reduce ewe and ram fertility along with \r\nthe birth weight of lambs (van Wettere et al., 2021)."


id: b0a0da1fe176725f90fa6ba3c396adc0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28307
content:
"Some areas may experience increased pasture growth, but others \r\nmay experience a decrease that cannot be fully offset by adaptation \r\n(high confidence) (Moore and Ghahramani, 2013; Lieffering, 2016; \r\nKalaugher et al., 2017). Climate change may modify the seasonality \r\nof pasture growth rates more than annual yields in New Zealand \r\n(Lieffering, 2016). In eastern parts of Queensland, climate change \r\nimpacts on pasture growth are equivocal, with simple empirical \r\nmodels suggesting a decrease in net primary productivity (Liu et al., \r\n2017), while mechanistic models that include increases in length \r\nof the growing season and the beneficial effects of CO2 fertilisation \r\nindicate increases in pasture growth (Cobon et al., 2020). In Tasmania, \r\nannual pasture production is projected to increase by 13-16%, even \r\nwith summer growth projected to decline with increased interannual \r\nvariability, resulting in a projected increase in milk yields by 3-16% per \r\nannum (Phelan et al., 2015)."


id: d703cdcff79b00f435b701edd7e7ab89
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35132
content:
"Beef rangeland systems in Queensland are projected to have benefits \r\nin the southeast through higher CO2 and temperatures extending the \r\ngrowing season and reducing frost, but a warmer and drier climate in \r\nthe southwest may reduce pasture and livestock production (Cobon \r\net  al., 2020). Northern Queensland is most resilient to temperature \r\nand rainfall changes (production limited by soil fertility) while western/\r\ncentral west Queensland is most sensitive to rainfall changes, that is, \r\nlow rainfall is associated with lower productivity (Cobon et al., 2020). \r\nThe social context of climate change impacts and the processes \r\nshaping vulnerability and adaptation, especially at the scale of the \r\nindividual, are critical to successful adaptation efforts (Marshall and \r\nStokes, 2014)."


id: b030bc614be63355a7bbb3cc74482ab5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28234
content:
"Climate change may have increased tree mortality in Australia's \r\ncommercial Eucalyptus globulus and Pinus radiata plantation forests \r\n(Crous et al., 2013; Pinkard et al., 2014). Climate warming enhanced \r\ntree water use and vulnerability to heat (Crous et al., 2013). Increases \r\nin fire frequency and intensity in forests of southern Australia are \r\nleading to diminishing resources available for timber production \r\n(Pinkard et al., 2014) (Box 11.1)."


id: 76ba23262dcf6130adad50c7d7245059
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18105
content:
"The projected declines in rainfall in far southwest and far southeast \r\nmainland Australia are projected to reduce plantation forest yields \r\n(high confidence). Warmer temperatures are projected to reduce forest \r\ngrowth in hotter regions (between 7 and 25%), especially where \r\nspecies are grown at the upper range of their temperature tolerances, \r\nand increase plantation forest growth (>15%) in cooler margins like "


id: 28d3b557a649048eb622661512b0bc6e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4399
content:
"Tasmania and the Victorian highlands (2030, A2); emission scenario A2 \r\ncreates a warming trajectory slightly higher than the RCP6.0 warming \r\nscenario, but less than RCP8.5 (Rogelj et al., 2012; Battaglia and Bruce, \r\n2017). Elevated CO2 is projected to increase forest growth if other \r\nbiophysical factors are not limiting (medium confidence) (Quentin \r\net al., 2015; Duan et al., 2018)."


id: 629be1a4283917be6ff601598c09f563
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14636
content:
"impacting abalone and rock lobster fisheries. The percentage of reef \r\nas barrens across eastern Tasmania grew from 3.4% to 15.2% from \r\n2001/2002 to 2016/2017, an approx. 10.5% increase per annum \r\nover the 15-year period (Ling and Keane, 2018). Oysters farmed from \r\nwild spat (Sydney rock oysters Saccostrea glomerata) are most at risk \r\nfrom climate change, primarily due to observed increases in summer \r\ntemperatures and heatwave-related mortalities (Doubleday et  al., \r\n2013). The exceptional 2017/2018 summer heatwave caused significant \r\nlosses of farmed salmon in New Zealand, with farm owners seeking \r\nconsent to move operations to cooler water (Salinger et al., 2019b)."


id: 63e28af96412a6554cad1441e760dadf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14859
content:
"Forestry plantations are projected to be negatively impacted from \r\nincreases in fire weather (Box 11.1), particularly in southern Australia \r\n(high confidence) (Pinkard et al., 2014).  Increased pest damage due \r\nto temperature increases may reduce eucalyptus and pine plantation \r\ngrowth by as much as 40% in some Australian environments by 2050 \r\n(Pinkard et al., 2014). Increased heat and water stress may enhance \r\ninsect pest defoliation for P. radiata in Australia (e.g., Sirex noctilio, Ips \r\ngrandicollis and Essigella californica) (Mead, 2013; Pinkard et al., 2014)."


id: 393f1dfd38e8050cf350cb080e09a473
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7282
content:
"Selective breeding in oysters is projected to be an important global \r\nadaptation strategy for sustainable shellfish aquaculture that can \r\nwithstand future climate-driven change to habitat acidification (Fitzer \r\net al., 2019). Less than a quarter of fisheries management plans for \r\n99 of Australia's most important fisheries considered climate change, \r\nand only to a limited degree (Fogarty et al., 2019; Fogarty et al., 2021). \r\nImplementation of management and policy responses to climate \r\nchange have lagged in part because climate change has not been \r\nconsidered as the most pressing issue (Hobday and Cvitanovic, 2017; \r\nFogarty et al., 2019; Fogarty et al., 2021) (Cross-Chapter Box MOVING \r\nSPECIES in Chapter 5)."


id: 8279b978c7fb1504c559aa1585147de4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20077
content:
"Adaptation options include increased investment in monitoring forest \r\ncondition and functioning; early detection and management of insect \r\npests, diseases and invasive species; improved selection of land with \r\nappropriate growing conditions for plantation timber production \r\nunder current and future conditions; trialling new species and genetic \r\nvarieties; changing the timing and frequency of planned fuel reduction \r\nfires; introducing more fire-tolerant tree species where appropriate; \r\nreducing ignition sources; and maintaining access and emergency \r\nresponse capacity (Boulter, 2012; Pinkard et al., 2014; Keenan, 2017)."


id: da957cfd0d2165c1a1e0d6e17ee3357d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35752
content:
"Almost 90% of the population of Australia and New Zealand is urban \r\n(World Bank, 2019). Each country has vibrant and diverse urban, \r\nrural and remote settlements, with some highly disadvantaged areas \r\nisolated by distance and limited infrastructure and services (Argent \r\net al., 2014; Charles-Edwards et al., 2018; Spector et al., 2019). Some "


id: 5559074b13ebed70e81653ab77d1a27e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12294
content:
"The ecological impacts of climate change on fisheries species have \r\nalready emerged (high confidence) (Morrongiello and Thresher, 2015; \r\nGervais et al., 2021). This includes loss of habitats for fisheries species \r\n(Verges et  al., 2016; Babcock et  al., 2019) and poleward shifts in \r\nthe distribution of barrens-forming urchins (Ling and Keane, 2018) "


id: 2f653f6793bd5de20ade644f278cca52
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5602
content:
"New Zealand's economy, dominated by the primary sector and the tourist industry (pre-COVID), relies upon a 'clean green' image of \r\nwater, natural ecosystems and pristine landscapes (Foote et al., 2015; Roche and Argent, 2015; Hayes and Lovelock, 2017). Water is \r\nhighly valued by Maori for its mauri or life force and for its intrinsic values and multiple uses (Harmsworth et al., 2016). Increasingly, \r\nthese diverse values are coming into conflict (Hopkins et al., 2015) due to increasing pressures from how land is used and managed and \r\nthe effects on water availability and quality. Such tensions will be further challenged as temperatures rise and extreme events intensify \r\nbeyond what has been experienced, thus stressing current adaptive capacities (high confidence) (Hughey and Becken, 2014; Cradock\u0002Henry and McKusker, 2015; Hopkins et al., 2015; MfE and Stats NZ, 2021) (11.2.2; 11.3.4)."


id: 17a06d15cbe9eb4cf56801dfddbe3b69
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1364
content:
"Irrigation has increasingly been used to enhance primary sector productivity and regional economic development (Srinivasan et  al., \r\n2017; Fielke and Srinivasan, 2018; MfE and Stats NZ, 2021) (Srinivasan et al., 2017; Fielke and Srinivasan, 2018; MfE and Stats NZ, \r\n2021). Pressure for long-term access to groundwater or large-scale water storage is increasing to ensure the ongoing viability of the \r\nprimary sector as the climate changes. While investment in irrigation infrastructure may reduce climate change impacts in the short term, \r\nmaladaptive outcomes cannot be ruled out longer term, which means that focusing attention now on adaptive and transformational \r\nmeasures can help increase climate resilience in areas exposed to increasing drought and climate extremes that disrupt production \r\n(medium confidence) (Abel et al., 2016; Cradock-Henry et al., 2019) (Yletyinen et al., 2019)."


id: a7fed0925d90652eb8dfd144de4c8a54
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26767
content:
"areas in northern Australia and New Zealand, especially those with \r\nhigher proportions of Indigenous inhabitants, face severe housing, \r\nhealth, education, employment and services issues (Kotey, 2015), \r\nwhich increases their vulnerability to climate change."


id: 839313b1335a39712ed6c145b00d6e25
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20290
content:
"Critical infrastructure, cities and settlements are being increasingly \r\naffected by chronic and acute climate hazards, including heat, \r\ndrought, fire, pluvial and fluvial flooding and sea level rise (SLR), with \r\nconsequent effects on many sectors (high confidence) (Instone et al., \r\n2014; Loughnan et  al., 2015; Zografos et  al., 2016; Hughes et  al., \r\n2021). Risks and impacts vary with physical characteristics, location, \r\nconnectivity and socioeconomic status of settlements because of the \r\nways these influence exposure and vulnerability (high confidence) \r\n(Loughnan et al., 2013; MfE, 2020a)."


id: 308e48535c3b4f1146d4cea6673a2418
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5798
content:
"Infrastructure within and between cities and settlements is critical for \r\nactivity across all sectors, with interdependencies increasing exposure \r\nto climate hazards (11.5.1). Previous planning horizons for existing \r\ninfrastructure are compromised by now having to accommodate \r\nongoing sea level rise (SLR), warming and increasing frequency of \r\nextreme rainfall and storm events (Climate Institute, 2012; MfE, 2017a). \r\nThere is almost no information on the costs and benefits of adapting \r\nvulnerable and exposed infrastructure in Australia or New Zealand. \r\nGiven the value of that infrastructure and the rising damage costs, \r\nthis represents a large knowledge gap that has led to an adaptation \r\ninvestment deficit."


id: c6aaef40d6b80144a536bfdc163f5864
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32252
content:
"Weather-related disasters are causing significant disruption and \r\ndamage (Paulik et  al., 2019a; CSIRO, 2020; Paulik et  al., 2020). In \r\nAustralia, during 1987-2016, natural disasters caused an estimated \r\n971 deaths and 4370 injuries, 24,120 people were made homeless "


id: 8ef71aaf67ee18df0ea1f87a680b6c20
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22343
content:
"been disrupted by the erosion of natural, financial, built, human and \r\nsocial capital (De et al., 2016; Sheng and Xu, 2019). Delayed recovery \r\nfrom extreme climatic events has been compounded by long-term \r\ndisplacement, which in turn prolongs the impacts (Matthews et  al., \r\n2019). Severe droughts have contributed to poor health outcomes for \r\nrural communities, including extreme stress and suicide (Beautrais, \r\n2018; Perceval et  al., 2019). In Australia, competition among water \r\nusers has left some rural communities experiencing extreme water \r\nshortage and insecurity with associated health impacts (Wheeler et al., \r\n2018; Judd, 2019) (Box 11.3)."


id: 99ac3d613b322450b43412ae7e44bb7a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24268
content:
"and about 9  million people were affected (Deloitte, 2017a). More \r\nthan 50% of these deaths and injuries came from heatwaves in \r\ncities and 22% from fires. During the 2007-2016 period, Australia \r\nnatural disaster costs averaged AUD$18.2 billion yr-1, with the largest \r\ncontributions from floods (AUD$8.8  billion), followed by cyclones \r\n(AUD$3.1 billion), hail (AUD$2.9 billion), storms (AUD$2.3 billion) and \r\nfires (AUD$1.1 billion) (Deloitte, 2017a). The Australian fires in 2019-\r\n2020 cost over AUD$8 billion, with devastating impacts on settlements \r\nand infrastructure (Box 11.1)"


id: ad66512369b0ba44b26de8fae621ba89
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27745
content:
"Sea level rise affects many interdependent systems in cities and \r\nsettlements, which increases the potential for compounding and \r\ncascading impacts (11.5.1). Seaports, airports, water treatment plants, \r\ndesalination plants, roads and railways are increasingly exposed to \r\nsea level rise (SLR) (very high confidence), impacting their longevity \r\nand levels of service and maintenance (high confidence) (McEvoy and \r\nMullett, 2014; Woodroffe et al., 2014; PCE, 2015; Ranasinghe, 2016; \r\nNewton et  al., 2018; Paulik et  al., 2020) (Box  11.6). Compounding \r\ncoastal hazards in New Zealand, such as elevated water tables \r\nassociated with rising sea level and intense rainfall (Morgan and \r\nWerner, 2015; McBride et  al., 2016; White et  al., 2017; Hughes \r\net  al., 2021), are exerting pressure on stormwater and wastewater \r\ninfrastructure and drinking water supply and quality (MfE, 2020a)."


id: ec69cfb20fa39f258fc2e517d0ea4cee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38953
content:
"Changes in heat waves, droughts, fire weather, heavy rainfall, storms \r\nand sea level rise (SLR) are projected to increase negative impacts for \r\ncities, settlements and infrastructure (high confidence) (Table  11.3a, \r\nTable 11.3b; Box 11.1, Box 11.3, Box 11.4)."


id: ff193afa1ac73532561f53da5c884eb7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42283
content:
"Increased floods, coastal inundation (assuming a sea level rise (SLR) \r\nof 1.6 m by 2100), wildfires, windstorms and heatwaves may cause \r\nproperty damage in Australia estimated at AUD$91 billion per year by \r\n2050 and AUD$117 billion per year by 2100 for RCP8.5, while damage\u0002related loss of property value is estimated at AUD$611 billion by 2050 \r\nand AUD$770 billion by 2100 for RCP8.5 (Steffen et al., 2019). For a \r\n1.0-m sea level rise (SLR), the value of exposed assets in New Zealand \r\nwould be NZD$25.5 billion (Box 11.6). For a 1.1-m sea level rise (SLR), \r\nthe value of exposed assets in Australia would be AUD$164-226 billion \r\n(Box  11.6). These exposure estimates exclude impacts on personal \r\nlivelihood, well-being and lifestyle."


id: a299660c4c17f4f4d601507048471a16
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25823
content:
"Extreme heat events exacerbate problems for vulnerable people and \r\ninfrastructure in urban Australia, where urban heat is superimposed \r\nupon regional warming, and there are adverse impacts for population \r\nand vegetation health, particularly for socioeconomically disadvantaged \r\ngroups (Tapper et al., 2014; Heaviside et al., 2017; Filho et al., 2018; \r\nGebert et  al., 2018; Rogers et  al., 2018; Longden, 2019; Marchionni \r\net al., 2019; Tapper, 2021) (11.3.6), energy demand, energy supply and \r\ninfrastructure (very high confidence) (Newton et al., 2018) (11.3.10). \r\nExtreme heat is increasingly threatening liveability in some rural areas \r\nin Australia (Turton, 2017), particularly given their reliance on outside \r\nphysical work and older populations. Settlement design and the level of \r\ngreening interact with climate change to influence local heating levels \r\n(Tapper et al., 2014; Wong et al., 2020; Tapper, 2021)."


id: 93c03c071c0d383099147c87e40aea2c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23204
content:
"Floods cause major damage. The floods of early 2019 in North Queensland \r\ncost AUD$5.68  billion (Deloitte, 2019), while Cyclone Yasi and the \r\nQueensland floods of 2011 cost A$6.9 billion (Deloitte, 2016). Floodplains \r\nin New Zealand have considerably higher overall national exposure of \r\nbuildings and population than coasts (Paulik et al., 2019a) (Box 11.4). The \r\ninsured losses from the 12 costliest floods in New Zealand from 2007 to \r\n2017 totalled NZD$471.56 million, of which NZD$140.48 million could \r\nbe attributed to climate change (Frame et al., 2020)."


id: f317e3d8e7e2f3d838f3306a22550b7f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40152
content:
"Climatic extremes are exacerbating existing vulnerabilities (high \r\nconfidence). Long supply chains, poorly maintained infrastructure, \r\nsocial disadvantage and poor health and lack of skilled workers \r\n(Eldridge and Beecham, 2018; Mathew et al., 2018; Rolfe et al., 2020) \r\nare contributing to serious stress and disruption (Smith and Lawrence, \r\n2014; Kiem et al., 2016). In many rural settlements, population ageing \r\nand reliance on an overstretched volunteer base for recovery from \r\nextreme events are increasing vulnerability to climate change (Astill \r\nand Miller, 2018; Davies et  al., 2018). Recovery from long, intense, \r\nmore frequent and compounding climatic events in rural areas has "


id: 1dc4ed35f34e7f06449c1188bdc5825c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2423
content:
"Key infrastructure and services face major challenges. Structural metal \r\ncorrosion rates are projected to increase significantly at coastal locations \r\nbut decrease inland (Trivedi et al., 2014). A drier climate may decrease \r\nthe rate of deterioration of road pavements, but extreme rainfall events \r\nand heat pose a significant risk (Taylor and Philp, 2015), especially to \r\nunsealed roads in northern Australia (CoA, 2015). Critical infrastructure \r\non coasts is at risk from sea level rise (SLR) and storm surges (Box 11.6). \r\nFacilities such as hospitals face weather-related hazards exacerbated \r\nby climate change and not originally anticipated in building and "


id: 59595c52895b48254a75dd90fb2a7515
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12956
content:
"infrastructure design (Loosemore et al., 2011; Loosemore et al., 2014). \r\nBy 2050, increased risks are projected for the availability and quality of \r\npotable water supplies, delivery of wastewater and stormwater services \r\nto communities, transport systems, electricity infrastructure, operating \r\nmunicipal landfills and contaminated sites located near rivers and \r\nthe coast (Gilpin et al., 2020; MfE, 2020a; Hughes et al., 2021). These \r\nthen create risks to social cohesion and community well-being from \r\ndisplacement of individuals, families and communities, with inequitable \r\noutcomes for vulnerable groups (Boston and Lawrence, 2018)."


id: d867c853c89e88c7b9c002dd22810997
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35374
content:
"In cities and settlements, climate adaptation is under way and is \r\nbeing led and facilitated by state and local government leadership \r\nand facilitation, particularly in Australia (high confidence) (Hintz \r\net al., 2018; Newton et al., 2018) (Table 11.7, Supplementary Material \r\nTable SM11.1a)."


id: b03d01d50f4f7eac948a9d735c54cbf0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28245
content:
"Infrastructure service vulnerability in New Zealand is supported by \r\nnew institutional adaptations including the Infrastructure Commission \r\nto develop a 30-year national infrastructure strategy. The Climate \r\nChange Commission (Climate Change Commission, 2020) has issued \r\nsix principles for climate-relevant infrastructure investments and is \r\nmandated to monitor the National Climate Change Adaptation Plan \r\nbased on the first National Climate Change Risk Assessment (MfE, \r\n2020a). A National Disaster Resilience Strategy addresses integrated \r\nplanning for risk reduction and awareness-raising in New Zealand \r\n(Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, 2019)."


id: 93c499e00534de2edb2f9d15231d10a9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23206
content:
"Effective adaptations to urban heat include spatial planning, expanding \r\ntree canopy and greenery, shading, sprays and heat-resistant and \r\nenergy-efficient building design, including cool materials and reflective \r\nor green roofs (very high confidence) (Broadbent et al., 2018; Jacobs \r\net al., 2018b; Haddad et al., 2019; Haddad et al., 2020a; Yenneti et al., \r\n2020; Bartesaghi-Koc et al., 2021; Tapper, 2021). Reducing urban heat \r\nnot only benefits human health but reduces the demand for, and cost \r\nof, air conditioning (Haddad et al., 2020b) and the risk of electricity \r\nblackouts (11.3.10)."


id: 530db78d28b80f687615f2abb98f74c0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11877
content:
"Adaptation progress is being hampered by current urban \r\nredevelopment practice and statutory planning guidelines that are \r\nleading to the removal of critical urban green space (Newton and \r\nRogers, 2020). Reform of approaches to urban redevelopment would \r\nfacilitate adaptation (Newton and Rogers, 2020). Several cities in \r\nAustralia and New Zealand are part of the 100 Resilient Cities global \r\nnetwork, which helped facilitate the metropolitan Melbourne Urban \r\nForest Strategy across councils (Fastenrath et al., 2019; Coenen et al., \r\n2020), and in New Zealand, restoration of the urban forest in Hamilton \r\nis reducing heat stressors (Wallace and Clarkson, 2019). In peri-urban \r\nzones, adapting to fire risk is a contested issue, raising difficult trade\u0002offs between heat management, ecological values and fuel reduction \r\nin treed landscapes (Robinson et al., 2018)."


id: a5b20141a428e3b5c13af68fb616bc78
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26380
content:
"Successive inquiries and reviews highlight potential synergies between \r\ndisaster risk management and climate resilience (11.5.1) (Smith \r\nand Lawrence, 2018; Ruane, 2020). In Australia, there is a National \r\nDisaster Risk Reduction Framework (CoA, 2018b) and a National \r\nRecovery and Resilience Agency (CoA, 2021) that help underpin \r\nthe development of national support systems for rural and regional \r\nemergency management and associated volunteer sectors (McLennan \r\net al., 2016) and wildfire smoke impacts (CoA, 2020e). The National \r\nHeatwave Framework Working Group uses a Heatwave Forecast \r\nService, and heatwave early-warning and adaptation systems that \r\noperate in Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane have reduced \r\npotential death rates (Nitschke et al., 2016)."


id: e0a517b67ba9c8bc17bf55f972a498
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36779
content:
"The resilience of Australia's major cities to flooding and drought \r\nhas been advanced through a range of economic and physical \r\ninterventions. Water-sensitive urban design irrigates vegetation with \r\nharvested storm water that improves water security, flood risk, carbon \r\nsequestration, biodiversity and air and water quality and delivers \r\ncooling that can save human lives in heatwaves (Wong et al., 2020). \r\nStormwater harvesting is supported by some councils in New Zealand \r\nand can deliver recycled water for households (Attwater and Derry, \r\n2017), improving climate resilience and reducing water demand \r\n(White et al., 2017). Addressing infrastructure vulnerability is essential \r\ngiven the long lifetime of assets, criticality of services and high costs of \r\nmaintenance (Chester et al., 2020; Hughes et al., 2021)."


id: c0d347f0c6a5ac10ef37b806b6c71d46
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31220
content:
"Infrastructure planning is lagging behind international standards \r\nfor climate resilience evaluation and guidance for adaptation to \r\nclimate risk (high confidence) (CSIRO, 2020; Kool et al., 2020; Hughes \r\net  al., 2021). Some companies have examined their exposure to \r\nclimate risk and developed strategies to minimise their vulnerability \r\n(Climate Institute, 2012) (11.3.8). Climate risk assessments have been \r\nconducted for the electricity sector in both Australia and New Zealand \r\n(11.3.10). Climate change is considered in Australian infrastructure \r\nplans for national and regional water supply security, water for \r\nirrigated agriculture, a coastal hazards adaptation strategy and the \r\nTanami Road upgrade (Infrastructure Australia, 2016; Infrastructure \r\nAustralia, 2019; Infrastructure Australia, 2021)"


id: 98b11640dabcc034b05baa55e8e9c40b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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content:
"(a) Water supply safety and security and exposure of buildings have been identified as the most significant risks for New Zealand in terms of urgency and consequence (MfE, 2020a). \r\nNo such ranking of risk has been done for Australia."


id: 26ccc221a7c27e6e6c9d29f267a9e26e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3983
content:
"Council (CoA, 2015), the Green Building Council of Australia Green \r\nStar Programme (GBCA, 2020), the Water Services Association of \r\nAustralia, Climate Change Adaptation Guidelines (WSAA, 2016) and \r\nthe Australian Sustainable Built Environment Council Built Environment \r\nAdaptation Framework (ASBEC, 2012). The Infrastructure Sustainability \r\nRating Scheme measures the social, environmental, governance and \r\ncultural outcomes delivered by more than AUD$160  billion worth of \r\ninfrastructure, and it is projected to deliver a cost-benefit ratio of 1:1.6 \r\nto 1:2.4 during the period 2020-2040 (RPS, 2020). There is scope for \r\nengagement of industry in transitioning to a low-carbon green economy \r\nthat is adapted to climate change, but less certainty on how to develop \r\nappropriate business cases (Newton and Newman, 2015)."


id: 438181bb5fa18b40a56badc852a23ced
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9101
content:
"There are tensions between settlement-scale adaptation options, such \r\nas managed retreat, that focus on the long term and people's values, \r\nplace attachments, needs and capacities (Gorddard et al., 2016; Fatoric \r\net  al., 2017; Graham et  al., 2018; O'Donnell, 2019; Norman et  al., \r\n2021). Tensions also exist between climate change adaptation and "


id: 3c3513067b1ca053ea73800aa3f671e1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7782
content:
"Many of the region's cities and settlements, cultural sites and place attachments are situated around harbours, estuaries and lowland rivers \r\n(Black, 2010; PCE, 2015; Australia SoE, 2016; Rouse et al., 2017; Hanslow et al., 2018; Birkett-Rees et al., 2020) exposed to ongoing relative sea \r\nlevel rise (RSLR). RSLR includes regional variability in oceanic conditions (Zhang et al., 2017) and vertical land movement along New Zealand's \r\ntectonically dynamic coasts (Levy et al., 2020) and some Australian hotspots for subsidence (Denys et al., 2020; King et al., 2020; Watson, 2020)."


id: 48e31b5631912bf9ccd24b7a6e58b596
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10041
content:
"Coastal shoreline position is driven by a complex combination of natural drivers, past and present human interventions, climate variability \r\n(Bryan et al., 2008; Helman and Tomlinson, 2018; Allis and Hicks, 2019) and variation in sediment flux (Blue and Kench, 2017; Ford and \r\nDickson, 2018). RSLR, to date, is a secondary factor influencing shoreline stability (medium confidence), and in Australia no definitive SLR \r\nsignature is yet observed in shoreline recession, nor is one documented in New Zealand, due to variability in shoreline position responding \r\nto storms and seasonal, annual and decadal climate drivers (Australian Government, 2009; McInnes et al., 2016; Sharples et al., 2020)."


id: 7e51cde8224617006bb76ea06f1844d8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19388
content:
"The primary impacts of rising mean sea level (Table Box 11.6.1) are being compounded by climate-related changes in waves, storm \r\nsurge, rising water tables, river flows and alterations in sediment delivery to the coast (medium confidence). The net effect is projected \r\nto increase erosion on sedimentary coastlines and flooding in low-lying coastal areas (McInnes et al., 2016; MfE, 2017a; Hanslow et al., \r\n2018; Wu et al., 2018). Waves are projected to be higher in southern Australasia and lower elsewhere (Morim et al., 2019) and storm \r\nsurge slightly higher in the south, slightly lower further north in New Zealand (Cagigal et al., 2019) and small robust declines in southern \r\nAustralia, with potentially larger changes in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Colberg et al., 2019)."


id: a8baaa832e6d9973de97402f16b06b39
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26892
content:
"The cumulative direct and residual risk from RSLR and associated impacts are projected to continue for centuries, necessitating ongoing \r\nadaptive decisions for exposed coastal communities and assets (high confidence) (MfE, 2017c; Oppenheimer et al., 2019; Tonmoy et al., \r\n2019)."


id: 2b2be2efd71309845a461c549e44c59f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4841
content:
"Prevailing decision-making assumes shorelines can continue to be maintained and protected from extreme storms, flooding and erosion, \r\neven with RSLR (Lawrence et al., 2019a). Rapid coastal development has increased exposure of coastal communities and infrastructure \r\n(high confidence) (Helman and Tomlinson, 2018; Paulik et al., 2020), reinforcing perceptions of safety (Gibbs, 2015; Lawrence et al., 2015) \r\nand creating barriers to retreat and nature-based adaptations (very high confidence) (Schumacher, 2020). The efficacy and increasing costs \r\nof protection and accommodation risk reduction approaches and rebuilding after extreme events have been questioned and have limits \r\n(PCE, 2015; MfE, 2017a; Harvey, 2019; LGNZ, 2019; Paulik et al., 2020; Haasnoot et al., 2021). Future shoreline erosion is often signalled \r\nusing defined coastal setback lines(s) and using probabilistic approaches to signal uncertainty (Ramsay et al., 2012; Ranasinghe, 2016)."


id: e72677cf56582674386e3c8abff56e30
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Table  Box  11.6.2 |   Observed relative SLR (variance-weighted average) with uncertainty range (standard deviation) and projected impacts on infrastructure and \r\npopulation of 1.1 m in Australia and 1 m in New Zealand. SLR projections for 2050 and 2090 are given in Table 11.3a and Table 11.3b."


id: db1b67d0c11481bb66096d4d8043fee0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35826
content:
"Flooding from high spring ('king') tides or storm tides during extreme weather events are raising public awareness of SLR (Green Cross \r\nAustralia, 2012), including through media coverage (Priestley et al., 2021). The use of adaptive decision tools (11.7.3.1; Table 11.17) is \r\nincreasing the understanding of changing coastal risk (Bendall, 2018; Lawrence et al., 2019b; Palutikof et al., 2019b) and how dynamic \r\nadaptive pathways and monitoring of them can aid implementation (Stephens et  al., 2018; Lawrence et  al., 2020b). Collaborative \r\ngovernance between local governments and their communities, including with Maori tribal organisations, is emerging in New Zealand \r\n(OECD, 2019b) assisted by national direction (DoC NZ, 2010) and guidance on adaptive planning (Table 11.15b). This shift from reactive \r\nto pre-emptive planning is better suited to ongoing RSLR (Lawrence et al., 2020b)."


id: 7d5484ce8c04cb463e436e3e0b8a4492
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19227
content:
"event. This is not an isolated finding: increases in paediatric hospital \r\nadmissions are seen across New Zealand two days after heavy rainfall \r\nevents (Lai et al., 2020)."


id: 358f67b6eac70610415d0bfb86080a63
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6677
content:
"Climate change is projected to have detrimental effects on human \r\nhealth due to heat stress, changing rainfall patterns including floods \r\nand drought climate-sensitive air pollution (including that caused \r\nby wildfires) (high confidence) and vector-borne diseases (medium \r\nconfidence). Vulnerability to detrimental effects of climate change will \r\nvary with socioeconomic conditions (high confidence)."


id: 56c63efb1b75cd65d6e9dadfc8daa5d5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12515
content:
"The greatest number of people affected by compounding effects of \r\nheat, wildfires and poor air quality will be in urban and peri-urban \r\nareas of Australia. By 2100 the proportion of all deaths attributable \r\nto heat in Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane may rise from about 0.5% \r\nto 0.8% (under RCP 2.6), or 3.2% (under RCP 8.5) (Gasparrini et al., \r\n2017). Heatwave related excess deaths in Melbourne, Sydney and \r\nBrisbane are projected to increase to 300/year (RCP2.6) or 600/year \r\n(RCP8.5) during 2031-2080 relative to 142/year during 1971-2020, \r\nassuming no adaptation and high population growth (Guo et  al., \r\n2018). High temperatures amplify the risks due to local air pollution: \r\nwithout adaptation, ozone-related deaths in Sydney may increase by \r\n50-60/year by 2070 (Physick et al., 2014)."


id: 86d565b1a0f4be98495e76d3ababaccc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20888
content:
"Unless there is more effective control of nutrient runoff, bacterial \r\ncontamination of drinking water supplies is projected to increase due \r\nto more intense rainfall events, exacerbating risks to human health \r\n(Gilpin et  al., 2020; Lai et  al., 2020), and higher temperatures will \r\nincrease freshwater toxic blooms (Hamilton et al., 2016)."


id: 38c6d7c5fb33c011ca6e6a3c33b34d98
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7193
content:
"In general, the area of Australia suitable for the transmission of dengue\r\nis projected to increase (Zhang and Beggs, 2018; Messina et al., 2019), \r\nbut estimates of local disease risk vary considerably according to \r\nclimate change scenario and socioeconomic pathways (Williams \r\net  al., 2016). The spread of Wolbachia among Aedes mosquitoes in \r\nnorthern Australia has already reduced dengue transmission and may \r\ndecrease the influence of climate in the future (Ryan et al., 2019). In \r\nNew Zealand, the risk of dengue remains low for the remainder of this \r\ncentury (Messina et al., 2019). Higher temperatures and more intense \r\nrainfall may also increase pollen production and the risk of allergic \r\nillness throughout the region (Haberle et al., 2014)."


id: dcbd3da90696cf2c83e8def47b710f49
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36097
content:
"Dengue fever remains a threat in northern Australia and variations in \r\nrainfall and temperature are related to disease outbreaks and patterns \r\nof spread, although most outbreaks are sparked by travellers bringing \r\nthe virus into the country (Bannister-Tyrrell et al., 2013; Hall et al., 2021). \r\nCases of dengue fever and other arboviral diseases have been increasing \r\namong recent arrivals to New Zealand from overseas, but to date there \r\nhave been no reports of local transmission (Ammar et al., 2021)."


id: 652e1aff5efa4f4cf66d575b3ec09437
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15069
content:
"Strengthening basic public health services can rapidly reduce \r\nvulnerability to death and ill-health caused by climate change; however, \r\nthis opportunity is often missed (very high confidence). The 2020 New \r\nZealand Health and Disability System Review pointed to shortcomings \r\nin leadership and governance, structures that embed health inequity, \r\nlack of transparency in planning and reporting and underinvestment \r\nin public health personnel and systems (HDSR, 2020). An Australian \r\nstudy found that without deliberate planning the health system \r\n'would only be able to deal with climate change in an expensive, ad \r\nhoc crisis management manner' (Burton, 2014). In both Australia and \r\nNew Zealand the COVID-19 epidemic has highlighted weaknesses "


id: cbf19088c5d92bc7f680b9af7620eb07
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33207
content:
"In 2016 in New Zealand, it is estimated 6000 to 8000 people became \r\nill due to contamination of the Havelock North water supply with the \r\nbacteria Campylobacter (Gilpin et al., 2020). The infection was traced \r\nto sheep faeces washed into the underground aquifer that feeds the \r\ntown's (untreated) water supply after an extraordinarily heavy rainfall "


id: e6fd17b9614d924f0d6c30025daa49c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37927
content:
"in information systems, primary care for marginalised groups and \r\nintersectoral planning (Salvador-Carulla et  al., 2020; Skegg and Hill, \r\n2021): all these deficiencies are relevant to climate adaptation."


id: ce1e5677d113e8858cf0c15501569aa8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33593
content:
"Heatwave responses, from public education to formal heat-warning \r\nsystems, are the best-developed element of adaptation planning for \r\nhealth in Australia, but many metropolitan centres are still not covered \r\n(high confidence) (Nicholls et  al., 2016; Nitschke et  al., 2016). Air \r\nconditioning (AC) in Australian homes reduces mortality in heatwaves \r\nby up to 80% (Broome and Smith, 2012), but heavy reliance on AC \r\ncarries risks. It is estimated that a power outage on the third day \r\nof extreme heatwaves would result in an additional 10-21 deaths \r\nin Adelaide, 24-47 in Melbourne and 7-13 in Brisbane (Nairn and \r\nWilliams, 2019). Multiple interventions at the landscape, building and \r\nindividual scale are available to reduce the negative health effects of \r\nextreme heat (Jay et al., 2021)."


id: 9eec8f7b6f3553f917b18c0a1705f5a1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25187
content:
"Underlying health and economic trends affect the vulnerability of the \r\npopulation to extreme weather (high confidence). Poor housing quality \r\nis a risk factor for climate-related health threats (Alam et al., 2016). \r\nHomeless people lack access to temperature-controlled or structurally \r\nsafe housing and often are excluded  from disaster preparation and \r\nresponses (Every, 2016). These inequalities are reversible. For example, \r\na government partnership with social housing providers in Australia \r\nimproved the thermal performance of housing for low-income tenants \r\n(Barnett et al., 2013). A postcode-level analysis of the vulnerability of \r\nurban populations to extreme heat in Australian capital cities (Loughnan \r\net  al., 2013) led to the development of an interactive website for \r\npurposes of planning and emergency preparedness (Figure 11.5) as well "


id: 20d6b9e3db37740fcfcde9644cd2e6b5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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vector_id: 2996
content:
"Figure 11.5 |  Housing and socioeconomic disadvantage are correlated with the use of emergency services on hot days (rho = 0.55, p<0.01). The spatia\r\ndistribution of (A) a community vulnerability index (VI) (PCA) by deciles and (B) ambulance call-outs on days above the daily mean of 34degC, in Brisbane, Australia.  Ambulance \r\ncall-out data are expressed as deciles based on per-capita calls during 2003-2011 (Loughnan et al., 2013)"


id: 21271aad0413cf50f667f61fa87a3e56
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3053
content:
"bridges have closed popular destinations, including the Hooker Glacier \r\nand the popular Routeburn and Heaphy Tracks during heavy rainfall \r\nevents (Christie et al., 2020). Climate-driven damage is motivating 'last \r\nchance' tourism to see key natural heritage and outdoor attractions, \r\nfor example, GBR (Piggott-McKellar and McNamara, 2016) and Franz \r\nJosef and Fox Glaciers (Stewart et al., 2016)."


id: 5e5b2914302db5ce7e40123f9d2056c5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13893
content:
"Heat extremes receive most policy attention, but the numbers of \r\ndeaths are less than those resulting from more frequent exposures to \r\nmoderately high temperatures (Longden, 2019). Melbourne, with its \r\nUrban Forest Strategy, provides a case study in long-term planning \r\nfor cooler cities (Gulsrud et al., 2018). Australian workers' perceptions \r\nof heat and responses to high temperatures show that heat policies \r\non their own are insufficient for full protection; workers also require \r\nknowledge and agency to slow down or take breaks on their own \r\ninitiative (Singh et al., 2015; Lao et al., 2016)."


id: 841c6d1d9c002472cdd87060041c5edb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20402
content:
"The first national climate change risk assessment in New Zealand (MfE, \r\n2020a) highlighted the risk to potable water supplies. An inquiry into the \r\nHavelock North outbreak recommended that all registered drinking water \r\nsupplies (which supply about 80% of the national population) in New \r\nZealand should be disinfected and have stronger oversight by a national \r\nregulatory body (Government Inquiry into Havelock North Drinking \r\nWater, 2017). The use of local and Indigenous knowledge strengthens \r\ninterventions to protect water supplies to remote settlements that may \r\nbe affected by climatic changes (Henwood et al., 2019)."


id: 4b676c6c49fa2059337fe94798c51061
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10514
content:
"Adaptation requires better protection of health facilities and supply \r\nchains, but hospital managers seldom have capacity to invest in long\u0002term improvements in infrastructure (Loosemore et al., 2014). However, \r\nhealth services in the region are required to prepare disaster plans: these \r\ncould be expanded to explicitly cover health adaptation and local threats \r\nfrom climate change, including flooding events (Rychetnik et al., 2019)."


id: f00f8a59c6609dc6f29c8ccde3e74586
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39613
content:
"Glacier tourism, a multi-million-dollar industry in New Zealand, \r\nis potentially under threat because glacier volumes are projected \r\nto decrease (very high confidence) (Purdie, 2013). Glacier volume \r\nreductions of 50-92% by 2099 relative to the present reflect the large \r\nrange of temperature projections between RCP2.6 and RCP8.5. Under \r\nRCP2.6 at 2099, the glaciers retain a similar configuration to present, \r\nalthough clean-ice glaciers will retreat significantly. For RCP4.5, \r\nRCP6.0 and RCP8.5, the clean-ice glaciers will retreat to become small \r\nremnants in the high mountains (Anderson et al. 2021)."


id: 57b9cfb33095eef2739ca993f1524218
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12695
content:
"Tourism is a major economic driver in the region, accounting for 3% \r\n(Australia) and 6% (New Zealand) of GDP pre-COVID-19 (WTTC, 2018). \r\nClimate change is having significant impacts on tourism due to the \r\nheavy reliance of the sector on natural heritage and outdoor attractions \r\n(11.3.1; Box 11.2). Furthermore, because Australia and New Zealand \r\nare both long-haul destinations, a global increase in 'flygskam' (flight \r\nshame) will likely impact travel patterns (Becken et al., 2021)."


id: 7bac02a65e1f908635409730caca90d2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18969
content:
"Snow skiing faces significant challenges from climate change (high \r\nconfidence). In Australia, the annual maximum snow depth is estimated \r\nto decrease from current levels by 15% (2030) and 60% by 2070 (SRES \r\nA2) (Di Luca et al., 2018). By 2070-2099, relative to 2000-2010, the \r\nlength of the Victorian ski season is projected to contract by 65-90% \r\nunder RCP8.5 (Harris et al., 2016). The New Zealand tourism destination \r\nof Queenstown is expected to experience declining snowfall, increased \r\nwind and more severe weather events (Becken and Wilson, 2016). Ski \r\ntourism stakeholders have been responding to longer-term climate \r\nrisks with an increase in snow-making machines in New Zealand since \r\n2013 (Hopkins, 2015) and in Australia (Harris et al., 2016)."


id: 4bc504872571fe75ab7c82a12f6b9acb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10593
content:
"Current snow-making technologies are expected to sustain the ski \r\nindustry until mid-century. However, with warmer winter temperatures \r\nand declining water availability, snow-making is projected to decrease \r\nto half at most resorts by 2030 (Harris et al., 2016). New Zealand's ski \r\nindustry may benefit from Australian skiers visiting New Zealand due \r\nto lower relative vulnerability (Hopkins, 2015). However, tourists may \r\nsubstitute destinations or ski less in the absence of snow (medium "


id: c8f1406ea49d99eca11e48443d163b5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32672
content:
"disaster recovery efforts (Lucas and Booth, 2020). In Australia, those \r\nin high-risk areas minimise house and contents insurance for financial \r\nreasons (Booth and Harwood, 2016; Osbaldison et al., 2019; Actuaries \r\nInstitute, 2020). Insurance premiums in northern Australia are almost \r\ndouble those in the rest of Australia, and rising, mainly due to cyclone \r\ndamage (ACCC, 2020)."


id: 8c229e7edd6558b96a521e0ebbd5b886
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21827
content:
"With the exception of the ski industry (Becken, 2013; Hopkins, 2015), \r\ntourism stakeholders generally focus on coping with short-term weather \r\nevents, rather than longer-term climate risks, but they do exhibit high \r\nadaptive capacity by diversifying their activities (Stewart et al., 2016). \r\nPost-COVID-19 pandemic economics and recovery policies challenge \r\nthis sector's prospects, and the combination of COVID-19 and climate \r\nchange (e.g., fires, floods) has also highlighted the need for the tourism \r\nsector to be able to respond to multiple, overlapping crises."


id: 3871b36c1e3d5ea92ed4bae1b2c40dcb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7140
content:
"There is limited evidence that research into the impact of climate \r\nchange on tourism in Australia and New Zealand is translating \r\ninto policy or action (Moyle et al., 2017). New Zealand government \r\ntourism sector strategies acknowledge this and the need for greater \r\nunderstanding of climate change for the sector (TIA, 2019) but do not \r\noffer solutions (MBIE, 2019b; MfE, 2020a). The COVID-19 pandemic \r\nand the global pause of international travel offer an opportunity to \r\npotentially 'reset' tourism to account for the impacts of climate change \r\n(Prideaux et al., 2020)."


id: 24632879825cf7ca21845a32cf5c36b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3594
content:
"The finance sector has significant exposure to climate variability and \r\nextreme events (high confidence)."


id: 4d67ea7241d1d862e3a385d5718d419d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10896
content:
"Some homes in the highest-risk areas tend to be in lower socioeconomic \r\ngroups that may not buy insurance (Actuaries Institute, 2020). For \r\nexample, a quarter of residents that experienced loss or damage in \r\nthe 2019 Townsville floods did not have insurance (ACCC, 2020). \r\nUnderinsurance reduces people's capacity to recover from adverse \r\nevents, while over-reliance on private insurance undermines collective "


id: 9d07e851fe35deacda862daf9cb9737d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24869
content:
"Banks and insurers are beginning to undertake climate risk analyses \r\n(CRO Forum, 2019; Bruyere et  al., 2020) and disclose their risks \r\n(Paddam and Wong, 2017; ANZ, 2018; CBA, 2018). For example, the \r\nagricultural banking sector has analysed climate risk and embedded \r\nclimate adaptation financing into its risk scoring and lending practices "


id: c49b6e3883b6d0f5302b7f1e9011ea50
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31899
content:
"2016; Becker et al., 2018). Some companies are spatially diversifying \r\nand relocating (Hodgkinson et al., 2014). Others are replacing workers \r\nwith automation and remote operations (Halteh et al., 2018; Keenan \r\net al., 2019)."


id: e56849983cd432cf135d1cc51a6f84c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37663
content:
"(CBA, 2019). However, the overall number of disclosures continues \r\nto lag expectations, suggesting the need for mandatory climate risk \r\ndisclosure in Australia (IGCC, 2021a)."


id: 66af2617ec15f011ce00c193daba1453
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15326
content:
"Climate adaptation finance is not evident (medium confidence). There \r\nis an adaptation finance gap (Mortimer et al. 2020). Private sector \r\ninitiatives are beginning to emerge through large scale projects or \r\npublic-private partnerships, such as the Queensland Betterment \r\nFund (Banhalmi-Zakar et al., 2016; Ware and Banhalmi-Zakar, 2020). \r\nAddressing investor pressure (IGCC, 2017) could increase investment in \r\nadaptation. However, ongoing policy uncertainty in Australia continues \r\nto be the key barrier to allocating additional capital to invest in climate \r\nsolutions for 70% of investors (IGCC, 2021a)."


id: c23974b5121847556e2ed2086c346c54
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31459
content:
"Australia's energy generation is a mix of coal (56%), gas (23%) and \r\nrenewables (21%) (DISER, 2020), with ageing coal-fired infrastructure \r\nbeing replaced by a growing proportion of renewable and distributed \r\nenergy resources (AEMO, 2018). In New Zealand, 60% of energy \r\ngeneration comes from hydro-electricity and 15% from geothermal \r\n(MBIE, 2021), with coal (2%) and gas (13%) generation capacity to \r\nbe retired, and total renewable energy to increase from 82% in 2017 \r\nto around 95% by 2050, mostly through wind generation (MBIE, \r\n2019a)."


id: 294dca4733b74c92c4201ea68b62293
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4485
content:
"Many mines are exposed and sensitive to climate extremes (high \r\nconfidence), but there is little available research on climate change \r\nimpacts on them (Odell et al., 2018). Most Australian mines face higher \r\ntemperatures, cyclones, erosion and landslides and hazards such as sea \r\nlevel rise (SLR) and storms across their supply chains, including ports \r\n(Cahoon et al., 2016). Impacts include operational disruptions such as \r\nacute drainage problems (Loechel and Hodgkinson, 2014) and heat\u0002induced illness, irritation and absenteeism among workers (McTernan \r\net al., 2016), lost revenue and increased costs (Pizarro et al., 2017)."


id: c6cdd380574cf79b7e6d8236145b9bd8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32284
content:
"Risks for the energy sector are projected to increase with climate change \r\n(medium confidence). Projected increases in the frequency and intensity \r\nof heatwaves, fires, droughts and wind-storms would increase risks for \r\nenergy supply and demand (AEMO, 2020b; ESCI, 2021). Households \r\nare unevenly vulnerable to energy sector risks due to varying housing \r\nquality and health dependencies (11.3.6). In New Zealand, a warmer \r\nclimate and increasing energy efficiency is projected to marginally \r\nreduce annual average peak electricity heating demand (Stroombergen \r\net al., 2006; MBIE, 2019a). Winter and spring inflows to main hydro \r\nlakes are projected to increase 5-10% and may reduce hydroelectric "


id: 66ae929c0c85c6c3a35e49850773225d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15325
content:
"Damage and disruption from climate impacts can cost operators \r\nbillions of dollars (Cahoon et al., 2016). Climatic extremes increase the \r\nrisk and impact of spillages along transportation routes (Grech et al., \r\n2016), exacerbate mining's effects on hydrology, ecosystems and air \r\nquality (Phillips, 2016; Ali et al., 2018), increase contamination risks \r\n(Metcalfe and Bui, 2016) and disrupt and slow mine site rehabilitation \r\n(Wardell-Johnson et al., 2015; Hancock et al., 2017). Adaptations such \r\nas improved water management are emerging slowly (Gasbarro et al., "


id: 46906acbae426d304075e4d1fe3f27f7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9622
content:
"energy vulnerability (McKerchar and Mullan, 2004; Poyck et al., 2011; \r\nStevenson et al., 2018). However, major electricity supply disruptions \r\nare projected to increase as dependence on electricity grows from 25% \r\nof total energy in 2016 to 58% in 2050 (Transpower, 2020)."


id: 99c2a3e8cc1c0300b2e148fb086a3e9f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24278
content:
"Options to manage risks include adaptation of energy markets, \r\nintegrated planning, improved asset design standards, smart\u0002grid technologies, energy generation diversification, distributed \r\ngeneration (e.g., roof-top solar, microgrids), energy efficiency, demand \r\nmanagement, pumped hydro storage, battery storage and improved \r\ncapacity to respond to supply deficits and balance variable energy \r\nresources across the network (Table  11.8) (high confidence). With \r\nincreasing electrification, diversification and resilience can contribute \r\nto security of supply as fossil fuels are retired from the energy mix \r\n(AEMO, 2020b). In Australia, the AEMO (2020) Integrated System Plan \r\nhas evaluated various options, costs and benefits. Risks associated "


id: 9173aa24e8481a2e85e1b2b7dbf0ac4e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22800
content:
"In Australia, the total heating and cooling energy demand of 5-star \r\nenergy-rated houses is projected to change by 2100 (Wang et  al., \r\n2010). At 2degC global warming, the estimated change in demand is \r\n-27% in Hobart, -21% in Melbourne, +61% in Darwin, +67% in Alice \r\nSprings and +112% in Sydney. For a 4degC global warming, the changes \r\nare -48%, -14%, +135%, +213% and +350% respectively."


id: d1ff93d11f31bafd1cdedb9fb030e34e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34297
content:
"making that helps address the enduring legacy of colonisation through \r\nbuilding opportunities based on Indigenous governance regimes, \r\ncultural practices to care for land and water and intergenerational \r\nperspectives (very high confidence) (Nursey-Bray et al., 2019; Petzold \r\net al., 2020) (Cross-Chapter Box INDIG in Chapter 18)."


id: 90d9aeefd1986e26a3c0cff0ef505e94
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22691
content:
"with an increasing reliance on weather-dependent renewable energy \r\n(e.g., solar, wind, hydro) (ESCI, 2021) can be managed through strong \r\nlong-distance interconnection via high-voltage powerlines and storage \r\n(Blakers et al., 2017; Blakers et al., 2021; Lu et al., 2021). However, \r\nimplementation of adaptation options remains inadequate (Gasbarro \r\net al., 2016)."


id: abaeb4de439c617127045b9007d6d76
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27452
content:
"The highly diverse Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples of \r\nAustralia have survived and adapted to climate changes such as \r\nsea level rise (SLR) and extreme rainfall variability during the late \r\nPleistocene era, through intimate place-based Indigenous knowledge \r\nin practice and while losing traditional land and sea country \r\nownership (Liedloff et al., 2013) (Cross-Chapter Box INDIG in Chapter \r\n18) including during the Late Pleistocene era (Golding and Campbell, \r\n2009; Nunn and Reid, 2016). They belong to the world's oldest \r\nliving cultures, continually resident in their own ancestral lands, or \r\n'country', for over 65,000 years (Kingsley et al., 2013; Marmion et al., \r\n2014; Nagle et al., 2017; Tobler et al., 2017; Nursey-Bray and Palmer, \r\n2018). The majority of the Australian Indigenous Peoples live in urban \r\nareas in southern and eastern Australia, but are the predominant \r\npopulation in remote areas."


id: 721147bad0b918ef4e76f685d4f18ff1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17315
content:
"Detection and attribution of observed climate trends and events is called \r\n'climate attribution'. This has been assessed by IPCC WGI (Gutierrez \r\net  al., 2021; Ranasinghe et  al., 2021; Seneviratne et  al., 2021) and \r\nsummarised in Chapter 16. Trends that have been formally attributed in \r\npart to anthropogenic climate change include regional warming trends \r\nand sea level rise (SLR), decreasing rainfall and increasing fire risk in \r\nsouthern Australia. Events include extreme rainfall in New Zealand \r\nduring 2007-2017, the 2007/2008 and 2012/2013 droughts in New \r\nZealand, high temperatures in Australia during 2013-2020, the 2016 \r\nnorthern Australian marine heatwave, the 2016/2017 and 2017/18 \r\nTasman Sea marine heatwaves and 2019/2020 fires in Australia."


id: 3621216c61f124fbc7934ef8130ea1a7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6772
content:
"Detection and attribution of climate impacts on natural and human \r\nsystems is called 'impact attribution'. This often involves a two-step \r\napproach (joint attribution) that links climate attribution to observed \r\nimpacts. Impact attribution is complicated by confounding factors, for \r\nexample, changes in exposure arising from population growth, urban \r\ndevelopment and underlying vulnerabilities."


id: 538fbecb6b5c7438fdcfb8fa1692fe7f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11975
content:
"Impact attribution is considered in Sections  11.3.1-11.3.10 and \r\nsummarised in Table  11.9. More literature is available for natural \r\nsystems than human systems, which represents a knowledge gap rather \r\nthan an absence of impacts that are attributable to anthropogenic \r\nclimate change. Fundamental shifts in the structure and composition of \r\nsome ecosystems are partly due to anthropogenic climate change (high \r\nconfidence). In human systems, the costs of droughts and floods in New \r\nZealand, and heat-related mortality and fire damage in Australia, are \r\npartly attributed to anthropogenic climate change (medium confidence)."


id: a178ce15ec65c94ce28279c7b5936994
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25624
content:
"Due to ongoing impacts of colonisation, Aboriginal and Torres Strait \r\nIslander Peoples have, on average, lower income, poorer nutrition, lower \r\nschool outcomes and employment opportunities, higher incarceration \r\nand higher levels of removal of children than non-Indigenous \r\nAustralians, represented in high comorbidities of chronic diseases and \r\nmental health impacts (Marmot, 2011; Green and Minchin, 2014; AIHW, \r\n2015). This relative poverty can reduce climate-adaptive capacities \r\nwhile exacerbating climate change vulnerabilities (Nursey-Bray and \r\nPalmer, 2018). In remote country, this can combine with lack of security \r\nfor food and water, non-resilient housing and extreme weather events, \r\ncontributing to migration off traditional country and into towns and \r\ncities--with flow-on social impacts such as homelessness, dislocation \r\nfrom community and family and disconnection from country and \r\nspirituality (Mosby, 2012; Brand et al., 2016)."


id: 41b795e350ad632d7f0554d5313d3a5d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8754
content:
"Indigenous perspectives of well-being embrace physical, social, \r\nemotional and cultural domains, collectiveness and reciprocity and, \r\nmore fundamentally, connections between all elements across past, \r\npresent and future generations (Australia. NAHS Working Party, 1989; \r\nMfE, 2020a). Changing climate conditions are expected to exacerbate \r\nmany of the social, economic and health inequalities faced by Aboriginal \r\nand Torres Strait Islander Peoples in Australia and Maori in New Zealand \r\n(high confidence) (Bennett et  al., 2014; Hopkins et  al., 2015; AIHW, \r\n2016; Lyons et al., 2019). As a consequence, effective policy responses \r\nare those that take advantage of the interlinkages and dependencies \r\nbetween mitigation, adaptation and Indigenous Peoples' well-being \r\n(Jones, 2019) and those that address the transformative change \r\nneeded from colonial legacies (high confidence) (Hill et al., 2020). There \r\nis a central role for Indigenous Peoples in climate change decision\u0002"


id: 189b781a35b86b4ab307936c3a15ece0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1543
content:
"Table 11.10 |  Climate-related impacts on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, country and cultures."


id: 274bae75c3ff45593accb4d1a63ca8d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4084
content:
"Maori society faces diverse impacts, risks and opportunities from \r\nclimate change (Table  11.12). Studies exploring climate change \r\nimpacts, scenarios, policy implications, adaptation options and tools \r\nfor Maori society have increased substantially (e.g., (King et al., 2012; \r\nBargh et al., 2014; Jones et al., 2014; Bryant et al., 2017; Awatere et al., \r\n2018; Colliar and Blackett, 2018). Maori priorities surrounding climate \r\nchange risks and natural resource management have been articulated \r\nin planning documents by many Maori kin groups (e.g., (Ngati Tahu\u0002Ngati Whaoa Runanga Trust, 2013; Raukawa Settlement Trust, 2015; \r\nNgai-Tahu, 2018; Te Urunga Kea - Te Arawa Climate Change Working \r\nGroup, 2021), reflecting the importance of reducing vulnerability and \r\nenhancing resilience to climate impacts and risks through adaptation \r\nand mitigation."


id: 4b509741579148611da98017650951c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10497
content:
"Maori have long-term interests in land and water and are heavily \r\ninvested in climate-sensitive sectors (agriculture, forestry, fishing, \r\ntourism and renewable energy) (King et  al., 2010). Large proportions \r\nof collectively owned land already suffer from high rates of erosion \r\n(Warmenhoven et al., 2014; Awatere et al., 2018), which are projected \r\nto be exacerbated by climate-change-induced extreme rainfalls (high \r\nconfidence) (RSNZ, 2016; Awatere et  al., 2018). Changing drought "


id: 8af329df9c63970fce9c700b53f168bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21616
content:
"Table 11.11 |  Examples of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples' practices of adaptation to a changing climate"


id: 5d88b513dd177168a72a38be444a87bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13740
content:
"cultural identity and well-being (medium confidence) (Jones et  al., \r\n2014; Bond et  al., 2019). Social-cultural networks and conventions \r\nthat promote collective action and mutual support are central features \r\nof many Maori communities, and these practices are invaluable for \r\ninitiating responses to, and facilitating recovery from, climate stresses \r\nand extreme events (King et  al., 2011; Hopkins et  al., 2015). Maori \r\ntribal organisations have a critical role in defining climate risks and \r\npolicy responses (Bargh et al., 2014; Parsons et al., 2019), as well as \r\nentering into strategic partnerships with business, science, research \r\nand government to address these risks (high confidence) (Manning \r\net al., 2014; Beall and Brocklesby, 2017; CCATWG, 2017)."


id: 6afefa43352220136be5df6fa28d5754
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16119
content:
"occurrence, particularly across eastern and northern New Zealand, \r\nis also projected to affect primary sector operations and production \r\n(medium confidence) (King et  al., 2010; Smith et  al., 2017; Awatere \r\net al., 2018). Further, many Maori-owned lands and cultural assets, such \r\nas marae and urupa, are located on coastal lowlands vulnerable to sea \r\nlevel rise (SLR) impacts (high confidence) (Manning et al., 2014; Hardy \r\net al., 2019). Maori tribal investment in fisheries and aquaculture faces \r\nsubstantial risks from changes in ocean temperature and acidification \r\nand the downstream impacts on species distribution, productivity and \r\nyields (medium confidence) (Law et al., 2016). A clearer understanding of \r\nclimate change risks and the implications for sustainable outcomes can \r\nenable more informed decisions by tribal organisations and governance \r\ngroups."


id: dd9d765cc6f2513a69c98987f1d450f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36253
content:
"More integrated assessments of climate change impacts, adaptation \r\nand socioeconomic risk for different Maori groups and communities, \r\nin the context of multiple stresses, inequities and different ways of \r\nknowing and being (King et al., 2013; Schneider et al., 2017; Henwood \r\net al., 2019), would assist those striving to evaluate impacts and risks \r\nand how to integrate these assessments into adaptation plans (high \r\nconfidence). Better understanding of the social, cultural and fiscal \r\nimplications of sea level rise (SLR) is urgent (PCE, 2015; Rouse et al., \r\n2017; Colliar and Blackett, 2018), including what duties local and "


id: 9375583c84c7c34c397b77a25bcc4e3d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23145
content:
"Changing climate conditions are projected to exacerbate health \r\ninequities faced by Maori (medium confidence) (Bennett et al., 2014; \r\nJones et  al., 2014; Hopkins, 2015). The production and ecology of \r\nsome keystone cultural flora and fauna may be impacted by projected \r\nwarming temperatures and reductions in rainfall (medium confidence) \r\n(RSNZ, 2016; Bond et al., 2019; Egan et al., 2020). Obstruction of access \r\nto keystone species is expected to adversely impact customary practice, "


id: daaa50018a02435b682d7fa47e6aeedc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35765
content:
"business activities (Deloitte, 2019; Lawrence et al., 2020b; MfE, 2020a) \r\n(Box  11.4). Community and infrastructure services are periodically \r\ndisrupted during extreme weather events, triggering impacts from the \r\ninterdependencies across enterprises and individuals (Glavovic, 2014; \r\nPaulik et al., 2021)."


id: e0784866943594f542a5636195194614
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36743
content:
"central government might have with respect to actively upholding \r\nMaori interests under the Treaty of Waitangi (high confidence) (Iorns \r\nMagallanes, 2019). Intergenerational approaches to climate change \r\nplanning will become increasingly important, elevating political \r\ndiscussions about conceptions of rationality, diversity and the rights \r\nof non-human entities (high confidence) (Ritchie, 2013; Carter et al., \r\n2018; Ruru, 2018; Munshi et al., 2020)."


id: 647646c8937014e41c5f667b2dd64246
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14950
content:
"Slow-onset climate change impacts have also had cascading and \r\ncompounding effects. For example, degradation of the GBR by ocean \r\nheating, acidification and non-climatic pressures (Marshall et al., 2019), \r\nrepeated pluvial, fluvial and coastal flooding of some settlements (Paulik \r\net al., 2019a; Paulik et al., 2020), long droughts and water insecurity \r\nin rural communities (Tschakert et al., 2017) and the gradual loss of \r\nspecies and ecological communities have caused substantial ecological, \r\nsocial and economic losses. Indigenous Peoples have especially been \r\nimpacted by multiple and complex losses (Johnson et al., 2021) (11.4)."


id: 65f980985ea7b54a698bc5b070234171
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15201
content:
"The impacts and adaptation processes described in Sections 11.3 and \r\n11.4 are focused on specific sectors, systems and Indigenous Peoples. \r\nAdded complexity, risk and adaptation potential stem from cross\u0002sectoral and cross-regional interdependencies."


id: 83b4acc23173bf2d54cd960868f791d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20314
content:
"Cascading, compounding and aggregate impacts are projected to grow \r\ndue to a concurrent increase in heatwaves, droughts, fires, storms, \r\nfloods and sea level (high confidence) (CSIRO, 2020; Lawrence et al., \r\n2020b). Urban wastewater, stormwater and water supply systems are \r\nparticularly vulnerable in New Zealand (Paulik et al., 2019a; Hughes \r\net al., 2021) to pluvial flooding (Box 11.4) and to sea level rise (SLR) \r\n(Box 11.6), with flow-on effects to settlements, insurance and finance \r\nsectors, and governments (Lawrence et  al., 2020b). Furthermore, \r\nconsecutive heavy rainfall events in late summer and autumn, \r\nfollowing drought conditions in low-lying modified wetland areas, \r\nhave implications for the operation of flood control infrastructure as \r\nincreased rainfall intensity, land subsidence and sea level rise (SLR) \r\ncompound and result in the retention of floodwaters (Pingram et al., \r\n2021)."


id: 674c9989753dba1237594528d9203ff2
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15444
content:
"In Australia, the aggregate loss of wealth due to climate-induced \r\nreductions in productivity across agriculture, manufacturing and service \r\nsectors is projected to exceed AUD$19 billion by 2030, AUD$211 billion \r\nby 2050 and AUD$4 trillion by 2100 for RCP8.5 (Steffen et  al., \r\n2019) (Table  11.13). Projected impacts also cascade across national \r\nboundaries via value chains, markets, movement of humans and other \r\norganisms and geopolitics (e.g., migration from near-neighbours as a \r\npathway for adaptation, mobile climate-sensitive diseases and changes \r\nin production and trade patterns) (Lee et al., 2018; Nalau and Handmer, \r\n2018; Schwerdtle et al., 2018; Dellink et al., 2019). The scale of impacts \r\nis projected to challenge the adaptive capacity of sectors, governments \r\nand institutions (Steffen et al., 2019), including the insurability of assets \r\nand risks to lenders (Storey and Noy, 2017)."


id: c9b608b7d00c37d62c8a2af5e5093622
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32811
content:
"Extreme events such as heatwaves, droughts, floods, storms and \r\nfires have caused deaths and injuries (Deloitte, 2017a) (11.3.5.1), \r\nand affected many households, communities and businesses via \r\nimpacts on ecosystems, critical infrastructure, essential services, food \r\nproduction, the national economy, valued places and employment. This \r\nhas created long-lasting impacts (e.g., mental health, homelessness, \r\nhealth incidents and reduced health services) (Brown et  al., 2017; \r\nBrookfield and Fitzgerald, 2018; Rychetnik et al., 2019) and reduced \r\nadaptive capacity (Friel et al., 2014; O'Brien et al., 2014; Ding et al., \r\n2015; CoA, 2020e) (Box 11.1, Box 11.3, 11.3.1-11.3.10)."


id: 5c0f7a9138ba09b9ac3ea1c25060aead
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13455
content:
"Coordinating adaptation strategies and addressing underlying \r\nexposure and vulnerability can increase resilience to cascading, \r\ncompounding and aggregate impacts (high confidence) (Table 11.17; \r\n11.7.3). Systems understanding, network analysis, stress testing, spatial \r\nmapping, collaboration, information sharing and interoperability across \r\nstates, sectors, agencies and value chains, as well as national-scale \r\nfacilitation, can increase adaptive capacity (Espada et al., 2015; CoA, \r\n2020e; Cradock-Henry et al., 2020b; Jozaei et al., 2020). Greater system "


id: d56778f9aa94ad30b572fe70e1695e31
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34862
content:
"diversity, modularity, redundancy, adaptability and decentralised control \r\ncan reduce the risk of cascading failures and system breakdown (Sinclair \r\net al., 2017; Sellberg et al., 2018). Addressing existing vulnerabilities \r\nin systems can reduce susceptibility and improve the resilience of \r\ninterdependent systems (11.7.3). Multi-level leadership, including \r\nnational and sub-national policies, laws and finance can reduce and \r\nmanage aggregate risks supported by the enablers in Table 11.17."


id: c3b5e29379d20180db659a73d479a8b6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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vector_id: 31709
content:
"(Deloitte, 2017b), the 2019 floods in northern Queensland (Deloitte, \r\n2019) and the 2019-2020 fires in southern and eastern Australia \r\n(Box 11.1)."


id: 5fb71671cffc462ee70861d717c4e284
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14143
content:
"In New Zealand, the annual cost of rural fire to the economy has been \r\nestimated at NZD$67 million, with indirect 'costs' potentially two to \r\nthree times the direct costs (Scion, 2018). Insured losses from weather\u0002related disasters cost almost NZD$1 billion during 2015-2021 (ICNZ, \r\n2021). Floods cost the New Zealand economy at least NZD$120 million \r\nfor privately insured damages between 2007 and 2017 (D. Frame et al., \r\n2018). The 2007/2008 drought cost NZD$3.2 billion and the 2012/13 \r\ndrought cost NZD$1.6 billion, of which about 20% could be attributed \r\nto anthropogenic climate change (Frame et al., 2020) (11.3.11)."


id: de4cd9e77e3e41401b57eef374cfaf1c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36369
content:
"Anticipatory governance and agile decision-making can build resilience \r\nto cascading, compounding and aggregate impacts (high confidence) \r\n(Boston, 2016; Deloitte, 2016; Steffen et al., 2019; CoA, 2020e; CSIRO, \r\n2020; Lawrence et  al., 2020b; MfE, 2020c). There is uncertainty \r\nabout whether standard integrated assessment models can estimate \r\ncascading and compounding impacts across systems and sectors, but \r\nsystems methodologies and social network analysis hold promise \r\n(Stoerk et  al., 2018; Cradock-Henry et  al., 2020b). Interventions at \r\nthe landscape, building and individual scales can reduce the negative \r\nhealth effects of current and future extreme heat, if integrated in \r\nwell-communicated heat action plans with robust surveillance and \r\nmonitoring (Jay et al., 2021)."


id: d4a74d8e252d63b64d9364e9cfb3786b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34733
content:
"The intangible costs of climate impacts, including death and injury, \r\nimpacts on health and well-being, education and employment, \r\ncommunity connectedness and the loss of ancestral lands, cultural \r\nsites and ecosystems (Barnett et al., 2016; Warner et al., 2019), affect \r\nmultiple sectors and systems and exacerbate existing vulnerabilities. \r\nWhile often incommensurable, intangible costs may be far higher than \r\nthe tangible costs. For example, following the Victorian fires in 2009, \r\nthe tangible costs were AUD$3.1  billion while the intangible costs \r\nwere AUD$3.4 billion; following the Queensland floods in 2010/2011, \r\nthe tangible costs were AUD$6.7  billion while the intangible costs \r\nwere AUD$7.4 billion (Deloitte, 2016)."


id: e53cbf5b58251ba96f1a7c8530c2bf7f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37632
content:
"In Australia, the National Disaster Risk Reduction Framework (CoA, \r\n2018b), National Recovery and Resilience Agency and Australian \r\nClimate Service (CoA, 2021) can provide some support for adaptation \r\nacross multiple sectors. New Zealand has effective partnerships across \r\ncritical infrastructure through lifelines groups, but organisational silos \r\nand lack of stress testing of plans hamper coordinated decision-making \r\nduring crises and for adaptation (Brown et al., 2017; Lawrence et al., \r\n2020b). The New Zealand national risk assessment, national adaptation \r\nplan, forthcoming Climate Change Adaptation Act and monitoring of \r\nadaptation progress by the Climate Change Commission provide a \r\nframework for anticipating climate change risks (MfE, 2020a)."


id: 7c3b6f577a3c25b42861e5340e7ce344
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19069
content:
"The economic long-run impact increases with higher levels of warming \r\n(high confidence), but there is a wide range in projections. Conservative \r\nestimates for the long-run impacts of a 1degC, 2degC or 3degC global \r\nwarming (relative to 1986-2005) on Australian GDP are -0.3, -0.6 \r\nand -1.1%/year, respectively, while for New Zealand the estimates are \r\n-0.1, -0.4 and -0.8%/year respectively (Kompas et al., 2018). More \r\ndetailed modelling indicates a loss in Australia's GDP of 6% by 2070 \r\nfor 3degC global warming, while a 2.6% GDP rise by 2070 is possible for \r\n1.5degC global warming (Deloitte, 2020). The potential for much more \r\nsevere effects on GDP is shown in recent estimates, which attempt \r\nto account for the increased severity of uncertain effects (e.g., up to \r\n18.5% reduction in Australia's GDP by mid-century) (Swiss Re, 2021)."


id: debcc7eb101ff0b363eb04bbf6d14955
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36447
content:
"The implications of climate change for national economies are significant \r\n(high confidence). The costs associated with lost productivity, disaster \r\nrelief expenditure and unfunded contingent liabilities represent a \r\nmajor risk to financial system stability (MfE, 2020a). Costs include \r\nsignificant and often long-term social impacts, temporary dislocation, \r\nbusiness disruption and impacts on employment, education, \r\ncommunity networks, health and well-being (Deloitte, 2017a). Climate \r\nchange disrupts international patterns of agricultural production and \r\ntrade in ways that may be negative but that also may lead to new \r\nopportunities for agriculture (Mosnier et al., 2014; Nelson et al., 2014; \r\nLee et al., 2018). Net exports may increase following global climate \r\nshocks (Lee et al., 2018), but the longer-term effects on GDP are likely\r\nto be negative (Dellink et al., 2019)."


id: 973b2a0ebb597c7679743350c59d18f1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23800
content:
"In Australia, the total annual cost of damage due to floods, coastal \r\ninundation, forest fires, subsidence and wind (excluding cyclones) is \r\nestimated to increase 55% between 2020 and 2100 for RCP8.5 (Mallon \r\net  al., 2019). National damage costs and impacts on asset values \r\ncould be significant (Table 11.13). The macroeconomic shocks induced \r\nfrom climate change, including reduced agricultural yields, damage to \r\nproperty and infrastructure and commodity price increases, could lead to \r\nsignificant market corrections and potential financial instability (Steffen \r\net al., 2019). Under a 'slow decline' scenario by 2060 where Australia \r\nfails to adequately address climate change and sustainability challenges, \r\nGDP is projected to grow at 0.7% less per year and real wages would \r\nbe 50% lower than under an 'outlook scenario' where Australia meets \r\nclimate change and sustainability challenges (CSIRO, 2019)."


id: ca59ab57c6d305c7c53df3daf5f259bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32942
content:
"In Australia, during 2007-2016, total economic costs from natural \r\ndisasters averaged AUD$18.2  billion per year (Deloitte, 2017a). \r\nIndividual weather-related disaster costs across multiple sectors have \r\nexceeded AUD$4 billion, such as the 2009 fires in Victoria (Parliament \r\nof Victoria, 2010), the 2010-2011 floods in south-east Queensland "


id: b00bc7364b8681c7cbfec68978c69402
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28215
content:
"In New Zealand, the value of buildings exposed to coastal inundation \r\ncould increase by NZD$2.55 billion for every 0.1-m increment in sea "


id: 1971d17e67b13f9fd95cf7c106b93016
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1691
content:
"Table 11.13 |  Economy-wide projected costs (AUD$) of climate change in Australia. (Estimates are not comparable across studies because different methods have been used. \r\nEstimates for later in the century are speculative because both impacts and adaptation are uncertain.)"


id: 8dc78b5c0d7e306746aa1b05e2c5e9d2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22138
content:
"New Zealand from near-neighbour island nations as they become \r\nincreasingly stressed by rising seas, higher temperatures, more droughts \r\nand stronger storms (Nalau and Handmer, 2018)."


id: 14aaae4f69047d0649af95af7a3460a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 862
content:
"level, that is, NZD$25.5 billion for a 1.0-m sea level rise (SLR) (Paulik \r\net al., 2020). Greater understanding is required of the distributional \r\nimpacts, the rate of change of costs over time and the economic \r\nimplications of delayed action (Warner et al., 2020)."


id: 7cdb3bd4db0871d28711a470abd38577
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19160
content:
"Delaying adaptation to climate risks may result in higher overall costs \r\nin future when adaptation is more urgent and impacts more extreme \r\n(medium confidence) (Boston and Lawrence, 2018; IPCC, 2018). \r\nEstimates of the magnitude of adaptation costs and benefits in the \r\nregion are localised and sectoral (e.g., (Thamo et al., 2017) or regionally \r\naggregated (Joshi et  al., 2016). Adaptation costs are expected to \r\nincrease markedly for higher RCPs, for example, a tripling of expected \r\ncosts between RCP2.6 and RCP8.5 for sea level rise (SLR) protection \r\nin Australia (Ware et al., 2020). Existing governance arrangements for \r\nfunding adaptation are inadequate for the scope and scale of climate \r\nchange impacts anticipated; dedicated funding mechanisms that can \r\nbe sustained over generations can enable more timely adaptation \r\n(Boston and Lawrence, 2018)."


id: f81f54ccc3647aa8c4ce71e7cee8e705
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41029
content:
"Investments in mitigation and adaptation can help reduce or prevent \r\neconomic losses now and in the coming decades (IPCC, 2018; Steffen \r\net  al., 2019); however, the costs and benefits of mitigation and \r\nadaptation are not well understood in the region (high confidence) \r\n(CSIRO, 2019; MfE, 2020a)."


id: 3c90cf2ba43744513939e33146ef3707
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Nine key risks have been identified (Table 11.14) based on four criteria: \r\nmagnitude, likelihood, timing and adaptive capacity (Chapter 16). \r\nMost of the key risks are similar to those in the IPCC AR5 Australasia \r\nchapter (Reisinger et al., 2014), but the emphasis here is on specific \r\nsystems affected by multiple hazards rather than specific hazards \r\naffecting multiple systems. The selection of key risks reflects what has \r\nbeen observed, projected and documented, noting that there are gaps \r\nin knowledge, and a lack of knowledge does not imply a lack of risk \r\n(11.7.3.3). Key risks are grouped into four categories:"


id: 8067ea423c6489c84310f2325fd074c5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19720
content:
"Caveats: (a) key risks are assessed at regional scales, so they do not \r\ninclude other risks for finer scales or specific groups; (b) non-climatic \r\nvulnerabilities are held constant for simplicity; (c) the assessment of \r\nrisk ratings at different levels of global warming is limited by available \r\nliterature; (d) risks increase with global warming, despite the lack \r\nof an IPCC risk rating beyond very high; and (e) the feasibility and \r\neffectiveness of adaptations options were not assessed due to limited \r\nliterature (11.7.3.3)."


id: 578a7b9ca58f71a553aa25a5d7ecd755
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12667
content:
"The New Zealand National Climate Change Risk Assessment (MfE, \r\n2020a) identified the priority risks from climate change for New \r\nZealand based on a literature review and expert elicitation. The top \r\ntwo risks in each of five domains are as follows:"


id: d576d77426730f30e57c77f4038ad828
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34871
content:
"At higher levels of global warming, adaptation costs increase, options \r\nbecome limited and risks grow. The 'burning embers' diagram in \r\nFigure 11.6 has four IPCC risk categories: undetectable, moderate, high \r\nand very high, with transition points defined by different global warming \r\nranges. The embers are indicative, based on an assessment of available \r\nliterature and expert judgement (Supplementary Material SM 11.2). \r\nOutcomes for low and moderate adaptation have been compared, with the \r\nlatter including both incremental and transformative options. Illustrative \r\nexamples of adaptation pathways are shown in Figure 11.7 for low-lying \r\ncoastal areas and Figure  11.8 for heat-related mortality. These figures \r\nhighlight thresholds at which adaptation options become ineffective and \r\npossible combinations of strategies and options implemented at different \r\ntimes to manage emerging risks and changing risk profiles."


id: 742b07b19ef9fdef9b18f6aead2beb64
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17673
content:
"Table 11.14 |  Key risks from climate change based on assessment of the literature and expert judgement (Supplementary Material SM 11.2). Assessment criteria are magnitude, \r\ntiming, likelihood and adaptive capacity. Risk drivers are hazards, exposure and vulnerability. Adaptation options describe ways in which risks can be reduced. Confidence ratings \r\nare based on the amount of evidence and agreement between lines of evidence."


id: e0d8fc98879945703606c1bfb30be7a2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36824
content:
"Figure 11.6 |  Burning embers diagram for each of the nine key risks for low and moderate adaptation. The risk categories are undetectable, moderate, high and \r\nvery high. While there is no risk category beyond very high, risks obviously get worse with further global warming, and the risk for coral reefs is already very high. The assessment \r\ns based on available literature and expert judgement, summarised in Table 11.14 and described in Supplementary Material SM 11.2. The global warming range associated with \r\neach risk transition has a confidence rating (**** very high, *** high, ** moderate, * low) based on the amount of evidence and level of agreement between lines of evidence"


id: 615d27d2189b428f4a20cf8cbccfb880
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14427
content:
"change strategies and plans and revised policies and rules to enable \r\nadaptation (Table 11.15b). Different adaptation approaches continue \r\nto create confusion and inertia while development pressures continue \r\n(Schneider et al., 2017). Opportunities for integrated adaptation and \r\nmitigation planning in regional policies and plans have arisen through \r\nthe Resource Management Amendment Act 2020 (Dickie, 2020), the \r\nNational Policy Statement on Freshwater Management (MfE, 2020b) \r\nand the revised national coastal guidance (MfE, 2017a), but rely on \r\nfunding instruments to be in place and statutes are aligned for their \r\neffectiveness (very high confidence) (Boston and Lawrence, 2018; \r\nCCATWG, 2018)."


id: e95a39d506d990eecfb067c21828a4f2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38413
content:
"priorities for New Zealand to address through the National Adaptation \r\nPlan, its implementation and monitoring."


id: 462527c6ab1bb024f401234b3f9f83fc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9559
content:
"Short-term benefits from climate change may include reduced winter \r\nmortality, reduced energy demand for winter heating, increased \r\nagriculture productivity and forest growth in south and west New \r\nZealand and increased forest and pasture growth in southern Australia, \r\nexcept where rainfall and soil nutrients are limiting (11.3.4, 11.3.6, \r\n11.3.10) (medium confidence)."


id: 966669c72821c9aa818d6f5ffd9c846c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23662
content:
"The ambition, scope and progress on adaptation by governments \r\nhave risen but are uneven, with a focus on high-level strategies at \r\nthe national level, adaptation planning at sub-national levels and \r\nnew enabling legislation (very high confidence) (Table  11.15a, \r\nTable  11.15b) (Lawrence et  al., 2015; Macintosh et  al., 2015; MfE, \r\n2020a). The adaptation process comprises vulnerability and risk \r\nassessments, identification of options, planning, implementation, \r\nmonitoring, evaluation and review. Large gaps remain, especially in \r\neffective implementation, monitoring and evaluation (Supplementary \r\nMaterial SM 11.1) (CCATWG, 2017; Warnken and Mosadeghi, 2018), \r\nand current adaptation is largely incremental and reactive (very high \r\nconfidence) (Box 11.4, Box 11.6, Table 11.14)."


id: ea668926643fd12c7faaa03ab7b50ec4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38602
content:
"Observed and projected rates of sea level rise (SLR) (Box 11.6) and \r\nincreased flood frequency (11.3.3) are challenging established uses of \r\nmodelling, risk assessment and cost-benefit analysis, where climate \r\nchange damage functions cannot be projected or are unknown (deep \r\nuncertainty) or impacts on communities are ambiguous (Infometrics \r\nand PSConsulting, 2015; Lawrence et  al., 2019a; MfE, 2020a). New \r\ntools are available in the region (Table 11.17), but uptake cannot be \r\nassumed (high confidence) (Lawrence and Haasnoot, 2017; Palutikof \r\net al., 2019c)."


id: ea3c6903a0f5b283013fdb46979c4ac4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38565
content:
"Resilience and adaptation approaches are beginning to converge \r\n(White and O'Hare, 2014; Aldunce et  al., 2015) (Supplementary \r\nMaterial SM 11.1) but widespread 'bounce-back' resilience-driven \r\nresponses that lock in risk by discounting ongoing and changing \r\nclimate risk (Leitch and Bohensky, 2014; O'Hare et al., 2016; Wenger, \r\n2017; Torabi et al., 2018) can create maladaptation and impede long\u0002term adaptation goals (high confidence) (Glavovic and Smith, 2014; \r\nDudney et al., 2018)."


id: ea76d1d906038dfe45398cb5efd74f9d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38613
content:
"New Zealand's Climate Change Response Act 2019 creates a legal \r\nmandate for national climate change risk assessments (first one \r\ncompleted) (MfE, 2020a) and national adaptation plans (first in \r\npreparation), as well as a Climate Change Commission to monitor and \r\nreport on adaptation implementation. Preparation of natural and built \r\nenvironment, strategic planning and climate change adaptation acts is \r\nunder way, including provision for funding and managed retreat (MfE, \r\n2020c). National coastal guidance is available for adaptation planning \r\nto address changing climate risks (MfE, 2017a) (Table  11.15b). \r\nMeanwhile, several local authorities have developed integrated climate "


id: f8b65bd7d6e99fb15265afabba7d37c1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41118
content:
"Local government engagement with communities on adaptation is \r\nstarting to motivate a change towards more collaborative engagement \r\npractices (Archie et  al., 2018; Bendall, 2018; MfE, 2019; Schneider \r\net al., 2020). Nature-based adaptations (Colloff et al., 2016; Lavorel \r\net al., 2019; Della Bosca and Gillespie, 2020) and 'green infrastructure' \r\n(medium confidence) (Lin et al., 2016; Alexandra and Norman, 2020) \r\nare increasingly being adopted (Rogers et al., 2020a)."


id: 6950030d2890d1e7560c37f2bd09bf83
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15794
content:
"Table 11.15a |  Examples of Australian adaptation strategies, plans and initiatives by government agencies at national, sub-national and regional or local levels. These examples \r\nhave not been assessed for their effectiveness (see Supplementary Material Table SM11.1a)."


id: f2debb4e9174957a586ae2faf761ff7b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40124
content:
"Table 11.15b |  Examples of New Zealand's adaptation strategies, plans and initiatives by government agencies at national, sub-national and regional or local levels. NB: These \r\nexamples have not been assessed for their effectiveness (see Supplementary Material Table SM11.1b)"


id: a3c4f27403adc2267828c329a1356c03
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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"Bray and Palmer, 2018). Knowledge co-production for Indigenous \r\nadaptation pathways can enable transformative change from colonial \r\nlegacies (Hill et  al., 2020). Learning and experimentation across \r\ngovernance boundaries and between agencies and local communities \r\nenable adaptation to be better aligned with changing climate risks \r\nand community (high confidence) (Funfgeld, 2015; Howes et al., 2015; \r\nBardsley and Wiseman, 2016; Lawrence et al., 2019b)."


id: 7c5f98ad174ed8659672bcdf529194e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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content:
"Some businesses have initiated active adaptation (Aldum et al., 2014; \r\nLinnenluecke et al., 2015; Bremer and Linnenluecke, 2017; CCATWG, \r\n2017; MfE, 2018), with most focused on identifying climate risks \r\n(Aldum et  al., 2014; Gasbarro et  al., 2016; Cradock-Henry, 2017). \r\nBusinesses are more likely to engage in anticipatory adaptation when \r\nthe frequency of climate events is known (McKnight and Linnenluecke, \r\n2019). Effective cooperation and a positive innovation culture can \r\ncontribute to the collaborative development of climate change \r\nadaptation pathways (medium confidence) (Bardsley et al., 2018)."


id: b4bd50d40282de803d2a767b7ac9878a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29050
content:
"There is increasing focus on improving adaptive capacity for transitional \r\nand transformational responses, but reactive responses dominate (very \r\nhigh confidence) (Smith et  al., 2015; Schlosberg et  al., 2017; Boston \r\nand Lawrence, 2018). While extreme events can provide opportunities \r\nfor positive transitions within communities (Cradock-Henry et  al., \r\n2018b) (e.g., Queensland Reconstruction Authority Building Back \r\nBetter scheme), often rebuilding occurs in at-risk places to aid quick \r\nrecovery (Lawrence and Saunders, 2017). Community-based adaptation \r\ninnovations (Bendall, 2018; Kench et  al., 2018; Forino et  al., 2019) \r\ninclude relationship building; use of new decision tools, pathways \r\nplanning with communities, visualisation and serious games (Lawrence \r\nand Haasnoot, 2017; Schlosberg et al., 2017; Flood et al., 2018; Reiter "


id: d1e2315e9e8b37fb7802bd9fe0cb7dec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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vector_id: 34274
content:
"Some areas in northern Australia and New Zealand, especially those \r\nwith higher proportions of Indigenous populations, face severe housing, \r\nhealth, education, employment and services deficits that exacerbate \r\nthe impacts of climate change (Kotey, 2015) (11.3.5; 11.4; 11.6). "


id: 8149b4596e2a75257f445e07fc37fcf3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19880
content:
"Where adaptation relies upon an ageing population and an overstretched \r\nvolunteer base, vulnerability to climate change impacts is being \r\nexacerbated (Astill and Miller, 2018; Davies et al., 2018). Adaptation \r\noptions that succeed within remote Indigenous communities are \r\nfounded on connections to traditional lands, alignment with cultural \r\nvalues and contribute to social, cultural and economic goals (Nursey\u0002"


id: 297ea59d504f819ecaf7b1dbcc49736b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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content:
"include governance inertia at all levels, hindering the development of \r\ncareful and comprehensive adaptation plans and their implementation \r\n(Boston and Lawrence, 2018; MfE and Hawke's Bay Regional Council, \r\n2020; White and Lawrence, 2020). Lack of clarity about mandate, roles \r\nand leadership and inadequate funding for adaptation by national and \r\nstate governments and sectors, are slowing adaptation (Lukasiewicz \r\net al., 2017; Waters and Barnett, 2018; LGNZ, 2019; MfE, 2020c) (11.3; \r\n11.7.1). Established planning tools and measures were designed for \r\nstatic risk profiles, and practitioners are slow to take up tools better \r\nsuited to changing climate risks (CoA, 2020e; Schneider et al., 2020) \r\n(11.5; Box  11.5). The communication of relevant climate change "


id: 743279cfddd99968b90e091d4fe91c59
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Major gaps in the adaptation process remain across all sectors \r\nand at all levels of decision-making (very high confidence) (11.3; \r\nTable  11.115a, Table  15b). Efforts to build, resource and deploy \r\nadaptive capacity are slow compared to escalating impacts and risks \r\n(Stephenson et al., 2018; CoA, 2020e). Barriers to effective adaptation "


id: 20754491c5fef618eb77020d7d647acd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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content:
"2016). A lack of robust and timely adaptation means key risks will \r\nincreasingly manifest as impacts, and numerous systems, communities \r\nand institutions are projected to reach limits (Table 11.14, Figure 11.6), \r\ncompounding current adaptation deficits and undermining society's \r\ncapacity to adapt to future impacts (very high confidence)."


id: f12bb98cee61172aa9edb1c1af5ed038
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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content:
"information remains ad hoc (Stevens and O'Connor, 2015; CCATWG, \r\n2017; Palutikof et al., 2019c; Salmon, 2019). In Australia, the lack of \r\nnational guidance or adaptation laws creates barriers to adaptation, \r\nreflected in uneven coastal adaptation based on a wait-and-see \r\napproach (Dedekorkut-Howes et al., 2020)."


id: ab5b15ed1c4c7ffdd498f0742a0bd708
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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content:
"Adaptation enablers include understanding relevant knowledge, \r\ndiverse values and governance, institutions and resources (very high \r\nconfidence) (Gorddard et  al., 2016). Skills and learning, community \r\nnetworks, people-place connections, trust-building, community \r\nresources and support and engaged governance build social resilience \r\nthat support adaptation (Maclean et al., 2014; Eriksen, 2019; Phelps \r\nand Kelly, 2019). A multi-faceted focus on the role societal inequalities \r\nand environmental degradation play in generating climate change \r\nvulnerability can enable fairer adaptation outcomes (McManus et al., \r\n2014; Ambrey et al., 2017; Schlosberg et al., 2017; Graham et al., 2018)."


id: ec129b2432f1b850687be9657b051e11
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"The feasibility and effectiveness of adaptation options will change \r\nover time depending on place, values, cultural appropriateness, social \r\nacceptability, ongoing cost-effectiveness, leadership and the ability \r\nto implement them through the prevailing governance regime (Singh \r\net al., 2020). The capacity and commitment of the political system can \r\ndrive early action that can reduce risks (Boston, 2017)."


id: db06d32836647f56a3489b26c089b48f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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content:
"Potential biophysical limits to adaptation for non-human species and \r\necosystems where impacts are projected to be irreversible, with limited \r\nscope for adaptation, are signalled in key risks 1-4 (11.6). In some \r\nhuman systems, fundamental limits to adaptation include thermal \r\nthresholds and safe freshwater (Alston et al., 2018) (Table 11.14) and \r\nthe inability of some low-lying coastal communities to adapt in place \r\n(Box 11.6) (very high confidence). Some individuals and communities \r\nare already reaching their psycho-social adaptation limits (Evans et al., "


id: d94eecca40931c5ff437a74a30f42d2a
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"Adaptation decision support tools enable a shift from reactive to \r\nanticipatory planning for changing climate risks (high confidence). The \r\navailable tools are diversifying with futures and systems methodologies \r\nand dynamic adaptive policy pathways being increasingly used \r\n(Bosomworth et al., 2017; Prober et al., 2017; Lawrence et al., 2018a; \r\nCoA, 2020e; Rogers et al., 2020a; Schneider et al., 2020) (11.5; Box 11.6) \r\nto facilitate the shift from static to dynamic adaptation by highlighting "


id: b433e3ba21e099de9ab027b8d4bf9034
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content:
"conditions (high confidence) (Moloney and McClaren, 2018; Palutikof \r\net al., 2019a; Cradock-Henry et al., 2020a). Training to improve decision \r\nmakers' 'evaluative capacity' can play a role (Scott and Moloney, \r\n2021). Climate action benchmarking, diagnostic tools and networking \r\ncan enhance the adaptation process across diverse decision settings \r\n(e.g., water, coasts, protected areas and Indigenous Peoples) (Ayre and \r\nNettle, 2017; Davidson and Gleeson, 2018; Coenen et al., 2019; Gibbs, \r\n2020). Effective adaptation requires cross-jurisdictional and cross\u0002sectoral policy coherence and national coordination (Delany-Crowe \r\net al., 2019; Rychetnik et al., 2019; MfE, 2020c)."


id: 3302ec9de6e38d12d79217ad88616e9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6239
content:
"path dependencies and potential lock-in of decisions, system \r\ndependencies and the potential for cascading impacts (Table 11.17) \r\n(Wilson et al., 2013; Clarvis et al., 2015; Pearson et al., 2018; Cradock\u0002Henry et al., 2020b; Lawrence et al., 2020b). Modelling and tools to \r\ntest the robustness and cost-effectiveness of options (Infometrics and \r\nPSConsulting, 2015; Qin and Stewart, 2020) can be used alongside \r\nadaptation strategies with decision-relevant and usable information \r\n(Smith et  al., 2016; Tangney, 2019; Serrao-Neumann et  al., 2020), \r\nparticularly when supported by effective governance and national and \r\nsub-national guidance (Box 11.6)."


id: f44b6d0bc269e254b2a34f64882e2a78
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40350
content:
"More inclusive, collaborative and learning-oriented community \r\nengagement processes are fundamental to effective adaptation \r\noutcomes (11.7.3.2) (very high confidence) (Boston, 2016; Lawrence \r\nand Haasnoot, 2017; Sellberg et  al., 2018; Serrao-Neumann et  al., \r\n2019a; Simon et al., 2020). More participatory vulnerability and risk \r\nassessments can better reflect different knowledge systems, values, \r\nperspectives, trade-offs, dilemmas, synergies, costs and risks (Jacobs \r\net  al., 2019; Ogier et  al., 2020; Tonmoy et  al., 2020). A shift from \r\nhierarchical to more cooperative governance modalities can assist \r\neffective adaptation (Vermeulen et al., 2018; Steffen et al., 2019; CoA, \r\n2020e; Lawrence et al., 2020b; MfE, 2020a; Hanna et al., 2021)."


id: 86e7725a47daf81a224bd1cddba9730
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20898
content:
"Concern for climate change has become widespread (Hopkins, 2015; \r\nBorchers Arriagada et  al., 2020), giving climate adaptation social \r\nlegitimacy (high confidence). Over three quarters of Australians \r\n(77%) agree that climate change is occurring, and 61% believe \r\nclimate change is caused by humans (Merzian et al., 2019). A growing \r\nproportion of Australians perceive links between climate change and \r\nhigh temperatures experienced during heatwaves and extremely hot \r\ndays (Summer 2018/2019) (48%), droughts and flooding (42%) and \r\nurban water shortages (30%) (Merzian et al., 2019). Rural populations \r\nin NSW perceive climate change impacts as stressing their well-being \r\nand mental health and requiring leadership and action (Austin et al., \r\n2020). In New Zealand, between 2009 and 2018, the proportion of New "


id: cf0c24adf8f1290b871cec0366024e64
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33773
content:
"The use of more systemic, collaborative and future-oriented engagement \r\napproaches is facilitating adaptation in local contexts (high confidence) \r\n(Rouse et al., 2013; MfE, 2017a; Leitch et al., 2019). Local 'adaptation \r\nchampions' and experimental and tailored engagement processes \r\ncan enhance learning (McFadgen and Huitema, 2017; Lindsay et  al., \r\n2019). Dynamic adaptive pathways planning (Lawrence et al., 2019a) \r\nand inclusive community governance (Schneider et al., 2020) can help \r\nprogress difficult decisions such as the relocation of cultural assets \r\nand managed retreat, and contestation about which public goods "


id: 96254515537860083677095801ed8fb7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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content:
"Zealanders who agreed or strongly agreed that climate change is real \r\nincreased from 58% to 78% (a 34.5% increase), while those agreeing \r\nor strongly agreeing that it was caused by humans increased from \r\n41% to 64% (a 56.1% increase) (Milfont et al., 2021). Nevertheless, \r\nNew Zealanders have a tendency to overestimate the amount of sea \r\nlevel rise (SLR), especially among those most concerned about climate \r\nchange and incorrectly associate it with melting sea ice, which has \r\nimplications for engagement and communication strategies (Priestley \r\net al., 2021)."


id: 76b8ea2596a01c0265fca41d16d70b7e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18102
content:
"There are two priority areas where new knowledge is critical for \r\naccelerating adaptation implementation."


id: c312eebf8fba9ce2a2780fd3f515dd62
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"A step change in adaptation action is needed to address climate \r\nrisks and to be consistent with climate resilient development (very \r\nhigh confidence). Current adaptation falls short on the assessment of \r\ncomplex risks, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. It is largely \r\nincremental and temporary given the scale of projected impacts; it has \r\nlimits and is mainly reactive rather than anticipatory. Furthermore, \r\nrisks are projected to cascade and compound, with impacts and costs \r\nthat challenge adaptive capacities (11.5) and call for transformational \r\nresponses (11.6, Table  11.15a, Table  11.15b; Supplementary Tables \r\nSM11.1a and SM11.1b)."


id: da417a1113a7f54b450834427f70bd71
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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"Implementing enablers can help drive adaptation ambition and action \r\nconsistent with climate resilient development (very high confidence) \r\n(11.7.3, Table  11.17). However, the scale and scope of cascading, \r\ncompounding and aggregate impacts (11.5.1) calls for new and timely \r\nadaptation, including more effective ongoing monitoring, evaluation, \r\nreview and continual adjustment (11.7.3) towards the transformations \r\nthat can break through the path dependencies that define the way things \r\nare done now (Cradock-Henry et al., 2018b; UN et al., 2018; Head, 2020). \r\nHowever, complex interactions between objectives can create social and \r\neconomic trade-offs (Table 11.1, 11.3.5.3, 11.7.3.1, Box 11.6)."


id: 4b6cff3272f7357069bd36357ad5d310
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"Climate change is affecting Australia and New Zealand in profound ways. Some natural systems of cultural, environmental, social and economic \r\nsignificance are at risk of irreversible change. The socioeconomic costs of climate change are substantial, with impacts that cascade and \r\ncompound across sectors and regions, as demonstrated by heatwaves, wildfire, cyclone, drought and flood events."


id: cf510fdc066088345b3fff43eaa9b564
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"Temperature has increased by 1.4degC in Australia and 1.1degC in New Zealand over the last 110  years, with more \r\nextreme hot days. The oceans in the region have warmed significantly, resulting in longer and more frequent \r\nmarine heatwaves. Sea levels have risen and the oceans have become more acidic. Snow depths have declined \r\nand glaciers have receded. Northwestern Australia and most of southern New Zealand have become wetter, while \r\nsouthern Australia and most of northern New Zealand have become drier. The frequency, severity and duration \r\nof extreme wildfire weather conditions have increased in southern and eastern Australia and northeastern New \r\nZealand."


id: 45c97e14e30bab93279e484bb4180e04
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"The impacts of climate change on marine, terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and species are evident. The \r\nmass mortality of corals throughout the Great Barrier Reef during marine heatwaves in 2016-2020 is a striking \r\nexample. Climate change has contributed to the unprecedented south-eastern Australia wildfires in the spring \r\nand summer of 2019-2020, loss of alpine habitats in Australia, extensive loss of kelp forests, shifts further south in \r\nthe distribution of almost 200 marine species, decline and extinction in some vertebrate species in the Australian \r\nwet tropics, expansion of invasive plants, animals and pathogens in New Zealand, erosion and flooding of coastal \r\nhabitats in New Zealand, river flow decline in southern Australia, increased stress in rural communities, insurance \r\nlosses for floods in New Zealand, increase in heatwave mortalities in Australian capital cities and fish deaths in the \r\nMurray-Darling River in the summer of 2018-2019."


id: fdc70d5de10b385fd16c8ded67ac8d13
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"The nine key risks to human systems and ecosystems in Australia and New Zealand from ongoing climate change are shown in Figure FAQ \r\n11.2.1. Some risks, especially on ecosystems, are now difficult to avoid. Other risks can be reduced by adaptation if global mitigation is effective."


id: 48dca9c5f82868a0633a6817992c7876
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"Risk is the combination of hazard, exposure and vulnerability. For a given hazard (e.g., fire), the risk will be greater \r\nin areas with high exposure (e.g., many houses) and/or high vulnerability (e.g., remote communities with limited \r\nescape routes). The severity and type of climate risk varies geographically (Figure FAQ11.2.1). Everyone will be \r\naffected by climate change, with disadvantaged and remote people and communities the most vulnerable."


id: e2478fc9f58e9f4d80fbee6e87844c76
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"The risks to natural and human systems are often compounded by impacts across multiple spatial and temporal \r\nscales. For example, fires damage property, farms, forests and nature with short- and long-term effects on \r\nbiodiversity, natural resources, human health, communities and the economy. Major impacts across multiple sectors \r\ncan disrupt supply chains to industries and communities and constrain delivery of health, energy, water and food \r\nservices. These impacts create challenges for the adaptation and governance of climate risks. When combined, they \r\nhave far-reaching socioeconomic and environmental impacts."


id: 15e993fe4a57f43df4dc7f743eafcb1c
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"FAQ 11.3 | How can Indigenous Peoples' knowledge and practice help us understand contemporary climate impacts \r\nand inform adaptation in Australia and New Zealand?"


id: cdb1a4b99b435841c6e22da011e0c616
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"In Australia and New Zealand, as with many places around the world, Indigenous Peoples with connections to their traditional country and \r\nextensive histories hold deep knowledge from observing and living in a changing climate. This provides insights that inform adaptation to \r\nclimate change."


id: c33916eca4e993719adbbd312bce11d8
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"Indigenous Australians--Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders--maintain knowledge regarding previous sea level \r\nrise, climate patterns and shifts in seasonal change associated with the flowering of trees and emergence of food \r\nsources, developed over thousands of generations of observation of their traditional country. Knowledge of localised \r\ncontemporary adaptation is also held by many Indigenous Australians with connections to traditional lands. With \r\nassured free and prior informed consent, this provides a means for Indigenous-guided land management, including \r\nfor fire management and carbon abatement, fauna studies, medicinal plant products, threatened species recovery, \r\nwater management and weed management."


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"Tangata Whenua Maori in New Zealand are grounded in Matauranga Maori knowledge, which is based on human-\r\nnature relationships and ecological integrity and incorporates practices used to detect and anticipate changes \r\ntaking place in the environment. Social-cultural networks and conventions that promote collective action and \r\nmutual support are central features of many Maori communities and these customary approaches are critical to \r\nresponding to, and recovering from, adverse environmental conditions. Intergenerational approaches to planning \r\nfor the future are also intrinsic to Maori social-cultural organisation and are expected to become increasingly \r\nimportant, elevating political discussions about conceptions of rationality, diversity and the rights of non-human \r\nentities in climate change policy and adaptation."


id: 886cf89c3f7232e8fbcc1f591674f64d
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"There is already work under way by governments, businesses, communities and Indigenous Peoples to help us adapt to climate change. \r\nHowever, much more adaptation is needed in light of the ongoing and intensifying climate risks. This includes coordinated laws, plans, \r\nguidance and funding that enable society to adapt and the information, education and training that can support it. Everyone has a part to \r\nplay working together."


id: a3261a9e858692dabd83a6fb589759ee
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"We currently mainly react to climate events such as wildfires, heatwaves, floods and droughts and generally rebuild \r\nin the same places. However, climate change is making these events more frequent and intense, and ongoing \r\nsea level rise and changes in natural ecosystems are advancing. Better coordination and collaboration between \r\ngovernment agencies, communities, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders and Tangata Whenua Indigenous \r\nPeoples, not-for-profit organisations and businesses will help prepare for these climate impacts more proactively, in \r\ncombination with future climate risks integrated into their decisions and planning. This will reduce the impacts we \r\nexperience now and the risks that will affect future generations."


id: 1fa17ce0a3d8ec1319d85aa940d75783
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"Some of the risks for natural systems are close to critical thresholds and adaptation may be unable to prevent \r\necosystem collapse. Other risks will be severe, but we can reduce their impact by acting now, for example coastal \r\nflooding from sea level rise, heat-related mortality and managing water stresses. Many of the risks have the \r\npotential to cascade across social and economic sectors with widespread societal impacts. In such cases, really \r\nsignificant system-wide changes will be needed in the way we currently live and govern. To facilitate such changes, \r\nnew governance frameworks, nationally consistent and accessible information, collaborative engagement and \r\npartnerships with all sectors, communities and Indigenous Peoples and the resources to address the risks are needed \r\n(Figure FAQ11.4.1)."


id: 484dc2200aa7801bfc900c03d4c05bd3
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content:
"However, our ability to adapt to climate change impacts also rests on every region in the world playing its part in \r\nreducing greenhouse gas emissions. If mitigation is ineffective, global warming will be rapid and adaptation costs \r\nwill increase, with worsening losses and damages."


id: b6ec0fb154ae51753e9cc54ec29384b6
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vector_id: 29388
content:
"(IPCC, 2018) (11.5.1, 11.5.2, Box 11.6) and legal risks for those with \r\nadaptation mandates and for financial institutions (11.5.1) (very high \r\nconfidence). The scale and scope of societal change needed for the \r\nregion to transition to more climate resilient development pathways \r\nrequires close attention to governance, ethical questions, the role \r\nof civil society and the place of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander \r\nPeoples and Tangata Whenua Maori in the co-production of ongoing \r\nadaptation at multiple scales (Loorbach et  al., 2017; Koehler et  al., \r\n2019; Hill et al., 2020)."


id: af8b6af26c2b786ba975235157c8a604
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28120
content:
"The region faces an extremely challenging future that will be highly \r\ndisruptive for many human and natural systems (IPCC, 2018) (UNEP, \r\n2020; AAS, 2021; IPCC, 2021) (11.5.1, 11.6, 11.7; Boxes 11.1-11.6; \r\nTable 11.14). The extent to which the limits to adaptation are reached \r\ndepends on whether global warming peaks this century at 1.5degC, 2degC \r\nor 3+degC above pre-industrial levels. Whatever the outcome, adaptation \r\nand mitigation are essential and urgent (very high confidence)."


id: ef9363baed516042d389c8afa3d657bc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39531
content:
"Lead Authors: Laura Astigarraga (Uruguay), Noemi Chacon (Venezuela), Nicolas Cuvi (Ecuador), \r\nChristian Huggel (Switzerland), Liliana Miranda (Peru), Mariana Moncassim Vale (Brazil), Jean \r\nPierre Ometto (Brazil), Pablo L. Peri, (Argentina), Julio C. Postigo (USA/Peru), Laura Ramajo (Chile/\r\nSpain), Lisandro Roco (Chile), Matilde Rusticucci (Argentina)."


id: 17039d92c3fe3c96c62d692320508ddc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1268
content:
"Contributing Authors: Julia Alves Menezes (Brazil), Pedro Borges (Venezuela), Jhonattan Bueno \r\n(Venezuela), Francisco Cuesta (Ecuador), Fabian Drenkhan (Peru), Alex Guerra (Guatemala), \r\nValeria Guinder (Argentina), Isabel Hagen (Switzerland), Jorgelina Hardoy (Argentina), Stella \r\nHartinger (Peru), Gioconda Herrera (Ecuador), Cecilia Herzog (Brazil), Barbara Jacob (Chile), Thais \r\nKasecker (Brazil), Andrea Lampis (Colombia/Brazil), Izabella Lentino (Brazil), Luis C. S. Madeira \r\nDomingues (Brazil), Jose Marengo (Brazil), David Montenegro Lapola (Brazil), Ana Rosa Moreno \r\n(Mexico), Julia de Niemeyer Caldas (Brazil), Eduardo Pacay (Costa Rica/Guatemala), Roberto \r\nPasten (Chile), Matias Piaggio (Uruguay), Osvaldo Rezende (Brazil), Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales \r\n(Colombia), Marina Romanello (Argentina/UK), Sadie J. Ryan (USA/UK), Anna Stewart-Ibarra \r\n(USA/Ecuador), Maria Valladares (Chile/Spain)"


id: 3cba60838fd789ffa8852b07ba4fbad3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7868
content:
"Castellanos, E., M.F. Lemos, L. Astigarraga, N. Chacon, N. Cuvi, C. Huggel, L. Miranda, M. Moncassim Vale, J.P. Ometto, \r\nP.L. Peri, J.C. Postigo, L. Ramajo, L. Roco, and M. Rusticucci, 2022: Central and South America. In: Climate Change \r\n2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the \r\nIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Portner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, \r\nA. Alegria, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Loschke, V. Moller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, \r\nUK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1689-1816, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.014."


id: ebac5aa6d5b1e226bd6fcf8a003b7a85
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38825
content:
"Global warming has caused glacier loss in the Andes from 30% \r\nto more than 50% of their area since the 1980s. Glacier retreat, \r\ntemperature increase and precipitation variability, together with \r\nland use changes, have affected ecosystems, water resources \r\nand livelihoods through landslides and flood disasters (very high \r\nconfidence). In several areas of the Andes, flood and landslide disasters \r\nhave increased, and water availability and quality and soil erosion have \r\nbeen affected by both climatic and non-climatic factors (high confidence). \r\n{12.3.2, 12.3.7, Figure 12.9, Figure 12.13, Table SM12.6}"


id: ced8080299e64d9c5e2d4664273b1668
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33732
content:
"Central and South America (CSA) are highly exposed, vulnerable \r\nand strongly impacted by climate change, a situation amplified \r\nby inequality, poverty, population growth and high population \r\ndensity, land use change particularly deforestation with \r\nthe consequent biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and high \r\ndependence of national and local economies on natural resources \r\nfor the production of commodities (high confidence1\r\n). Profound \r\neconomic, ethnic and social inequalities are exacerbated by climate \r\nchange. High levels of widespread poverty, weak water governance, \r\nunequal access to safe water and sanitation services and lack of \r\ninfrastructure and financing reduce adaptation capacity, increasing \r\nand creating new population vulnerabilities (high confidence). {12.1.1, \r\n12.2, 12.3, 12.5.5, 12.5.7, Figure 12.2}"


id: a08263972ad122ea62f12386489c304d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25451
content:
"The scientific evidence since the IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report \r\n(AR5) increased the confidence in the synergy among fire, land \r\nuse change, particularly deforestation, and climate change, \r\ndirectly impacting human health, ecosystem functioning, \r\nforest structure, food security and the livelihoods of resource\u0002dependent communities (medium confidence). Regional increases \r\nin temperature, aridity and drought increased the frequency and \r\nintensity of fire. On average, people in the region were more exposed \r\nto high fire danger between 1 and 26 additional days depending on \r\nthe sub-region for the years 2017-2020 compared to 2001-2004 (high \r\nconfidence). {12.2, 12.3, Figure 12.9, Figure 12.10, Table 12.5}"


id: dfd8127d189062217bd7954359da9ceb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36624
content:
"The Amazon forest, one of the world's largest biodiversity \r\nand carbon repositories, is highly vulnerable to drought \r\n(high confidence). The Amazon forest was highly impacted by the \r\nunprecedented droughts and higher temperatures observed in 1998, \r\n2005, 2010 and 2015/2016, which are attributed partly to climate \r\nchange. This resulted in high tree mortality rates and basin-wide \r\nreductions in forest productivity, momentarily turning pristine forest \r\nareas from a carbon sink into a net source of carbon to the atmosphere \r\n(high confidence). Other terrestrial ecosystems in CSA have been \r\nimpacted by climate change, through persistent drought or extreme \r\nclimatic events. The combined effect of anthropogenic land use \r\nchange and climate change increases the vulnerabilities of terrestrial \r\necosystems to extreme climate events and fires (medium confidence). \r\n{12.3, 12.4, Figure 12.7, Figure 12.9, Figure 12.10}"


id: bb85ac3afff50c518c9ae583b70aa774
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30211
content:
"Changes in the timing and magnitude of precipitation and \r\nextreme temperatures are impacting agricultural production \r\n(high confidence). Since the mid-20th century, increasing mean \r\nprecipitation has positively impacted agricultural production in SES, \r\nalthough extremely long dry spells have become more frequent, \r\naffecting the economies of large cities in southeastern Brazil. \r\nConversely, reduced precipitation and altered rainfall at the start and \r\nend of the rainy season and during the mid-summer drought (MSD) is \r\nimpacting rainfed subsistence farming, particularly in the Dry Corridor \r\nin CA and in the tropical Andes, compromising food security (high \r\nconfidence). The crop growth duration for maize in those regions was \r\nreduced by at least 5% between 1981-2010 and 2015-2019. {12.3.1, \r\n12.3.2, 12.3.6, Table 12.4}"


id: 523185de2914e1d901041b69e4764828
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11734
content:
"The distribution of terrestrial species has changed in the Andes \r\ndue to increasing temperature (very high confidence). Species \r\nhave shifted upslope, leading to range contractions for highland \r\nspecies and range contractions and expansions for lowland species, \r\nincluding crops and vectors of diseases (very high confidence). \r\n{12.3.2.4}"


id: 1b60c540505c8964d488b61b63568103
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1995
content:
"Climate change affects the epidemiology of climate-sensitive \r\ninfectious diseases in the region (high confidence). Examples \r\nare the effects of warming temperatures on increasing the suitability \r\nof transmission of vector-borne diseases, including endemic and \r\nemerging arboviral diseases such as dengue fever, chikungunya \r\nand Zika (medium confidence). The reproduction potential for the \r\ntransmission of dengue increased between 17% and 80% for the \r\nperiod 1950-1954 to 2016-2021, depending on the sub-region, as a \r\nresult of changes in temperature and precipitation (high confidence). \r\n{12.3.1, 12.3.2, 12.3.3, 12.3.5, 12.3.6, Table 12.1}"


id: af772ac844b397ff876bb77fa4483cdb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28103
content:
"Ocean and coastal ecosystems in the region, such as coral reefs, \r\nestuaries, salt marshes, mangroves and sandy beaches, are \r\nhighly sensitive and negatively impacted by climate change and \r\nderived hazards (high confidence). Observed impacts include the \r\nreduction in coral abundance, density and cover in Central America \r\n(CA), northwestern South America (NWS) and northeastern South \r\nAmerica (NES) and an increasing number of coral bleaching events \r\nin CA and NES; other observed impacts are changes in the plankton \r\ncommunity and in ocean and coastal food web structures, loss of \r\nvegetated wetlands and changes in macrobenthic communities in CA, \r\nNWS, northern South America (NSA) and southeastern South America \r\n(SES). {12.3, 12.5.2, Figure 12.8, Figure 12.9, Table SM12.3}"


id: 1e53dfc9d40198c7b35af7a07fbed311
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2530
content:
"The Andes, northeastern Brazil and the northern countries in \r\nCA are among the more sensitive regions to climatic-related \r\nmigrations and displacements, a phenomenon that has increased \r\nsince AR5 (high confidence). Climatic drivers interact with social, \r\npolitical, geopolitical and economic drivers; the most common climatic \r\ndrivers for migration and displacements are droughts, tropical storms "


id: 2daec42cc0cc5c82f1e0f2a7600a87d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5328
content:
"their location and the proper supply of basic urban services and \r\ntransport (high confidence). The adoption of nature-based solutions \r\n(e.g., urban agriculture and river restoration) and hybrid (grey-green) \r\ninfrastructure is still in the early stages, with weak connections to \r\npoverty and inequality reduction strategies (medium confidence). \r\nFocusing on risk reduction encompasses upgrading informal and \r\nprecarious settlements, built environments and housing conditions, \r\nwhich offer an important but still limited contribution to urban \r\nadaptation (high confidence). {12.5.5, 12.5.7, 12.6.1}"


id: c6d76a849c9dd5b0e15ed9e7971caab6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32296
content:
"and hurricanes, heavy rains and floods (high confidence). {12.3.1.4, \r\n12.3.2.4, 12.3.3.4, 12.3.5.4, 12.5.8.4}"


id: e5662c99daef772eaf4dd8b6065d80f7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37661
content:
"The impacts of climate change are not of equal scope for men \r\nand women (high confidence). Women, particularly the poorest, are \r\nmore vulnerable and are impacted in greater proportion. Often they \r\nhave less capacity to adapt, further widening structural gender gaps \r\n(high confidence). {12.3.7.3, 12.5.2.4, 12.5.2.5, 12.5.7.3, 12.5.8.1, \r\n12.5.8.3, 12.5.8.4}"


id: 63622d9d06c1ccf02cda264db03b0033
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14780
content:
"Adaptation initiatives for the health sector are mainly focused on \r\nthe development of climate services such as integrated climate\u0002health surveillance and observatories, forecasting climate\u0002related disasters and vulnerability maps (high confidence).\r\nClimate services for the health sector are largely focused on epidemic \r\nforecast tools and associated EWSs for vector-borne diseases and heat \r\nand cold waves. Political, institutional and financial barriers reduce \r\nthe feasibility of implementing these tools (high confidence). {12.5.6, \r\nTable 12.9, Table 12.11}"


id: d543884fb2a80103e8671fbcf1bbc83f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34845
content:
"Ecosystem-based adaptation is the most common adaptation \r\nstrategy for terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems (high \r\nconfidence). There is a focus on the protection of native terrestrial \r\nvegetation through the implementation of protected areas and payment \r\nfor ecosystem services (PES), especially those related to water provision. \r\nThe adaptation measures in place, however, are insufficient to safeguard \r\nterrestrial and freshwater ecosystems in the CSA from the negative \r\nimpacts of climate change (high confidence). {12.5.1, 12.5.3, 12.6}"


id: 64280cf335c82d9a54360b54f161ae2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14905
content:
"Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge (IKLK) are crucial \r\nfor the adaptation and resilience of social-ecological systems \r\n(high confidence). IKLK can contribute to reducing the vulnerability \r\nof local communities to climate change (medium confidence). {12.5.1, \r\n12.5.8, 12.6.2}"


id: de43f068b51e877324f05dc146c8ce73
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36363
content:
"Adaptation initiatives in ocean and coastal ecosystems mainly \r\nfocus on conservation, protection and restoration) (high \r\nconfidence). The main adaptation measures are ocean zoning, the \r\nprohibition of productive activities (e.g., fisheries, aquaculture, mining \r\nand tourism) on marine ecosystems, the improvement of research and \r\neducation programmes and the creation of specific national policies \r\n(high confidence). {12.5.2}"


id: 572b0e5e833f4690466f32aa4bafc94e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12589
content:
"Climate change is projected to convert existing risks in the \r\nregion into severe key risks (medium confidence). Key risks are \r\nassessed as follows: 1. Risk of food insecurity due to droughts; 2. Risk to \r\npeople and infrastructure due to floods and landslides; 3. Risk of water \r\ninsecurity due to declining snow cover, shrinking glaciers and rainfall \r\nvariability; 4. Risk of increasing epidemics, particularly of vector-borne \r\ndiseases; 5. Cascading risks surpassing public service systems; 6. Risk \r\nof large-scale changes and biome shifts in the Amazon; 7. Risks to \r\ncoral reef ecosystems; and 8. Risks to coastal socioecological systems \r\ndue to sea level rise (SLR), storm surges and coastal erosion. {12.3, \r\n12.4, Figure 12.9, Figure 12.11, Table 12.6, Table SM12.5}"


id: 8ee66a3f48e8da811b906da1d3841292
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22327
content:
"Adaptive water management has mainly centred on enhancing \r\nthe quantity and quality of water supply, including large \r\ninfrastructure projects, which, however, are often contested \r\nand can exacerbate water-related conflicts (high confidence).\r\nInclusive water regimes that overcome social inequalities and \r\napproaches including nature-based solutions, such as wetland \r\nrestoration and water storage and infiltration infrastructure, with \r\nsynergies for ecosystem conservation and disaster risk reduction, have \r\nbeen found to be more successful for adaptation and sustainable \r\ndevelopment (high confidence). {12.5.3, 12.6.1, 12.6.3}"


id: f12fcc17bb09bd6be1f90aea04a2cd12
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39819
content:
"Impacts on rural livelihoods and food security, particularly for \r\nsmall and medium-sized farmers and Indigenous peoples in \r\nthe mountains, are projected to worsen, including the overall \r\nreduction of agricultural production, suitable farming area and \r\nwater availability (high confidence). Projected yield reductions \r\nby 2050 under the A2 scenario are as follows: beans 19%, maize \r\n4-21%, rice 23% in CA with seasonal droughts projected to lengthen, \r\nintensify and increase in frequency. Small fisheries and farming of \r\nseafood will be negatively affected as El Nino Southern Oscillation \r\n(ENSO) events become more frequent and intense and ocean warming \r\nand acidification continues (medium confidence). {12.2, 12.3, 12.4, \r\nFigure 12.9, Figure 12.11, Table 12.4}"


id: e5804cf9445e4883d7f15f9595a8bff0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37683
content:
"Adaptation strategies for agricultural production are increasing \r\nin the region as a response to current and projected changes in \r\nclimate (high confidence). The main observed adaptation strategies \r\nin agriculture and forestry are soil and water management conservation, \r\ncrop diversification, climate-smart agriculture, early-warning systems \r\n(EWSs), upward shifting for plantations to avoid warming habitat \r\nand pests and improved management of pastures and livestock. \r\nAdaptation requires governance improvements and new strategies to \r\naddress the changing climate; nevertheless, barriers limiting adaptive \r\ncapacity persist such as lack of educational programmes for farmers, \r\nadequate knowledge of site-specific adaptation and institutional and \r\nfinancial constraints (high confidence). {12.5.4}"


id: 5a0127f4bc80450e3e122c37c318fc97
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13080
content:
"Extreme precipitation events, which result in floods, landslides \r\nand droughts, are projected to intensify in magnitude and \r\nfrequency due to climate change (medium confidence). Floods and \r\nlandslides pose a risk to life and infrastructure; a 1.5degC increase would "


id: e9ebab63f949f9333243b830ace602e9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38506
content:
"Urban adaptation in the region includes solutions on regulation, \r\nplanning, urban water management and housing (high \r\nconfidence). Regulation, planning and control systems are central \r\ntools for reducing risk associated with the security of buildings and "


id: 808efbdae2ec491396301870581c1d45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19746
content:
"actors in policymaking and planning for adaptation generate positive \r\nsynergies and better results. Adaptation policies and programmes \r\nthat consider age, socioeconomic status, race and ethnicity are more \r\nefficient because these factors determine vulnerability and potential \r\nbenefits of adaptation. Socioeconomic and political factors that \r\nprovide some level of safety and continuity of policies and actions \r\nare critical enablers of adaptation (high confidence). {12.5.1, 12.5.2, \r\n12.5.7, 12.5.8, 12.6.4}"


id: d7a8d712acf3e572edcf26442f7d7730
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35252
content:
"result in an increase of 100-200% in the population affected by floods \r\nin Colombia, Brazil and Argentina, 300% in Ecuador and 400% in Peru \r\n(medium confidence). {12.3, Figure 12.7, Figure 12.9, Table SM12.5}"


id: 7ca0464b9f32ed57f595bbfc5cbeae50
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19125
content:
"Increasing water scarcity and competition over water are \r\nprojected (high confidence). Disruption in water flows will \r\nsignificantly degrade ecosystems such as high-elevation wetlands and \r\naffect farming communities, public health and energy production (high \r\nconfidence). {12.3, Figure 12.3, Figure 12.9, Figure 12.11}"


id: e66ac94017d43bdd6be7b134f809d2f2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37845
content:
"The knowledge and awareness of climate change as a threat \r\nhave been increasing since AR5 due to the increasing frequency \r\nand magnitude of extreme weather events in the region, \r\ninformation available and climate justice activism (high \r\nconfidence). Conflicts in which the direct biophysical impacts of \r\nclimate change play a major role can unleash protests and strengthen \r\nsocial movements (medium confidence). {12.5.8, 12.6.4}"


id: 5746209926e16e482b61341d7ebf4fbd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12609
content:
"In coming decades, endemic and emerging climate-sensitive \r\ninfectious diseases are projected to increase (medium \r\nconfidence). This can happen through expanded distribution of \r\nvectors, especially viral infectious diseases of zoonotic origin in \r\ntransition areas between urban and suburban, or rural settings, and \r\nupslope in the mountains (medium confidence). {12.3.2, 12.3.5, 12.3.7, \r\nFigure 12.5, Figure 12.9, Figure 12.11, Table 12.6, Table SM12.5}"


id: 3229c1a7a7f34e3b1b430572cce23478
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6081
content:
"Research approaches that integrate IKLK systems with natural \r\nand social sciences have increased since AR5 (high confidence)\r\nand are helping to improve decision-making processes in the region, \r\nreduce maladaptation and foster transformational adaptation through \r\nthe integration with ecosystem-based adaptation and community\u0002based adaptation (high confidence). {12.5.1, 12.5.8, 12.6.2}"


id: 206b9b9772778656681a8cb10acd31be
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2924
content:
"The positive feedback between climate change and land use \r\nchange, particularly deforestation, is projected to increase the \r\nthreat to the Amazon forest, resulting in the increase of fire \r\noccurrence, forest degradation (high confidence) and long-term \r\nloss of forest structure (medium confidence). The combined effect \r\nof both impacts will lead to a long-term decrease in carbon stocks \r\nin forest biomass, compromising Amazonia's role as a carbon sink, \r\nlargely conditioned on the forest's responses to elevated atmospheric \r\nCO2 (medium confidence). The southern portion of the Amazon has \r\nbecome a net carbon source to the atmosphere in the past decade \r\n(high confidence). {12.3.3, 12.3.4, Figure 12.9, Figure 12.11, Table 12.6, \r\nTable SM12.5}"


id: 1d4441d4a857aaad3201f004691f4388
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2329
content:
"The most widely reported obstacle to adaptation in terrestrial, \r\nfreshwater, ocean and coastal ecosystems is financing (high \r\nconfidence). There is also a significant gap in identifying limits to \r\nadaptation and weak institutional capacity for implementation. This \r\nhinders the development of comprehensive adaptation programmes, \r\neven under adequate funding. {12.5.1, 12.5.2}"


id: 6e276d770d72f9b773630f7fd7897ee4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16642
content:
"The use of climate-smart agriculture technologies strengthening \r\nsynergies among productivity and mitigation is rising as an \r\nimportant adaptation strategy in the region (high confidence).\r\nPertinent information for farmers provided by climate information \r\nservices is facilitating the understanding of the role of climate \r\ncompared with other drivers in perceived productivity changes. Index \r\ninsurance builds resilience and contributes to adaptation by protecting \r\nfarmers' assets in the face of major climate shocks, by promoting \r\naccess to credit and by the adoption of improved farm technologies \r\nand practices. {12.5.4}"


id: fe67b7ed32aa46d51fb995eb0ee71426
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42135
content:
"Up to 85% of natural systems (plant and animal species, habitats \r\nand communities) evaluated in the literature for biodiversity \r\nhotspots in the region are projected to be negatively impacted \r\nby climate change (medium confidence). Available studies focus \r\nmainly on vertebrates and plants of the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado in \r\nBrazil and in CA, with a large knowledge gap on freshwater ecosystems \r\n{12.3, 12.5.1, CCP1}"


id: ba1c14687f2561b8b5c4eb637998a965
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29967
content:
"Ocean and coastal ecosystems in the region will continue to \r\nbe highly impacted by climate change (high confidence). Coral \r\nreefs are projected to lose their habitat, change their distribution range \r\nand suffer more bleaching events driven by ocean warming. In the \r\nRepresentative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, \r\nby 2050, virtually every coral reef will experience at least one severe \r\nbleaching event per year (high confidence). Under all RCP scenarios of \r\nclimate change, there will be changes in the geographical distribution of \r\nmarine species and ocean and coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, \r\nestuaries and rocky shores, as well as those species held in fisheries \r\n(medium confidence). {Figure 12.9, Table SM12.3, Table SM12.4}"


id: 89315881f2dfc83ec781b6ea1f16eff2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21304
content:
"Institutional instability, fragmented services and poor water \r\nmanagement, inadequate governance structures, insufficient \r\ndata and analysis of adaptation experience are barriers to \r\naddressing the water challenges in the region (high confidence).\r\n{12.5.3}"


id: e93b7744b7403ce74c9219f16b8993ca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38389
content:
"Inequality, poverty and informality shaping cities in the region \r\nincrease vulnerability to climate change, while policies, plans \r\nor interventions addressing these social challenges with \r\ninclusive approaches represent opportunities for adaptation\r\n(high confidence). Initiatives to improve informal and precarious \r\nsettlement, guaranteeing access to land and decent housing, are \r\naligned with comprehensive adaptation policies that include the \r\ndevelopment and reduction of poverty, inequality and disaster risk \r\n(medium confidence). {12.5.5, 12.5.7}"


id: 31a92bc6747cf2e4d1ffb18606d24123
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5981
content:
"Policies and actions at multiple scales and the participation \r\nof actors from all social groups, including the most exposed \r\nand vulnerable populations, are critical elements for effective \r\nadaptation (high confidence). Engaging social movements and local "


id: 2f4893b643d423db5d4586b048ef832f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5585
content:
"Adaptation policies often address climate impact drivers, but seldom \r\ninclude the social and economic underpinnings of vulnerability. \r\nThis narrow scope limits adaptation results and compromises their \r\ncontinuity in the region (high confidence). In a context of unaddressed \r\nunderdevelopment, adaptation policies tackling poverty and inequality \r\nare marginal, underfunded and not clearly included at national, regional \r\nor urban levels. Dialogue and agreement that include multiple actors \r\nare mechanisms to acknowledge trade-offs and promote dynamic, \r\nsite-specific adaptation options (medium confidence). {12.5.7}"


id: ead8a45a1e0bf91b66e6fb90ef248117
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38682
content:
"CSA is divided into eight climatic sub-regions by Working Group (WG) \r\nI (Figure 12.1). Though the southern part of Mexico is included in the \r\nclimatic sub-region South Central America (SCA) for WGI, Mexico is \r\nassessed in Chapter 14 (North America). In this chapter, we refer to this \r\nsub-region as CA because it excludes southern Mexico. The climate\u0002change literature for the region occasionally includes Mexico, and in \r\nthose cases, our assessment makes reference to Latin America but \r\nwhen only southern Mexico is included, the term Mesoamerica is used. \r\nFigure  12.2 and Table  SM12.1 summarise relevant characteristics of \r\nthe sub-regions included in this chapter."


id: c7043d82398c22ffbaae4425933db64c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32326
content:
"Poligon delineations represent the boundaries used \r\nfor the regional synthesis of historical trends and \r\nfuture climate change projections used in the \r\nAssessment Reports of the IPCC WGI."


id: da36c18835d85285a3c00d693e3ab84f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35688
content:
"* Different from the WGI South Central America (SCA) \r\nwhich includes the southern part of Mexico."


id: 72a797810a7438ed71962fdd6a732069
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17414
content:
"Figure 12.1 |  Sub-regions included in CSA region. Note that the WGI climatic sub-region SCA corresponds to CA in this chapter, as southern Mexico is included in Chapter \r\n14. Small islands in the region are covered in Chapter 15 in more detail."


id: 40e326a2b510a2933159ba361d1bba45
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8603
content:
"Figure 12.2 |  Characterisation of the region. Population data from ISIMIP (2021) after Klein Goldewijk et al. (2017). Biodiversity expressed as marine and terrestrial species \r\nrichness adapted from Gagne et al. (2020). Land cover data from ESA (2018). Human Development Index (HDI) and its components from UNDP (2020). HDI and components for \r\nFrench Guiana from Global Data Lab (2020)."


id: 452164a9363965ec933e986f435663ac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9386
content:
"available in the literature at the sub-regional level, followed by the \r\nidentification of risks as a result of the interaction of those aspects. \r\nThis integrated sub-regional approach ensures a balance in the text, \r\nparticularly for countries that are usually underrepresented in the \r\nliterature but that show a high level of vulnerability and impacts, such \r\nas those observed in CA. The sectoral assessment of adaptation that \r\nfollows is useful for policymakers and implementers, usually focused \r\nand organised by sectors, government ministries or secretaries that can \r\neasily locate the relevant adaptation information for their particular \r\nsector. To ensure coherence in the chapter, a summary of the assessed "


id: b45d3e0d28e222e81f41934ec68b5094
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28969
content:
"The chapter is divided into two main sections. The first section follows \r\nan integrative approach in which hazards, exposure, vulnerability, \r\nimpacts and risks are discussed following the eight climatically \r\nhomogeneous sub-regions described in WGI AR6 (Figure  12.1). The \r\nsecond section assesses the implemented and proposed adaptation \r\npractices by sector; in doing so, it connects to the WGII AR6 cross\u0002chapter themes. The storyline is then a description of the hazards, \r\nexposure, vulnerability and impacts providing as much detail as is "


id: 997012f1a89f44a2b689f8bdf7bdfce1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24222
content:
"product in many CSA countries (SRCCL Chapter 3, Mirzabaev et al., \r\n2019). Distinguishing climate-induced changes from land use changes \r\nis challenging, but 5-6% of biomes in SA are expected to change by \r\n2100 due to climate change (SRCCL Chapter 4, Olsson et al., 2019)."


id: b142ea8c6fc4d6d61a78a44c7fefa653
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28416
content:
"adaptation options by key risks is presented, followed by a feasibility \r\nassessment for some relevant adaptation options. The chapter closes \r\nwith case studies and a discussion of the knowledge gaps evidenced \r\nin the process of the assessment."


id: 92a212d2e7704822ab471d60b2c412b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23016
content:
"Changes in weather and climatic patterns are negatively affecting \r\nhuman health in CSA, in part through the emergence of diseases in \r\npreviously non-endemic areas (WGII AR5 Chapter 27, Magrin et  al., \r\n2014). Projections of potential impacts of climate change on malaria \r\nconfirm that weather and climate are among the drivers of geographic \r\nrange, intensity of transmission, and seasonality; the changes of risk \r\nbecome more complex with additional warming (very high confidence) \r\n(SR15 Chapter 3, Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2018). There is high confidence\r\nthat constraining the warming to 1.5degC would reduce risks for unique \r\nand threatened ecosystems safeguarding the services they provide \r\nfor livelihoods and sustainable development (food, water) in CA and \r\nAmazon (SR15 Chapter 5, Roy et al., 2018)."


id: c80c75efc74af3ecc41d8bf5cc3a89ec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:21:58
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32504
content:
"CSA shows increasing trends of climatic change and variability and \r\nextreme events severely impacting the region, exacerbating problems \r\nof rampant and persistent poverty, precarious health systems and \r\nwater and sanitation services, malnutrition and pollution. Inadequate \r\ngovernance and lack of participation escalates the vulnerability and \r\nrisk to climate variability and change in the region (high confidence) \r\n(WGII AR5 Chapter 27) (Magrin et al., 2014)."


