# document

id: 45ae22fbff0d3c05392c9f42476b168d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9474
content:
"Perhaps the greatest source of adaptive capacity that emerged after \r the hurricane came from the civic sector and community-based \r organisations, and local residents. Hundreds of non-profit and \r grassroots organisations became active in disaster recovery and \r are now catalysing actions to advance social transformation and \r sustainable development. In the energy sector, numerous communities \r and NGOs developed new action plans to promote transitions to \r renewable energy and community-based microgrids, such as the \r Queremos Sol initiative (https://www.queremossolpr.com/), and the \r establishment of solar panels in community centres and residences by \r the Puerto Rico Community Foundation and Resilient Power Puerto \r Rico. The San Juan Bay Estuary Program, an NGO in the San Juan \r metropolitan area, launched alongside the Clinton Global Initiative \r the development of a watershed-based multi-jusrisdictional hazard \r [...]"


id: d5d28bc68d09c78db7abdb36b02b7b2b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34928
content:
"[...] mitigation plan, the first watershed-based plan for the metro region. \r The organisation has established resilience hubs to support the \r community with critical resources, communications and energy supply \r during an emergency. In many of the most isolated areas across the \r island where government aid did not reach them for months, the \r communities that self-organised during recovery are also leading \r examples of community social-ecological resilience. In Utuado, one \r of the hardest hit areas by the hurricane, their main community \r organisation known as COSSAO (Corporacion de Servicios de Salud \r y Desarrollo Socioeconomico, El Otoao) emerged from the hurricane "


id: a1f1bf401c891ff7f8d92bd0f321c8b3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25726
content:
"Consequently, they are particularly vulnerable to climate change, and \r the urban poor residents suffer disproportionate burdens and losses \r from natural hazards, which undermines urban resilience (Williams\r et al., 2019). Recent impacts from flooding have brought wide-spread \r devastation to urban poor residents in major coastal urban centres \r including Accra, Lagos, Freetown, Maputo and Dar es Salaam, \r resulting in injury and death, displacement of people, loss of assets, \r destruction of public infrastructure and disruption to livelihoods and \r economies (Douglas et al., 2008; Adelekan, 2010; Yankson et al., 2017; \r Allen et al., 2017). Flooding and long-term inundation also lead the \r spread of diseases and health risks (Sverdlik, 2011; Zerbo, Delgado \r and Gonzalez, 2020). Climate change will also bring stresses such as \r city-wide reductions in freshwater availability, and heatwaves that \r have particularly severe consequences for residents of poorly built \r [...]"


id: f977c1a98c2ca0cbe2fcce3b41437397
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41253
content:
"[...] homes in informal settlements (Pasquini et  al., 2020; Kayaga et  al., \r 2021; Wilby et al., 2021)."


id: fcba2b25e628019eeecc8b0d57ab9dd8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41827
content:
"Adaptation efforts, however, continue to face many governance hurdles. \r Up to 2020, only 2-3% of the USD 20  million Federal Government \r recovery funds had been spent with hundreds of families that lost \r their homes or roofs in 2017 yet to receive the help they need (Colon \r Almenas, 2020). Lack of administrative capacities, coordination across \r sectors and efforts, transparency and accountability are some of the \r governance barriers that keep recovery and transformation efforts from \r materialising (Lamba Nieves and Marxuach, 2020). Puerto Ricans are \r now contending with the reality that the disaster they are experiencing \r is not an outcome of a singular event but of multiple hazards converging \r with pre-existing vulnerabilities and low adaptive capacities creating \r severe multi-hazard risk to the island (Eakin, Munoz-Erickson and \r Lemos, 2018; Gould et al., 2018). Many Puerto Ricans now question \r when the disaster began and when it ended because they have been \r [...]"


id: f1f3f231bd63a2418676580d4cbb4f8f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39956
content:
"In response to these risks, a wide range of adaptation efforts have been \r implemented in cities across sub-Saharan Africa (Hunter et al., 2020). \r In Freetown, informal settlement residents have led data generation \r efforts that capture the value of local knowledge in understanding \r climate risk. Through partnerships with NGOs and research institutions, \r informal settlement residents have mapped climate hazard hotspots \r using geo-referenced tools, producing both digital and hardcopy \r outputs that serve as a blueprint for climate-informed community \r development discourses (Allen et  al., 2020b; Visman et  al., 2020). \r Similarly, residents of informal settlements in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, \r have profiled community climate and health risks by using an adaptation \r of the 'Action at the Frontline' methodology developed by the Global \r Network of Civil Society Organisations for Disaster Reduction (GNDR). \r Locally informed risk profiles support the development of community \r [...]"


id: fb73ea3349909a7ed5cb9ca1a55b514
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41615
content:
"[...] action plans based on prioritisation and ranking of scaled-down \r interventions that communities can collectively do on their own \r (Osuteye et  al., 2020). This process highlights the lived experiences \r of climate change, and allows communities to develop deliberation \r spaces, communal solidarity and cohesion, and share adaptation \r strategies (Sakijege et  al., 2014). Such sharing and peer-to-peer \r learning is particularly useful because adaptive capacities are unevenly \r distributed among exposed populations (Ajibade and McBean, 2014). \r The community-generated assessments and data consider the range of \r environmental, socioeconomic and political factors that contribute to \r a better understanding of how climate change affects the vulnerability \r of low-income urban residents, and how this changes over time."


id: c47bc7e7576979426a063dcc2f3ceab7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31871
content:
"Informal settlements account for over three-quarters of residential \r areas in sub-Saharan Africa and have grown rapidly over the last \r three decades (Visagie and Turok, 2020). Informal settlements will \r remain home to a significant proportion of the urban population of \r this region which is projected to grow by 2.5 times between 2020 and \r 2050 (UNDESA, 2018), driven by a complex set of underlying factors \r including socioeconomic conditions, inadequate planning systems, \r local and foreign investment patterns, and rural-to-urban migration \r (De Longueville et al., 2020). Yet residents of informal settlements are \r often excluded from macro-level visions and policies that seek to make \r cities safer and improve resilience (Adenle et al., 2017; Pelling et al., \r 2018). This case study compares the experience of collective action to \r manage risk in the informal settlements of Freetown, Sierra Leone, with \r other cases in Sub-Saharan Africa. These examples show how local \r [...]"


id: f0638e7887718cbb9684fbdc58859cd4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39672
content:
"[...] knowledge and capacity, engagement of policymakers in meaningful \r ways with residents of informal communities, and institutional change, \r can combine to deliver adaptation outcomes at a city scale (Kareem\r et al., 2020)."


id: 2742710b042346b5926b7fbfcf723f33
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4075
content:
"work closely with the local research institution, the Sierra Leone \r Urban Research Centre (SLURC). SLURC has played an essential role \r in curating spaces for continuous learning and relationship-building \r between FEDURP and community residents, including the formation of \r 'Community Learning Platforms' (CLP) for mixed groups of community \r actors (City Learning Platform, 2019) to build their capacities to address \r climate risk collectively. This is done by drawing on the data, agency \r and mobilisation potential of community organisations in informal \r settlements. In the coastal settlement of Cockle Bay at the western end \r of the city, uncontrolled traditional land reclamation ('banking') along \r the shores progressively exposed residents to perennial floods from \r tidal surges, and the settlement received regular threats of evictions \r from city authorities. However, residents have drawn on their climate \r risk knowledge and hazard profiling to self-manage a process of action \r [...]"


id: 72043b2b794c12fdb085577a4d7bf5ad
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17305
content:
"[...] planning resulting in a decision to prohibit further land reclamation. It \r also identified and demarcated an exterior boundary of the settlement \r and planned and constructed new drainage channels to carry away \r runoff water within the community (Allen et al., 2017). The community \r organisations have subsequently successfully negotiated with the "


id: aca317e5f320ca6f08fd65d4af077301
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27616
content:
"The approach taken in Freetown demonstrates a pathway to adaptation \r that is based on a more people-centred approach to urban planning \r that understands the aspirations of urban residents, addresses climate \r risk and advances sustainable development (Woodcraft et al., 2020; \r Fraser et al., 2017). It further provides an example of the ways in which \r different sources and scales of data can be co-produced (Kovacic et al., \r 2019) and targeted interventions can be co-designed with community \r residents (Musango et al., 2020). The community-generated data on \r climate and health risks and the subsequent strategic action plans \r developed through local community organisations' work have been \r recognised and incorporated into a new city-wide initiative led by \r the Office of the Mayor, dubbed Transform Freetown (Allen et  al., \r 2020a). The action has expanded the political space for the urban \r poor's collectives to strategically engage in urban resilience planning, \r [...]"


id: 65742bfeddf45ad1e9da1bb5c4dc45fa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15114
content:
"[...] highlighting the value and potential of participatory processes and \r community-generated data."


id: 980100485b6134c895ca1dead4468a39
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23955
content:
"Urbanisation: A Megatrend Driving Global Climate Risk and Potential for Low-Carbon and Resilient Futures\r Severe weather events, exacerbated by anthropogenic emissions, are already having devastating impacts on people who live in urban \r areas, and on the infrastructure that supports these communities and those of many other distant places (high confidence) (Cai et al., \r 2019; Folke et al., 2021). Between 2000 and 2015, the global population in locations that were affected by floods grew by 58-86 million \r (Tellman et al., 2021). The direct economic costs of all extreme events reached USD 210-268 billion in 2020 (Aon, 2021) or about USD \r 0.7 billion d-1; this figure does not include knock-on costs in supply chains or days off work lost so that the actual economic costs could \r be far higher. Depending on RCP, between half (RCP2.6) and three-quarters (RCP8.5) of the global population could be exposed to periods \r [...]"


id: 5baf56d32313b94367a038b041b59b22
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13381
content:
"[...] of life-threatening climatic conditions arising from coupled impacts of extreme heat and humidity by 2100 (see Section 6.2.2.1; WGII \r Figure 6.3; Mora et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2021; Huang et al., 2019)."


id: 545d92c9e25617cde76494218458ae39
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12121
content:
"Building today for resilience and lower emissions is far easier than retrofitting tomorrow. As urbanisation unfolds, its legacy continues \r to be the locking in of emissions and vulnerabilities (high confidence) (Urge-Vorsatz et al., 2018; Seto et al., 2016). Retrofitting, disaster \r reconstruction and urban regeneration programmes offer scope for strategic direction changes to low-carbon and high-resilience urban \r form and function if they are inclusive in design and implementation. Rapid urban growth means new investment, new buildings and \r infrastructure, new demands for energy and transport and new questions about what a healthy and fulfilling urban life can be. The USD \r 90 trillion expected to be invested in new urban development by 2030 (NCE, 2018), is a global opportunity to place adaptation and \r mitigation directly into urban infrastructure and planning, and social policy including education and health care and environmental \r [...]"


id: 2aeae44945c28621d3a81dd75fc9d95
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4787
content:
"[...] management (Urge-Vorsatz et al., 2018). If this opportunity is missed, if business as usual urbanisation persists, then social and physical \r vulnerability will be not be so easily confronted."


id: 320d4912c505001088682374e4b0323c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6064
content:
"Integrated approaches to tackle common drivers of emissions and cascading risks provide the basis for strengthening synergies across \r mitigation and adaptation, and managing possible trade-offs with sustainable development (limited evidence, medium agreement) \r (Grafakos et al., 2019; Landauer, Juhola and Klein, 2019). Analysis of 315 local authority emission reduction plans across the European \r Union reveals that the most common policies cover municipal assets and structures (Palermo et al. 2020). Estimates of emission reductions \r by non-state and sub-state actors in 10 high-emitting economies projected GHG emissions in 2030 would be 1.2-2.0 GtCO2-eq per year \r or 3.8-5.5% lower compared to scenario projections for current national policies (31.6-36.8 GtCO2-eq per year) if the policies are \r fully implemented and do not change the pace of action elsewhere (Kuramochi et al. 2020). The value of integrating mitigation and \r [...]"


id: 78a41ba9065c972c6c8989bb01972075
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18418
content:
"[...] adaptation is underscored in the opportunities for decarbonising existing urban areas, and investing in social, ecological and technological \r infrastructure resilience (WGII 6.4). Integrating mitigation and adaption is challenging (Landauer, Juhola and Klein, 2019) but can provide \r multiple benefits for the health and well-being of urban inhabitants (Sharifi, 2020)."


id: ba2a09eb468fde28267359cdfcd967ff
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29978
content:
"Effective climate strategies combine mitigation and adaptation responses, including through linking adaptive urban land use with GHG \r emission reductions (medium evidence, high agreement) (Xu et al., 2019; Patterson et al., 2021). For example, urban green and blue \r infrastructure can provide co-benefits for mitigation and adaptation (Urge-Vorsatz et al., 2018) and is an important entry point for \r integrating adaptation and mitigation at the urban level (Frantzeskaki et al., 2019). Grey and physical infrastructure such as sea defences \r can immediately reduce risk, but can also transfer risk and limit future options. Social policy interventions including social safety nets \r provide financial security for the most at risk and can manage vulnerability determined both by specific hazards and independently. \r Hazard-independent mechanisms for vulnerability reduction, such as population-wide social security, provide resilience in the face of \r [...]"


id: 47f3342319f179e4b22622690d6b6002
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9874
content:
"[...] unanticipated cascading impacts or surprise and novel climate-related hazard exposure. Social interventions can also support, or be \r led by, ambitions to reach the Sustainable Development Goals (Archer, 2016). Climate resilient development invites planners to plan \r interventions and monitor the effectiveness of outcomes beyond individual projects and across wider remits that reach into sustainable \r development. Curbing the emission impacts of urban activities to reach net zero in the next decades while improving the resilience of \r urban areas necessitates an integrated response now."


id: f49a552ae1a6d2cc96268692681d69ef
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40407
content:
"Innovative governance and finance solutions are required to manage complex and interconnected risks across essential key infrastructures, \r networks and services and meet basic human needs in urban areas (medium confidence) (Moser et al., 2019; Colenbrander, Dodman and \r Mitlin, 2018). There are many examples of 'ready-to-use' policy tools, technologies and practical interventions for policymakers seeking \r to act on adaptation and mitigation (Keenan, Chu and Peterson, 2019; Bisaro and Hinkel, 2018; Chirambo, 2021). Tax and fiscal incentives \r for business and individuals can help support city-wide change behaviour toward low carbon and risk reducing choices. Change can start \r where governments have most control; in public sector institutions and investment, but the challenge ahead requires partnership with \r private sector and community actors acting at scale and with accountability. Urban climate governance and finance needs to address \r [...]"


id: ab63cf2fe6982d6c91bfe0be080560c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27388
content:
"[...] urban inequalities at the forefront if the urban opportunity is to realise the ambition of the Sustainable Development Goals."


id: 4d3dc54fd969b3ad6b66f6c4c8a9be09
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10869
content:
"Increasing investment at pace will put pressure on governance capability and transparency and accountability of decision making\r (medium confidence) (WG II 6.6.4.5). Urban climate action that actively includes local actors and is built on an evidence base open to \r independent scrutiny is more likely to avoid unintended, negative maladaptive impacts and mobilise a wide range of local capacities. \r In the long run, this is also more likely to carry public support, even if some experiments and investments do not deliver the intended \r social benefits. Legislation, technical capacity and governance capability is required to be able to absorb additional finance. About USD \r 384 billion yr-1 of climate finance has been invested in urban areas in recent years. This remains at about 10% of the annual climate \r finance that would be necessary for low-carbon and resilient urban development (Negreiros et al., 2021). Rapid deployment of funds \r [...]"


id: e634f55dab7d104c7b6dd5c106e02689
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37806
content:
"[...] to stimulate economies in recovery from COVID-19 have highlighted the pitfalls of funding expansion ahead of policy innovation and \r capacity building. The result can be an intensification of existing urban forms, exactly the kinds of choices and preferences that contribute \r to risk creation and its concentration among those with little public voice or economic power."


id: 5a1c10235d9e43c2915f85a6d6731c16
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13103
content:
"Iterative and experimental approaches to climate adaptation and mitigation decision making co-generated in partnership with \r communities, can advance climate-resilient decarbonisation (medium evidence, high agreement) (Caldarice, Tollin and Pizzorni, 2021; \r Culwick et al., 2019; van der Heijden and Hong, 2021). Conditions of complexity, uncertainty and constrained resources require innovative \r solutions which are both adaptive and anticipatory. Complex interactions among multiple agents in times of uncertainty makes decision \r making about social, economic, governance, and infrastructure choices challenges, and can lead decision makers to postpone action. \r This is the case for those balancing household budgets, residential investment portfolios and city-wide policy responsibilities. Living with \r climate change requires changes to business-as-usual design making. Co-design and collaboration with communities through iterative \r [...]"


id: ce4f34b8c9ce27035e658577c7b62fda
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33635
content:
"[...] policy experimentation can point the way toward CRD pathways (Ataov and Peker, 2021). Key to successful learning is transparency in \r policymaking, inclusive policy processes and robust local modelling, monitoring and evaluation, which are not yet widely undertaken \r (Ford et al., 2019; Sanchez Rodriguez, Urge-Vorsatz and Barau, 2018)."


id: 7d130bcb8c39e77cd68c6712fde72c85
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19189
content:
"Local governments play an important role in driving climate action across mitigation and adaptation as managers of assets, regulators, \r mobilisers and catalysts of action, but few cities are undertaking transformative climate adaptation or mitigation actions (limited \r evidence, medium agreement) (Heikkinen, Yla-Anttila and Juhola, 2019). Local actors are providers of infrastructure and services, \r regulators of zoning, and can be conveners and champions of an integrated approach for mitigation and adaptation at multiple levels \r (limited evidence, high confidence). New opportunities in governance and finance can enable cities to pool resources together and \r aggregate interventions to innovate ways of mobilising urban climate finance at scale (White and Wahbah, 2019; Simpson et al., 2019; \r Colenbrander, Dodman and Mitlin, 2018). However, research increasingly points toward the difficulties faced during the implementation \r [...]"


id: 9db3893cfb615c5cd6f0f4fa6412888a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24975
content:
"[...] of climate financing in situ, such as the fragmentation of structures of governance capable of managing large investments effectively \r (Mohammed et al., 2019)."


id: 752b35258922c98ec60630c230b59e3a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17852
content:
"Scaling up transformative place-based action for both adaptation and mitigation requires enabling conditions including land-based \r financing, intermediaries and local partnerships (medium evidence, high agreement) (Tirumala and Tiwari, 2021; ). Governance \r structures that combine actors working at different levels with different mixes of tools are effective in addressing challenges related \r to implementation of integrated action, while cross-sectoral coordination is necessary (Singh et al., 2020). Joint institutionalisation of \r mitigation and adaptation in local governance structures can also enable integrated action (Gopfert et al., 2020; Hurlimann et al., 2021). \r However, the proportion of international finance that reaches local recipients remains low, despite the repeated focus of climate policy \r on place-based adaptation and mitigation (Manuamorn, 2019). Green financing instruments that enable local climate action without \r [...]"


id: f21f16517248629ba922c083ba49670f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39990
content:
"[...] exacerbating current forms of inequality can jointly address mitigation, adaptation and sustainable development. Climate finance that \r also reaches beyond non-state enterprises, including SMEs, communities and NGOs, and is responsive to the needs of urban inhabitants, \r including disabled individuals and different races or ethnicities, is essential for inclusive and resilient urban development (Colenbrander, \r Dodman and Mitlin, 2018Frenova, 2020). Developing networks that can exert climate action at scale is another priority for climate \r finance."


id: aab298e6f6ec01f2a3d6b73d4a9ca15e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27255
content:
"The urbanisation megatrend is an opportunity to transition global society. Enabling urban governance to avert cascading risk and achieve \r low-carbon, resilient development will involve co-production of policy and planning, rapid implementation and greater cross-sector \r coordination, monitoring and evaluation (limited evidence, medium agreement) (Grafakos et  al., 2019; Di Giulio et  al., 2018). New \r constellations of responsible actors are required to manage hybrid local-city or cross-city risk management and decarbonisation initiatives \r (limited evidence, medium agreement). These may increasingly benefit from linkages across more urban and more rural space as \r recognition of cascading and systemic risk brings recognition of supply chains, remittance flows and migration trends as vectors of risk \r and resilience. Urban governance will be better prepared in planning, prioritising and financing the kind of measures that can reduce GHG \r [...]"


id: 95172f6e58fcaa30d3164057f4026aab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23435
content:
"[...] emissions and improve resilience at scale and pace when considering a view of cascading risks and carbon lock-ins globally, while acting \r locally to address local limitations and capacities, including the needs and priorities of urban citizens (Colenbrander, Dodman and Mitlin, \r 2018)."


id: 9b063e494b394df56861fdfcc9c71461
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24525
content:
"This integrated approach to adaptation in human settlements needs to be supported by various other actions, \r including potential co-benefits with carbon emissions reductions, public health and ecosystem conservation goals. \r First, information on climate risks needs to be embedded into the architectural design, delivery and retrofitting \r of housing, transportation, spatial planning and infrastructure across neighbourhood and city scales. This includes \r making information on climate impacts widely available, updating design standards and strengthening regulation \r to avoid development in high-risk locations. Second, the capacity of communities needs to be strengthened, \r especially among those in informal settlements, the poorest and other vulnerable groups including minorities, \r migrants, women, children, elderly, disabled and people with serious health conditions such as obesity. This involves \r [...]"


id: bceae21911dde6cc06862eea61cf27d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30476
content:
"[...] raising awareness, incorporating communities into adaptation processes, and strengthening regulation, policies and \r provision of infrastructure services. Third, nature-based solutions should be integrated to work alongside traditional \r 'grey' or engineered infrastructure. Vegetation corridors, greenspace, wetlands and other green infrastructure can \r be woven into the built environment to reduce heat and flood risks, whilst providing other benefits such as health \r and biodiversity."


id: 70cb5fc5089035ea8445bae48262de7c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17106
content:
"Urbanisation is a global trend which is interacting with climate change to create complex risks in cities and \r settlements, especially for those that already have high levels of poverty, unemployment, housing informality and \r backlogs of services. Many cities and settlements are seeing increasing action to manage climate risks. On top of \r reducing communities' exposure to climate risk, adaptation actions can have benefits for reducing urban poverty \r and enhancing economic performance in ways that reduce inequality and advance sustainability goals. Adaptation \r actions, however, can also have unintended consequences. That is why care needs to be taken to ensure climate \r adaptation planning and development of new infrastructure does not exacerbate inequality or negatively impact \r other sustainable development priorities. Climate adaptation planning is most effective when it is sensitive to the \r [...]"


id: c42add243e9db2c55b62460892d88e4e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
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vector_id: 31799
content:
"[...] diverse ways that low-income and minority communities are more likely to experience climate risk, including women, \r children, migrants, refugees, internally displaced peoples and racial/ethnic minority groups, among others."


id: 772be7cf604db259cd05f6a89b67e19
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18170
content:
"Adapting to climate change can have benefits for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and urban inequalities. \r In cities where growing numbers of people live in informal settlements, introducing risk-reducing physical \r infrastructure such as piped water, sanitation and drainage systems can enhance the quality of life of the community. \r At the same time, those measures can increase health outcomes and reduce urban inequalities by reducing exposure \r to flooding or heat impacts. In less developed countries, less than 60% of the urban population have access to piped \r water which, in turn, impacts their health and well-being. Increasingly, housing is being built better to manage \r heat risk through insulation or changing building orientation, or to flood risk by raising structures, which then \r contributes to well-being and ability to work. Improvements to early warning systems can help people evacuate \r [...]"


id: 5816764f06668802230385ac895dd3c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] rapidly in case of storm surges or flooding. Although the most vulnerable often do not get these warnings in time."


id: 3545fc65d13bcd007d913d1a33f4cd27
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6619
content:
"Efforts to adapt to climate change can be incremental, reformist or transformational, depending on the scale of \r the change required. Incremental action may address specific climate impacts in a given place, but do not challenge \r the social and political institutions that prevent people from bouncing back better. Reformist action may address \r some of the social and institutional drivers of exposure and vulnerability, but without addressing the underlying \r socioeconomic structures that drive differential forms of exposure. For example, social protection measures may \r improve people's capacity to cope with climate impacts, but that improved capacity will depend on maintaining \r such protection measures. Transformative action involves fundamental changes in political and socioeconomic \r systems, oriented toward addressing vulnerability drivers (e.g., socioeconomic inequalities, consumption cultures). \r [...]"


id: 74ac1d57107a6d69f0b5d8f83a9a42df
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
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vector_id: 17763
content:
"[...] All forms of adaptation are relevant to deliver resilient futures because of the variability of conditions in which \r adaptation action is needed."


id: fbb71fcba2c69d68f338c7deaf43ee9f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41655
content:
"Contributing Authors: Ibidun Adelekan (Nigeria), Ayansina Ayanlade (Nigeria), Nicola Banwell \r (Australia), Ritwika Basu (India/United Kingdom), Lea Berrang-Ford (United Kingdom/Canada), \r Rachel Bezner Kerr (Canada/USA), Robbert Biesbroek (Netherlands), Halvard Buhaug (Norway), \r Katrin Burkart (USA), Mercedes Bustamante (Brazil), Luisa Cabeza (Spain), Martina Angela \r Caretta (Sweden), Edwin Castellanos (Guatemala), So-Min Cheong (Republic of Korea), \r Winston Chow (Singapore), Mark John Costello (New Zealand/Norway/Ireland), Marlies Craig \r (South Africa), Felix Creutzig (Germany), Ashlee Cunsolo (Canada), Michael Davies (United \r Kingdom), David Dodman (United Kingdom), Susan Elliott (Canada), Siri Eriksen (Norway), \r Maria Figueroa (Denmark/Venezuela), Francois Gemenne (Belgium), Elisabeth Gilmore (USA/\r Canada), Bruce Glavovic (South Africa/New Zealand), Sherilee Harper (Canada), Nathalie Hilmi \r [...]"


id: b4af12e6771a98c245137d7c2ef12255
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29039
content:
"[...] (Monaco), John Ji (China), Rhys Griffith Jones (New Zealand), Felix Kanungwe Kalaba (Zambia), \r Saori Kitabatake (Japan), Krishna Krishnamurthy (Mexico), Ronald Law (Philippines), Stefanie \r Langsdorf (Germany), Walter Leal (Germany), Adrian Leip (Italy), Elena Lopez-Gunn (Spain/\r United Kingdom), Wei Ma (China), Angelo Maggiore (Italy), Amina Maharjan (Nepal), Julia \r Alves Menezes (Brazil), Sebastian Mirasgedis (Greece), Naho Mirumachi (Japan), Ruth Morgan \r (Australia), Rupa Mukerji (Switzerland/India), Aditi Mukherji (India), Virginia Murray (United \r Kingdom), Jacques Andre Ndione (Senegal), Hannah Tait Neufeld (Canada), Peter Newman \r (Australia), Lena Maria Nilsson (Sweden), Nick Obradovich (Germany), Ben Orlove (USA), Jennifer \r J Otten (USA), Camille Parmesan (France/United Kingdom/USA), Karishma Patel (USA), Mark \r [...]"


id: 573d61b7a3f02632eb2009a8117b60f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12603
content:
"[...] Pelling (United Kingdom), Revati Phalkey (India), Elvira Poloczanska (United Kingdom), Marie\u0002Fanny Racault (United Kingdom/France), Diana Reckien (Germany/Netherlands), Joacim Rocklov \r (Sweden), Sharma Rohit (India), Andrea Rother (South Africa), Yamina Saheb (France/Algeria), \r Sonia Salas (Chile), Gerardo Sanchez Martinez (Spain), Amiera Sawas (United Kingdom), Daniel \r Schensul (USA), Corinne Schuster-Wallace (Canada), Sam Sellers (USA), Chandni Singh (India), "


id: 8c2b1da015b3f26b66c9b476a8595bf0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21833
content:
"Climate resilient development has a strong potential to \r generate substantial co-benefits for health and well-being and \r to reduce risks of involuntary displacement and conflict (very \r high confidence). Sustainable and climate resilient development \r that decreases exposure, vulnerability and societal inequity and \r that increases timely and effective adaptation and mitigation more \r broadly, has the potential to reduce but not necessarily eliminate \r climate change impacts on health, well-being, involuntary migration \r and conflict (high confidence). This development includes greenhouse \r gas (GHG) emission reductions through clean energy and transport; \r climate-resilient urban planning; sustainable food systems that lead \r to healthier diets; universal access to healthcare and social protection \r systems; wide-scale, proactive adaptive capacity building for climate \r change; and achievement of the SDGs (very high confidence). Meeting \r [...]"


id: ccb6b9ab116ead93a35ebb5dd88398f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33343
content:
"[...] the objectives of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly, and Regular \r Migration and building inclusive and integrative approaches to \r climate-resilient peace would help prevent health risks related to \r migration and conflict (high agreement, medium evidence). The net \r global financial gains from these co-benefits to health and well\u0002being, including avoided hospitalisations, morbidity and premature \r deaths, exceed the financial costs of mitigation (high confidence). \r As an example of co-benefits, the financial value of health benefits \r from improved air quality alone is projected to be greater than the \r costs of meeting the goals of the Paris Agreement (high confidence). \r All pathways to climate resilient development, including those for the \r health and healthcare systems, involve balancing complex synergies \r and trade-offs between development pathways and the options that \r underpin climate mitigation and adaptation pathways (very high \r [...]"


id: 6a27ef9440936a331c380c1727433a4e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15954
content:
"[...] confidence) {7.4.6; Cross-Chapter Box  HEALTH in Chapter 7; Cross\u0002Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7}."


id: 29c1baf1d64dea4d1e8a9bb31f9b43f7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4573
content:
"Since AR5, new evidence and awareness of current impacts \r and projected risks of climate change on health, well-being, \r migration and conflict have emerged, including greater \r evidence of the detrimental impacts of climate change on \r mental health (very high confidence). New international agreements \r were reached on climate change (Paris Agreement), disaster risk \r reduction (DRR) (Sendai Agreement), sustainable development (the \r Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)), urbanisation (The New \r Urban Agenda), migration (Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and \r Regular Migration) and refugees (Global Compact on Refugees) that, \r if achieved, would reduce the impacts of climate change on health, \r well-being, migration and conflict (very high confidence). However, the \r challenges with implementing these agreements are highlighted by \r the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which exposed \r systemic weaknesses at community, national and international levels \r [...]"


id: a2fef63f4c3cec8acabdaaad8297a536
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25890
content:
"[...] in the ability of societies to anticipate and respond to global risks \r (high confidence). Incremental changes in policies and strategies \r have proven insufficient to reduce climate-related risks to health, \r well-being, migration and conflict, highlighting the value of more \r integrated approaches and frameworks for solutions across systems \r and sectors that are embodied in these new international agreements \r (high confidence) {7.1.3, 7.2.1, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, 7.4.6; Cross-Chapter \r Box COVID in Chapter 7}."


id: bba50c08a680e3024da2d2b4d409f9c2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30237
content:
"Key transformations are needed to facilitate climate \r resilient development pathways (CRDPs) for health, well\u0002being, migration and conflict avoidance (high confidence). The \r transformational changes will be more effective if they are \r responsive to regional, local and Indigenous knowledge and \r consider the many dimensions of vulnerability, including those \r that are gender- and age-specific (high confidence). A key pathway \r towards climate resilience in the health sector is universal access to \r primary healthcare, including mental healthcare (high confidence). \r Investments in other sectors and systems that improve upon the social \r determinants of health have the potential to reduce vulnerability to \r climate-related health risks (high confidence). Links between climate \r risks, adaptation, migration and labour markets highlight the value \r of providing better mobility options as part of transformative change \r (medium confidence). Strong governance and gender-sensitive \r [...]"


id: dfb6b7137b930b3adaf0ba6645760718
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36604
content:
"[...] approaches to natural resource management can reduce the risk of \r inter-group conflict in climate-disrupted areas (medium confidence)"


id: 905cbee25388b6dddefb63e0e7b233ab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22599
content:
"Climate hazards are increasingly contributing to a growing \r number of adverse health outcomes (including communicable \r and non-communicable diseases (NCDs)) in multiple geographical \r areas (very high confidence). The net impacts are largely negative at \r all scales (very high confidence), and there are very few examples \r of beneficial outcomes from climate change at any scale (high \r confidence). While malaria incidence has declined globally due to non\u0002climatic socioeconomic factors and health system responses, a shift to \r higher altitudes has been observed as the climate warms (very high \r confidence). Climate variability and change (including temperature, \r relative humidity and rainfall) and population mobility are significantly \r and positively associated with observed increases in dengue globally; \r chikungunya virus in Asia, Latin America, North America and Europe (high \r confidence); Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis in North America \r [...]"


id: df68a4e59b0afd750cf921bd41bbe141
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36554
content:
"[...] (high confidence); and Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis vector \r Ixodes ricinus in Europe (medium confidence). Higher temperatures (very \r high confidence), heavy rainfall events (high confidence) and flooding \r (medium confidence) are associated with an increase of diarrhoeal \r diseases in affected regions, including cholera (very high confidence), \r other gastrointestinal infections (high confidence) and food-borne \r diseases due to Salmonella and Campylobacter (medium confidence).\r Floods have led to increases in vector- and waterborne diseases and \r to disturbances of public health services (high confidence). Climate \r extremes increase the risks of several types of respiratory tract infections \r (high confidence). Climate-related extreme events such as wildfires, \r storms and floods are followed by increased rates of mental illness in \r exposed populations (very high confidence) {7.2.1, 7.2.2, 7.2.3, 7.2.4, \r 7.2.5, 7.2.6}."


id: ee0b7a4b958ccdb11f2af5cb3809947
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39257
content:
"Extreme climate events act as both direct drivers (e.g., \r destruction of homes by tropical cyclones) and as indirect \r drivers (e.g., rural income losses during prolonged droughts) of \r involuntary migration and displacement (very high confidence).\r Most documented examples of climate-related displacement occur \r within national boundaries, with international movements occurring \r primarily within regions, particularly between countries with \r contiguous borders (high confidence). Global statistics collected since \r 2008 by the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) show \r an annual average of over 20 million people internally displaced by \r weather-related extreme events, with storms and floods the most \r common drivers (high confidence). The largest absolute number of \r people displaced by extreme weather each year occurs in Asia (South, \r Southeast and East), followed by sub-Saharan Africa, but small island \r [...]"


id: 5aa0c84763a78d3f84f56a4ecdac4a8a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13202
content:
"[...] states in the Caribbean and South Pacific are disproportionately affected \r relative to their small population size (high confidence). Immobility in \r the context of climate risks can reflect vulnerability and lack of agency \r but can also be a deliberate choice of people to maintain livelihoods, \r economic considerations and social and cultural attachments to place \r (high confidence) {7.2.6; Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7}."


id: e07d954115d08087747a0867f5cf7c1d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36750
content:
"Future climate-related migration is expected to vary by region \r and over time, according to future climatic drivers, patterns of \r population growth, adaptive capacity of exposed populations \r and international development and migration policies (high \r confidence). The wide range of potential outcomes is reflected in model \r projections of population displacements by 2050 in Latin America, sub\u0002Saharan Africa and south Asia due to climate change, which vary from \r 31  million to 143  million people, depending on assumptions about \r future GHG emissions and socioeconomic development trajectories \r (high confidence). With every additional one degree Celsius of \r warming, the global risks of involuntary displacement due to flood \r events are projected to rise by approximately 50% (high confidence). \r High emissions/low development scenarios raise the potential \r for higher levels of migration and involuntary displacement (high \r [...]"


id: 195578e5fb592563ef21713a9791edf5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1671
content:
"[...] confidence) and increase the need for planned relocations and support \r for people exposed to climate extremes but lacking the means to move \r (high confidence) {7.3.2; Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7}."


id: a47d429f0ee81ba912f1921ebfe781dc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26152
content:
"Reducing future risks of involuntary migration and displacement \r due to climate change is possible through cooperative \r international efforts to enhance institutional adaptive capacity \r and sustainable development (high confidence). Institutional and \r cross-sectoral efforts to build adaptive capacity, coupled with policies \r aimed at ensuring safe and orderly movements of people within and \r between states, can form part of the CRDPs that reduce future risks \r of climate-related involuntary migration, displacement and immobility \r (medium confidence). In locations where permanent, government\u0002assisted relocation becomes unavoidable, active involvement of local \r populations in planning and decision-making increases the likelihood \r of successful outcomes (medium confidence). People who live on small \r island states do not view relocation as an appropriate or desirable \r means of adapting to the impacts of climate change (high confidence)\r [...]"


id: e521fb50f37bbdf130f09019a918ff60
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37611
content:
"Adaptation and sustainable development build peace in conflict\u0002prone regions by addressing the drivers of grievances that lead \r to conflict and vulnerability to climate change (high confidence).\r Environmental peacebuilding (EP) through natural resource sharing, \r conflict-sensitive adaptation and climate-resilient peacebuilding offer \r promising avenues for addressing conflict risk, but their efficacy is still \r to be demonstrated through effective monitoring and evaluation (high \r confidence). Formal institutional arrangements for natural resource \r management contribute to wider cooperation and peacebuilding \r (high confidence) and gender-based approaches provide under-utilised \r pathways to achieving sustainable peace (medium confidence). \r Inclusion, cross-issue and cross-sectoral integration in policy and \r programming, and approaches that incorporate different geographical \r [...]"


id: 4e31b576eabf29a498c843575921c2b4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11024
content:
"[...] scales and work across national boundaries can support climate\u0002resilient peace (high confidence) {7.4.5, 7.4.6}."


id: d905041511d94435aeedf17967316614
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35479
content:
"human security and that mobility is a widely used strategy to maintain \r livelihoods in response to social and environmental changes (high \r agreement, medium evidence). Research on the influence of climate \r change and climate extremes on multiple forms of migration (including \r voluntary migration, involuntary displacement and immobility) has \r expanded significantly since AR5, which has allowed for a more robust \r assessment in this chapter, with migration also featuring in most other \r sectoral and regional chapters of this report. With respect to violent \r conflict, AR5 Chapter 12 found that people living in places affected by \r violent conflict are particularly vulnerable to climate change (medium \r evidence, high agreement), that some of the factors increasing the risk \r of violent conflict within states are sensitive to climate change (medium \r evidence, medium agreement) and that climate change will lead to \r [...]"


id: a92a2ba1642c2014a98c52d85aef5df3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26984
content:
"[...] new challenges to states and will increasingly shape both conditions \r of security and national security policies (medium evidence, medium \r agreement). As with other subjects assessed in this chapter, there \r has been significant growth in the number of assessable studies, but \r there remain shortcomings with respect to the availability of evidence \r regarding the specific nature of causal linkages and the attributability \r of particular outcomes to climate events or conditions."


id: 44dbd364bd60b78b6b6224002ff0e327
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9341
content:
"This chapter assesses peer-reviewed and selected grey literature \r published since the IPCC's Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) on the \r impacts and projected future risks of climate change for health, well\u0002being, migration and conflict, taking into consideration determinants \r of vulnerability and the dynamic structure of human populations and \r communities. Particular attention is given to potential adaptation \r challenges and actions as well as potential co-benefits for health \r associated with mitigation actions. AR5 presented strong evidence\u0002based statements regarding the likely2\r  impacts of climate change on \r health, migration and conflict in two separate chapters on Human Health \r (Chapter 11) and Human Security (Chapter 12). The present chapter \r covers all topics found in AR5 Chapter 11 and Sections 12.4 (Migration \r and Mobility Dimensions of Human Security), 12.5 (Climate Change and \r Armed Conflict) and 12.6 (State Integrity and Geopolitical Rivalry) and \r [...]"


id: 50ec86922dc52fedb313ea6d76e8a6a5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11514
content:
"[...] provides an additional, expanded assessment of mental health impacts, \r gender dimensions of climate risks and solution pathways."


id: 69ccafbf16636f57c4cdd4ec565726b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15884
content:
"AR5 stated with very high confidence that the health of human \r populations is sensitive to climate change (Smith et  al., 2014). \r Specific observations of current impacts included the expansion of the \r geographical ranges of some diseases into previously unaffected areas \r and changes in the distributions of some food-, water- and vector\u0002borne diseases (high confidence). Increasing future health risks were \r projected from injury, disease and death due to more intense heatwaves \r and fires (very high confidence), undernutrition in poor regions (high \r confidence), food- and waterborne diseases (very high confidence)\r and VBDs (medium confidence). AR5 found that climate change is a \r multiplier of existing health vulnerabilities, including food insecurity \r and limited access to safe water, improved sanitation, healthcare and \r education, and that the most effective measures to reduce vulnerability \r in the near term are programmes that implement and improve basic \r [...]"


id: 867201e638a87fb79523b98dc3616ef7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20819
content:
"[...] public health (very high confidence). Opportunities for co-benefits from \r mitigation actions were identified through such actions as reducing \r local emissions of short-lived climate pollutants from energy systems \r (very high confidence) and expanding transport systems that promote \r active travel (high confidence). The significant growth in peer-reviewed \r publications on links between climate change and human health and \r well-being since AR5 allowed for a more detailed and wider reaching \r assessment in the present chapter and stronger confidence statements \r for many climate-sensitive health outcomes."


id: d97ee672d7fdac6057bc5f48ad855ce0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35561
content:
"Since AR5, several new international agreements have come into \r effect that have implications for international responses to the \r climate risks assessed in this chapter. The 2015 Paris Agreement, \r which explicitly mentions health in three separate sections, set new \r goals for adaptation and established a working group to study the \r effects of climate change on population displacement. The 17 United \r Nations (UN) SDGs for 2030, adopted in 2015, are all important for \r building adaptive capacity in general, with goals 13 ('Take urgent \r action to combat climate change and its impacts') and 3 ('Ensure \r healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages') being directly \r relevant to this chapter. Other SDGs contain specific targets that are \r also relevant for this chapter, including Target 10.7 ('Well-managed \r migration policies'), Target 8.3 ('Decent work for all') and Target 5.4 \r ('Promotion of peaceful and inclusive societies') (Piper, 2017). The \r [...]"


id: e0340f318bd088be3ae80111ae4a5552
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36695
content:
"[...] 2015 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction puts an emphasis \r on health and well-being (Aitsi-Selmi and Murray, 2016) In 2018, UN \r member states negotiated Global Compacts for Safe, Orderly and \r Regular Migration and on Refugees that, taken together with the Paris \r Agreement, provide pathways for coordinated international responses \r to climate-related migration and displacement (Warner, 2018)."


id: 221cdde5eb81c01345c2705ad6833b25
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3224
content:
"and well-being of vulnerable people and regions (Ebi et  al., 2018b) \r and highlighted links between climate change hazards, poverty, food \r security, migration and conflict. The 2019 Special Report on Climate \r Change and Land (SRCCL) (IPCC, 2019b) emphasised the impacts of \r climate change on food security; highlighted links between reduced \r resilience of dryland populations, land degradation, migration and \r conflict; and raised concerns about the impacts of climate extremes. \r The 2019 Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing \r Climate (IPCC, 2019a) detailed how changes in the cryosphere \r and ocean systems have impacted people and ecosystem services, \r particularly food security, water resources, water quality, livelihoods, \r health and well-being, infrastructure, transportation, tourism and \r recreation as well as the culture of human societies, particularly for \r Indigenous Peoples. It also noted the risks of future displacements due \r [...]"


id: dff8be90134e92f2af6137d9e2863738
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
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vector_id: 36647
content:
"Building on these frameworks and perspectives, there is increasing \r overlap in the literature on global health, climate change impacts and \r estimates of loss and damage. The Global Burden of Disease study \r for 2019 for the first time included non-optimal temperature as a \r risk factor (Murray et  al., 2020). Work by social scientists continues \r to explore how climate change indirectly affects resource availability, \r productivity, migration and conflict (Burke et al., 2015a; Carleton and \r Hsiang, 2016; Hsiang et al., 2017), bringing multiple lines of inquiry \r together to study the associations between global environmental \r changes, socioeconomic dynamics and impacts on health and well\u0002being. Morbidity associated with migration and displacement, \r especially in the context of small island states, has been identified as \r a non-material form of loss and damage (Thomas and Benjamin, 2020; \r McNamara et al., 2021). Social costs of carbon estimates have been \r [...]"


id: 5a0690aab2778cc300808ae2f5958cbe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13085
content:
"[...] updated to include excess mortality associated with climate change, \r increasing estimates substantially (Dressler, 2021)."


id: 754cb41df5b8083fca389895d257ea86
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17868
content:
"There is no consensus definition of well-being, but it is generally agreed \r that it includes a predominance of positive emotions and moods (e.g., \r happiness) compared with extreme negative emotions (e.g., anxiety), \r satisfaction with life, a sense of meaning and positive functioning, \r including the capacity for unimpaired cognitive functioning and \r economic productivity (Diener and Tay, 2015; Piekalkiewicz, 2017). \r A capabilities approach (Sen, 2001) focuses on the opportunity for \r people to achieve their goals in life (Vik and Carlquist, 2018) or the \r ability to take part in society in a meaningful way, and is reflected \r in personal freedoms, human agency, self-efficacy, ability to self\u0002actualise, dignity and relatedness to others (Markussen et al., 2018). \r An indigenous perspective on well-being is broad and typically \r incorporates a healthy relationship with the natural world (Sangha \r et al., 2018); emotional and mental health have also been linked to \r [...]"


id: cb1d778d45e89b3ef646d289712b1175
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33073
content:
"[...] a strong cultural identity (Butler et al., 2019; Dockery, 2020). 'Health' \r itself is sometimes described as including relationships between \r humans and nature as well as links to community and culture \r (Donatuto et al., 2020; Dudgeon et al., 2017)."


id: 745470330aaa8707645c7bc720193708
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17702
content:
"At the same time, urban populations will also be experiencing indirect \r risks through climate change impacts on food and potable water \r systems, variations in the distribution and seasonality of infectious \r diseases and growing demand for shelter due to increased in\u0002migration. The accumulation of these risks over time can be expected \r to generate accelerating declines in community resilience and health, \r with future vulnerability potentially expanding in a nonlinear fashion \r (Dilling et al., 2017; Liang and Gong, 2017; El-Zein and Tonmoy, 2017; \r see also Chapter 6). Further, although each individual risk in isolation \r may be transitory or temporary for the individuals or groups exposed, \r taken cumulatively, the impacts could create conditions of chronic \r lack of well-being, and early life experiences with specific illnesses \r and conditions could have lifelong consequences (Watts et al., 2015; \r Otto et al., 2017; WHO, 2018a). In this context, there is a distinct need \r [...]"


id: 27abab19dbfd7b0f1e84837cdd04b870
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:55
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4162
content:
"[...] for greater longitudinal research on vulnerability to multiple climatic \r and non-climatic health and well-being hazards over time (Fawcett \r et al., 2017). There is also need for more research to identify critical \r thresholds in social vulnerability to climate change (Otto et al., 2017); \r these include rapid, stepwise changes in vulnerability that emerge \r from changes in exposure (for example, air temperatures above which \r mortality rates or impacts on pre-natal health accelerate (Arroyo \r et al., 2016; Ngo and Horton, 2016; Abiona, 2017; Auger et al., 2017; \r Molina and Saldarriaga, 2017; Zhang et al., 2017b)) and thresholds in \r adaptation processes (such as when rural out-migration rates grow \r due to climate-related crop failures (McLeman, 2017))."


id: ee91e0abfd62f26b0766a63219b93f15
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39351
content:
"This chapter uses the conceptual framing described in Chapter 1, in \r which risks emerging from climate change are described in terms \r of hazard, exposure and vulnerability, with adaptation and climate \r resilient development being responses that have the potential to \r reduce or modify risk. The observed and projected future risks to \r health well-being, involuntary population displacements and conflict \r identified in this chapter are associated with a range of hazards that \r are manifested at a variety of geographical and temporal scales. These \r include observed and projected changes in climate normals; changes \r in the frequency, duration, and/or severity of extreme events; and \r hazards such as rising sea levels and extreme temperatures where the \r impacts have only begun to be widely experienced. The 2021 report \r of IPCC WGI (IPCC, 2021) provides an assessment of observed and \r projected changes in these hazards and is the backdrop against which \r [...]"


id: 4c6742ba5f401b0d16a44f5b16137b15
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10703
content:
"[...] assessments of future risks and adaptation options identified in the \r present chapter should be considered."


id: 5e081bab9df6f3a80260d63f631f127c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"impoverished, undernourished, struggle with chronic or repeated \r illnesses, live in insecure housing in polluted or heavily degraded \r environments, work in unsafe conditions, are disabled, have limited \r education and/or have poor access to health and social infrastructure \r (WHO, 2018a). Their disproportionate exposure to ongoing climate \r hazards and their inability to recover from extreme events increase \r not only their own vulnerability but also that of the wider communities \r in which they live (US Global Change Research Program, 2016). \r Highly vulnerable populations are not evenly distributed across \r regions (Figure  7.2) nor within countries. Yet, even those fortunate \r enough to live in better neighbourhoods with greater financial means, \r higher-paying jobs and good access to resources and services, may \r experience adverse climate-related outcomes through community-level \r interactions and linkages (Haines and Ebi, 2019). Increased inequity \r [...]"


id: bc6d9467d9c68961035e97f80b8e03fd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30393
content:
"[...] itself threatens well-being and an effective response to climate change \r should not only avoid increased inequity but identify ways in which to \r reduce existing inequity."


id: 6881d38ac9b2acb3eb8bd9d04626a174
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15653
content:
"Climate change poses distinct risks to women's health. Vulnerability \r to climate-related impacts on health and well-being shows notable \r differentiations according to gender, beyond implications for pregnant \r women. In many societies, differential exposure to such risks relate \r to gendered livelihood practices and mobility options. Pregnancy and \r maternal status heighten vulnerability to heat, infectious diseases, \r food-borne infections and air pollution (Arroyo et  al., 2016; Ngo \r and Horton, 2016; Zhang et  al., 2017b). Extreme heat events, high \r ambient temperatures, high concentrations of airborne particulates, \r water-related illnesses and natural hazards are associated with higher \r rates of adverse pregnancy outcomes such as spontaneous abortion, \r stillbirth, low birth weight and pre-term birth (Arroyo et  al., 2016; \r Ngo and Horton, 2016; Abiona, 2017; Auger et  al., 2017; Molina \r and Saldarriaga, 2017; Zhang et al., 2017b). Women and girls are at \r [...]"


id: bcc3827def587be7fcea3f8e8f8e64a9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30455
content:
"[...] greater risk of food insecurity (FAO, 2018; Alston and Akhter, 2016), \r which is particularly problematic in combination with the nutritional "


id: 4d842cee0242c3e4aa12aeecbc4feaab
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10919
content:
"People living in poverty are more likely to be exposed to extreme \r heat and air pollution and have poorer access to clean water and \r sanitation, accentuating their exposure to climate change-associated \r health risks (UNEP, 2021; FAO et al., 2018). Poverty influences how \r people perceive the risks to which they are exposed, how they \r respond to evacuation orders and other emergency warnings and \r their ability to evacuate or relocate to a less risk-prone location (US \r Global Change Research Program, 2016). Poorer households, who \r often live in highly exposed locations, are more likely to be forced \r into low-agency migration as a means of adapting to climate risks \r and at the same time are the most likely to be immobile or trapped \r in deteriorating circumstances where migration would be a preferred \r response (Leichenko and Silva, 2014; Fazey et al., 2016; Sheller, 2018). \r Climate emergencies disproportionally affect people with disabilities \r [...]"


id: 5708f45c2abd4dbddf95d892ecaad7f4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12565
content:
"[...] because of their inherent vulnerabilities, which may impair their \r ability to take protective action; they are also frequently excluded \r from adaptation planning (Gaskin et al., 2017)."


id: dcb80fa7c7e91cc3d5d50d8075cc356
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36093
content:
"Children are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts. \r Children often have unique pathways of exposure and sensitivity to \r climate hazards, given their immature physiology and metabolism \r and high intake of air, food and water relative to their body weight \r as compared with adults (US Global Change Research Group, 2016). \r Climate change is expected to increase childhood risks of malnutrition \r and infectious disease for children in low-income countries through its \r impacts on household food access, dietary diversity, nutrient quality, \r water and changes in maternal and childcare access and breastfeeding \r (Tirado, 2017; FAO et  al., 2018; Perera, 2017). Children living in \r locations with poor sanitation are especially vulnerable to GI illnesses, \r with future rates of diarrhoeal diseases among children expected to \r rise under many climate change scenarios (Cisse et  al., 2018; WHO, \r 2014). Outdoor recreational opportunities for children may be reduced \r [...]"


id: 2166c39ca9f26d82102488addc818e17
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3087
content:
"[...] by extreme weather events, heat and poor air quality (Evans, 2019). \r Children and adolescents are particularly vulnerable to post-traumatic \r stress after extreme weather events; the effects may even be long\u0002lasting, with impacts on their adult functioning (Brown et al., 2017; \r UNICEF, 2021; Thiery et al., 2021)"


id: 732110770e96f1042197aa5986f58c68
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17503
content:
"Population age structures and changes over time have a significant \r influence on vulnerability to the impacts of weather and climate. \r Older adults (generally defined as persons aged 65 and older) are \r disproportionately vulnerable to the health impacts associated with \r climate change and weather extremes, including a greater risk of \r succumbing to waterborne pathogens due to poorer functioning \r thermoregulatory mechanisms, greater sensitivity to dehydration, \r changes in their immune systems and greater likelihood of having pre\u0002existing chronic illnesses such as diabetes or respiratory, cardiovascular \r and pulmonary illnesses (Benmarhnia et al., 2016; Diaz et al., 2015; \r Mayrhuber et al., 2018; Paavola, 2017). Older adults may be less prompt \r in seeking medical attention when suffering from GI illnesses, which \r can lead to dehydration (Haq and Gutman, 2014). Astrom et al. (2017) \r anticipate heat-related mortality among the elderly in Europe to rise \r [...]"


id: 15b7296bd19d4f66df9f82db10e746c6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1036
content:
"[...] in the 2050s under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 in the absence of significant \r preventative measures. In a study of the combined effects of warming \r temperatures and an aging population in Korea, Lee and Kim (2016) \r projected a four- to six-fold increase in heat-related mortality by the \r 2090s when accounting for temperature and age structure."


id: a8d78b541ef3f5a6476cff2a796719ea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26915
content:
"Indigenous Peoples, especially those who live in geographically \r isolated, resource-dependent and/or impoverished communities, are \r often at greater risk of health impacts of climate change (Ford et al., \r 2020) (US Global Change Research Program, 2016). The close inter\u0002connection of land-based livelihoods and cultural identity of many \r indigenous groups exposes them to multiple health- and nutrition\u0002related hazards (Durkalec et  al., 2015; Sioui, 2019) with potential \r implications for community social relations and individual mental \r health (Cunsolo Willox et  al., 2013; Cunsolo Willox et  al., 2015). \r Climate change risk exposures may be complicated by changes in \r lifestyle, diet and morbidity driven by socioeconomic processes, further \r increasing health risks for Indigenous Peoples (Jaakkola et al., 2018). \r Environmental consequences of climate change can also affect social \r ties and spiritual well-being, in part because land is often an integral \r [...]"


id: a1a9387fc5d86b88b48f9290ddea626a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25658
content:
"Current Impacts of Climate Change on Health and Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples\r Primary health effects of climate change include the immediate physical effects on human health, such as health hazards due to high \r temperatures, extreme weather events or accidents from exposure to climate-related hazards. For example, in arid and semiarid areas, \r an increased frequency of severe droughts is associated with immediate health problems related to overheating and lack of water for \r drinking, sanitation and livestock (Hall and Crosby, 2020; Mamo, 2020; Rankoana, 2021). In many cases, the possibilities for Indigenous \r Peoples to apply traditional strategies to mitigate droughts by migration are limited by competing land use, environmental protection \r and national borders, with many examples across Africa (Mamo, 2020). In the Jordan River Valley, the second most water stressed area \r [...]"


id: 2a3e1d9253869d8a24cb764353109c12
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4644
content:
"[...] in the world, water resources are not equally distributed to Indigenous Bedouin people, amplifying their immediate health threat during \r predictable as well as unpredictable droughts (Mamo, 2020)."


id: 1ec3b2d47675eb3632d30c381ba2dbd3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2615
content:
"Extreme rainfall, flooding, storms, heatwaves and wildfires lead to individual health hazards that may include injuries and thermal and \r respiratory traumas (Mamo, 2020) There are many examples when emergency responses to extreme events have ignored the needs \r of displaced Indigenous Peoples (Mendez et al., 2020; Maldonado et al., 2021). Population-based quantitative studies documenting \r the direct effects of these events on Indigenous Peoples are rare. In Mexico, respiratory diseases are almost twice as common among \r Indigenous Peoples compared to non-Indigenous Peoples (de Leon-Martinez et al., 2020). In Alaska and northern Canada, alarming levels \r of respiratory stress and disease have been reported among Inuit and First Nation communities in relation to wildfires (Howard et al., \r 2021), as well as increased mould in houses due to flooding resulting from increased precipitation (Furgal and Seguin, 2006; Harper et al., \r [...]"


id: 8d0363b2bcc557630edd1c54c44700fc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21993
content:
"[...] 2015; Norton-Smith et al., 2016). Climate- and housing-related respiratory stress is also a risk factor for severe COVID-19 infection, which \r has been highlighted in recent literature from an indigenous health perspective (de Leon-Martinez et al., 2020)."


id: b49b7dea156ed5d769b4b7609e0e055d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29024
content:
"human-elephant conflicts in Namibia due to plant food scarcity (Mamo, 2020), human-bear conflicts in Arctic regions within Canada \r (Wilder et al., 2017), human-tiger conflicts in Bangladesh (Haque et al., 2015) and increased predatory pressure on Indigenous Peoples' \r livestock and game worldwide (Haque et al., 2015; Jaakkola et al., 2018; Mukeka et al., 2019; Mamo, 2020; Terekhina et al., 2021). \r Undernutrition and metabolic disturbances associated with overnutrition and obesity due to the decreased availability or safety of local \r and traditional foods and increased dependency on imported substitutes affect many Indigenous Peoples worldwide (Amstislavski et al., \r 2013; Zavaleta et al., 2018; Houde et al., 2020; Jones et al., 2020; Akande et al., 2021; Bogdanova et al., 2021; Bryson et al., 2021) and are \r especially severe for pregnant women and small children (Mamo, 2020; Olson and Metz, 2020; Bryson et al., 2021); these are amplified \r [...]"


id: 792810841f895302a93d1ef4896b747a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18503
content:
"[...] by the combination of warming and the COVID-19 situation (Zavaleta-Cortijo et al., 2020). Decreased access to wild plants and animals \r as food sources and medicine due to climate change is another threat to the health and wellness of indigenous communities (Greenwood \r and Lindsay, 2019; Mamo, 2020; CIAT and and, 2021; Rankoana, 2021; Teixidor-Toneu et al., 2021)."


id: 6c8973a332b5130f2d32d552b6cbb2cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16385
content:
"Tertiary effects relate to culture-wide changes, for example, all forms of malnutrition due to climate-driven changes in food systems \r and anxiety, mental illness and suicidal thoughts related to cultural and spiritual losses. A wide range of tertiary, culture-related effects \r of climate change have been documented for Indigenous Peoples. These include anxiety, distress and other mental health impacts due \r to direct and indirect processes of dispossession of land and culture related to the combination of climate change and other factors \r (Richmond and Ross, 2009; Bowles, 2015; Norton-Smith et al., 2016; Jaakkola et al., 2018; Fuentes et al., 2020; Mamo, 2020; Middleton \r et al., 2020b; Middleton et al., 2020a; Olson and Metz, 2020; Timlin et al., 2021). Increased risks of conflict and abuse, including violence \r and homicide against females, and/or conflicts resulting from environmental activism, are other tertiary health threats for Indigenous \r [...]"


id: cff7d507d37d61035cc7c82153bae278
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33939
content:
"[...] Peoples (Mamo, 2020). Between 2017 and 2019, close to 500 indigenous people were killed for activism in 19 different countries (Mamo, \r 2020). In Uganda, climate change drives indigenous men to increase their distance and time from home and their families in search of \r water and food, leading to an increase in sexual violence against indigenous women and girls in their communities (Mamo, 2020)."


id: 9df72cb4b197f953a3020e134bff5718
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25026
content:
"Wildfires are a main cause of deforestation in Israel, and in recent years climate stress has decreased the forest resilience to fires (Klein \r et al., 2019). The original landscape, a shrubland or maquis consisting mostly of oak and Pistacia, has been used since time immemorial \r as grazing land for goats, sheep and camels belonging to Indigenous Bedouin people (Degen and El-Meccawi, 2009). Competing land use \r has reshaped the landscape with pine monocultures and cattle farming, reducing the availability of land suitable for herding goats the \r indigenous way (Perevolotsky and Sheffer, 2011). In addition, since 1950, plant protection legislation has decreased Bedouin forest \r pastoralism in Israel by defining indigenous black goats as an environmental threat (FAOLEX, 2021). In nature reserves where no human \r interference has been allowed, these areas have regenerated into herbaceous shrublands susceptible to wildfires (Turco et al., 2017). \r [...]"


id: ee181eee82a9f6ae083e49f5da3b287
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39263
content:
"[...] Meanwhile, urbanised Bedouin exist on lower incomes and experience higher levels of unemployment compared to other citizens, and \r some keep non-pastoralised livestock in cities as a strategy for food sovereignty (Degen and El-Meccawi, 2009). In 2019, many severe \r wildfires occurred in Israel due to extreme heatwaves and, in response, plant protection legislation was repealed, allowing Bedouin \r pastoralists to graze their goats in areas from which they had been excluded. The amount of combustible undergrowth subsequently \r decreased, reducing the risk for wildfire and their related impacts, while simultaneously facilitating indigenous food sovereignty among \r the Bedouin (Mamo, 2020)."


id: d9ce5d18e8a90cc4c96735a106c92ad9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35618
content:
"In the central interior of what is now known as British Columbia (BC), 2017 was an especially severe wildfire season, with over 1.3 million \r hectares of land burned and 65,000 people displaced (Timler and Sandy, 2020). The unceded and ancestral lands of the Tsilhqot'in, \r Dakelh and Secwepemc were impacted by two of the largest fires (Verhaeghe et al., 2017). Communities affected by the BC wildfires \r subsequently started indigenous gardens closer to home, to protect medicine and food plants and thereby sustaining relationships with \r these plants, the land and the community (Timler and Sandy, 2020). As there are cultural teachings for fire to cleanse the territory and \r the land, community members and plants previously isolated became better connected because of the wildfires. The regrowth of plants is \r part of the healing relationship between plants, people and other animals (Timler and Sandy, 2020). The wildfires were seen as events to \r [...]"


id: 682f766c325434b8afedb537fb6587d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15598
content:
"[...] catalyse action and emphasise the importance of relationships to support foodways and gardening as responsibility."


id: cd96e71ea8a001ed905409239279bc36
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33505
content:
"To restore these sustainable relationships, a resurgence is needed of community roles and responsibilities (Cidro et al., 2015) as well as \r a reconsideration of the concept of food security and the role of gardening within diverse indigenous contexts. Offering individual or \r community gardening as a solution to 'food insecurity', a Eurocentric measure of health, ignores colonial contexts and sovereignty \r (Borrows, 2019; Timler and Sandy, 2020). Indigenous communities have historic, ongoing and evolving gardening and food gathering \r practices, including a wide variety of land-based and aquatic foods (Turner and Turner, 2008; Mt. Pleasant, 2016). Euro-Western science \r is beginning to recognise these longstanding relationships (Kamal et al., 2015; Hatfield et al., 2018; Timler and Sandy, 2020). For many \r indigenous communities, reconnecting with ancestral foodways holds the potential not only to address food security but to provide the \r [...]"


id: fa382595a5c02ada03b75ff623e3b259
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41392
content:
"In sub-Saharan Africa, climate change is an emerging risk factor for undernutrition, particularly in countries that rely on subsistence \r agriculture (Sorgho et  al., 2020). In Uganda, negative health effects associated with climate change are being observed, including \r increased rates of food insecurity, with the highest rates recorded among the Batwa of Kanungu District, where 97% of households are \r severely food insecure (Patterson et al., 2017). For many Indigenous Peoples, food security in a changing climate is a growing concern \r (Guyot et al., 2006; Patterson et al., 2017). Locally harvested indigenous foods have been adversely impacted by climate change, while \r connection to land is being disrupted by the processes of colonisation, discrimination and lack of representation in decision-making \r groups, thereby restricting adaptive capacity for indigenous communities (Bryson et al., 2021). In Uganda, the Indigenous Batwa have \r [...]"


id: 406f8269dfbe43c4cf7cee17f99d08c0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8527
content:
"[...] experienced significant disparities resulting from the forced eviction from their territory, dispossessing them of their land and the ability \r to provide indigenous foods to their families (Patterson et al., 2017; Scarpa et al., 2021)."


id: 40fdcc8bafae4257466d1a95e34578c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8619
content:
"Nutrient-specific knowledge of indigenous foods is limited among many communities in Africa. A new food composition database in \r Uganda was constructed in dialogue with knowledge keepers from the Batwa and Bakiga Peoples to assess the nutrient density of these \r locally harvested foods (Scarpa et al., 2021). As in other lower resource settings, no food composition tables are available for southwestern \r Uganda. The only existing food database was designed for central and eastern Uganda; it does not include common recipes and local \r foods consumed by Batwa and Bakiga communities (Scarpa et al., 2021). Using a community-based approach and collaboration with \r local nutritionists, a list of foods was collected through focus group discussions, an individual dietary survey and market assessments. \r Including these locally familiar foods ultimately supports a focus on indigenous justice and the importance of valuing indigenous food \r [...]"


id: 7cbe6ee838b43297b054e1cbd082d050
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19144
content:
"[...] systems and practices, which in many contexts have been found to have superior nutritional and environmental benefits for communities \r (Kuhnlein et al., 2013; Scarpa et al., 2021). This new and unique database including indigenous foods will not only guide local nutrition \r and health initiatives, but also contribute towards policies related to indigenous food sovereignty and resilience to climate change."


id: c02df261e6e5860d5fe32ff5b30f9cfc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31110
content:
"Eleven categories of diseases and health outcomes have been identified \r in this assessment as being climate-sensitive through direct pathways \r (e.g., heat and floods) and indirect pathways mediated through natural \r and human systems and economic and social disruptions (e.g., disease \r vectors, allergens, air and water pollution, and food system disruption) \r (high confidence). A key challenge in quantifying the specific \r relationship between climate and health outcomes is distinguishing \r the extent to which observed changes in prevalence of a climate\u0002sensitive disease or condition are attributable directly or indirectly to \r climatic factors as opposed to other non-climatic causal factors (Ebi \r et al., 2020). A subsequent challenge is then determining the extent \r to which those observed changes in health outcomes associated \r with climate are attributable to events or conditions associated with \r natural climate variability compared to persistent human induced \r [...]"


id: 67acb5bb62550fe24a46dfe93c089e63
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15507
content:
"[...] shifts in the mean and/or the variability characteristics of climate \r (i.e., anthropogenic climate change). The context within which the \r impacts of climate change affect health outcomes and health systems \r is described in this chapter as being a function of risk, which is in turn \r a product of interactions between hazard, exposure and vulnerability \r (Chapter 1), with the impacts in turn having the potential to reinforce \r vulnerability and/or exposure to risk (Figure 7.4)."


id: 80bd1e1627887c8b8b82e2f3601de3c9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19784
content:
"Global statistics for death and loss of health are increasingly described in terms of burden, which describes gaps between a population's \r actual health status and what its status would be if its members lived free of disease and disability to their collective life expectancy \r (Shaffer et al., 2019). Burden for each disease/health outcome is estimated by adding together the number of years of life lost (YLL) by \r a person because of early death and the number of years of life lived with disability (YLD) from the considered outcome. The resulting \r statistic, the disability-adjusted life year (DALY) represents the loss of one year of life lived in full health. The total global burden of \r disease (Vos et al., 2020), expressed in DALYs, is what the world's health systems must manage and is reported annually in Global Burden \r of Disease Study (Vos et al., 2020). The estimated current global burden of climate-sensitive diseases and conditions described in this \r [...]"


id: ce9d2ff62e1aec661d714751dac091ca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33692
content:
"[...] chapter, and the geographical regions most affected, are summarised in Table Box 7.2.1. As was observed in Chapter 11 ('Human Health') \r of AR5, the 'background climate-related disease burden of a population is often the best single indicator of vulnerability to climate \r change - doubling of risk of disease in a low disease population has much less absolute impact than doubling of the disease when the \r background rate is high.'"


id: bc7605018eb0a1b9a549d81614a0ad83
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30401
content:
"Evidence has increased since AR5 that the vectorial capacity has \r increased for dengue fever, malaria and other mosquito-borne \r diseases and that higher global average temperatures are making \r wider geographic areas more suitable for transmission (very high \r confidence). Transmission rates of malaria are directly influenced by \r climatic and weather variables such as temperature, with non-climatic \r socioeconomic factors and health system responses counteracting \r the climatic drivers (very high confidence). The burden of malaria is \r greatest in Africa, where more than 90% of all malaria-related deaths \r occur (M'Bra et al., 2018; Caminade et al., 2019). Between 2007 and \r 2017, DALYs for malaria have decreased by 39% globally. Malaria \r is mainly caused by five distinct species of plasmodium parasite \r (Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, \r Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium knowlesi) and is transmitted by \r [...]"


id: 4be0eb83604ca53dcb16ae3a78dd57cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10608
content:
"[...] Anopheline mosquitoes. Evidence suggests that in highland areas of \r Colombia and Ethiopia, malaria has shifted in warmer years towards \r higher altitudes, indicating that, without intervention, malaria will \r increase at higher elevations as the climate warms (Siraj et al., 2014; \r Midekisa et al., 2015). Each year, local outbreaks of malaria occur due \r to importation in areas from which it was once eradicated, such as \r Europe, but the risk of re-establishment is considered low."


id: 14be252dad0c12b0745c14c493d1d138
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 877
content:
"Climate-sensitive VBDs include mosquito-borne diseases, rodent-borne \r diseases and tick-borne diseases. Many infectious agents, vectors, non\u0002human reservoir hosts, and pathogen replication rates can be sensitive to \r ambient climatic conditions. Elevated proliferation and reproduction rates \r at higher temperatures, longer transmission season, changes in ecology \r and climate-related migration of vectors, reservoir hosts or human \r populations contribute to this climate sensitivity (Rocklov & Dubrow, \r 2020; Semenza and Paz, 2021). Age-standardised DALY rates for many \r VBDs have decreased over the last decade due to factors unrelated to \r climate. Vulnerability to VBD is strongly determined by sociodemographic \r factors (e.g., children, the elderly and pregnant women are at greater \r risk) with exposure to vectors being strongly influenced by various \r factors including socioeconomic status, housing quality, healthcare \r [...]"


id: d8d78b569669d2d8e9b43851e6998e96
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35439
content:
"[...] access, susceptibility, occupational setting, recreational activity, conflicts \r and displacement ( Rocklov & Dubrow, 2020; Semenza and Paz, 2021). \r Figure 7.5 illustrates how climatic and non-climatic drivers and responses \r determine VBD outcomes."


id: c8916071efa07f6a5ee793808416651d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32598
content:
"have facilitated the emergence of CHIKV as a significant public health \r challenge in some Latin American and Caribbean countries (Yactayo et al., \r 2016; Pineda et al., 2016) and contributed to chikungunya outbreaks \r in Europe (Rocklov et al., 2019; Mascarenhas et al., 2018; Morens and \r Fauci, 2014). The Zika virus outbreak in South America in 2016 was \r preceded by 2007 outbreaks on Pacific islands and followed a period \r of record high temperatures and severe drought conditions in 2015 \r (Paz and Semenza, 2016; Tesla et al., 2018). Increased use of household \r water storage containers during the drought is correlated with a range \r expansion of Aedes aegypti during this period, increasing household \r exposure to the vector (Paz and Semenza, 2016). Changing climate also \r appears to be a risk factor for the spread of Japanese encephalitis to \r higher altitudes in Nepal (Ghimire and Dhakal, 2015) and in southwest \r [...]"


id: ca831e77ae2251bdd93ef59b7859cdd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32972
content:
"[...] China (Zhao et al., 2014). In eastern Africa, climate change may be a risk \r factor in the spread of Rift Valley Fever (Taylor et al., 2016a)."


id: 7fc28b43fed0afd6ea0df981abc8e1bb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19614
content:
"The transmission of dengue fever is linked to climatic and weather \r variables such as temperature, relative humidity and rainfall (high \r confidence). The dengue virus is carried and spread by Aedes \r mosquitoes, primarily Aedes aegypti. Dengue has the second highest \r burden of VBDs, with the majority of deaths occurring in Asia (Bhatt \r et  al., 2013). Since 1950, global dengue burden has grown and is \r attributable to a combination of climate-associated expansion in the \r geographic range of the vector species and non-climatic factors such \r as globalised air traffic, urbanisation and ineffective vector abatement \r measures. Temperature, relative humidity and rainfall variables are \r significantly and positively associated with increased dengue case \r incidence and/or transmission rates globally, including in Vietnam \r (Phung et al., 2015; Xuan le et al., 2014), Thailand (Xu et al., 2019a), \r India (Mutheneni et al., 2017; Rao et al., 2018; Mala and Jat, 2019), \r [...]"


id: 72aa3067b644c34b26d3fb8e0e2cffbf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17415
content:
"[...] Indonesia (Kesetyaningsih et al., 2018), the Philippines (Carvajal et al., \r 2018), the USA (Lopez et al., 2018; Pena-Garcia et al., 2017; Duarte \r et  al., 2019; Rivas et  al., 2018; Silva et  al., 2016a), Jordan (Obaidat \r and Roess, 2018) and Timor-Leste (Wangdi et al., 2018). Variation in \r winds, sea surface temperatures and rain over the tropical eastern \r Pacific Ocean (El Nino-Southern Oscillation; ENSO) have been linked to \r increased dengue incidence in Colombia (Quintero-Herrera et al., 2015; \r McGregor and Ebi, 2018; Pramanik et al., 2020) and its interannual \r variation successfully forecasted in Ecuador using ENSO indices \r as predictors (Petrova et  al., 2019). The observed time lag between \r climate exposures and increased dengue incidence is approximately \r 1-2 months (Chuang et al., 2017; Lai, 2018; Chang et al., 2018)."


id: ec48904bef978f5980ec656e5a7e64f7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38936
content:
"associated with an increase of diarrhoeal diseases. In the majority of \r studies there is a significant positive association observed between \r WBDs and elevated temperatures, especially in areas where water, \r sanitation and hygiene (WASH) deficiencies are significant (Levy \r et al., 2018; Carlton et al., 2016; Levy et al., 2018; Sherpa et al., 2014; \r Guzman Herrador et al., 2015; Levy et al., 2016; Lo Iacono et al., 2017). \r In Ethiopia, South Africa and Senegal, increases in temperatures are \r associated with increases in diarrhoea, while in Ethiopia, Senegal and \r Mozambique, increases in monthly rainfall are associated with an \r increase in cases of childhood diarrhoea (Azage et  al., 2015; Thiam \r et al., 2017; Horn et al., 2018). Similar associations between weather \r and diarrhoea have been observed in Cambodia, China, Bangladesh, \r Pacific Island countries and the Philippines (McIver et  al., 2016a; \r [...]"


id: 6e27c75e35426af19a7f65bf69afbc7d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16644
content:
"[...] McIver et al., 2016b; Liu et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2014; Matsushita et al., \r 2018). Heavy precipitation events have been consistently associated \r with outbreaks of WBDs in Europe, USA, UK and Canada (Guzman \r Herrador et al., 2015; Levy et al., 2016; Lo Iacono et al., 2017; Curriero \r et al., 2001; Guzman Herrador et al., 2016; Levy et al., 2018; Semenza \r and Paz, 2021)."


id: 85b85b9f3d63f7e4c4e2ecb8ca8ff902
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20670
content:
"The degree to which the timing, duration and magnitude of local \r influenza virus epidemics is dependent on climate factors is poorly \r understood (Lam et  al., 2020). Further, a host of non-climate \r confounders are likely to influence the incidence of seasonal \r influenza (Caini et  al., 2018). This poses a number of challenges \r for making reliable climate-based epidemiological forecasts for \r influenza (Gandon et  al., 2016). Although no association between \r anomalous climate conditions and influenza have been reported in \r some locations (Lam et al., 2020), generally, low winter temperatures \r and humidity in temperate regions and periods of high humidity \r and precipitation in the tropical and subtropical regions have been \r linked to outbreaks of influenza (Deyle et al., 2016; Soebiyanto et al., \r 2015; Tamerius et  al., 2013). However, the climate sensitivity of \r influenza may be more complex than this, with both high and low \r [...]"


id: 5eb2a8a434f7af82049401006920e26e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13948
content:
"[...] humidity; the amount and intensity of precipitation; solar activity \r and/or sunshine; and latitude also being important (Axelsen et al., \r 2014; Chong et al., 2020b; Geier et al., 2018; Park et al., 2019; Qu, \r 2016; Smith et  al., 2017; Wang et  al., 2017c; Zhao et  al., 2018a). \r Moreover, the shape of the climate variable influenza relationship \r may be conditioned on influenza type (Chong et al., 2020a). Further, \r distinct periods of weather variability characterised by rapid inter\u0002daily changes in temperature may act as precursors to influenza \r epidemics as has been demonstrated for the marked 2017-2018 "


id: 75af7ea49d225b92ea1315e090ee2997
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17933
content:
"Authors: Maarten van Aalst (Netherlands, Chapter 16), Gueladio Cisse (Mauritania/Switzerland/France, Chapter 7), Ayansina Ayanlade \r (Nigeria, Chapter 9), Lea Berrang-Ford (United Kingdom/Canada, Chapter 16), Rachel Bezner Kerr (Canada/USA, Chapter 5), Robbert \r Biesbroek (Netherlands, Chapter 13), Kathryn Bowen (Australia, Chapter 7), Martina Angela Caretta (Sweden, Chapter 4), So-Min Cheong \r (Republic of Korea, Chapter 17), Winston Chow (Singapore, Chapter 6), Mark John Costello (New Zealand/Norway/Ireland, Chapter 11, \r CCP1), Kristie Ebi (USA, Chapter 7), Elisabeth Gilmore (USA/Canada, Chapter 14), Bruce Glavovic (South Africa/New Zealand, Chapter \r 18, CCP2), Walter Leal (Germany, Chapter 8), Stefanie Langsdorf (Germany, TSU), Elena Lopez-Gunn (Spain/United Kingdom, Chapter 4), \r Ruth Morgan (Australia, Chapter 4), Aditi Mukherji (India, Chapter 4), Camille Parmesan (France/ United Kingdom /USA, 2), Mark Pelling \r [...]"


id: 670c7b7fa6adb16c4e42f409980249a8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15397
content:
"[...] (United Kingdom, Chapter 6), Elvira Poloczanska (United Kingdom, TSU), Marie-Fanny Racault (United Kingdom/France, Chapter 3), Diana \r Reckien (Germany/Netherlands, Chapter 17), Jan C. Semenza (Sweden, Chapter 7), Pramod Kumar Singh (India, Chapter 18), Stavana E. \r Strutz (USA), Maria Cristina Tirado von der Pahlen (Spain/USA, Chapter 7), Corinne Schuster-Wallace (Canada), Alistair Woodward (New \r Zealand, Chapter 11), Zinta Zommers (Latvia, Chapter 17)"


id: a6d960b3208e16e9ef4a7cbd25255516
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26567
content:
"Infectious diseases may emerge and spread through multiple climate-related avenues, including direct effects of climatic conditions \r on disease reproduction and transmission and various indirect effects, often interlinked with ecosystem degradation (high confidence). \r Climate change is affecting the risk of emerging infectious diseases by contributing to factors that drive the movements of species, \r including vectors and reservoirs of diseases, into novel human populations and vice versa (high confidence) (Sections 2.4.2.7, 5.2.2.3; \r Cross-Chapter Box Illness in Chapter 2; IPCC, 2019b; IPBES 2020). The spillover of some emerging infectious diseases from wildlife into \r humans is associated with live animal-human markets, intensified livestock production and climate-related movements of humans \r and wild animals into new areas that alter human-animal interactions (Section 2.4.2.7; Chapter 3; Sections 5.2.2.3, 7.2; Cross-Chapter \r [...]"


id: fe8830a5a11fc1761cbe9681d0a10df8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42154
content:
"The COVID-19 pandemic posed a severe shock to many socioeconomic systems, resulting in substantial changes in vulnerability and \r exposure of people to climate risks (high confidence). The disease and response measures significantly affected human health, economic \r activity, food production and availability, health services, poverty, social and gender inequality, education, supply chains, infrastructure \r maintenance and the environment. These COVID-19 impacts interact with many risks associated with climate change (IMF, 2020), often \r through a cascade of impacts across numerous sectors (van den Hurk et al., 2020). Beyond COVID-19-related mortality and long-term \r COVID, mortality from other diseases (some of which may also have a climate-related component), as well as maternal and neonatal \r mortality, increased because of disruption in health services (Barach et al., 2020; Maringe et al., 2020; Zadnik et al., 2020; Goyal et al., \r [...]"


id: 95967d89b268d865b6bbc59a56ba0ce7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23516
content:
"[...] 2021). In addition, a rapid rise in poverty has disproportionately affected poorer countries and people (Ferreira et al., 2021), and thus \r increased their vulnerability. After many years of steady declines, extreme poverty increased by about 100 million people in 2020 (World \r Bank, 2021). The effects of the pandemic increased food insecurity and malnourishment, which increased by 1.5 percentage points to \r around 9.9% in 2020 after being virtually unchanged for the previous five years (FAO et al., 2021)."


id: d2bec7458bb032b6fb373ff3fc1f2304
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34427
content:
"During the pandemic, extreme weather and climate events such as droughts, storms, floods, wildfires and heatwaves continued, resulting \r in disastrous compounding impacts (high confidence). Between March and September 2020, 92 extreme weather events coincided with \r the COVID-19 pandemic, affecting an estimated 51.6 million people; additionally, 431.7 million people were exposed to extreme heat, \r and 2.3 million people were affected by wildfires (Walton and van Aalst, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic, in combination with extreme \r events, affected disaster preparedness, disaster response and safe evacuations, while physical distancing regulations reduced the capacity \r of temporary shelters (UN DRR Asia-Pacific, 2020; Tozier de la Poterie et al., 2020; Shumake-Guillemot, J, et al, 2020; Bose-O'Reilly et al., \r 2021). Complex humanitarian emergencies were aggravated, with vulnerable populations facing the combined risks of conflict, \r [...]"


id: 531476006f882eceba3e0583d02445bd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11886
content:
"[...] displacement, COVID-19 and climate impacts (FSIN, 2020). Compounding events are not only found in low-income countries but also in \r medium- and high-income countries, for instance in the case of COVID-19 and heatwaves (Shumake-Guillemot et al., 2020; Bose-O'Reilly \r et al., 2021)."


id: 2b23b06990ba36cda1bbd6f0f8113c38
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4832
content:
"Responses and implications for adaptation and climate resilient development\r The pandemic emphasises the inter-connected and compound nature of risks, vulnerabilities and responses to emergencies that \r are simultaneously local and global (high confidence). COVID-19 is often considered a more 'explosive' risk than the more gradual \r anthropogenic climate change. However, many climate-related risks do already appear as severe shocks at smaller scales, and infrequent \r or unprecedented extreme weather-related events often warrant similar rapid responses (Dodds et al., 2020; Gebreslassie, 2020; Hynes \r et  al., 2020; Phillips et  al., 2020; Schipper, 2020; Semenza et  al., 2021; illustrated in Figure  COVID.1). Individuals, households, sub\u0002national and national entities, and international organisations had generally delayed responses or denied the pandemic's severity before \r [...]"


id: 2ec07b15057a571d8c86cfdbe1f01dc4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5502
content:
"[...] responding at the scale and urgency required, a pattern that resembles the international action required on climate change (Polyakova \r et al., 2020; Shrestha et al., 2020)."


id: b574125bbaff8aa5f632cf904797cbe2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29152
content:
"It also exposed underlying vulnerabilities, such as the lack of water access and healthcare in select low- and middle-income countries \r and among indigenous and marginalised groups in high-income countries (Section 4.4.3; Box 4.3; 5.12.1). Increased risks of COVID-19 \r transmission emerged in crowded areas such as urban settings, refugee camps, detention centres and some workplaces, including in rural \r settings (Brauer et al., 2020; Ramos et al., 2020; Staddon et al., 2020; Haddout et al., 2020). Public health responses to the COVID-19 \r pandemic, such as mandates for social distancing and advice for frequent handwashing, underlined the need for access to water and \r sanitation facilities and wastewater management. However, they also sometimes interfered with access, for example, in evacuation and \r shelter infrastructure during climate-related disasters (Armitage and Nellums, 2020; Adelodun et al., 2020; Poch et al., 2020; Hallema \r [...]"


id: 13c854bbc12561827de823033381ce8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 692
content:
"The management of the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the value of scientific (including medical and epidemiological) expertise and \r the importance of fast, accurate and comprehensive data to inform policy decisions and to anticipate and manage risk (high confidence). It \r emphasises the importance of effective communication of scientific knowledge (Semenza et al., 2021), decision-making under uncertainty \r and decision frameworks that navigate different values and priorities. Successful policy responses were based on the emerging data, \r medical advice and collaboration with a wider set of societal stakeholders beyond public health experts. For instance, experience in \r Aotearoa, New Zealand, highlights the importance of pandemic responses attuned to the needs of different sociocultural groups and \r Indigenous Peoples in particular. Their strengths-based COVID-19 response goes beyond identifying vulnerabilities to unlocking the \r [...]"


id: ab4f4ada02b2d60b5c936e8dd7aa7a43
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27367
content:
"[...] resources, capabilities and potential that might otherwise be latent in communities (McMeeking and Savage, 2020). As far as the value \r of information for risk management is concerned, compared to the initial uncertainties regarding COVID-19, data about near- and \r longer-term climate-related hazards is generally very good; however, high-quality and dense meteorological data are often still lacking in \r lower income countries (Otto et al., 2020). Health data are particularly difficult to obtain in real time, as is the case for biodiversity data, \r which has a time lag of years before being made available and for which there is no coordinated monitoring, hampering effective risk \r management (Navarro et al., 2017). Therefore, both epidemiological and meteorological forecasts would benefit from more focus on (a) \r decision support, (b) conveying uncertainty and (c) capturing vulnerability (Coughlan de Perez et al., 2021)."


id: 3006fb49eec018b3d814f6bf8bb05573
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5713
content:
"Comprehensive and integrated risk management strategies can enable countries to address both the current pandemic and increase \r resilience against climate change and other risks (Reckien, 2021; Semenza et al., 2021; Ebi et al., 2021b). In particular, given their immense \r scale, COVID-19 recovery investments may offer an opportunity to contribute to climate resilient development pathways (CRDPs) through \r a green, resilient, healthy and inclusive recovery (high confidence) (Sovacool et al., 2020; Rosenbloom and Markard, 2020; Lambert et al., \r 2020; Boyle et al., 2020; Bouman et al., 2020; UN DRR Asia-Pacific, 2020; Brosemer et al., 2020; Dodds et al., 2020; Hynes et al., 2020; \r Markard and Rosenbloom, 2020; Phillips et al., 2020; Schipper, 2020; Willi et al., 2020; Semenza et al., 2021; Pasini and Mazzocchi, 2020; \r Meige et al., 2020; Pelling et al., 2021). However, windows of opportunity to enable such transitions are only open for a limited period \r [...]"


id: 19ad4cf00a7115d91335f922d9f04ac4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1718
content:
"[...] and need to be swiftly acted upon to effect change (high confidence) (Chapter 18; Weible et al., 2020; Reckien, 2021). Initial indications \r suggest that only USD 1.8 trillion of the greater than USD 17 trillion COVID-19-related stimulus financing by G20 countries and other major \r economies that was committed up until mid-2021 contributed to climate action and biodiversity objectives, with significant differences \r between countries and sectors (Vivideconomics, 2021). Moreover, responses to previous crises (e.g., the 2008-2011 global financial \r crisis) demonstrate that despite high ambitions during the response phase, opportunities for reform do not necessarily materialise (Bol \r et al., 2020; Boin et al., 2005). In addition, heightened societal and political attention to one crisis often comes at the cost of other policy \r priorities (high confidence) (Maor, 2018; Tosun et al., 2017), which could affect investments for climate resilient development (Hepburn \r [...]"


id: a953d54d4606e2cb302ea12c27dcde58
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27012
content:
"The vast majority of elaborated pathways point to increased risk; for \r example, there is concern that climate change may alter the fate and \r transport of carcinogenic polyaromatic hydrocarbons (Dominguez\u0002Morueco et al., 2019) and increase mobilisation of carcinogens such \r as bromide (Regli et  al., 2015), persistent organic pollutants (POPs) \r including polychlorinated-biphenyls that have accumulated in areas \r contaminated by industrial runoff (Miner et al., 2018) and radioactive \r material (Evangeliou et al., 2014). Exposure to these known carcinogens \r can occur through multiple environmental media and can be increased \r by climate change, for example through increased flooding related \r to extreme precipitation events and mobilisation of sediment where \r carcinogens have accumulated (Leon et al., 2017; Santiago and Rivas, \r 2012). In addition, there is concern that changes in ultraviolet light \r exposure related to shifts in precipitation may increase the incidence \r [...]"


id: ad15e8b97566fc79a0385a5cc07217e2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27689
content:
"[...] of malignant melanoma, particularly for outdoor workers (Modenese \r et  al., 2018). Other harmful pathways include migration of and \r increased exposure to liver flukes, which cause hepatobiliary cancer \r (Prueksapanich et al., 2018) and the introduction of infectious diseases \r such as schistosomiasis that increase cancer risk due to climate-related \r migration (Ahmed et  al., 2014). Increased exposure to carcinogenic \r toxins via multiple pathways is also a concern. Aflatoxin exposure, for \r example, is expected to increase in Europe (Moretti et al., 2019), India \r (Shekhar et al., 2018), Africa (Gnonlonfin et al., 2013; Bandyopadhyay \r et al., 2016) and North America (Wu et al., 2011). Other carcinogenic \r toxins originate from cyanobacteria blooms (Lee et al., 2017a), which \r are projected to increase in frequency and distribution with climate \r change (Wells et al., 2015; Paerl et al., 2016; Chapra et al., 2017)."


id: adddfbd0e65f73366e42f85b8a548549
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27831
content:
"Extreme heat events and extreme temperature have well-documented, \r observed impacts on health, mortality (very high confidence) and \r morbidity (high confidence). AR5 described the thermoregulatory \r mechanisms and responses, including acclimatisation, linking heat, \r cold and health, and these have been further confirmed by recent \r studies and reviews (e.g., Giorgini et  al., 2017; Ikaheimo, 2018; \r McGregor et  al., 2015; Stewart et  al., 2017; Schuster et  al., 2017; \r Zhang et al., 2018b). The health impacts of heat manifest clearly in \r periods of extreme heat often codified as heatwaves. For example, \r heatwaves across Europe (2003), Russia (2010), India (2015) and \r Japan (2018) resulted in significant death tolls and hospitalisations \r (McGregor et  al., 2017; Hayashida et  al., 2019). Heat continues to \r pose a significant health risk due to increases in exposure, changes in \r the size and spatial distribution of the human population, mounting \r [...]"


id: 539e1bda3c63d46e8fa2b778bf1a95e0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11984
content:
"[...] vulnerability and an increase in extreme heat events (high confidence) \r (Harrington et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2017; Mishra et al., 2017; Rohat \r et al., 2019a; Rohat et al., 2019b; Rohat et al., 2019c; Watts et al., \r 2019). Some regions are already experiencing heat stress conditions \r approaching the upper limits of labour productivity and human \r survivability (high confidence). These include the Persian Gulf and \r adjacent land areas, parts of the Indus River Valley, eastern coastal \r India, Pakistan, northwestern India, the shores of the Red Sea, the \r Gulf of California, the southern Gulf of Mexico and coastal Venezuela \r and Guyana (Krakauer et  al., 2020; Li et  al., 2020; Raymond et  al., \r 2020; Saeed et al., 2021; Xu et al., 2020)."


id: eb43f5d71abfd675ff0aab8c59af893b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38746
content:
"Individuals suffering from diabetes are at higher risk of heat-related \r illness and death (medium confidence). Extreme weather events \r and rising temperatures have been found to increase morbidity and \r mortality in patients living with diabetes, especially in those with \r cardiovascular complications (Mendez-Lazaro et al., 2018; Zilbermint, \r 2020; Hajat et al., 2017). Evidence suggests that the local heat loss \r response of skin blood flow is affected by diabetes-related impairments, \r resulting in lower elevations in skin blood flow in response to a heat \r or pharmacological stimulus. Thermoregulatory sweating may also be \r diminished by type-2 diabetes, impairing the body's ability to transfer \r heat from its core to the environment (Xu et al., 2019b). Higher rates \r of doctor consultations by patients with type-2 diabetes and diabetics \r with cardiovascular comorbidities have been observed during hot days, \r [...]"


id: 72738d510af7cfbaebd9725a8bd06f44
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17373
content:
"[...] but without evidence of heightened risk of renal failure or neuropathy \r comorbidities (Xu et al., 2019b)."


id: 5b126d365350f2ede509df8ebe0d8fdf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13275
content:
"2016). While there is strong association between ambient temperature \r and cardiovascular events globally, there are complex interactions and \r modulators of individual response (Wang et al., 2017b). Further, some \r CVD morbidity sub-groups such as myocardial infarction (MI) and stroke \r hospitalisation display temperature sensitivity while others do not \r (Bao et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2016). Although older \r adults have inherent sensitivities to temperature-related health impacts \r (Bunker et al., 2016; Phung et al., 2016), children can also be affected by \r extreme heat (Xu et al., 2014). Cardiovascular capacity or health is also a \r critical determinant of individual health outcomes (Schuster et al., 2017). \r Medications to treat CVDs, such as diuretics and beta-blockers, may \r impair resilience to heat stress (Stewart et al., 2017). Other mediating \r factors in the causal pathway range from alcohol consumption (Cusack \r [...]"


id: cbcc0959cb6f78233f30138b0eadc54c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33180
content:
"[...] et al., 2011; Epstein and Yanovich, 2019) and obesity (Speakman, 2018) \r to pre-existing conditions, such as diabetes and hyperlipidaemia, and \r urban characteristics (Chen et al., 2019; Sera et al., 2019)."


id: ceb873a8a99c2d030288b2be50292143
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33708
content:
"The country level percentage of mortality attributable to non\u0002optimum temperature (heat and cold) has been found to range from \r 3.4 to 11% (Gasparrini et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2019b). Heat as a \r health risk factor has largely been overlooked in low- and middle\u0002income countries (Campbell et al., 2018; Green et al., 2019; Dimitrova \r et  al., 2021). For 2019, the GBD report estimates the burden of \r DALYs attributable to low temperature was 2.2  times greater than \r the burden attributable to high temperature. However, this global \r figure obscures important regional variations. Countries with a \r high sociodemographic index--mainly mid-latitude high-income \r temperate to cool climate countries-- were found to have a cold\u0002related burden 15.4 times greater than the heat-related burden, while \r for warm lower-income regions, such as south Asia and sub-Saharan \r Africa, the heat-related burden was estimated to be 1.7  times and \r [...]"


id: e5fa73ba4eaeb3a8ee92968b0d09e512
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] 3.6  times greater, respectively (Murray et  al., 2020). For countries \r where data availability permits, there is evidence that extreme \r heat (and extreme cold) leads to higher rates of premature deaths \r (Armstrong et al., 2017; Cheng et al., 2018; Costa et al., 2017)."


id: f6993ed5243a502a5256d9c7e4220a23
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40757
content:
"Several lines of evidence point to a possible decrease in population \r sensitivity to heat, albeit mainly for high-income countries (high \r confidence), arising from the implementation of heat warning systems, \r increased awareness and improved quality of life. (Sheridan and \r Allen, 2018). Evidence suggests a general decrease in the impact of \r heat on daily mortality (Diaz et al., 2018; Kinney, 2018; Miron et al., \r 2015), a decline in the relative risk attributable to heat (Astrom et al., \r 2018; Barreca et al., 2016; Petkova et al., 2014) and an increase in the \r minimum mortality temperature (MMT) (Astrom et al., 2018; Folkerts \r et al., 2020; Follos et al., 2021; Chung et al., 2018; Todd and Valleron, \r 2015; Yin et  al., 2019). It is difficult to draw conclusions regarding \r trends in heat sensitivity for low- to middle-income countries and \r specific vulnerable groups as these are under-represented in the \r literature (Sheridan and Allen, 2018). Trends in heat sensitivity are \r [...]"


id: 57453d6bd1a111f46520131d061e9ad7
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] generally believed to be scale and situation dependent, but there is \r considerable variability in changes in heat sensitivity as measured \r by trends in heat-related mortality or MMT (Follos et al., 2021; Kim \r et al., 2019a; Lee et al., 2021), with notable variability across different \r population groups (Lu et al., 2021)."


id: 12969a68e0baadd2436eee21c8c7aa50
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 471
content:
"et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2021; Vanos et al., 2019; Varghese et al., 2020; \r Williams et  al., 2020). Occupational heat strain in outdoor workers \r manifests as dehydration, mild reduction in kidney function, fatigue, \r dizziness, confusion, reduced brain function, loss of concentration and \r discomfort (Al-Bouwarthan et al., 2020; Boonruksa et al., 2020; Habibi \r et al., 2021; Levi et al., 2018; Venugopal et al., 2021; Xiang et al., 2014). \r In the case of armed forces, a global review of the available literature \r points to a slightly higher incidence of heat stroke in men compared \r to women but a higher proportion of heat intolerance and greater \r risk of exertional heat illness amongst women (Alele et  al., 2020). \r There is also some evidence that for healthcare workers, the risk of \r occupational heat stress grew during the COVID-19 pandemic due to \r the need to wear personal protective equipment (Foster et al., 2020; \r [...]"


id: 58347b4eae4cf88916e3c3d1c51086c1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12773
content:
"[...] Lee et al., 2020; Messeri et al., 2021). Based on a systematic review of \r the literature, one study estimates global costs from heat-related lost \r work time were USD 280 billion in 1995 and USD 311 billion in 2010, \r with low- and middle-income countries and countries with warmer \r climates experiencing greater losses as a proportion of gross domestic \r project (GDP) (Borg et al., 2021). Other global level assessments note \r an increase in the potential hours of work lost due to heat over \r the 2000-2018 period; in 2018, 133.6  billion potential work hours \r were lost, amounting to 45 billion hours more than in 2000 (Watts \r et  al., 2019). For China, heat-related productivity losses have been \r estimated at 9.9 billion hours in 2019, equivalent to 0.5% of the total \r national work hours for that year, with Guangdong province, one of \r the warmest regions in China, accounting for almost a quarter of the \r losses (Cai et al., 2021)."


id: 73324aea37aa4dd32c700b7872258916
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17515
content:
"Injuries comprise a substantial portion of the global burden of disease. \r In 2019, injuries comprised 9.82% of total global DALYs and 7.61% \r of deaths (Vos et  al., 2020). The causal pathways for many injuries, \r particularly those from heat and extreme weather events, flooding \r and fires, exhibit clear climate sensitivity (Roberts and Arnold, \r 2007; Roberts and Hillman, 2005), as do some injuries occurring in \r occupational settings (Marinaccio et  al., 2019; Sheng et  al., 2018), \r but a comprehensive assessment of climate sensitivity in injury causal \r pathways has not been done. Certain groups, including Indigenous \r Peoples, children and the elderly (Ahmed et al., 2020) are at greater \r risk for a wide range of injuries. Extreme events impose substantial \r disease burden directly as a result of traumatic injuries, drowning and \r burns and large mental health burdens associated with displacement \r (Fullilove, 1996), depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), \r [...]"


id: 4e393e31fbc26e9534a35aee4f850962
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11032
content:
"[...] but the overall injury burden associated with extreme weather is not \r known. It is known that the Asia-Pacific region has experienced the \r highest relative burden of injuries from extreme weather in recent \r decades (Hashim and Hashim, 2016)."


id: 4842a01341ed2e3fc9bbf2f861462c0c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9927
content:
"Wide ranging knowledge regarding the specific detection of heat- and \r cold-related mortality/morbidity and its attribution to observed climate \r change is lacking. Although there has been an observed increase in \r winter-season temperatures for a number of regions, to date there is \r variable evidence for a consequential reduction in winter mortality and \r susceptibility to cold over time due to milder winters; some countries \r demonstrate decreasing trends, while other countries show stable or \r even increasing trends in cold-attributable mortality fractions over time \r (e.g., Arbuthnott et al. (2020); Astrom et al. (2013); Diaz et al. (2019); \r Hajat (2017); Hanigan et  al. (2021); Lee et  al. (2018b)). While there \r is a burgeoning literature on the attribution of extreme heat events \r to climate change (e.g., Vautard et al. (2020)), the number of studies \r that assess the extent to which observed changes in heat-related \r [...]"


id: 3203ca27be9abf89619ebdca5feb7412
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 6056
content:
"[...] mortality may be attributable to climate change is small (Ebi et  al., \r 2020). During the 2003 European heatwave, anthropogenic climate \r change increased the risk of heat-related mortality by approximately \r 70% and 20% for London and Paris, respectively (Mitchell et al., 2016). \r For the severe heat event across Egypt in 2015, the impact on human \r discomfort was 69% (+-17%) more likely due to anthropogenic climate \r change (Mitchell, 2016), and for Stockholm, Sweden, it has been \r estimated that mortality due to temperature extremes for 1980 to \r 2009 was double what would have occurred without climate change \r (Astrom et al., 2013). To date there has only been one multi-country \r attempt to quantify the heat-related human health impacts that have \r already occurred due to climate change. Based on an analysis of 732 \r locations spanning 43 countries for the 1991-2018 period, the study \r found that on average 37.0% (inter-quartile range 20.5-76.3%) of \r [...]"


id: c27cf0dd7b9011fe9652be27888fc71b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31503
content:
"[...] warm-season heat-related deaths can be attributed to anthropogenic \r climate change, equivalent to an average mortality rate of 2.2/100,000 "


id: dd552f90113df96915ecc3a557912612
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36206
content:
"Extreme weather imposes a substantial morbidity and mortality burden \r that is quite variable by location and hazard. The proportion of this \r burden related specifically to injuries is not established. From 1998 to \r 2017 there were 526,000 deaths from 11,500 extreme weather events, \r and the average annual attributable all-cause mortality incidence \r in the ten most affected countries was 3.5 per 100,000 population \r (Eckstein et al., 2017). Rates can be much higher; mortality incidence \r in Puerto Rico and Dominica from extreme weather were 90.2 and \r 43.7 per 100,000 population in 2017, respectively (Eckstein et  al., \r 2017). Not all of these deaths are from injuries, and the proportion \r of mortality and morbidity associated with injuries varies by location \r and hazard. One review found that one-year post-event prevalence \r rates for injuries associated with extreme events (floods, droughts, \r heatwaves and storms) in developing countries ranged from 1.4% to \r [...]"


id: fcf596635e619e8123fede7b215a1797
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41865
content:
"[...] 37.9% (Rataj et al., 2016). Other literature has documented an increase \r in the risk of motor vehicle accidents in association with extreme \r precipitation (Liu et al., 2017; Stevens et al., 2019), temperature (Leard \r and Roth, 2019) and sandstorms (Islam et al., 2019) and an increased \r risk of traumatic occupational injuries associated with temperature \r extremes, particularly extreme heat, likely from fatigue and decreased \r psychomotor performance (Varghese et al., 2019)."


id: e02f85e70385b198849c8b1142dd84d5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36689
content:
"micronutrient deficiencies (FAO, 2020). More than 135 million people \r across 55 countries experienced acute hunger requiring urgent food, \r nutrition and livelihood assistance in 2019 (FSIN/GNAFC, 2020). \r The COVID-19 pandemic is projected to increase the number of \r acutely food insecure people to 270 million people (FSIN, 2020) and \r worsen malnutrition levels (FAO et al., 2020; Rippin et al., 2020). The \r relationships between climate change and obesity vary based on \r geography, population sub-groups and/or stages of economic growth \r and population growth (An et al., 2017). Increasing temperatures could \r contribute to obesity through reduced physical activity, increased \r prices of produce or shifts in eating patterns of populations towards \r more processed foods (An et  al., 2018). In the largest global study \r to date exploring the connections between child diet diversity and \r recent climate, data from 19  countries in six regions (Asia, Central \r [...]"


id: 3b9923c6e18fe969e6904ac91e9f03e6
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7671
content:
"[...] America, South America, north Africa, southeast Africa and west Africa) \r indicated significant reductions in diet diversity associated with higher \r temperatures and significant increases in diet diversity associated with \r higher precipitation (Niles et al., 2021)."


id: 77ff9da73d0c64a945aa84e1cb640465
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18320
content:
"Climate variability and change contribute to food insecurity that can \r lead to malnutrition, including undernutrition, overweight and obesity, \r and to disease susceptibility, particularly in low- and middle-income \r countries (high confidence). Since AR5, analyses of the links between \r climate change and food expanded beyond undernutrition to include \r the impacts of climate change on a wider set of diet- and weight\u0002related risk factors and their impacts on NCDs, along with the role \r of dietary choices for GHG emissions (IPCC, 2019b) including dietary \r inadequacy (deficiencies, excesses or imbalances in energy, protein \r and micronutrients), infections and sociocultural factors (Global \r Nutrition Report 2020). Undernutrition exists when a combination of \r insufficient food intake, health, and care conditions results in one or \r more of the following: underweight for age, short for age (stunted), \r thin for height (wasted), or functionally deficient in vitamins and/\r [...]"


id: ddf993a927bd6a388e4319f975de773a
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36317
content:
"[...] or minerals (micronutrient malnutrition or 'hidden hunger'). Food \r insecurity and poor access to nutrient-dense food contribute not only \r to undernutrition but also to obesity and susceptibility to NCDs in \r low- and middle-income countries (FAO et al., 2018; Swinburn et al., \r 2019)."


id: 86a95f0ffd8456d024e9bb4d032fbe34
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20858
content:
"Climate change in northern regions, including Arctic ecosystems, \r is causing permafrost to thaw, creating the potential for mercury \r (Hg) to enter the food chain (medium agreement, low evidence) as \r methyl mercury (MeHg), which is highly neurotoxic and nephrotoxic \r and bioaccumulates and biomagnifies throughout the food chain via \r dietary uptake of fish, seafood and mammals. Mercury methylation \r processes in aquatic environments have been found to be exacerbated \r by ocean warming, coupled with more acidic and anoxic sediments \r (FAO, 2020). Consumption of mercury-contaminated fish has been \r found to be linked to neurological disorders due to methyl mercury \r poisoning (i.e., Minamata disease) that is associated with climate \r change-contaminant interactions that alter the bioaccumulation and \r biomagnification of toxic and fat-soluble persistent organic pollutants \r and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Alava et al., 2017) in seafood \r [...]"


id: f8e08c2f0f89d8e1b29d6f2915ed5150
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41151
content:
"[...] and marine mammals (medium confidence). Indigenous Peoples have \r a higher exposure to such risks because of the accumulation of such \r toxins in traditional foods (J.J. et al., 2017). Contamination of food with \r PCBs and dioxins has a range of adverse health impacts (Lake et al., \r 2015)."


id: 1134a637b4c806e4a58b3ee7d59733af
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 221
content:
"There is an observable association between high temperatures and \r mental health decrements (high confidence), with an additional \r possible influence of increased precipitation (medium agreement, \r medium evidence). Heat-associated mental health outcomes include \r suicide (Williams et al., 2015a; Carleton, 2017; Burke et al., 2018; Kim \r et  al., 2019b; Thompson et  al., 2018; Schneider et  al., 2020; Cheng \r et al., 2021; Baylis et al., 2018; Obradovich et al., 2018); psychiatric \r hospital admissions and emergency room visits for mental disorders \r (Hansen et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2014; Chan et al., 2018; Mullins and \r White, 2019; Yoo et al., 2021); experiences of anxiety, depression and \r acute stress (Obradovich et al., 2018; Mullins and White, 2019); and \r self-reported mental health (Li et  al., 2020). In Canada, Wang et  al. \r (2014) found an association between mean heat exposure of 28degC and \r greater hospital admissions within 0 to 4 days for mood and behavioural \r [...]"


id: 23a64632e557a31bf4ff6a9c9ad86a97
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3468
content:
"[...] disorders (including schizophrenia, mood and neurotic disorders). A US \r study found mental health problems increased by 0.5% when average \r temperatures exceed 30degC, compared to averages between 25degC \r and 30degC; a 1degC warming over five years was associated with a 2% \r increase in mental health problems (Obradovich et al., 2018). Another \r study found a 1degC rise in monthly average temperatures over several \r decades was associated with a 2.1% rise in suicide rates in Mexico and \r a 0.7% rise in suicide rates in the USA (Burke et al., 2018). A systematic \r review of published research using a variety of methodologies from \r 19 countries (Thompson et al., 2018) found an increased risk of suicide \r associated with a 1degC rise in ambient temperature."


id: 4b81b28c7b87523ca7038a54d41b1d4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10540
content:
"Discrete climate hazards including storms (Kessler et al., 2008; Boscarino \r et  al., 2013; Boscarino et  al., 2017; Obradovich et  al., 2018), floods \r (Baryshnikova and Pham, 2019), heatwaves, wildfires and drought \r (Hanigan et al., 2012; Carleton, 2017; Zhong et al., 2018; Charlson et al., \r 2021) have significant negative consequences for mental health (very \r high confidence). A large body of research identifies the impacts of \r extreme weather events on PTSD, anxiety and depression; much of the \r research has been done in the USA and the UK, but a growing number \r of studies find evidence for similar impacts on mental health in other \r countries, including Spain (Foudi et al., 2017), Brazil (Alpino et al., 2016), \r Chile (Navarro et  al., 2016), Small Island Developing States (Kelman \r et al., 2021) and Vietnam (Pollack et al., 2016). Approximately 20-30% \r of those who live through a hurricane develop depression and/or PTSD \r [...]"


id: 70248ec44dc4babe93457e3200ae89ad
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"[...] within the first few months following the event (Obradovich et al., 2018; \r Schwartz et al., 2015; Whaley, 2009), with similar rates for people who \r have experienced flooding (Waite et al., 2017; Fernandez et al., 2015). \r Studies conducted in South America and Asia indicate an increase in \r PTSD and depressive disorders after extreme weather events (Rataj \r et al., 2016). Evidence is lacking for African countries (Otto et al., 2017). \r Children and adolescents are particularly vulnerable to post-traumatic \r stress after extreme weather events (Brown et al., 2017; Hellden et al., \r 2021; Kousky, 2016), and increased susceptibility to mental health \r problems may linger into adulthood (Maclean et al., 2016)."


id: 9a2149968d7d50c30806315a39263051
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"A wide range of climatic events and conditions have observed and \r detrimental impacts on mental health (very high confidence). The \r pathways through which climatic events affect mental health are \r varied, complex and inter-connected with other non-climatic influences \r that create vulnerability (Figure  7.6). The climatic exposure may be \r direct, such as experiencing an extreme weather event or prolonged \r high temperatures, or indirect, such as mental health consequences \r of undernutrition or displacement. Exposure may also be vicarious, \r with people experiencing decreased mental health associated with \r observing the impact of climate change on others or simply by learning \r about climate change. Non-climatic moderating influences range \r from an individual's personality and pre-existing conditions, to social \r support, and to structural inequities (Gariepy et  al., 2016; Hrabok \r et al., 2020; Nagy et al., 2018; Silva et al., 2016b). Depending on these \r [...]"


id: 43c5e4bd7b0ffad478eec571a6541b3d
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"[...] background and contextual factors, similar climatic events may result \r in a range of potential mental health outcomes, including anxiety, \r depression, acute traumatic stress, PTSD, suicide, substance abuse and "


id: d9871ddace2c247bd9c3ec51c5290e7d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"Overall, research suggests that climate change has already had \r negative effects on subjective well-being (medium confidence). \r Climate change can affect well-being through a number of pathways, \r including loss of access to green and blue spaces due to damage \r from storms, coastal erosion, drought or wildfires; heat; decreased air \r quality; and disruptions to one's normal pattern of behaviour, residence, \r occupation or social interactions (Hayward and Ayeb-Karlsson, 2021). \r For example, substantial evidence shows a negative correlation \r between air pollution and subjective well-being or happiness (Apergis, \r 2018; Cunado and de Gracia, 2013; Lu, 2020; Luechinger, 2010; \r Menz and Welsch, 2010; Orru et al., 2016; Yuan et al., 2018; Zhang \r et  al., 2017a); in the reverse direction, there is evidence not only \r that time in nature but more specifically a feeling of connectedness \r to nature are both associated with well-being (Martin et  al., 2020) \r [...]"


id: 8e763aecabbe23f35efdb2137927fc6e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"[...] and healthy ecosystems offer opportunities for health improvements \r (Pretty and Barton, 2020). Negative emotions such as grief--often \r termed 'solastalgia' (Albrecht et al., 2007)--are associated with the \r degradation of local or valued landscapes (Eisenman et al., 2015; Ellis \r and Albrecht, 2017; Polain et al., 2011; Tschakert et al., 2017; Tschakert \r et  al., 2019), which may threaten cultural rituals, especially among \r Indigenous Peoples (Cunsolo and Ellis, 2018; Cunsolo et  al., 2020). \r Studies conducted in the Solomon Islands and Tuvalu found qualitative \r and quantitative evidence of experiences of climate change and worry \r about the future, with negative impacts on respondents' well-being \r (Asugeni et al., 2015; Gibson et al., 2020)."


id: 6a62e5215a7acb85172a78a8d3dc749
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"Mental health impacts can emerge as result of climate impacts on \r economic, social and food systems (high confidence). For example, \r malnutrition among children has been associated with a variety of \r mental health problems (Adhvaryu et  al., 2019; Hock et  al., 2018; \r Yan et  al., 2018), as has food insecurity among adults (Lund et  al., \r 2018). The economic impacts of droughts have been associated with \r increases in suicide, particularly among farmers (Carleton, 2017; \r Edwards et al., 2015; Vins et al., 2015); those whose occupations are \r likely to be affected by climate change report that it is a source of \r stress that is linked to substance abuse and suicidal ideation (Kabir, \r 2018). Studies of Indigenous Peoples often describe food insecurity or \r reduced access to traditional foods as a link between climate change \r and reduced mental health (Middleton et al., 2020b). The loss of family \r members, for example due to an extreme weather event, increases \r [...]"


id: e82e7e10658b92256f3fc5ea006327e1
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"[...] the risk of mental illness (Keyes et al., 2014). Individuals in low- and \r middle-income countries may be more severely impacted due to lesser \r access to mental health services and lower financial resources to help \r cope with impacts compared with high-income countries (Abramson \r et al., 2015)."


id: 8829b12201d269c61177c56f9fe1417
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"Anxiety about the potential risks of climate change and awareness \r of climate change itself can affect mental health even in the absence \r of direct impacts (low confidence). There is a need for more evidence \r about the prevalence or severity of climate change-related anxiety, \r sometimes called ecoanxiety, but national surveys in the USA, Europe \r and Australia show that people express high levels of concern and \r perceived harm associated with climate change (Steentjes et  al., \r 2017; Clayton and Karazsia, 2020; Cunsolo and Ellis, 2018; Helm \r et al., 2018; Leiserowitz et al., 2017; Reser et al., 2012; Steentjes et al., \r 2017). In a US sample, perceived ecological stress, defined as personal \r stress associated with environmental problems, predicted depressive \r symptoms (Helm et al., 2018); in a sample of Filipinos, climate anxiety \r was correlated with lower mental health (Reyes et  al., 2021) and a \r non-random study in 25  countries showed positive correlations \r [...]"


id: 2e5428e7fab6595abc0db26b1fb1d98
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"[...] between negative emotions about climate change and self-rated \r mental health (Ogunbode et al., 2021). However, an earlier study found \r no correlation between climate change worry and mental health issues \r (Berry and Peel, 2015). Because the perceived threat of climate change \r is based on subjective perceptions of risk and coping ability as well \r as on experiences and knowledge (Bradley et al., 2014), even people \r who have not been directly affected may be stressed by a perception \r of looming danger (Clayton and Karazsia, 2020). Not surprisingly, \r those who have directly experienced some of the effects of climate \r change may be more likely to show such responses. Indigenous \r Peoples, whose culture and well-being tend to be strongly linked to \r local environments, may experience mental health effects associated \r with changes in environmental risks; studies suggest connections to an "


id: a21bc8f11710e0ae3ec256703868e622
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"Heat is one of the best-studied aspects of climate change observed \r to reduce well-being (high confidence). Higher summer temperatures \r are associated with decreased happiness and ratings of well-being \r (Carleton and Hsiang, 2016; Miles-Novelo and Anderson, 2019; \r Connolly, 2013; Noelke et al., 2016; Baylis et al., 2018; Moore et al., \r 2019; Wang et al., 2020b). A study of 1.9 million Americans (Noelke \r et al., 2016) found that exposure to one day averaging 21degC-27degC was \r associated with reduced well-being by 1.6% of a standard deviation \r and days above 32degC were associated with reduced well-being \r by 4.4% of a standard deviation relative to a reference interval of \r 10degC-16degC. A similar relationship between heat and mood has been \r observed in China, where expressed mood began to decrease when \r the average daily temperature was over 20degC (Wang et al., 2020b). The \r causal mechanism is unclear but could be due to impacts on health, \r [...]"


id: 22be0084d25fe8c40e06b1e1088ea23b
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"[...] economic costs or social interactions (Belkin and Kouchaki, 2017; \r Osberghaus and Kuhling, 2016) or reduced quality or quantity of sleep \r (Fujii et al., 2015; Obradovich et al., 2017; Obradovich and Migliorini, \r 2018). Heat has also been associated with inter-personal and inter\u0002group aggression and increases in violent crime (Heilmann et al., 2021; \r Mapou et al., 2017; Tiihonen et al., 2017). For the most part, studies \r have measured daily response to average daily temperatures and are \r unable to predict whether the effect is cumulative in response to a \r sequence of unusually warm days. However, there is no evidence that \r adaptation occurs over time to eliminate the negative response to very \r warm temperatures (Moore et  al., 2019). Some research has found "


id: cb21c760417d49560ae273590c52224f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"Weather events and climate conditions can act as direct drivers of \r migration and displacement (e.g., destruction of homes by tropical \r cyclones) and as indirect drivers (e.g., rural income losses and/or \r food insecurity due to heat- or drought-related crop failures that \r in turn generate new population movements) (high confidence). \r Extreme storms, floods and wildfires are strongly associated with \r high levels of short- and long-term displacement, while droughts, \r extreme heat and precipitation anomalies are more likely to stimulate \r longer-term changes in migration patterns (Kaczan and Orgill-Meyer, \r 2020; Hoffmann et  al., 2020). Longer-term environmental changes \r attributable to anthropogenic climate change--such as higher \r average temperatures, desertification, land degradation, biodiversity \r loss and sea level rise--have had observed effects on migration \r and displacement in a limited number of locations in recent decades \r [...]"


id: be2e55032617c8be94de3d47d98a3c24
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"[...] but are projected to have wider-scale impacts on future population \r patterns and migration, and are therefore assessed in Section  7.3.2 \r (Projected Risks)."


id: 13f665120475211f96b843458934eaec
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"The diversity of potential migration and displacement outcomes \r reflects the scale and physical impacts of specific climate hazard \r events and the wide range of social, economic, cultural, political \r and other non-climatic factors that influence exposure, vulnerability, \r adaptation options and the contexts in which migration decisions are \r made (high confidence). The diversity in drivers, contexts and outcomes \r makes it difficult to offer simple generalisations about the relationship \r between climate change and migration. The characteristics of climatic \r drivers vary in terms of the rate of onset, intensity, duration, spatial \r extent and severity of damage caused to housing, infrastructure and \r livelihoods; the potential migration responses to these are further \r mediated by cultural, demographic, economic, political, social and \r other non-climatic factors operating across multiple scales (Neumann \r and Hermans, 2015; McLeman, 2017; Barnett and McMichael, 2018; \r [...]"


id: 16ca1dddff58eb64754055acbb7730e2
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"Climatic conditions, events and variability are important drivers of migration and displacement (high confidence) (Table MIGRATE.1 in \r Chapter 7), with migration responses to specific climate hazards being strongly influenced by economic, social, political and demographic \r processes (high confidence) (Sections 7.2.6, 8.2.1.3). Migration is among a wider set of possible adaptation alternatives and often emerges \r when other forms of adaptation are insufficient (Sections 5.5.1.1, 5.5.3.5, 7.2.6, 8.2.1.3, 9.7.2). Involuntary displacement occurs when \r adaptation alternatives are exhausted or not viable and reflects non-climatic factors that constrain adaptive capacity and create high \r levels of exposure and vulnerability (high confidence) (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3; Sections 4.3.7, 7.2.6; Box 8.1; Section 10.3; \r Box 14.7). There is strong evidence that climatic disruptions to agricultural and other rural livelihoods can generate migration (high \r [...]"


id: be86dbc2b183c48000b8d4af35a9cb38
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"Figure MIGRATE.1 in Chapter 7 presents a simplified framework for understanding how migration and displacement may emerge from \r the interactions of climatic and non-climatic factors, based on the characteristic risk framework introduced in Chapter 1 (Section 1.3). \r Voluntary migration can be used by households when adapting to climate hazards, while less voluntary forms of migration and displacement \r emerge when other forms of adaptation (referred to in Figure MIGRATE.1 in Chapter 7 as in situ adaptation) are inadequate. Migration \r outcomes--expressed in Figure MIGRATE.1 in Chapter 7 as changes in future risks to the well-being of migrants, sending communities \r and destination communities--are heavily influenced by the political, legal, cultural and socioeconomic conditions under which migration \r occurs. Groups and individuals that are involuntarily immobile may find that their exposure, vulnerability and risk increase over time. \r [...]"


id: a1e8d4fa177b8e2747a46bebbd936d4e
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"[...] Table MIGRATE.1 in Chapter 7 summarises the range of potential migration outcomes that may emerge from this dynamic and indicates \r specific sections in sectoral and regional chapters of the report that describe examples of each."


id: 8f016ac2f8bb3db16adfbb4394e751b0
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"of climate change can result in synergies for both adaptation and development (Sections 5.12.2, 7.4.4, 8.2.1.3). Migration governance at \r local, national and international levels will influence the outcomes of climate-related migration for the migrants themselves as well as for \r receiving and origin communities (Sections 5.13.4, 7.4.4, 8.2.1.3). At the international level, a number of relevant policy initiatives and \r agreements, including Global Compacts for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration and for the protection of Refugees; the Warsaw \r International Mechanism of the UNFCCC; the Sustainable Development Goals; the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction; and the \r Platform on Disaster Displacement, have already been established, merit continued pursuit and provide potential migration governance \r pathways (Section 7.4.4). Policy and planning decisions at regional, national and local scales that relate to housing, infrastructure, water \r [...]"


id: e4843cc65489d0ec630cd166c4635f08
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"[...] provisioning, schools and healthcare are relevant for successful integration of migrants into receiving communities (Sections  5.5.4, \r 5.10.1.1, 5.12.2, 9.8.3). Policies and practices on movements of people across international borders are also relevant to climate-related \r migration, with restrictions on movement having implications for the adaptive capacity of communities exposed to climate hazards \r (Section  7.4.4.2; Box  8.1). Perceptions of migrants and the framing of policy discussions in receiving communities and nations are \r important determinants of the future success of migration as an adaptive response to climate change (Section 7.4.4.3) (high agreement, \r medium evidence)."


id: 77809a4acb5a76ed7fef9a39a72235a4
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content:
"Reducing the future risk of large-scale population displacements, including those requiring active humanitarian interventions and \r organised relocations of people, requires the international community to meet the requirements of the Paris Agreement and take further \r action to control future warming (high confidence) (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3; Section 7.3.1; Box 8.1). Current emissions \r pathways lead to scenarios for the period between 2050 and 2100 in which hundreds of millions of people will be at risk of displacement \r due to rising sea levels, floods, tropical cyclones, droughts, extreme heat, wildfires and other hazards, with land degradation exacerbating \r these risks in many regions (Section 7.3.2; IPCC 2019b; Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3). At high levels of warming, tipping points may \r exist, particularly related to sea level rise, that, if crossed, would further increase the global population potentially at risk of displacement \r [...]"


id: b572fdbc580f3f89981f3510ec07d8f7
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"[...] (Ranasinghe et al. 2021). Populations in low-income countries and small-island states that have historically had low greenhouse gas \r (GHG) emissions are at particular risk of involuntary migration and displacement due to climate change, reinforcing the urgency for \r industrialised countries to continue lowering GHG emissions, to support adaptive capacity-building initiatives under the UNFCCC and to \r meet objectives expressed in the Global Compacts regarding safe, orderly and regular migration and the support and accommodation of \r displaced people (Sections 4.3.7, 4.5.7, 5.12.2, 7.4.5.5, 8.4.2; Box 8.1; Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3)."


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"Most documented examples of international climate-related migration \r are intra-regional movements of people between countries with shared \r borders (high agreement, medium evidence). Systematic reviews find \r few documented examples of long-distance, inter-regional migration \r driven by climate events (Veronis et  al., 2018; Kaczan and Orgill\u0002Meyer, 2020; Hoffmann et  al., 2020). One macro-economic analysis \r found a correlation between migrant flows from low- to high-income \r countries and adverse climatic events in the source country (Coniglio \r and Pesce, 2015). Another study found that high heat stimulates higher \r rates of international migration from middle-income countries but \r typically not from low-income countries (Cattaneo and Peri., 2016), \r while other studies found international climate-related migration \r originates primarily from agriculture-dependent countries (Cai et al., \r 2016; Nawrotzki and Bakhtsiyarava, 2017). Small-sample studies of \r [...]"


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"[...] migrants to Canada from Bangladesh, Haiti and sub-Saharan Africa \r suggest environmental factors in the source country can be a primary \r or secondary motivation for some migrants within larger flows of \r economic and family-reunification migrants (Veronis and McLeman, \r 2014; Mezdour et  al., 2015; McLeman et  al., 2017). Research on \r the links between climate hazards and international movements of \r refugees and/or asylum seekers shows differing results. One study \r found that asylum applications in Europe increase during climate \r fluctuations due to interactions with conflict (Missirian and Schlenker, \r 2017), and another found links between heat, drought, conflict and \r asylum-seeking migration originating in the Middle East between \r 2011 and 2015 (Abel et  al., 2019). Other studies have found that "


id: 66d849b1411bb77570a0bf53adf7eebb
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"Climate-related migration originates most often in rural areas in \r low- and middle-income countries, with migrant destinations usually \r being other rural areas or urban centres within their home countries \r (i.e., internal migration) (medium confidence). Rural livelihoods and \r incomes based on farming, livestock rearing and/or natural resource \r collection are inherently sensitive to climate variability and change, \r creating greater potential for migration as a response (Bohra-Mishra \r et  al., 2017; Viswanathan and Kumar, 2015). Drought events have \r been associated with periods of higher rural to urban migration \r within Mexico (Chort and de la Rupelle, 2016; Leyk et  al., 2017; \r Nawrotzki et  al., 2017; Murray-Tortarolo and Martnez, 2021) and \r Senegal (Nawrotzki and Bakhtsiyarava, 2017). Extreme temperatures \r are associated with higher rates of temporary rural out-migration in \r South Africa and in Bangladesh (Mastrorillo et al., 2016; Call et al., \r [...]"


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"[...] 2017). In rural Tanzania, weather-related shocks to crop production \r have been observed to increase the likelihood of migration but \r typically only for households in the middle of community wealth \r distribution (Kubik and Maurel, 2016). Weather-related losses in rice \r production have been associated with small-percentage increases \r in internal migration in India (Viswanathan and Kumar, 2015) and \r the Philippines (Bohra-Mishra et al., 2017). In east Africa, temporary \r rural-urban labour migration does not show a strong response to \r climatic drivers (Mueller et  al., 2020). There is limited literature on \r mobility as adaptation in urban populations, with the focus being on \r resettlement of flood-prone informal settlements within cities (Kita, \r 2017; Tadgell et al., 2017)."


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"Tropical cyclones and extreme storms are a particularly significant \r displacement risk in East and Southeast Asia, the Caribbean region, \r the Bay of Bengal region and southeast Africa (IDMC 2020) (high \r confidence). The scale of immediate displacement from any given \r storm and potential for post-event migration depend heavily on the \r extent of damage to housing and livelihood assets and the responsive \r capacity of governments and humanitarian relief agencies (Saha, \r 2016; Islam et  al., 2018; Mahajan, 2020; Spencer and Urquhart, \r 2018). In Bangladesh, the rural poor are most often displaced, with \r initial increases in short-term, labour-seeking migration followed by \r more permanent migration by some groups (Saha, 2016; Islam and \r Hasan, 2016; Islam and Shamsuddoha, 2017). Past hurricanes in the \r Caribbean basin have generated internal and inter-state migration \r within the region, typically along pre-existing social networks, \r [...]"


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"[...] and to the USA (Loebach, 2016; Chort and de la Rupelle, 2016). In \r 2017, Hurricanes Irma and Maria caused widespread damage to \r infrastructure and health services, and a slow recovery response by \r authorities was followed by the migration of tens of thousands of \r Puerto Ricans to Florida and New York (Zorrilla, 2017; Echenique and \r Melgar, 2018). In the US, coastal counties experience increased out\u0002migration after hurricanes that flows along existing social networks \r (Hauer, 2017), with post-disaster reconstruction employment \r opportunities potentially attracting new labour migrants to affected "


id: 207286fc052da582df572d79eb8488ac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"Reliable global estimates of voluntary climate-related migration \r within and between countries are not available due to a general \r absence of data of this specific nature, with existing national and \r global datasets often lacking information on migration causation or \r motivation. Better data are available for involuntary displacements \r within countries for reasons associated with weather-related hazards. \r Data collected annually since 2008 on internal displacements \r attributed to extreme weather events by the IDMC indicate that \r extreme storms and floods are the two most significant weather\u0002related drivers of population displacements globally. Because of \r improvements in collection sources and methods since it first began \r reporting data in 2008, upward trends since that year in the total \r reported annual number of people displaced should be treated \r cautiously. However, it is reasonable to conclude that the average \r [...]"


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"[...] annual rate currently exceeds 20  million people globally, with \r considerable interannual variation due to the frequency and severity \r of extreme events in heavily populated areas. Regional distribution \r of displacement events has been consistent throughout the IDMC "


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content:
"Riverine flood displacement can lead to increases or decreases in \r temporary or short-distance migration flows, depending on the local \r context (medium confidence) (Robalino et  al., 2015; Ocello et  al., \r 2015; Afifi et al., 2016; Koubi et al., 2016b). Floods are a particularly \r important driver of displacement in river valleys and deltas in Asia and \r Africa, although large flood-related displacements have been recorded \r by the IDMC in all regions. In Africa, populations exposed to low flood \r risks, as compared with other regions, are observed to have a greater \r vulnerability to displacement due to limited economic resources and \r adaptive capacity (Kakinuma et al., 2020). In areas where flooding is \r especially frequent, in situ adaptations may be more common, and \r out-migration may temporarily decline after a flood (Afifi et al., 2016; \r Chen et al., 2017; Call et al., 2017). Rates of indefinite or permanent \r [...]"


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"[...] migration tend not to change following riverine floods unless damage \r to homes and livelihood assets is especially severe and widespread, \r with household perceptions of short- and longer-term risks playing an \r important role (Koubi et al., 2016a)."


id: 7fc6d1aee6be5b8fe0ac2b2e32b77edd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19617
content:
"Research critiques the tendency to portray women as victims of climate hazards rather than recognising differences between women and \r the potential for women to use their agency and informal networks to negotiate their situations (Eriksen et al., 2015; Ngigi et al., 2017; \r Pollard et al., 2015; Rao et al., 2019b; Ravera et al., 2016). Migration can change household composition and structure, which in turn \r affects the adaptive capacity and choices of those who do not move (Rao et al., 2019a; Rao et al., 2019b; Singh, 2019). For example, when \r only male household members move, the remaining members of the now female-headed household must take on greater workloads \r (Goodrich et al., 2019; Rao et al., 2019b; Rigg and Salamanca, 2015), leading to increased workload and greater vulnerability for those \r left behind (Arora et al., 2017; Bhagat, 2017; Flato et al., 2017; Lawson et al., 2019). It can, however, also increase women's economic \r [...]"


id: 38b89d00d9dc638661b899def5c6b889
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] freedom and decision-making capacity, enhance their agency (Djoudi et al., 2016; Rao, 2019) and alter the gendered division of paid \r work, care and intra-household relations (Rigg et al., 2018; Singh and Basu, 2020), a process that may reduce household vulnerability to \r extreme climate events (Banerjee et al., 2019b)."


id: 4f0e314c9360695ad74c6288b631088b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11196
content:
"In AR5, conflict was addressed in WGII Chapter 12 on human security. \r The chapter concluded that some of the factors that increase the risk of \r violent conflict within states are sensitive to climate change (medium \r evidence, medium agreement), that people living in places affected by \r violent conflict are particularly vulnerable to climate change (medium \r confidence) and that climate change will lead to new challenges to \r states and will increasingly shape both conditions of security and \r national security policies (medium evidence, medium agreement). AR5 \r characterised a major debate within the field as: authors supporting \r an association between climate anomalies and conflict that can be \r extrapolated into the future (e.g., Hsiang et  al. (2013); Hsiang and \r Marshall (2014); Burke et al. (2015a)) and authors arguing that these \r associations are not universal and break down when contextual, scale \r and political factors are introduced (e.g., Buhaug et al. (2014); Buhaug \r [...]"


id: 139d017e1ce4695ba5169b7edb8c690b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 667
content:
"Consistent with AR5 findings, there continues to be little observed \r evidence that climatic variability or change cause violent inter-state \r conflict. In intra-state settings, climate change has been associated \r with the onset of conflict, civil unrest or riots in urban settings (high \r agreement, medium evidence) (Ide (2020), and changes in the duration \r and severity of existing violent conflicts (Koubi, 2019). Climate change \r is conceptualised as one of many factors that interact to raise tensions \r (Boas and Rothe, 2016) through diverse causal mechanisms (Mach \r et al., 2019; Ide et al., 2020) and as part of the peace-vulnerability\u0002development nexus (Barnett, 2019; Abrahams, 2020; Buhaug and von \r Uexkull, 2021).  New areas of the literature assessed in this report \r include the security implications of responses to climate change, the \r gendered dynamics of conflict and exposure to violence under climate \r [...]"


id: 921dd3f436166c11347875f967bd94f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 22921
content:
"[...] change and civil unrest in urban settings. The impact of violent conflict \r on vulnerability is not addressed in this chapter but does arise in \r other chapters (Sections  8.3.2.3, 17.2.2.2). Other chapters address \r non-violent conflict over changing availability and distribution of \r resources, for example, competing land uses and fish stocks migrating \r to different territories (Sections  5.8.2.3; 5.8.3, 5.9.3, 5.13, 9.8.1.1, \r 9.8.5.1). A commonly used definition of armed conflict is conflicts \r involving greater than 25 battle-related deaths in a year; this number \r represents the Uppsala Conflict Data Program threshold for inclusion \r in their database, a core resource in this field."


id: 16cdd70187d3a52946164add48cb1c68
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1226
content:
"The number of assessable peer-reviewed studies that make connections \r between climate-related migration and health and well-being is small. \r The health outcomes of migrants generally, and of climate-migrants \r in particular, vary according to geographical context, country and the \r particular circumstances of migration or immobility (Hunter and Simon, \r 2017; Hunter et  al., 2021; Schwerdtle et  al., 2020). Such linkages are \r 'multi-directional', with studies suggesting that healthy individuals \r may be more likely to migrate internationally in search of economic \r opportunities than people in poorer health, except during adverse \r climatic conditions when migration rates may change across all groups, \r and that migrants may have different long-term health outcomes than \r people born in destination areas, potentially displaying a range of positive \r and negative health outcomes compared to non-migrants (Kennedy \r [...]"


id: 46cfc7e5d2a78f7962ca21a3ae6f3d3c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9663
content:
"[...] et al., 2015; Dodd et al., 2017; Hunter and Simon, 2017; Riosmena et al., \r 2017). Refugees and other involuntary migrants often experience higher \r exposure to disease and malnutrition, adverse indirect health effects of \r changes in diet or activity and increased rates of mental health concerns. \r These latter may be attributable to a sense of loss or fear (Schwerdtle \r et al., 2018; Torres and Casey, 2017) as well as due to the interruption \r of healthcare; occupational injuries; sleep deprivation; non-hygienic \r lodgings and insufficient sanitary facilities; heightened exposure to \r vector- and WBDs; vulnerability to psychosocial, sexual and reproductive "


id: cea306c95c7eb356c65db6a234169708
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33694
content:
"Climatic conditions have affected armed conflict within countries, but \r their influence has been small compared to socioeconomic, political \r and cultural factors (Mach et  al., 2019) (high agreement, medium \r evidence). Inter-group inequality, and consequent relative deprivation \r can lead to conflict and the negative impacts of climate change \r lower the opportunity cost of involvement in conflict (Buhaug et al., \r 2020; Vestby, 2019). Potential pathways linking climate and conflict \r include direct impacts on physiology from heat or resource scarcity; \r indirect impacts of climatic variability on economic output, agricultural \r incomes, higher food prices and increasing migration flows; and the \r unintended effects of climate mitigation and adaptation policies (Koubi, \r 2019; Busby, 2018; Sawas et al., 2018). Relative deprivation, political \r exclusion and ethnic fractionalisation and ethnic grievances are other \r [...]"


id: bf91c29ee14867f065fd5b45484a8821
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30967
content:
"[...] key variables (Schleussner et al., 2016; Theisen, 2017). Research shows \r that factors such as land tenure and competing land uses interacting \r with market-driven pressures and existing ethnic divisions produce \r conflict over land resources rather than a scarcity of natural resources \r caused by climate impacts such as drought (high agreement, medium \r evidence) (Theisen, 2017; Balestri and Maggioni, 2017; Kuusaana and \r Bukari, 2015; Box 8.3)."


id: f2bb41419319ece68f91bf52b1407b5f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40105
content:
"Extreme weather events can be associated with increased conflict risk \r (low agreement, medium evidence). There is the potential for extreme \r weather events and disasters to cause political instability and increase \r the risk of violent conflict, although not conclusively (Brzoska, 2018). \r Post-disaster settings can be used to intensify state repression (Wood \r and Wright, 2016) and to alter insurgent groups' behaviour (Walch, \r 2018). Different stakeholders use disasters to establish new narratives \r and alter public opinion (Venugopal and Yasir, 2017). Some research \r has demonstrated how post-disaster activities have had positive \r impacts on the social contract between people and the state, reducing \r the risk of conflict by strengthening relations between government and \r citizens and strengthening the citizenship of marginalised communities \r [...]"


id: c9b376729f5494403fd46a7454172ed4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32809
content:
"[...] (Siddiqi, 2018; Pelling and Dill, 2010; Siddiqi, 2019). However, post\u0002disaster and disaster risk-related activities themselves have limited \r capacity to support diplomatic efforts to build peace (Kelman et al., \r 2018)."


id: 800138823d3dad4dbf77abfd9e22ddbf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19655
content:
"Positive temperature anomalies and average increases in temperature \r over time have been associated with collective violent conflict in certain \r settings (medium agreement, low evidence). Helman and Zaitchik \r (2020) find statistical associations between temperature and violent \r conflict in Africa and the Middle East that are stronger in warmer places \r and identify seasonal temperature effects on violence. However, they \r are unable to detect the impact of regional temperature increases on \r violence. For Africa, Van Weezel (2019) found associations between \r average increases in temperature and conflict risk. Caruso et al. (2016) \r found an association between rises in minimum temperature and \r violence through the impact of temperature on rice yields (Box 9.4). \r However, the associations between temperature and violence are \r weak compared to those with political and social factors (e.g., Owain \r and Maslin (2018)) and research focuses on areas where conflict is \r [...]"


id: cf0ea4ed7059d3ae28e72bf4cf3a23ed
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33777
content:
"[...] already present and, as such, is sensitive to selection bias (Adams et al., \r 2018). There is a body of literature that finds statistical associations \r between temperature anomalies and inter-personal violence, crime \r and aggression in the Global North, predominantly in the USA (e.g., \r Ranson (2014); Mares and Moffett (2019); Tiihonen et  al. (2017); \r Parks et al. (2020); Section 14.4.8). However, authors have cautioned \r against extrapolating seasonal associations into long-term trends and \r against focusing on individual crimes rather than wider social injustices \r associated with climate change and its impacts (Lynch et al., 2020)."


id: 6ac50c1bccaf9c1175fa185bd963aa2a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16065
content:
"Increases in food prices due to reduced agricultural production and \r global food price shocks are associated with conflict risk and represent \r a key pathway linking climate variability and conflict (medium \r confidence). Increases in food prices are associated with civil unrest \r in urban areas among populations unable to afford or produce their \r own food and in rural populations due to changes in availability of \r agricultural employment with shifting commodity prices (Martin\u0002Shields and Stojetz, 2019). Under such conditions, locally specific \r grievances, hunger and social inequalities can initiate or exacerbate \r conflicts. Food price volatility in general is not associated with violence, \r but sudden food price hikes have been linked to civil unrest in some \r circumstances (Bellemare, 2015; McGuirk and Burke, 2020; Winne and \r Peersman, 2019). In urban settings in Kenya, Koren et al. (2021) found \r an association between food and water insecurity that is mutually \r [...]"


id: 772720f1dbff1cf51e4f59fa4b6f9fbc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18163
content:
"[...] reinforcing and associated with social unrest (although insecurity in \r either food or water on its own was not). Analysing the global food \r riots in 2007/2008 and 2011, Heslin (2021) stresses the role of local \r politics and pre-existing grievances in determining whether people \r mobilise around food insecurity (Chapter 5)."


id: b7f0d6c1b4c43b82d8dd05c46b464532
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29579
content:
"There is some evidence of an association between climate-related \r rural-to-urban migration and the risk of civil unrest (medium \r agreement, low evidence). Petrova (2021) found that while migration \r in general was associated with increased protests in urban receiving \r areas, the relationship did not hold for hazard-related migration. In \r other settings, the association of civil unrest with in-migration was \r found to depend on the political alignment of the host state with the \r capital (Bhavnani and Lacina, 2015), previous experience of extreme \r climate hazards (Koubi et  al., 2021) and previous experience of \r violence among migrants (Linke et al., 2018). Climate-related migrants \r have reported higher levels of perception and experience of violence \r in their destination (Linke et al., 2018; Koubi et al., 2018). There has \r been no association established between international migration and \r conflict. The literature highlights how unjust racial logics may generate \r [...]"


id: 70434a4f07e09e26261848162896a610
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17009
content:
"Climate adaptation and mitigation projects implemented without \r taking local interests and dynamics into account have the potential \r to cause conflict (high agreement, medium evidence). Reforestation \r or forest management programmes driven by reducing emissions \r through deforestation, land zoning and managed retreat due to sea \r level rise have been identified as having the potential to cause friction \r and conflict within and between groups and communities (de la Vega\u0002Leinert et  al., 2018; Froese and Schilling, 2019). Conflict may arise \r when there is resistance to a proposed project, where interventions \r favour one group over another, or when projects undermine \r livelihoods or displace populations (e.g., Nightingale (2017); Sovacool \r et  al. (2015); Sovacool (2018); Corbera (2017); Hunsberger (2018); \r Sections  4.6.8, 5.13.4, 14.4.7.3). In addition to conflict generated \r by the poor implementation of land-based climate mitigation and \r [...]"


id: 3a9bcfa961be4d046a56bd032c284668
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 7515
content:
"[...] adaptation projects, Gilmore and Buhaug (2021) highlight the links \r between climate policy and conflict through the potential effects of \r unequal distribution of economic burdens and fossil fuel markets on \r economic growth. There is a small literature that draws attention \r to the potential security of nuclear proliferation, if nuclear energy \r is increasingly employed as a low-carbon energy source (e.g., \r Parthemore et al. (2018); Bunn, (2019))."


id: 6cc171a0afa2cf6787fdd0dd7c71283c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16412
content:
"Structural inequalities play out at an individual level to create gendered \r experiences of violence (high agreement, medium evidence). Violent \r conflict is experienced differently by men and women because of \r gender norms that already exist in society and shape vulnerabilities. \r For example, conflict deepens gendered vulnerabilities to climate \r change related to unequal access to land and livelihood opportunities \r (Chandra et  al., 2017). Motivations for inter-group violence may \r be influenced by constructions of masculinity, for example the \r responsibility to secure their family's survival or pay dowries \r (Myrttinen et  al., 2017), and gendered roles may incentivise young \r men to protest or to join non-state armed groups during periods of \r adverse climate (Myrttinen et al., 2015; Myrttinen et al., 2017; Anwar \r et al., 2019; Hendrix and Haggard, 2015; Koren and Bagozzi, 2017). \r Research has found a positive correlation between crop failures and \r [...]"


id: d10330a46380b22615ad295252c5d04
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34122
content:
"[...] suicides by male farmers who could not adapt their livelihoods to \r rising temperatures (Bryant and Garnham 2015; Kennedy and King, \r 2014; Carleton, 2017)."


id: f3bb659ce4241d00adb2a79581e820cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40258
content:
"Economic and social changes due to changes in sea ice extent in the \r Arctic are anticipated to be managed as part of existing governance \r structures (high agreement, medium evidence). The opening-up of the \r Arctic and associated geopolitical manoeuvring for access to shipping \r routes and sub-sea hydrocarbons is often highlighted as a potential \r source of climate conflict (e.g., Koivurova (2009); Atland (2013); \r Tamnes and Offerdal (2014)). Research assessed in AR5 focused \r on the potential for resource wars and Arctic land grabs. However, \r research since AR5 is less sensationalist in its approach to Arctic \r security, focusing instead on the practicalities of polycentric Arctic \r governance under climate change, the economic impacts of climate \r change, protecting the human security of Arctic populations whose \r autonomy is at risk (Heininen and Exner-Pirot, 2020), understanding \r how different regions (e.g., the EU) are positioning themselves more \r [...]"


id: 8bfdfe2bfcbacdb0c85feae3f39d42b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21801
content:
"[...] prominently in the Arctic space (Raspotnik and Osthagen, 2019) and \r Arctic Indigenous Peoples' understanding of security (Hossain, 2016; \r Chapter 3; Chapter 14; CCP6)."


id: 265d4c4bbcfcf025a830e3a3979f50f5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3919
content:
"Temperature increases are projected to exceed critical risk thresholds \r for six key climate-sensitive health outcomes, highlighting the criticality \r of building adaptive capacity in health systems and in other sectors \r that influence health and well-being  (high confidence).  Recently \r reported research illustrates the temperature thresholds under three \r adaptation scenarios describing the effectiveness of health systems \r to manage additional risks from climate change  for  heat-related \r morbidity and mortality; ozone-related mortality; malaria incidence \r rates; incidence rates of Dengue and other diseases spread by Aedes \r sp. mosquitos; Lyme disease; and West Nile fever (Ebi et al., 2021a). As \r shown in Figure 7.9, these adaptation scenarios significantly alter the \r warming thresholds at which risks accelerate, with  the proactive \r adaptation scenario,  a  scenario that emphasises international \r cooperation towards achieving sustainable development, having \r [...]"


id: 7db14403c7090e920e8a4d8f1231cfca
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19289
content:
"[...] the greatest potential to avoid significant increases in risks under \r all but the highest levels of warming.  The incomplete adaptation \r scenario  describes a world with moderate challenges to adaptation \r and mitigation. The limited adaptation scenario describes a world with \r high challenges to adaptation and mitigation. In the figure, transitions \r are based on the peer-reviewed literature projecting risks for each of \r the health outcomes. Projections for time intervals were changed to \r temperature increase above pre-industrial levels based on the climate \r models and scenarios used in the projections.The assessed projections \r were based on a range of scenarios, including SRES, CMIP5, and ISIMIP, \r and, in some cases, demographic trends. The black dots are levels of "


id: 9587aa5a623faa9eccb0bf71b3ed6163
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23510
content:
"(high confidence). Two global projections of climate change health \r impacts have been conducted since AR5. The first focused on cause\u0002specific mortality for eight exposures for 2030 and 2050 for a mid\u0002range emissions scenario (A1b) and three scenarios of economic growth \r (WHO, 2014). The study estimated that the climate change projected \r to occur by 2050 (compared to 1961-1990) could result in an excess \r of approximately 250,000 deaths yr-1, dominated by increases in \r deaths due to heat (94,000, mainly in Asia and high-income countries), \r childhood undernutrition (85,000, mainly in Africa but also in Asia), \r malaria (33,000, mainly in Africa) and diarrhoeal disease (33,000, mainly \r in Africa and Asia). Overall, more than half of this excess mortality is \r projected for Africa. Near-term projections (for 2030) are predominantly \r for childhood undernutrition (95,200 out of 241,000 total excess deaths) \r [...]"


id: 4e6d72e751f3f5d19554b7daad437f32
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11075
content:
"[...] (Figure  7.8). The second study (Carleton et  al. 2020) focused on all\u0002cause mortality associated with warming under both a high emissions \r scenario (RCP8.5) and a middle emissions scenario (RCP4.5). The \r analyses created a metric of death equivalents that accounted for hot \r and cold temperature-related mortality and the costs of individual level \r adaptation; no acclimatization or community-level adaptation, such as \r early warning systems, were incorporated. Average annual temperature\u0002mortality-income per capita relationships estimated from pooled data \r from 40 predominantly middle- and high-income countries (38% of the \r world population) were applied worldwide. Under the high emissions \r scenario, climate change was projected to result in approximately 85 \r deaths equivalents per 100,000 population."


id: 7aed3bb4a96b4921455567a19748ef20
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18827
content:
"Comparisons of heatwave exposure for 1.5degC and 2.0degC warming \r for different SSPs indicate strong geographical contrasts in potential \r heatwave risk (high confidence). One global level assessment for a \r 1.5degC warming projects that low human development index countries \r will experience exposure levels equal to or greater than the exposure \r levels for very high human development index countries under a 2degC \r warming (Russo, 2019). The same assessment also finds that holding \r global warming below 1.5degC in tandem with achieving sustainable \r socioeconomic development (e.g., SSP1 as opposed to SSP4) yields \r reduced levels of heatwave exposure, especially for low human \r development index countries, particularly across sub-Saharan Africa. \r Similar findings were found in other global level assessments. Global \r exposure to extreme heat increases almost 30  times under a SSP3-\r 8.5 combination, with the average exposure for Africa 118  times \r [...]"


id: 83ef20454581b466218b2a78f54c96ea
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20363
content:
"[...] greater than historical levels, in stark contrast to the four-fold increase \r projected for Europe. Compared to a SSP3-8.5 scenario, exposure was \r reduced by 65% and 85% under the SSP2-4.5 and SSP1-2.6 scenarios, \r respectively (Liu et al., 2017)."


id: ea4100a7037e0ea4afb86600d221139f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38569
content:
"Population heat exposure will increase under climate change \r (very high confidence). Since AR5 there has been considerable \r progress with quantifying future human exposure to extreme heat \r (Schwingshackl et  al., 2021), especially as determined by different \r combinations of SSPs and RCPs (Chambers, 2020; Cheng et  al., \r 2020; Jones et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2017; Ma and Yuan, 2021; Russo \r et al., 2019). For example, Table 7.1 shows projections of population \r exposure to heatwaves, as expressed by the number of person-days, \r for the 2061-2080 period aggregated by geographical region and \r SSP/RCP. At the global level, projected future exposure increases \r from approximately 15 million person-days for the current period to \r 535 billion person-days for high population growth under the high \r GHG emission SSP3-RCP8.5 scenario, while for the low population \r growth/high urbanisation and business as usual SSP5-RCP4.5 \r [...]"


id: 71dedd4436b562c1e5f5308b18804275
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17275
content:
"[...] scenario, the exposure is substantially lower at 170 billion person\u0002days. Spatial variations in future heatwave frequency and population \r growth play out in the form of significant geographical contrasts in \r exposure, with the largest increases projected for low latitude regions \r such as India and significant portions of sub-Saharan Africa, where \r increases in heatwave frequency and population are expected. Over \r East Asia and especially eastern China, exposures are projected to \r rise, with the effect of increases in heatwave frequency exceeding \r the countering effect of projected reductions in population, especially \r in non-urban areas. Further, for North America and Europe, where \r rural depopulation is projected, the predominant driver of increases \r in exposure is urban growth (Jones et al., 2018)."


id: fa5dbee5b4c31b880b77eec283bb24d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41414
content:
"Regional level assessments of changes in population heat exposure for \r Africa, Europe, the USA, China and India corroborate general findings \r at the global level, that the impact of warming is amplified under \r divergent regional development pathways (e.g., SSP4 - inequality) \r compared to those fostering sustainable development (e.g., SSP1 - \r sustainability) (high confidence) (Rohat et  al., 2019a; Weber et  al., \r 2020; Broadbent et al., 2020; Dahl et al., 2019; Harrington and Otto, \r 2018; Rohat et al., 2019b; Vahmani et al., 2019; Huang and et al., 2018; \r Zhang et al., 2020a; Liu et al., 2017). For some regions, such as Europe, \r changes in exposure are projected to be largely a consequence of \r climate change, while for others, such as Africa and to a lesser extent \r Asia, Oceania, North America and South America, the interactive effects \r of demographic and climate change are projected to be important \r (Jones et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2017; Russo et al., 2016; Ma and Yuan, \r [...]"


id: e6d6080cf37d7f3b4dedab346c76615d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37902
content:
"A particular focus since AR5 has been the impact of climate change \r on cities (see AR6 Chapter 6). Heat risks are expected to be greater \r in urban areas due to changes in regional heat exacerbated by 'heat \r island' effects (high confidence) (Doan and Kusaka, 2018; Heaviside \r et al., 2016; Li et al., 2021; Rohat et al., 2019a; Rohat et al., 2019c; \r Varquez et  al., 2020; Wouters et  al., 2017; Zhao et  al., 2021), with \r intra-urban scale variations in heat exposure attributable to land cover \r contrasts and urban form and function (Avashia et  al., 2021; Jang \r et  al., 2020; Macintyre et  al., 2018; Schinasi et  al., 2018). However, \r further research is required to establish the health implications of \r increasing chronic slow-onset extreme heat (Oppermann et al., 2021) \r in addition to the acute health outcomes of UHI-heatwave synergies \r under climate change. The latter is particularly important as studies \r that address UHI-heatwave interactions have mainly focused on \r [...]"


id: 3d9a2db556b1eb179e6c8fdb9f0dcdb5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8007
content:
"[...] changes in UHI intensity (e.g., Ramamurthy and Bou-Zeid (2017); Scott \r et al. (2018)). Whether significant urban mortality anomalies arise from \r the interplay of heatwaves and UHIs largely remains an open question \r although at least one study demonstrated higher urban compared \r to rural mortality rates during heatwaves (Ruuhela et al., 2021). The \r benefits of the winter UHI effect for cold-related mortality remain \r largely unexplored, but one study for Birmingham, UK, indicates the \r winter UHI will continue to have a protective effect in future climate \r (Macintyre et al., 2021)."


id: b60ad654a8799c142ab2e5823c2dbdea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29251
content:
"Estimates of future mortality that incorporate adaptation in addition to \r temperature change point to increases in heat-related mortality under \r global warming, albeit at lower levels than the case of no adaptation \r (high confidence) (Anderson et  al., 2018; Gosling et  al., 2017; Guo \r et al., 2018; Honda and Onozuka, 2020; Vicedo-Cabrera et al., 2018b; \r Wang et  al., 2018b). Whether adaptation is considered or not, the \r consensus is Central and South America, southern Europe, southern \r and Southeast Asia and Africa will be the most affected by climate \r change in terms of heat-related mortality (high confidence). Similarly, \r projections of the impacts of future heat on occupational health, worker \r productivity and workability point to these regions as problematic \r under climate change (high confidence) (Andrews et al., 2018; de Lima \r et al., 2021; Dillender, 2021; Kjellstrom et al., 2018; Orlov et al., 2020; \r [...]"


id: b105dbb25a2ecd268eaa415b250e039c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28371
content:
"[...] Rao et  al., 2020; Tigchelaar et  al., 2020), especially for occupations \r with high exposure to heat, such as agriculture and construction. This \r accords with the findings from independent projections of population \r heat exposure as outlined above (high confidence)."


id: cdcc9cbdee83450e209168d133e55d48
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33535
content:
"Climate change can be expected to continue to contribute to the \r geographical spread of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis \r (high confidence) and the spread of tick-borne encephalitis and \r Lyme disease vector Ixodes ricinus in Europe (medium confidence). \r In Canada, vector surveillance of the black-legged tick I. scapularis\r identified strong temperature effects on the limits of their occurrence, \r on recent geographic spread, temporal coincidence in emergence of \r tick populations and acceleration of the speed of spread (Clow et al., \r 2017; Cheng et al., 2017). In Europe, increasing temperatures over the \r 1950-2018 period significantly accelerated the life cycle of Ixodes \r ricinus and contributed to its spread (Estrada-Pena and Fernandez\u0002Ruiz, 2020). Under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, projections indicate a \r northward and eastward shift of the distribution of I. persulcatus and I. \r ricinus, vectors of Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis in northern \r [...]"


id: aee612e171a82ab9e6c371a594ba5488
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28014
content:
"[...] Europe and Russia, with an overall large increase in distribution in \r the second half of the current century (Popov and Yasyukevich, 2014; \r Yasjukevich et  al., 2018) and increases in intensity of tick-borne \r encephalitis transmission in central Europe (Nah et al., 2020)."


id: 95b4e740ced9b7b9ac4061a5cfd95292
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23530
content:
"Rising temperatures are likely to cause poleward shifts and overall \r expansion in the distribution of mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Aedes \r albopictus, the principal vectors of dengue, yellow fever, chikungunya \r and Zika (high confidence). Globally, the population exposed to \r disease transmission by one of these vectors is expected to increase \r significantly due to the combination of climate change and non-climatic \r processes including urbanisation and socioeconomic inter-connectivity, \r with exposure rates rising under higher warming scenarios (Kamal \r et al., 2018; Kraemer et al., 2019). For example, approximately 50% of \r the global population is projected to be exposed to these vectors by \r 2050 under RCP6.0 (Kraemer et al., 2019). The effect of climate change \r alone is projected to increase the population exposed to Aedes aegypti\r by 8-12% by 2061-2080 (Monaghan et al., 2018), and its abundance \r is projected to increase by 20% under RCP2.6 and 30% under RCP8.5 \r [...]"


id: 28210d3f5c1834e0e3897370fe20bd37
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4257
content:
"[...] by the end of the century (Liu-Helmersson et al., 2019; Figure 7.10).\r Exposure to transmission by Aedes albopictus specifically would be \r highest at intermediate climate change scenarios and would decrease \r in the warmest scenarios (Ryan et al., 2019). Under scenarios other \r than RCP2.6, most of Europe would experience significant increases in \r exposure to viruses transmitted by both vectors (Liu-Helmersson et al., \r 2019)."


id: 2753b1e6e5df53d89be7ec90575213f1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4093
content:
"Climate change is expected to increase dengue risk and facilitate \r its global spread, with the risk being greatest under high emissions \r scenarios (high confidence). Future exposure to risk will be influenced \r by the combined effects of climate change and non-climatic factors \r such as population density and economic development (Akter et al., \r 2017). Overall, risk levels are expected to rise on all continents (Akter \r et  al., 2017; Messina et  al., 2015; Rogers, 2015; Liu-Helmersson \r et al., 2016; Messina et al., 2019). Compared to 2015, an additional \r 1  billion people are projected to be at risk of dengue exposure by \r 2080 under an SSP1-4.5 scenario, 2.25  billion under SSP2-6.0, and \r 5 billion under SSP3-8.5 (Messina et al., 2019). In North America, risk \r is projected to expand in north-central Mexico, with annual dengue \r incidence in Mexico increasing by up to 40% by 2080, and expand \r from US southern states to mid-western regions (Proestos et al., 2015; \r [...]"


id: ee8b3a2de77cad8d51663bccc8383b97
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39344
content:
"[...] Colon-Gonzalez et al., 2013). In China, under RCP8.5, dengue exposure \r would increase from 168 million people in 142 counties to 490 million \r people in 456 counties by the late 2100s (Fan and Liu, 2019). In Nepal, \r dengue fever is expected to expand throughout the 2050s and 2070s \r under all RCPs (Acharya et al., 2018). In Tanzania, there is a projected \r shift in distribution towards central and northeastern areas and risk \r intensification in nearly all parts of the country by 2050 (Mweya et al., \r 2016). Dengue vectorial capacity is projected to increase in Korea \r under higher RCP scenarios (Lee et al., 2018a)."


id: ac0db72324b2f5e8341a5c5fda0f4f20
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27509
content:
"Climate change is projected to change the distribution of schistosomiasis \r in Africa and Asia (high confidence), with a possible increase in global \r land area suitable for transmission (medium confidence). A global \r increase in land area with temperatures suitable for transmission \r by the three main species of Schistosoma (S. japonicum, S. mansoni\r and S. haematobium) is projected under the RCP4.5 scenario for the \r 2021-2050 and 2071-2100 periods (Yang and Bergquist, 2018), but \r regional outcomes are expected to vary. In Africa, shifting temperature \r regimes associated with climate change are expected to lead to \r reduced snail populations in areas with already high temperatures and \r higher populations in areas with currently low winter temperatures \r (Kalinda et al., 2017; McCreesh and Booth, 2014). Infection risk with \r Schistosoma mansoni may increase by up to 20% over most of eastern \r Africa over the next 20-50 years but decrease by more than 50% in \r [...]"


id: acdda6ec23149540fc85cf6f263c055b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27654
content:
"[...] parts of north and east Kenya, southern South Sudan and eastern \r People's Democratic Republic of Congo (PDRC) (McCreesh et  al., \r 2015), with a possible overall net contraction (Stensgaard et al., 2013). \r In China, currently endemic areas in Sichuan Province may become \r unsuitable for snail habitats, but currently non-endemic areas in \r Sichuan and Hunan/Hubei provinces may see a new emergence (Yang \r and Bergquist, 2018). In addition to the projected effects of temperature "


id: 756d4014776780a39ab56b767798e9a6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17890
content:
"Climate change will contribute to additional deaths and mortality \r due to diarrhoeal diseases in the absence of adaptation (medium \r confidence) (see Figure  7.8). Risk factors for future excess deaths \r due to diarrhoeal diseases are highly mediated by future levels of \r socioeconomic development and adaptation. An additional 1degC \r increase in mean average temperature is expected to result in a 7% \r (95% CI, 3-10%) increase in all-cause diarrhoea (Carlton et al., 2016), \r an 8% (95% CI, 5-11%) increase in the incidence of diarrheic E. coli \r (Philipsborn et al., 2016) and a 3-11% increase in deaths attributable \r to diarrhoea (WHO, 2014). WHO Quantitative Risk Assessments for the \r effects of climate change on selected causes of death for the 2030s \r and 2050s project that overall deaths from diarrhoea should fall due \r to socioeconomic development but that the effect of climate change \r under higher emission scenarios could cause an additional 48,000 \r [...]"


id: fed6c37e805719e553363a5c860a6ffb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42231
content:
"[...] deaths in children aged under 15  years in 2030 and 33,000 deaths \r for 2050, particularly in Africa and parts of Asia. In Ecuador, projected \r increases in rainfall variability and heavy rainfall events may increase \r diarrhoea burden in urban regions (Deshpande et al., 2020). A limit in \r the assessable literature is a lack of studies in the highest risk areas \r (Liang and Gong, 2017; UNEP, 2018)."


id: 61a9e620795f1aec206eff934bef9418
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14470
content:
"Poor air quality contributes to a range of NCDs, including cardiovascular, \r respiratory and neurological, commonly resulting in hospitalisation or \r death. This section considers the possible risks for health of future \r climate-related changes in ozone and PM. The climate penalty, the \r degree to which global warming could affect future air quality, is better \r understood for ozone than for PM (von Schneidemesser et al., 2020). \r This is because increases in air temperature enhance ozone formation \r via associated photochemical processes (Archibald et al., 2020; Fu and \r Tian, 2019). The association between climate and PM is complex and \r moderated by a diverse range of PM components as well as formation \r and removal mechanisms (von Schneidemesser et  al., 2020), added \r to which is uncertainty about future climate-related PM sources such \r as wildfires (Ford et al., 2018) and changes in aridity (Achakulwisut \r et al., 2019). As noted in AR6 WGI Chapter 6 (Naik et al 2021), future \r [...]"


id: 967e6026997b11ea068edb54092aa95
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23679
content:
"[...] air quality will largely depend on precursor emissions, with climate \r change projected to have mixed effects. Because of the uncertainty \r in how natural processes will respond, there is low confidence in the \r projections of surface ozone and PM under climate change (Naik \r et al., 2021). This has implications on the levels of confidence in the \r projections of the health climate penalty associated with climate\u0002induced changes in air quality (Orru et al., 2017; Orru et al., 2019; Silva \r et al., 2017)."


id: 642401f0643a1c6109df7afa237d6a2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14900
content:
"The risk of Campylobacteriosis and other enteric pathogens could rise \r in regions where heavy precipitation events or flooding are projected to \r increase (medium confidence). In Europe, the risk of Campylobacteriosis \r and diseases caused by other enteric pathogens could rise in regions \r where precipitation or extreme flooding are projected to increase \r (European Environment Agency, 2017), although incidence rates may \r be further mediated by seasonal social activities (Rushton et al., 2019; \r Williams et  al., 2015b). Accelerated releases of dissolved organic \r matter to inland and coastal waters through increases in precipitation \r are expected to reduce the potential for solar ultraviolet inactivation of \r pathogens and increase risks for associated WBDs (Williamson et al., \r 2017). The combined relative risk for waterborne campylobacteriosis, \r salmonellosis and diseases due to Verotoxin-producing Escherichia coli\r [...]"


id: fb216fad975a32df5a97a4afd2f78d87
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41556
content:
"[...] was estimated to be 1.1 (i.e., a 10% increase) for every 1degC in mean \r annual temperature, while by the 2080s, under RCP8.5, annual rates of "


id: 264f9641dda430cae37a1a897f7ab81f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3909
content:
"Comparatively few studies assess how changes in air pollution \r directly attributable to climate change are likely to affect future \r mortality levels. Projections indicate that emission reduction scenarios \r consistent with stabilisation of global temperature change at 2degC or \r below would yield substantial co-benefits for air quality-related health \r outcomes (Chowdhury et al., 2018b; von Schneidemesser et al., 2020; \r Silva et al., 2016c; Markandya et al., 2018; Orru et al., 2019; Shindell \r et  al., 2018) (high confidence). For example, by 2030, compared to \r 2000, it was estimated that globally and annually 289,000 PM2.5-\r related premature deaths could have been avoided under RCP4.5 \r compared to 17,200 PM2.5-related excess premature deaths under \r RCP8.5 (Silva et al., 2016c). Further, and notwithstanding estimated \r reductions in global PM2.5 levels and an associated increase in the \r number of avoidable deaths, the benefits of following a low emissions \r [...]"


id: 1c0c9d1bc6585abb96af80cebbbbe5fe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2117
content:
"[...] pathway are expected to be apparent by 2100, with avoidable deaths \r estimated at 2.39 million deaths yr-1 under RCP4.5. This contrasts with \r the 1.31  million deaths estimated under RCP8.5. A few projections \r of the health-related climate penalty indicate a possible increase in \r ozone and PM2.5-associated mortality under RCP8.5 (Doherty et al., \r 2017; Orru et al., 2019; Silva et al., 2017)."


id: 8b589004fcbab50619056c2cac778d0b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21678
content:
"Complementing the longer-term changes in air quality arising from \r climate change are those associated with air pollution sensitive short\u0002term meteorological events, such as heatwaves. Studies of individual \r heat events (Garrido-Perez et al., 2019; Johansson et al., 2020; Kalisa \r et al., 2018; Pu et al., 2017; Pyrgou et al., 2018; Schnell and Prather, \r 2017; Varotsos et al., 2019) and systematic reviews (Anenberg et al., \r 2020) provide evidence for synergistic effects of heat and air pollution. \r However, the health consequences of a possible additive effect of air \r pollutants during heatwave events were heterogeneous, varying by \r location and moderated by socioeconomic factors at the intra-urban \r scale (Analitis et al., 2014; Fenech et al., 2019; Krug et al., 2020; Pascal \r et al., 2021; Schwarz et al., 2021; Scortichini et al., 2018). This, combined \r with the challenges associated with projecting future concentrations \r [...]"


id: 85703c2b12705d03d20ffa7e451e55cc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 20616
content:
"[...] of health-relevant pollutants during heatwave events (Jahn and Hertig, \r 2021; Meehl et al., 2018), makes it difficult to say with any certainty \r that synergistic effects of heat and poor air quality will result in a \r heatwave-air pollution health penalty under climate change."


id: 560d3c08229b9da05ebcf233213eafe5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12411
content:
"At the global level for PM2.5, annual premature deaths due to \r climate change were projected to be 55,600 (-34,300 to 164,000) \r and 215,000 (-76,100 to 595,000) in 2030 and 2100, respectively, \r countering by 16% the projected decline in PM2.5-related mortality \r between 2000 and 2100 without climate change (Silva et al., 2017). \r Similarly for ozone, the number of annual premature ozone-related \r deaths due to climate change was projected to be 3,340 in 2030 and \r 43,600 in 2050, with climate change accounting for 1.2% (14%) of \r the annual premature deaths in 2030 (2100) (Silva et al., 2017). These \r global level projections average over considerable geographical \r variations (Silva et al., 2017). Projections of the climate change effect \r on ozone mortality in 2100 were greatest for East Asia (41 deaths \r yr-1 per million people), India (8 deaths yr-1 per million people) \r and North America (13 deaths yr-1 per million people). For PM2.5, \r [...]"


id: 3f243e2df5f1e123df50851ddeb3bd3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8298
content:
"[...] mortality was projected to increase across all regions except Africa \r (-25,200 deaths yr-1 per million people) by 2100, with estimated \r increases greatest for India (40 deaths yr-1 per million people), the \r Middle East (45 deaths yr-1 per million people), East Asia (43 deaths \r yr-1 per million people) and the Former Soviet Union (57 deaths yr-1\r per million people). Overall, higher ozone-related health burdens \r were projected to occur in highly populated regions, and greater \r PM2.5 health burdens were projected in high PM emission regions \r (Doherty et al., 2017)."


id: 6a5242e36977d1308797d0ed36cd8b76
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15987
content:
"The burden of disease associated with aeroallergens is anticipated to \r grow due to climate change (high confidence). The incidence of pollen \r allergy and associated allergic disease increases with pollen exposure, \r and the timing of the pollen season and pollen concentrations are \r expected to change under climate change (Beggs, 2021; Ziska et al., \r 2019; Ziska, 2020). The overall length of the pollen season and total \r seasonal pollen counts/concentrations for allergenic species such as \r birch (Betula) and ragweed (Ambrosia) are expected to increase as a \r result of CO2 fertilisation and warming, leading to greater sensitisation \r (Hamaoui-Laguel et al., 2015; Lake et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2013). \r Changes in pollen levels for several species of trees and grasses are \r projected to increase annual emergency department visits in the USA \r by between 8% for RCP4.5 and 14% for RCP8.5 by the year 2090 \r (Neumann et  al., 2019) with the exposure to some pollen types \r [...]"


id: a41c4caba5d884c7219d19327814563
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26068
content:
"[...] estimated to double beyond present levels in Europe by 2041-2060 \r (Lake et al., 2017). The prospect of increases in summer thunderstorm \r events under climate change (Brooks, 2013) may hold implications \r for changes in the occurrence of epidemic thunderstorm asthma \r (Bannister et  al., 2021; Emmerson et  al., 2021; Price et  al., 2021). \r Similarly, projected alterations in hydroclimate under climate change \r may bear implications for increased exposure to mould allergens in \r some climates (D'Amato et al., 2020; Paudel et al., 2021)."


id: 16e6fc6fad2b6904db24662814a699f0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1247
content:
"could increase by an average of 18.4%, 47.8% and 69.0% in the \r 2020s, 2050s and 2080s, respectively, under RCP4.5 and by 16.6%, \r 73.8% and 134%, respectively, under RCP8.5 relative to a 1980s \r baseline (Li et al., 2015). Projections of temperature-related mortality \r from CVD for Beijing in the 2080s vary depending on RCP and \r population assumptions (Zhang et al., 2018a). Projections for Ningo, \r China, suggest heat-related years of life lost (YLL) could increase \r significantly in the month of August by between 3 and 11.5 times \r over current baselines by the 2070s, even with adaptation (Huang \r and et  al., 2018). Yang and colleagues project that heat-related \r excess CVD mortality in China could increase to approximately 6% \r (from a 2010 baseline of under 2%) by the end of the century under \r RCP8.5 and to over 3% under RCP4.5 (Yang et al., 2021). The future \r burden of temperature-related myocardial infarctions in Germany is \r [...]"


id: 1b76a37e6652d10dec3c3b4c10cdeba0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2011
content:
"[...] projected to rise under high emissions scenarios (Chen et al., 2019), \r while in the eastern USA, Limaye et al. (2018) projected an additional \r 11,562 annual deaths (95% CI: 2,641-20,095) by mid-century due to \r cardiovascular stress in the population 65 years of age and above. \r CVD mortality in Brazil is projected to increase up to 8.6% by the end \r of the century under RCP8.5, compared with an increase of 0.7% for \r RCP4.5 (Silveira et al., 2021a)."


id: cc869418758b2632b0929c745b1ae01f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33306
content:
"It is important to note that the assessed studies typically take an \r observed epidemiological relationship and apply future temperature \r projections (often derived from regional climate projections) to \r these relationships. Because the relationships between temperature \r and CVD deaths are influenced by both climatic and non-climatic \r factors (such as population fitness and aging), future projections are \r highly sensitive to assumptions about interactions between climate, \r population characteristics and adaptation pathways. Changes in air \r quality because of climate change are an additional important factor. \r For example, an assessment of future annual and seasonal excess \r mortality from short-term exposure to higher levels of ambient \r ozone in Chinese cities under RCP8.5 projected approximately 1,500 \r excess annual CVD deaths in 2050 (Chen et al., 2018). To the extent \r possible, the relationships reported above reflect changes derived from \r [...]"


id: 5c9254682be161035f62a5decc3529b8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13546
content:
"[...] changes in heat exposure driven by climate change and not changes in \r population demographics or air pollution exposure."


id: 48fa515424669f6e4924fd32e0ed7ed0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 10057
content:
"Climate change could further limit equitable access to affordable, \r culturally acceptable, and healthy diets (high confidence). Climate \r impacts on agricultural production and regional food availability will \r affect the composition of diets, which can have major consequences for \r health. Variable by region and context, healthy diets are an outcome \r of the four inter-connected domains of sustainable food systems, \r namely ecosystems, society, economics and health (Drewnowski et al., \r 2020; Fanzo et  al., 2020). Climate change limits the potential for \r healthy diets through adverse impacts on natural and human systems \r that are disproportionately experienced by low-income countries \r and communities (FAO et al., 2021). Climate-driven droughts, floods, \r storms, wildfires and extreme temperatures reduce food production \r potential by diminishing soil health, water security and biological and \r genetic diversity (Macdiarmid and Whybrow, 2019). Models project \r [...]"


id: 9075ded83cf7740b4d5ffc9b2df86f0b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] that climate-related reductions in food availability, specifically fruit \r and vegetables, could result in an additional 529,000 deaths a year by \r 2050 (Springmann et al., 2016b)."


id: 6f44604b0236594513344a98c4b9a342
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16837
content:
"The nutritional density, including protein content, micronutrients and \r B-vitamins, of wheat, rice, barley and other important food crops is \r negatively affected by higher CO2 concentrations (very high confidence) \r (Mbow, 2019 ; Smith and Myers, 2018). Projections indicate negative \r impacts on human nutrition by rising CO2 concentrations by mid- to \r late-century (Medek et al., 2017; Smith and Myers, 2018; Weyant et al., \r 2018; Zhu et al., 2018; Beach et al., 2019). Staple crops are projected to \r have protein and mineral concentrations decreased by 5-15% and B \r vitamins up to 30% when the concentrations of CO2 double above pre\u0002industrial levels (Ebi and Loladze, 2019; Beach et al., 2019; Smith and \r Myers, 2018). Without changes in diets and accounting for nutrient \r declines in staple crops, a projected additional 175  million people \r could be zinc deficient and an additional 122  million people could \r become protein deficient (Smith and Myers, 2018). Weyant et al. (2018) \r [...]"


id: b2a88bd5269c8ad366acd6e3313b998
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28669
content:
"[...] projected that CO2-related reductions in crop zinc and iron levels \r could result in 125.8 million DALYs lost globally, with Southeast Asian \r and sub-Saharan African countries most affected. Zhu et  al. (2018) \r estimated 600 million people at risk from reductions in the protein, \r micronutrient and B-vitamin content of widely grown rice cultivars in \r Southeast Asia."


id: b0df88be75db51767bd7a83205b80f06
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28347
content:
"Climate change is expected to have adverse impacts on well-being, \r some of which will become serious enough to threaten mental health \r (very high confidence). However, changes (Hayes and Poland, 2018) in \r extreme events due to climate change, including floods (Baryshnikova, \r 2019), droughts (Carleton, 2017) and hurricanes (Kessler et al., 2008; \r Boscarino et al., 2013, Boscarino et al., 2017; Obradovich et al., 2018), \r which are projected to increase due to climate change, directly worsen \r mental health and well-being and increase anxiety (high confidence). \r Projections suggest that sub-Saharan African children and adolescents, \r particularly girls, are extremely vulnerable to negative direct and \r indirect impacts on their mental health and well-being (Atkinson and \r Bruce, 2015; Owen et al., 2016). The direct risks are greatest for people \r with existing mental disorders, physical injuries, and compromised \r [...]"


id: fab133073aaac75729158b1edeaeba99
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41481
content:
"[...] respiratory, cardiovascular and reproductive systems, with indirect \r impacts potentially arising from displacement, migration, famine and \r malnutrition, degradation or destruction of health and social care \r systems, conflict, and climate-related economic and social losses (high \r to very high confidence) (Burke et al., 2018; Curtis et al., 2017; Hayes \r et al., 2018; Serdeczny et al., 2017; Watts et al., 2019). Demographic \r factors increasing vulnerability include age, gender and low \r socioeconomic status, though the effect of these will vary depending \r on the specific manifestation of climate change; overall, climate change \r is predicted to increase inequality in mental health across the globe \r (Cianconi et  al., 2020). Based on evidence assessed in Section  7.2, \r future direct impacts of increased heat risks and associated illnesses \r can be expected to have negative implications for mental health and \r [...]"


id: bb681ad30977fc97d884e5ab6e726e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30188
content:
"[...] well-being, with outcomes being highly mediated by adaptation, but \r there are no assessable studies that quantify such risks. There may \r be some benefits to mental health and well-being associated with "


id: 6e2d135cceacebe32ede2a9ab49e9063
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16649
content:
"Human behaviours and systems will be disrupted by climate change \r in a myriad of ways, and the potential consequences for mental \r health and well-being are correspondingly large in number and \r complex in mechanism (high confidence). For example, climate \r change may alter human physical activity and mobility patterns, in \r turn producing alterations in the mental health statuses promoted by \r regular physical activity (Obradovich and Fowler, 2017; Obradovich \r and Rahwan, 2019). Climate change may affect labour capacity, \r because heat can compromise the ability to engage in manual labour \r as well as cognitive functioning, with impacts on the economic \r status of individual households as well as societies (Kjellstrom \r et  al., 2016; Liu, 2020). Migrations and displacement caused by \r climate change may worsen the well-being of those affected (Vins \r et  al., 2015; Missirian and Schlenker, 2017). Climate change is \r expected to increase aggression through both direct and indirect \r [...]"


id: af64d63ad0286baff68f6dd6522bf7da
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28088
content:
"[...] mechanisms, with one study predicting a 6% increase in homicides \r globally for a 1degC temperature increase, although noting significant \r variability across countries (Mares and Moffett, 2016). Broad \r societal outcomes such as economic unrest, political conflict or \r governmental dysfunction assessed in Section 7.3.5 may undermine \r the mental health of populations in the future (medium confidence). \r Food insecurity presents its own severe risks for mental health and \r cognitive function (Jones, 2017)."


id: b8c37ec166977cb5d0a0767d134347fa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29713
content:
"In low-lying coastal areas of most regions, future increases in mean \r sea levels will amplify the impacts of coastal hazards on settlements, \r including erosion, inland penetration of storm surges and groundwater \r contamination by salt water, and eventually lead to inundation of very \r low-lying coastal settlements (high confidence) (Diaz, 2016; Hauer \r et al., 2016; Neumann et al., 2015; Rahman et al., 2019; IPCC, 2019a).\r Projections of the number of people at risk of future displacement by \r sea level rise range from tens of millions to hundreds of millions by the \r end of this century, depending on (a) the sea level rise scenario or RCP \r selected, (b) projections of future population growth in exposed areas \r and (c) the criteria used for identifying exposure. These latter measures \r can include estimates of populations situated within selected elevations \r above sea level (with 1 m, 2 m and 10 m being common parameters), \r [...]"


id: f1680ad8a0347a0203d1b1b0188301a8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39856
content:
"[...] populations situated in 1-in-100  year floodplains or populations in \r areas likely to be entirely inundated under specific RCPs (Neumann \r et al., 2015; Hauer et al., 2016; Merkens et al., 2018; McMichael et al., \r 2020; Hooijer and Vernimmen, 2021). As an illustrative example, an \r estimated 267 million people (error range = 197-347 million at 68% \r confidence level) worldwide lived within 2 m of sea level in 2020, 59% \r of whom reside in tropical regions of Asia (Hooijer and Vernimmen, \r 2021). At a 1 m increase in sea level and holding coastal population \r numbers constant, the number of people worldwide living within 2 m \r of sea level expands to 410 million (error range = 341-473 million). \r However, it is unlikely that coastal population growth rates will remain \r constant at global or regional scales in future decades. At present, \r coastal cities in many regions have relatively high rates of population \r [...]"


id: 9c18f4a75193ee70024d6fc7434d8171
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24718
content:
"[...] growth due to the combined effects of in-migration from other regions \r and natural increase, with coastal areas of Africa having the highest \r projected future population growth rates (Neumann et  al., 2015; \r Hooijer and Vernimmen, 2021; Box 7.5). Further complicating future \r estimates is that many large coastal cities are situated in deltas with \r high rates of subsidence, meaning that locally experienced changes in \r relative sea level may be much greater than sea level rise attributable \r to climate change, thereby further increasing the number of people \r exposed (Edmonds et al., 2020; Nicholls et al., 2021)."


id: c066bd0f4baf9411da023cd8634718b9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31148
content:
"Future changes in climate-related migration and displacement are \r expected to vary by region and over time according to: (a) region-specific \r changes in climatic drivers, (b) changes in the future adaptive capacity \r of exposed populations, (c) population growth in areas most exposed \r to climatic risks and (d) future changes in mediating factors such as \r international development and migration policies (high agreement, \r medium evidence) (Gemenne and Blocher, 2017; Cattaneo et al., 2019; \r McLeman, 2019). This section assesses future risks associated with \r changes in the frequency and/or severity of storms, floods, droughts, \r extreme heat, wildfires and other events assessed in Section 7.2 that \r currently affect migration and displacement patterns, as well as the \r impacts of emerging hazards, including average temperature increases \r that may affect the habitability of settlements in arid regions and the \r [...]"


id: 6e1d1e1d473fbe8074df73c981cda52b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16633
content:
"[...] tropics, and sea level rise and associated hazards that threaten low\u0002lying coastal settlements. Studies assessed here consider projected \r changes in future exposure to hazards over a variety of geographical \r and temporal periods, with some considering changes in population \r numbers in exposed areas. The uneven distribution of exposure of age \r cohorts is typically overlooked in existing research. For example, people \r younger than age 10 in the year 2020 are projected to experience a \r nearly four-fold increase in extreme events under 1.5degC of global \r warming and a five-fold increase under 3degC warming; such increases \r in exposure would not be experienced by a person of the age of 55 in \r 2020 in their remaining lifetime under any warming scenario (Thiery \r et al., 2021)."


id: 429324de7b9b99d3fae111493d76209b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8908
content:
"Increased frequency of extreme heat events and long-term increases \r in average temperatures pose future risks to the habitability of \r settlements in tropical and subtropical regions, and may in the \r long term affect migration patterns in exposed areas, especially \r under high emissions scenarios (medium agreement, low evidence).\r Greater research into the specific dynamics between extreme heat \r and population movements is required in order to make an accurate \r assessment of this risk. Recent studies suggest that future increases \r in average temperatures could expose populations across wide areas \r of the tropics and subtropics to ambient temperatures for extended \r periods each year that are beyond the threshold for human habitability \r (Pal and Eltahir, 2016; Im et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2020). This effect would \r be amplified in urban settings where heat-island effects occur and \r create a heightened need for air conditioning and other adaptation \r [...]"


id: 79f2c45d091bc69705ca6c3865406926
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18655
content:
"[...] measures. In addition to risks associated with average temperature \r changes, Dosio et al. (2018) project that at 1.5degC warming, between \r 9% and 18% of the global population will be regularly exposed to \r extreme heat events at least once in five years, with the exposure rate \r nearly tripling with 2degC warming. How these changes in exposure to \r high temperatures will affect future migration patterns, particularly \r among vulnerable groups, will depend heavily on future adaptation \r responses (Horton and de Sherbinin, 2021). Multiple country-level "


id: 8c94a9b56851c20b7dd4f67f1d9f0ea3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21919
content:
"tend to resist leaving exposed settlements until approximately 50% of \r available land has been lost (Hauer et al., 2019). Movements away from \r highly exposed areas may have longer-term demographic implications \r for inland settlements (Hauer, 2017), but this requires further study. \r Based on the available empirical evidence, sea level rise does not \r appear to currently be a primary motivation for international migration \r originating in small island states in the Indian and Pacific Oceans; \r rather, economic considerations and family reunification appear to be \r the dominant drivers (McCubbin et al., 2015; Stojanov and Du, 2016; \r Heslin, 2019; Kelman et al., 2019). However, climatic drivers of migration \r are anticipated to take on a much greater causal role in migration \r decisions in coming decades (Thomas et al., 2020) and may discourage \r return migration to small island states (van der Geest et  al., 2020). \r [...]"


id: e3a71181d6c2441d00e45c806a42e4b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37345
content:
"[...] Even under best-case sustainable development scenarios, rising sea \r levels and associated hazards create risks of involuntary displacement \r in low-lying coastal areas and should be expected to generate a need \r for organised relocation of populations where protective infrastructure \r cannot be constructed (Horton and de Sherbinin, 2021; Hamilton et al., \r 2016). In high emissions scenarios, low-lying island states may face \r the long-term risk of becoming uninhabitable, creating the potential \r for a new phenomenon of climate-induced statelessness (Piguet, 2019; \r Desai et al., 2021)."


id: 487c06e9b121ddaa14f67ce597239fb4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9962
content:
"Research reviewed in AR4 and AR5 observed that at higher rates \r of socioeconomic development, the in situ adaptive capacity of \r households and institutions rises, and climatic influences on migration \r correspondingly decline. Recent evidence adds further support for such \r conclusions (high confidence) (Kumar et al., 2018b; Mallick, 2019; Gray \r et al., 2020; Box 7.5). Population growth rates are currently highest \r in low-income countries (UN DESA Population Division, 2019), many \r of which have high rates of exposure to climatic hazards associated \r with population displacement, further emphasising the importance of \r socioeconomic development and adaptive capacity-building. Although \r country-specific scenarios for socioeconomic development and \r population are embedded in SSPs, research into future migration flows \r under climate change has not made great use of these. One of the few \r studies to do so found that safe and orderly international migration \r [...]"


id: 452bc7f709cc16e5eae356bf32b44e8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9398
content:
"[...] tends to increase wealth at regional and global scales in all SSP \r narratives, which in turn reduces income inequality between countries \r (Benveniste et  al., 2021). International barriers to safe and orderly \r migration may potentially impede progress towards attainment of the \r objectives described in the SDGs and increase exposure to climatic \r hazards in low- and middle-income countries (McLeman, 2019; \r Benveniste et al., 2020)."


id: 524c0c5c0aa4e27b39b56fffe6262eea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11756
content:
"Only a very small number of studies have attempted to make systematic \r projections of future regional or global migration and displacement \r numbers under climate change. Key methodological challenges for \r making such projections include the availability of reliable data on \r migration within and between countries, definitional ambiguity in \r distinguishing climate-related migration from migration undertaken for \r other reasons, and accounting for the future influence of non-climatic \r factors. The most reliable example of such studies to date is a World \r Bank report by Rigaud et al. (2018) that generated projections of future \r internal population displacements in south Asia, sub-Saharan Africa \r and Latin America by 2050 using multiple climate and development \r scenarios, resulting in a very large range of possible outcomes (from \r 31 to 143 million people being displaced, depending on assumptions). \r An important outcome is the study's emphasis on how the potential \r [...]"


id: fd74605c4d354424d04fe83e75d0f8f9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41946
content:
"[...] for future migration and displacement will be strongly mediated by \r socioeconomic development pathways in low- and middle-income "


id: 287de17a669a090736339a973d1c12c9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4330
content:
"Projections of future numbers of people exposed to climate change-related hazards described in this chapter and elsewhere in this \r report are heavily influenced by assumptions about population change over time at global, regional and national scales. One challenge \r concerns global and regional variability of baseline data for current populations, which is typically aggregated from national censuses \r that vary considerably in terms of frequency, timing and reliability, especially in low-income countries. A number of gridded mapping \r dataset initiatives emerged in recent years to support population-environment modelling research at global and regional levels, common \r ones being the Gridded Population of the World, the Global Rural Urban Mapping Project, and LandScan Global Population dataset \r (McMichael et al., 2020). For future population projections at national levels, researchers commonly draw upon data generated by the \r [...]"


id: 1384d55b26b4ce4af657cabae66a3d58
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 645
content:
"[...] Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, which publishes periodic projections for future \r fertility, mortality, and international migration rates for over 200 countries, the most recent projections being for the 2020 to 2100 \r period (UN DESA Population Division, 2019). There have been debates among demographers regarding the precision of DESA projections, \r and whether these overestimate or underestimate future population growth in some regions (Ezeh et al., 2020). Population growth \r rates are highly influenced by socioeconomic conditions, meaning that future population levels at local, national and regional scales \r are likely to respond to relative rates of progress towards meeting the Sustainable Development Goals (Abel et al., 2016). The Shared \r Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) used in climate impacts and adaptation research include a variety of assumptions about future mortality, \r [...]"


id: 1dd7f6bc0e7fc423ad58d95962a20297
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2438
content:
"[...] fertility and migration rates and provide a range of population growth scenarios that diverge after the year 2030 according to future \r development trajectories (Samir and Lutz, 2017) and are then further modified and downscaled by researchers for national-level studies. \r Understanding future risks of climate change will benefit from continued efforts by the international community to collect and share \r data on observed population numbers and trends, and to work towards better projected data for population characteristics that strongly \r influence vulnerability to climate risks, such as gender, age and indigeneity."


id: 77d1e3629c2a12e5ad8cb7e078773d2d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18289
content:
"Climate change may increase susceptibility to violent conflict, primarily \r intra-state conflicts, by strengthening climate-sensitive drivers of \r conflict (medium confidence). Section  7.2.7 described how climate \r variability and extremes affect violent conflict through food and water \r insecurity, loss of income and loss of livelihoods. Risks are amplified \r by insecure land tenure, competing land uses and weather-sensitive \r economic activities when they occur in the context of weak institutions \r and poor governance, poverty and inequality (Section  7.2.7). These \r known, climate-sensitive risk factors allow projections of where \r conflict is more likely to arise or worsen under climate change impacts \r (see Chapters 1, 4, 5, 6 and 16) (Mach et al., 2020). However, there \r is also the potential for new causal pathways to emerge as climate \r changes beyond the variability observed in available datasets and \r adaptation limits are met (Theisen, 2017; Mach et  al., 2019; von \r [...]"


id: 63ec4816d7d74b2d5e5f382954f1130d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 14866
content:
"There is little evidence of weather-related impacts on conflict risk or \r prevalence, but the region is under-studied in general (Wischnath and \r Buhaug, 2014; Nordqvist and Krampe, 2018). Climate stressors may \r have contributed in part to local-level conflicts in Bangladesh and \r Nepal (Sultana et al., 2019) and intensified water use conflict in peri\u0002urban areas (Roth et al., 2019). In the future there is the potential \r for climate change to stretch the effectiveness of transboundary \r water agreements by raising regional geopolitical tensions (Atef \r et  al., 2019; Scott et  al., 2019) or to generate water use conflicts \r between hydropower and irrigation within countries (Jalilov et  al., \r 2018). Climate change may have an impact on conflict by affecting \r food security (Caruso et  al., 2016; Raghavan et  al., 2019). There \r may be greater military involvement in humanitarian response to \r cyclones, flooding and to other impacts of climate change that might \r [...]"


id: 7de5ee07d11fd9f0b724bbff2ef8060
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 19328
content:
"With proactive, timely and effective adaptation, many observed and \r projected risks for human health and well-being, health systems \r and those associated with migration and conflict can be reduced \r or potentially avoided (high confidence). Given the key health risks \r identified in this chapter, adaptation that increases resilience and \r sustainability will require moving beyond incremental adaptation to \r sustained, adaptive management (Ebi, 2011; Hess et al., 2012) with \r the goal of transformative change for integrated protection of human, \r animal and ecosystem health. This includes differentiating adaptation \r to climate variability from adaptation to climate change (Ebi and Hess, \r 2020). Health adaptation efforts are increasingly aiming to transition \r to building climate-resilient and environmentally sustainable health \r systems (WHO, 2015b; WHO, 2020a) and healthcare facilities, \r emphasising service delivery including climate-informed health policies \r [...]"


id: 40f6292846ea45c292636f9318bd8847
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8611
content:
"[...] and programmes; management of the environmental determinants of \r health; emergency preparedness and management; health information \r systems such as health and climate research, integrated risk monitoring \r and early warning systems; and vulnerability, capacity and adaptation \r assessments (Marinucci et al., 2014; Mousavi et al., 2020; WHO 2015a; \r Centres for Disease Control , 2019; WHO, 2020a)."


id: f80fe1044673dd79ce3e8d0a3d89d8ac
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41013
content:
"Increases in conflict-related deaths with climate change have been \r estimated but results are inconclusive (high agreement, medium \r evidence). Some studies attempted to attribute observed conflict \r outbreaks to changes in the physical environment and quantify future \r conflict risk associated with climate change (von Uexkull and Buhaug, \r 2021; Theisen, 2017). Burke et al. (2015b) concluded that with each \r one standard deviation increase in temperature, inter-personal conflict \r increased by 2.4% and inter-group conflict by 11.3%. However, the \r statistical methods have been criticised for under-representing the \r known role that socioeconomic conditions and conflict history play \r in determining the prevalence of violence (Buhaug et al., 2014; van \r Weezel, 2019; Abel et  al., 2019). Forecasting armed conflict is used \r as a heuristic policy tool rather than a representation of the future \r (Cederman and Weidmann, 2017) and forecasts have limitations. For \r [...]"


id: a269a087a8df1c6bbe5b4ec0a9ec614d
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25795
content:
"[...] example, what constitutes and is experienced as hazards and as drivers \r of conflict will shift over time as societies adapt to climate change \r (Roche et al., 2020). The SSPs assume economic convergence between \r countries and do not reflect growth disruptions (e.g., commodity price \r shocks) that are often a key conflict risk factor (Dellink et al., 2017; \r Buhaug and Vestby, 2019; Hegre et al., 2021)."


id: 54b3e768da4f077b5314cf1cf1ca8d8e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12176
content:
"Adaptation to prevent climate change from exacerbating conflict risk \r involves meeting development objectives encapsulated in the SDGs. \r Conflict-sensitive adaptation and climate-sensitive peacebuilding \r offer promising avenues to addressing conflict risk, but their efficacy \r is yet to be demonstrated through effective monitoring and evaluation \r (Gilmore et  al., 2018). Associations between environmental factors \r and conflict are weak in comparison to socioeconomic and political \r drivers. Therefore, meeting the SDGs, including Goal 16 on peace, \r justice and strong institutions represent unambiguous pathways to \r reducing conflict risk under climate change (Singh and Chudasama, \r 2021). Actively pursuing peace rather than taking conflict for granted \r (Barnett, 2019), improving focus on gender within peacebuilding (Dunn \r and Matthew, 2015; UNEP, 2021) and understanding how natural \r resources and their governance interact with peacebuilding (Krampe \r [...]"


id: fe9f921fcd70e87580600d87c54d0190
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 42178
content:
"Figure  7.11 illustrates the context within which risks to health \r outcomes and health systems emerge because of climate change. \r The figure presents the emergence of risk from interactions between \r specific types of climatic hazards, the exposure and vulnerability to \r those hazards, and the responses taken within the health sector. The \r figure also illustrates how health risks are situated within larger \r interactions between the health system and other sectors and \r systems, with underlying enabling conditions making adaptation \r and transformation possible. Within this context, response options \r can decrease the impacts of climate change on human health, \r well-being and health systems by (a) reducing exposure to climate\u0002related hazards; (b) reducing vulnerability to such hazards and \r (c) strengthening health system responses to future risks. Such \r approaches are described as 'Lateral Public Health' and emphasise \r [...]"


id: 8d37ffe8789015c788ce0d2d36f0d2c7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] the importance of involving community members and stakeholders in \r the planning and coordination of activities (Semenza, 2021; Semenza, \r 2011). Lateral public health strives for community engagement (e.g., \r through access to technology in decision-making, such as low-cost \r air sensors for wildfire smoke) in preparedness and response."


id: b48a6c5b9c9d9b28476d9141977c0509
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29008
content:
"Health policies were historically not designed or implemented taking \r into consideration the risks of climate change and as currently \r structured are likely insufficient to manage the changing health \r burdens in coming decades (very high confidence). The magnitude \r and pattern of future health burdens attributable to climate change, \r at least until mid-century, will be determined primarily by adaptation \r and development choices. Current and future emissions will play an \r increasing role in determining attributable burdens after mid-century. \r Increased investment in strengthening general health systems, along \r with targeted investments to enhance protection against specific \r climate-sensitive exposures (e.g., hazard early warning and response \r systems and integrated vector control programmes for VBDs) \r will increase resilience if implemented to at least keep pace with \r climate change (high confidence). Investments to address the social \r [...]"


id: 1f70ac2de55229954f480a934b70c7eb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2737
content:
"[...] determinants of health can reduce inequities and increase resilience \r (high confidence) (Thornton et al., 2016; Marmot et al., 2020; Wallace \r et al., 2015; Semenza and Paz, 2021)."


id: aad542c07f3c11295852d886a9ab9a8b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 27282
content:
"The 2018 WHO Health and Climate Change Survey, a voluntary \r national survey sent to all 194 WHO member states, to which 101 \r responded, found that national planning on health and climate change \r is advancing, but the comprehensiveness of strategies and plans need \r to be strengthened. Implementing action on key health and climate \r change priorities remains challenging and multi-sectoral collaboration \r on health and climate change policy is evident, with uneven progress \r (Watts et al., 2021). Approximately 50% of respondent countries had \r developed national health and climate strategies, with over two-thirds \r doing so within the preceding five years, and 48 of 101 countries had \r conducted a health vulnerability and adaptation assessment (Watts \r et al., 2019). However, most countries reported only moderate or low \r levels of implementation, with financing cited as the most common \r barrier due to a lack of information on opportunities, in turn linked to a \r [...]"


id: 51cdfb3fbc6716eb86a250f3193088b5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11679
content:
"[...] lack of connection by health actors to climate change policy processes \r and a lack of capacity to participate in national planning. A review of \r public health systems in 34  countries found that only slightly more "


id: cda3708a12aaca001d0e0710cf4b3598
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33510
content:
"To date, air conditioning is the main adaptation approach for \r mitigating the health effects of high temperatures, especially in \r relation to cardiorespiratory health (Madureira et al., 2021). However, \r air conditioning may constitute a maladaptation because of its high \r demands on energy and associated heat emissions, especially in high\u0002density cities (Eriksen et  al., 2021; Magnan et  al., 2016; Schipper, \r 2020), and also lead to 'heat inequities' as this is not an affordable or \r practical option for many (Jay et al., 2021; Turek-Hankins et al., 2021). \r HAPs link weather forecasts with alert and communication systems \r and response activities, including public cooling centres, enhanced \r heat-related disease surveillance and a range of individual actions \r designed to reduce the health effects of extreme heat events such \r as seeking shade and altering the pattern of work (McGregor et al., \r 2015). While well-designed and operationalisable HAPs possess the \r [...]"


id: f4207028caa56b6f0311cd36bc191e3e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40323
content:
"[...] potential to reduce the likelihood of mortality from extreme heat \r events (medium confidence) (Benmarhnia et  al., 2016; Heo et  al., \r 2019b; Martinez-Solanas and Basagana, 2019; Martinez et al., 2019; \r De'Donato et al., 2018), full process and outcome-based evaluations \r of HAPs and their constituent components are lacking (Boeckmann \r and Rohn, 2014; Chiabai et al., 2018b; Boeckmann and Rohn, 2014; \r Nitschke et al., 2016; Diaz et al., 2019; Benmarhnia et al., 2016; Heo \r et al., 2019a; Heo et al., 2019b; Ragettli and Roosli, 2019). Evaluations \r of heatwave early warning systems as a component within HAPs \r show inconsistent results in terms of their impact on predicting \r mortality rates (Nitschke et al., 2016; Benmarhnia et al., 2016; Heo \r et al., 2019a; Heo et al., 2019b; Ragettli and Roosli, 2019; Martinez \r et  al., 2019; De'Donato et  al., 2018; Weinberger et  al., 2018b), \r indicating climate-based heat warning systems, which use a range of \r [...]"


id: cf60287bb6fe78cb1573a500c7cad082
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33834
content:
"[...] heat stress metrics (Schwingshackl et al., 2021), are not sufficient as a \r stand-alone approach to heat risk management (high confidence). To \r support HAP and heat risk-related policy development, identification \r and mapping of heat vulnerability 'hot spots' within urban areas have \r been proposed (Chen et al., 2019; Hatvani-Kovacs et al., 2018)"


id: d8de1f6a702ebfdc987d78a4ab2cc774
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 35447
content:
"(Rocklov and Dubrow, 2020; Semenza and Zeller, 2014; Table 7.3). In \r many cases, the exposure dynamics of VBDs are strongly influenced by \r socioeconomic dynamics that should be considered when developing \r and deploying adaptation options (UNEP, 2018). This is especially \r the case in low-income countries. For example, insufficient access \r to sanitation and the presence of standing water are important \r determinants of the presence of Aedes aegypti populations and \r the pathogens that cause visceral leishmaniasis (L. donovani and L. \r infantum) in urban and peri-urban areas. Low housing quality and lack \r of refuse management are associated with higher rodent infestation. \r Strategies expected to have important health co-benefits include those \r that support health systems strengthening and ecosystem health, \r improve access to health coverage, increase awareness and education \r and address the underlying conditions of uneven development and a \r [...]"


id: a346ab554d2bd5c9ac450bf7bc093340
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25934
content:
"[...] lack of adequate housing and access to water and sanitation systems \r in areas endemic to mosquito-borne diseases (Semenza and Paz, 2021; \r Cross-Chapter Box ILLNESS in Chapter 2)."


id: f9605d8b7f2daa2f98b610c7f2f033c5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 41234
content:
"Adaptation options for climate-related risks for WBDs and FBDs \r are strongly associated with wider, multi-sectoral initiatives to \r improve sustainable development in low-income communities (high \r confidence). Effective measures include improving access to potable \r water and reducing exposure of water and sanitation systems to \r flooding and extreme weather events (Brubacher et al., 2020; Cisse, \r 2019; Table 7.3). This requires focusing on farm-level interventions that \r limit the spread of pathogens into adjacent waterways, preventing \r the ongoing contamination of water and sanitation systems and the \r promotion of food-safe human behaviours (Levy et al., 2018; Nichols \r et  al., 2018). It is also important to implement well-targeted and \r integrated WASH interventions, including at schools and ensuring \r proper disposal of excreta and wastewater. Cities can integrate regional \r [...]"


id: a601691abfd0ae812adc66dc1e678c5d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26427
content:
"[...] climate projections into their engineering models to produce lower\u0002risk source waters and increase the resilience of water and sanitation \r technologies and management systems under a range of climate \r scenarios. Technologies can help abstract source waters from depth, \r introduce or increase secondary booster disinfection, design or modify \r systems to reduce residence times within pipes and/or coat exposed \r pipes (Levy et al., 2018). Other efficient interventions include source \r water protection, promoting water filtration, testing the presence of \r waterborne pathogens in shellfish, imposing trade restrictions where \r necessary and improving hygiene at all levels (Semenza and Paz, \r 2021). Needed actions include early warning and response systems, \r strengthening the resilience of communities and health systems and \r promoting ecosystem health, water safety plans and sanitation safety \r plans (Brubacher et  al., 2020; Cisse, 2019; Ford and Hamner, 2018; \r [...]"


id: 8965bd6f730f3e63e4ee875c696fd77d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21350
content:
"[...] Lake and Barker, 2018; Levy et  al., 2018; Nichols et  al., 2018; WHO \r and International Water Association, 2009; WHO, 2016a; WHO, 2018b; \r Semenza, 2021; Rocklov et al., 2021)."


id: 47bd30d76b0d2a641c7a0953d05d8fa2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9837
content:
"A multi-sectoral approach, including the engagement of a range \r of stakeholders will likely benefit the response to longer-term heat \r risks through the implementation of measures such as climate\u0002sensitive urban design and planning that mitigates UHI effects (high \r confidence) (Ebi, 2019; Jay et al., 2021; Alexander et al., 2016; Levy, \r 2016; Masson et  al., 2018; McEvoy, 2019; Pisello et  al., 2018). In \r the shorter-term, potentially localised solutions can include awnings, \r louvers, directional reflective materials, altering roof albedo, mist \r sprays, evaporative materials, green roofs and building facades \r and cooling centres (Jay et  al., 2021; Macintyre and Heaviside, \r 2019; Spentzou et  al., 2021; Takebayashi, 2018). NbS to reduce \r heat that offer co-benefits for ecological systems include green and \r blue infrastructure (e.g., urban greening/forestry and the creation \r of water bodies) (Koc et  al., 2018; Lai et  al., 2019; Shooshtarian \r [...]"


id: 413e297beeaae8236e0fcf29b96c53d8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8661
content:
"[...] et  al., 2018; Ulpiani, 2019; Zuvela-Aloise et  al., 2016; Hobbie and \r Grimm, 2020). The implementation of climate-sensitive design and \r planning can be constrained by governance issues (Jim et al., 2018) \r and the benefits are not always evenly distributed among residents. \r Implementation of climate-sensitive design and NbS does, however, \r need to be carried out within the context of wider public health \r planning because water bodies and moist vegetated surfaces provide \r suitable habitats for a range of disease vectors (Nasir et al., 2017; \r Tian et  al., 2016; Trewin et  al., 2020). Solutions recommended for "


id: b1d6aaae0ba067f4b47dd89147966a56
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28513
content:
"A feasibility and effectiveness assessment was conducted for six \r adaptation strategies often used and recommended by the UN to \r respond to malnutrition risks that combined a literature review and \r expert judgment assessment of 80 peer-reviewed studies (UNSCN, \r 2010; Tirado et  al. 2013; methods adapted from de Coninck et  al. \r (2018) and Singh et al. (2020)). Nineteen indicators of six dimensions \r of feasibility (economic, technical, social, institutional, environmental \r and geophysical) were considered. The lead time to initiate and the \r expected longevity of each option were examined. Feasibility was \r defined as how significant the reported barriers were to implement a \r particular adaptation option. Highly feasible options were those where \r no or very few barriers were reported. Moderately feasible were those \r where barriers existed but did not have a strong negative effect on \r the adaptation option (or evidence was mixed). Low feasibility options \r [...]"


id: c462908e5d940d9ceb3c81be2cb81e91
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 31849
content:
"[...] had multiple barriers reported that could block implementation. \r Effectiveness ratings were based on expert consultation and reflected \r the potential of the adaptation option to reduce risk. The final \r effectiveness and feasibility scores were categorised as high, medium \r or low and reflect the combined results of all studies for a given \r adaptation option (Table 7.6)."


id: 69683d1ca37ef875c83d9a852c31aab8
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15815
content:
"Early warning systems are effective at detecting and potentially \r reducing food security and nutrition risks (high confidence). Examples \r of proven systems include the United States Agency for International \r Development (USAID) Famine Early Warning System, the Food and \r Agricultural Organization's Global Information and Early Warning \r System and the World Food Programme's Corporate Alert System. Such \r systems are fundamental for anticipating when a crisis might occur \r and setting priorities for interventions (Funk et  al., 2019). Financial \r investments to develop early warning systems are cost-effective and \r reduce human suffering (Choularton and Krishnamurthy, 2019) (high \r confidence). For instance, during the 2017 drought-induced food crisis \r in Kenya, 500,000 fewer people required humanitarian assistance \r than would have been expected based on past experiences; this was \r largely due to timely and effective interventions triggered by the early \r [...]"


id: cc0978f666bdc67afd426e6f9badf659
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33220
content:
"Because mental health is fundamentally inter-twined with social and \r economic well-being, adaptation for climate-related mental health \r risks benefits from wider multi-sectoral initiatives to enhance well\u0002being, with the potential for co-benefits to emerge (high confidence).\r Improvements in education, quality of housing, safety and social \r protection support enhance general well-being and make individuals \r more resilient to climate risks (Lund et al., 2018; Hayes et al., 2019). \r Among Indigenous Peoples, connections to traditional culture and \r to place are associated with health and well-being (Bourke et  al., \r 2018) as well as with resilience to environmental change (Ford et al., \r 2020). As an example of the connection between infrastructure \r improvements and mental health, a study of domestic rainwater \r harvesting initiatives to promote household water security also \r improved mental health in participating households (Mercer and \r [...]"


id: 4f94fcbd7846312a4f2789c10caaecee
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 11289
content:
"[...] Hanrahan, 2017). Adaptive urban design that provides access to \r healthy natural spaces--an option for reducing risks associated with \r heat stress--also promotes social cohesion and mitigates mental \r health challenges (high confidence) (Buckley et  al., 2019; Clayton \r et al., 2017; Jennings and Bamkole, 2019; Liu et al., 2020b; Mygind \r et al., 2019; Marselle et al., 2020)."


id: c68c6c76bfa00ea64c5acd7f65e81306
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 32232
content:
"Integrating health into national disaster risk management plans has \r wider benefits for resilience and adaptation to climate change risks \r (high confidence) (UNFCCC, 2017a; Watts et al., 2019). DRR, including \r disaster preparedness, management and response, is widely recognised \r as important for reducing health consequences of climate-related \r hazards and extreme weather events (Keim, 2008; Phalkey and Louis, \r 2016). A systematic review by Islam et al. (2020) identified multiple, \r ongoing challenges to integrating climate adaptation and DRR at \r global and national levels, including a lack of capacity among key \r actors and institutions, a lack of coordination and collaboration across \r scales of government and general lack of funding--challenges that \r are particularly relevant for the health sector. Global events, including \r climate-related extreme events and public health emergencies of \r international concern (for example, Ebola, Middle East respiratory \r [...]"


id: 173f92d5da07a551aea732e531ec3978
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1308
content:
"[...] syndrome (MERS) and COVID-19) have influenced the development \r of national public health preparedness and response systems and \r attracted significant investment over the last two decades (Khan et al., \r 2015; Murthy et al., 2017; Watson et al., 2017). The Sendai Framework \r for Disaster Risk Reduction and the International Health Regulations \r establish important global and regional goals for increasing health \r system resilience and reducing health impacts from biological hazards \r and extreme climate events (Aitsi-Selmi et al., 2015; Maini et al., 2017; \r UNFCCC, 2017b; Wright et al., 2020). There are explicit links between \r the health aspect of the Sendai Framework and UN SDGs 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, \r 11, 13, 14, 15 and 17 (Wright et al., 2020). More specifically, reducing \r the number of disaster-related deaths, illnesses and injuries, as well as \r damage to health facilities are key indicators for achieving the goals \r set out in the Sendai Framework (UNFCCC, 2017b)."


id: 70ef29018746b8cedb8e6b7cad0fcf57
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 17130
content:
"Early warning systems are a potentially valuable tool in adapting to \r climate-related risks associated with infectious diseases when based \r on forecasts with high skill and when there are effective responses \r within the time frame of the forecast (high confidence). Through \r advanced seasonal weather forecasting that draws upon established \r associations between weather/climate and infection/transmission \r conditions, conditions conducive to disease outbreaks can be identified \r months in advance, providing time to implement effective population \r health responses (Morin et  al., 2018). Most current early warning \r systems are focused on malaria and dengue but there are examples \r for other diseases, such as an early warning system developed \r for Vibrios monitoring in the Baltic Sea (Semenza et  al., 2017). An \r early warning system for dengue outbreaks in Colombia based on \r temperature, precipitation and humidity successfully detected 75% \r [...]"


id: 934a5f1a639ab54d3deffafdcfd3dc16
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23114
content:
"[...] of all outbreaks between one and five months in advance, detecting \r 12.5% in the same month (Lee et  al., 2017b). Dengue warning \r systems in Brazil, Malaysia and Mexico have generated satisfactory \r results (Hussain-Alkhateeb et  al., 2018). An effective early warning \r system for malaria was implemented in the Amhara region of Ethiopia \r (Merkord et al., 2017)."


id: 4875332cf0b8ae1deba6931dacf7ec9a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9958
content:
"The intersection of health and multi-sectoral DRR and manage\u0002ment, generally described as health emergency and disaster risk \r management (health-EDRM), encompasses multi-sectoral approaches \r from epidemic preparedness and response including the capacities \r for implementing the International Health Regulations (IHR, 2005), \r health systems strengthening and health systems resilience (Lo Iacono \r et  al., 2017; WHO 2019; Wright et  al., 2020). Health-EDRM costs to \r governments are notably lower than the cost of inaction (Peters et al., \r 2019). Additional per capita costs in low-income countries have been \r estimated to range from USD 4.33 (capital) and USD 4.16 (annual \r recurrent costs), and in upper middle-income countries to an additional \r USD 1.35 in capital costs and USD 1.41 in extra annual recurrent costs \r (Peters et  al., 2019). Adopting a health-EDRM approach supports the \r systematic integration of health and multi-sectoral EDRM to ensure a \r [...]"


id: e059b7d88b29efb5d627c992b981a8aa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36720
content:
"[...] holistic approach to health risks and assists in the alignment of action in \r health security, climate change and sustainable development (Chan and \r Peijun, 2017; Dar et al., 2014; WHO, 2019; Wright et al., 2020)."


id: a927f3de80b6cea0ad1b996d9439c356
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26982
content:
"No universal standardised approach exists for monitoring or evaluating \r adaptation activities in the health sector (high confidence). Candidate \r indicators of climate change health impacts and adaptation activity, \r typically at the national level, are available (Bowen and Ebi, 2017; \r Cheng and Berry, 2013; Kenney et al., 2016; Navi et al., 2017; WHO, \r 2015b). Indicators are best grouped by category of activity, that is, \r vulnerability, risk and exposure; impacts; and adaptation and resilience \r (Ebi et al., 2018a). As health adaptation expands, enhanced monitoring \r will be needed to ensure that scientific advances are translated into \r policy and practice. A promising initiative that emerged since the AR5 \r is the Lancet Countdown, which represents a global effort at tracking \r various indicators of exposures, impacts, adaptation activities, finance \r and media activity related to climate change and health (Watts et al., \r [...]"


id: e37949b998322f098ecd49c648a7819a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37317
content:
"[...] 2018a), although this effort is principally focused on monitoring and \r does not explicitly focus on evaluation adaptation efforts or learning \r from adaptation efforts."


id: a2cff1bf27013e6d16c5f334b92e376e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25863
content:
"Climate-informed health-EDRM is crucial for the climate resilience of \r health systems (WHO, 2015a), particularly to account for additional \r risks and uncertainties associated with climate change and allow for \r well-planned, effective and appropriate EDRM and adaptation (Watts \r et al., 2018a; WHO, 2013; WHO, 2015a). Potential coherent approaches \r to addressing climate change and disaster risks to health include: \r strengthening health systems; vulnerability and risk assessments that \r incorporate disaster and climate change risk; building resilience of \r health systems and health infrastructure; and climate-informed EWSs \r (Banwell et al., 2018; Phalkey and Louis, 2016). However, a review of \r DRR projects including climate change in south Asia found that the \r health sector was the least represented with only 2% of 371 projects \r relating to health (Mall et al., 2019), indicating a need to strengthen \r the incorporation of climate change in health-EDRM. Current tracking \r [...]"


id: 307261fead99d0d2ccb91cf5d1766073
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5781
content:
"[...] under the Sendai Framework of Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 \r shows that most countries (particularly low-income countries and \r lower middle-income countries) still lack robust systems for integrated \r risk monitoring and early warning (UNEP, 2018). The incorporation of \r DRR and management strategies into climate adaptation for health \r and health systems at local scales is particularly important, given that \r it is at local scales where health services are most often delivered \r and where knowledge of specific needs and challenges is often \r greatest (Amaratunga et al., 2018; Schramm et al., 2020a). Indigenous \r knowledge has been shown to be valuable in DRR, with particularly \r strong evidence existing for drought risk reduction in sub-Saharan \r Africa (Fummi et al., 2017; Muyambo et al., 2017; Dube and Munsaka, \r 2018; Macnight Ngwese et  al., 2018). In the USA, DRR strategies \r that draw upon traditional knowledge and local expertise are being \r [...]"


id: 402c2badc1c16367555e23767ef80b56
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8479
content:
"[...] incorporated into climate adaptation planning for health in a number \r of indigenous communities under the 'Climate-ready Tribes Initiative' \r (Schramm et al., 2020b)."


id: 208e28215ab4972103237e27304a86c8
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"Community-based monitoring of adaptation responses to health \r impacts, especially by Indigenous Peoples, has not been widely \r undertaken, despite its potential to improve monitoring of and local \r adaptation to environmental change (Kipp et  al., 2019). The health \r sector has been particularly weak at recognising the climate impacts \r on and the adaptation needs of Indigenous Peoples and in engaging \r Indigenous Peoples in monitoring progress (Ford et al., 2018; David\u0002Chavez and Gavin, 2018; Ramos-Castillo et  al., 2017). Successful \r adaptation to the health impacts of climate change in Indigenous \r Peoples requires recognition of their rights to self-determination, \r focusing on indigenous conceptualisations of well-being, prioritising \r Indigenous knowledge and understanding the broader agenda of \r decolonisation, health and human rights (high confidence) (Ford and \r King, 2015; Green and Minchin, 2014; Hoy et al., 2014; Jones, 2019; \r [...]"


id: 8d7afc2d5ae166d1cbe04c1fbfde013c
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"There has been limited participation of the health sector in \r international climate financing mechanisms (Martinez and Berry, \r 2018). Of 149 projects listed in the Adaptation Fund database in \r October 2020, a large number were broad-based initiatives that \r may have considerable indirect benefits for health systems, such as \r enhanced disaster preparedness and food security, but none were \r explicitly aimed at strengthening health systems or had directed funds \r through ministries of health. A review of projects funded by the major \r multi-lateral climate funds showed that less than 1.5% of dispersed \r adaptation funding and less than 0.5% of overall funding have been \r allocated to projects aimed at protecting health (WHO, 2015a). A \r survey of national public health organisation representatives from \r a mix of low-, middle- and high-income countries found that a lack \r of political commitment, insufficient coordination across sectors and \r [...]"


id: 17602fcf94e9bb01fb4750274d3ba026
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"[...] inadequate funding for public health-specific adaptation initiatives \r were common barriers to building climate resilience (Marcus and \r Hanna, 2020). Under-investment in climate-specific initiatives in health \r systems coincides with persistent under-investment in healthcare more \r generally, especially in low- and middle-income countries (Schaferhoff \r et al., 2019)."


id: 4e142d0521fad9ad4e40b550232207a4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"Effective governance institutions, arrangements, funding and mandates \r are key for adaptation to climate-related health risks (high confidence).\r Without integration and collaboration across sectors, health adaptation \r can become siloed, leading to less effective adaptation or even \r maladaptation (Magnan et al., 2016; Fox et al., 2019). Integration and \r collaboration include working laterally across national government \r departments and agencies, as well as vertically from national \r agencies to local governments and with the private sector, academia, \r NGOs and civil society. In this context, top-down policy design and \r implementation are complemented by bottom-up approaches that \r engage community actors in programme design and draw upon their \r local practices, perspectives, opinions and experiences. Opportunities \r exist to better integrate public health into climate change discourse and \r policymaking processes, and to strengthen public health partnerships \r [...]"


id: 4b4698220a2b4f31739066bc330ede8a
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"[...] and collaborations (Awuor et al., 2020). Creating networks, integration \r across organisations and jointly developed policies can facilitate cross\u0002sectoral collaboration (Bowen and Ebi, 2017)."


id: fde601af588b91904a065c80ad967486
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"Adaptation financing does not often reach places where the \r climate-sensitivity of the health sector is greatest (Weiler, 2019). \r Financial constraints in Africa are one of the key reasons for slow \r implementation of health adaptation measures (Nhamo and Muchuru, \r 2019). Strengthening health systems in vulnerable countries has the \r potential to reduce current and future economic costs related to \r environmental health risks, thus enabling reinvestment in the health \r system and sustainable development (WHO, 2020a; WHO, 2015a). \r Robust and comprehensive climate and health financing builds first \r on core health sector investments (WHO, 2015a). Other potential \r opportunities for resource mobilisation include health-specific funding \r mechanisms, climate change funding streams and investments from \r multi-sectoral actions and actions in health-determining sectors (WHO, \r 2015a). Incorporating climate change and health considerations into \r [...]"


id: cf508f3700315978f80d655e373e5e3d
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content:
"[...] disaster reduction and management strategies could improve funding \r opportunities and increase potential funding streams (Aitsi-Selmi \r et  al., 2015). Reinforcing cross-sectoral governance mechanisms \r maximises health co-benefits and economic savings by allowing for \r multi-sectoral costs and benefits to be comprehensively considered \r in decision-making (Belesova et al., 2016; WHO, 2020a; WHO, 2015b). \r An additional financial need concerns health research, the existing \r funding for which does not match what is needed to support the \r implementation of the combined objectives of the UN 2030 Agenda \r for Sustainable Development, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk \r Reduction and the Paris Agreement (Green and Minchin, 2014; Ebi, \r 2016; Green et al., 2017)."


id: 43121ff172fd50c28177429805a59262
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Financial constraints are the most referenced barrier to health \r adaptation and so scaling up financial investments remains a key \r international priority (very high confidence) (Wheeler and Watts, 2018; \r UNFCCC, 2017a). AR5 estimated the costs of adaptation in developing \r countries at between USD 70 billion and USD 100 billion annually in \r the year 2050, but these are likely to be a significant underestimate, \r particularly in the years 2030 and beyond (UNEP, 2014). National surveys \r conducted by WHO identified financial constraints as a major barrier to \r the implementation of health adaptation priorities (WHO, 2019b; Watts \r et al., 2021). Novel research drawing on global financial transaction data \r suggests that in 2019, global financial transactions with the potential \r to deliver adaptation in the health and healthcare sector reached \r USD  18.4  billion, driven by transactions in high- and upper middle\u0002income countries, with investment in Africa, Southeast Asia and the \r [...]"


id: f52299ced7b2ccda55ccc64f225a466a
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content:
"to implement adaptation measures. Individual responses are in turn \r affected not only by capabilities but also by perceptions that climate \r change is real and requires a response (Ogunbode et  al., 2019). \r Perceptions of climate risks are formed by experiences of changes in \r local weather and extreme weather events (Sattler et al., 2018; Sattler \r et  al., 2020; van der Linden, 2015), observations of environmental \r changes (Hornsey et al., 2016), experiences of and knowledge about \r climate change impacts (Ngo et al., 2020; van der Linden, 2015) and \r individual characteristics such as values and worldviews (Poortinga \r et  al., 2019) (high agreement, medium evidence). Risk perceptions \r include both logical assessments about the likelihood and severity of \r climate change impacts and affective feelings about those impacts. \r On average, affective measures of risk perception are more strongly \r associated with disaster preparation than cognitive measures \r [...]"


id: 3932286cd8a3e9f62185b0b1c083a04f
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"AR5 (Chapter 17) concluded that migration is often, though not in \r all situations, a potential form of adaptation initiated by households. \r Subsequent research indicates that the circumstances under which \r migration occurs and the degree of agency under which household \r migration decisions are made are important determinants of whether \r migration outcomes are successful in terms of advancing the well\u0002being of the household and providing benefits to sending and \r receiving communities (high confidence) (Adger et al., 2015; Cattaneo \r et al., 2019; Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7). Evidence from \r refugee studies and general migration research indicates that higher \r agency migration, in which migrants have mobility options, allows \r migrants greater opportunities for integrating into labour markets at \r the destination, makes it easier to remit money home and generally \r creates conditions for potential benefits for migrant households and \r [...]"


id: 64b51de6da513a52a83d7bc7f6665425
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content:
"[...] for sending and receiving communities (International Organization for \r Migration, 2019). Bilateral agreements that facilitate labour migration \r have been identified as being especially urgently needed for Pacific \r small island states (Weber, 2017)."


id: 6f4844eddbf772c2acb0c844d0e5b40b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Efficacy beliefs, social norms and subjective resilience also affect \r adaptation behaviour (medium confidence), which has implications \r for communication about the need for climate adaptation. Efficacy \r beliefs represent the belief in one's ability to carry out particular \r action(s) and the belief that the action(s) will have the desired \r outcome. Belief that one is personally able to complete a behaviour \r is moderately associated with engaging in disaster preparations \r (Navarro et  al., 2021; van Valkengoed and Steg, 2019) and with \r adaptation intentions (Burnham and Ma, 2017). Collective efficacy, \r the belief that a group of people working together can achieve \r a desired outcome, is important for participating in community \r adaptation behaviours (Bandura, 1982; Chen, 2015; Thaker et  al., \r 2015). Related to this is response efficacy, a belief that a behaviour \r will achieve its desired outcome, which is also moderately associated \r [...]"


id: 9f0e65fed7b3616fbb966f61ce824539
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 25208
content:
"[...] with engaging in disaster preparations (van Valkengoed and \r Steg, 2019). Collective efficacy can potentially be developed by \r strengthening communication networks and social ties within a \r community (Haas et al., 2021; Jugert et al., 2016). Norms describing \r the adaptation strategies of others in a community, particularly \r those with high social status, can either facilitate or inhibit individual \r adaptation decisions (Neef et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2021)."


id: 24336c1a613ea5d19aeb886cf80a5ad1
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3554
content:
"Adaptive migration and the implied assumption that people can \r or should simply move out of harm's way is not a substitute for \r investment in adaptive capacity-building (high agreement) (Bettini \r and Gioli, 2016). Climate-related migration, and especially involuntary \r displacement, often occurs only after in situ adaptation options have \r been exhausted and/or where government actions are inadequate \r (Adger et al., 2015; Ocello et al., 2015; Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE \r in Chapter 7). The threshold at which household adaptation transitions \r from in situ measures to migration is highly context specific and reflects \r the degree of exposure to specific climate risks, mobility options \r and the socioeconomic circumstances of the household and local \r community (McLeman, 2017; Adams and Kay, 2019; Semenza and Ebi, \r 2019; Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7). A consistent theme \r in the research literature reviewed for all sections of this chapter is \r [...]"


id: 923d45a1fcb52d4a269894be7d4e75f5
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content:
"[...] that proactive investments in health, social and physical infrastructure, \r including those not aimed specifically at climate risks, build societal \r adaptive capacity and household resilience. In turn, expanding the \r range of adaptation options available to households increases the \r likelihood that, when migration does occur, it does so under conditions \r of high agency that lead to greater chances of success. In communities \r where climate-related migration and/or relocation is occurring or may \r occur, policymaking and planning benefits from understanding the \r cultural, social and economic needs of exposed populations and helps \r in the identification of responses and policies that build resilience \r (Hino et al. 2017)"


id: 793d6f61e67860c61470ca6be70ebb75
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"destinations, labour market choices and returns from migration may be \r more heavily constrained than those of other labour migrants (Jessoe \r et al., 2018; Wrathall and Suckall, 2016).Within low- and middle-income \r countries, rural-urban migrant networks are important channels for \r remittances that may help build socioeconomic resilience to climate \r hazards in sending areas (Porst and Sakdapolrak, 2020), with higher \r levels of wage-seeking labour participation observed in climate\u0002sensitive locales in south Asia (Maharjan et  al., 2020). Local-level \r research in China and south Asia shows, however, that the potential \r for remittances to generate improvements in household level adaptive \r capacity is highly context specific, has significant gender dimensions \r and depends on such factors as the nature of the hazard, the distance \r migrated and the length of time over which remittances are received \r (Banerjee et al., 2019a; Banerjee et al., 2019b). Social networks are a \r [...]"


id: b1d3cd84dcf5164afed71ce537036543
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content:
"[...] key asset in helping climate migrants overcome financial and structural \r impediments to their mobility, but these have their limits, particularly \r with respect to international migration (Semenza and Ebi, 2019). Since \r AR5, greater restrictions have emerged on movement between many \r low- and high-income countries (not including those necessitated by \r public health measures during the COVID-19 pandemic), a trend that, \r if it continues, would generate additional constraints on destination \r choices for future climate migrants (McLeman, 2019). Transnational \r diasporic connections are a potential asset for building resilience \r in migrant-sending communities highly exposed to climatic risks, \r with migrants' remittances potentially providing resources for long\u0002term resilience building, recovery from extreme events and reducing \r income inequality (Bragg et al., 2018; Mosuela et al., 2015; Obokata \r and Veronis, 2018; Shayegh, 2017; Semenza and Ebi, 2019). Safe \r [...]"


id: fe6a62d6bff0bd2ffbdb2cba03d76d5e
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content:
"[...] and orderly labour migration is consequently a potentially beneficial \r component of wider cross-sectoral approaches to building adaptive \r capacity and supporting sustainable development in regions highly \r exposed to climate risks (McLeman, 2019)."


id: 4611eaa894c0ed55ae265566a0fc31b7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9542
content:
"Attitudes of residents in migrant-receiving areas with respect to \r climate-related migration warrant consideration when formulating \r adaptation policy (medium confidence). Existing research is modest \r and difficult to generalise with respect to the impacts of climate\u0002related migration and displacement on social dynamics and stability in \r receiving destinations, with outcomes being tied to the attitudes and \r social acceptance of receiving communities and efforts to integrate \r migrant arrivals into the community (Koubi and Nguyen, 2020). \r Research from Kenya and Vietnam shows that residents of receiving \r communities view environmental drivers as being legitimate reasons \r for people to move and consequently tend not to stigmatise such \r migrants (Spilker et  al., 2020). In these examples, urban residents \r viewed environmental motivations as being comparable to economic \r reasons for migrating and did not see climate-related migrants as \r [...]"


id: 41dbe247789da255a45bd067aeee9e7d
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"[...] posing any particular risks for receiving communities. However, \r case studies from India suggest that a lack of recognition by local \r authorities of climatic factors being legitimate drivers of rural-urban \r migration may lead to discrimination against migrants in terms of \r access to housing and other social protections, thereby undermining \r household resilience (Chu and Michael, 2018)."


id: 1d952ba38255f65d482663334b9ac3ad
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"There is high agreement among existing studies that immobile \r populations often have high vulnerability and/or high long-term exposure \r to climate hazards, and that non-climatic political, economic and social \r factors within countries may strongly constrain mobility (Zickgraf, \r 2019; Ayeb-Karlsson et al., 2020; Cundill et al., 2021). Section 7.2.6.2 \r highlighted the particular vulnerability of immobile populations in the \r face of growing climatic risks. However, research suggests governments \r should be slow to label such populations as being 'trapped' or to actively \r promote relocations in the absence of local agreement that in situ\r adaptation options have been exhausted (Adams, 2016; Farbotko and \r McMichael, 2019). In the case of indigenous settlements, efforts made \r to incorporate traditional knowledge in decision-making and planning \r increase the potential for longer-term success (Manrique, 2018). \r Considerable health implications can emerge within populations that \r [...]"


id: 74d4f393cfd33d96d7dc51db55938b3e
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content:
"[...] are relocated as part of a planned retreat, and represent an important \r consideration for planners that requires greater research (Dannenberg \r et al., 2019). Organised relocations are not inherently transformative \r in their outcomes but, depending on the circumstances under which \r they occur and on how issues of equity and respect for the rights of \r those affected are implemented, relocation could potentially represent \r a positive transformation (Siders et al., 2021)."


id: 9354d86c3cc5d11cb0188fe94fd564f2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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vector_id: 23125
content:
"The success of climate-related migration as an adaptive response is \r shaped by how migrants are perceived and how policy discussions \r are framed (high agreement, medium evidence). The possibility that \r climate change may enlarge international migrant flows has in some \r policy discussions been interpreted as a potential threat to the security \r of destination countries (Sow et al., 2016; Telford, 2018), but there is \r little empirical evidence in peer-reviewed literature assessed for this \r chapter of climate migrants posing significant threats to security at \r state or international levels. There is also an inconsistency between \r framing in some policy discussions of undocumented migration \r (climate-related and other forms) as being 'illegal' and the objectives \r of the Global Compact on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration and \r the Global Compact on Refugees (McLeman, 2019). Although climate\u0002related migrants are not officially recognised as refugees under the \r [...]"


id: 4534edece4e48ba63b895928c0809f7e
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"[...] 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, terms such as \r 'climate refugees' are common in popular media and some policy \r discussions (Hoeg and Tulloch, 2018; Wiegel et al., 2019). The framing \r of migration policy discussions is relevant, for example, in discussing \r climate adaptation options for Pacific Island Countries, where there is \r considerable disagreement over policies that range from a 'migration \r with dignity' approach that would liberalise labour migration in the \r Pacific region to those that see migration as a last resort option to "


id: 3a5e8f975a5d809e49318df06b448ebb
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"2017; Hino et  al., 2017; Haasnoot et  al., 2021; Moss et  al., 2021). \r Recent examples illustrate the substantial financial costs of organised \r relocations, ranging from USD 10,000 per person in examples from Fiji \r to USD 100,000 per person in coastal Louisiana, USA (Hino et al., 2017). \r Organised relocations are politically and emotionally charged, may \r not necessarily be seen as desirable by exposed populations and are \r most successful when approached proactive and strategically to avoid \r increasing the socioeconomic vulnerability of those who are relocated \r (Jamero et al., 2017; Wilmsen and Webber, 2015; Chapin et al., 2016; \r McNamara et  al., 2018; Hauer et  al., 2019; Bertana, 2020). Key \r considerations for protecting the rights and well-being of people who \r might need to be resettled include proactive communication with and \r participation of the affected communities, availability of compensation, \r [...]"


id: d8e6ede580c2b5fdf7b0f3c2de61e9a8
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content:
"[...] livelihood protection and ensuring there is permanence and security of \r tenure at the relocation destination (Tadgell et al., 2018). Availability \r of funds for resettlement, how to manage relocation from communally \r owned lands, how to value privately owned land to be abandoned and \r the potential for loss and damage claims are just some of the many \r potential complications (Marino, 2018; McNamara et  al., 2018). As \r a proactive option, researchers in Bangladesh have suggested the \r creation of 'migrant-friendly towns' to provide options for autonomous \r relocation from hazardous areas (Khan and Huq, 2021)."


id: 6a46a3fb4b54aacae19660a99e3e69aa
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content:
"There has been increased activity within the international community \r to understand and address climate-conflict linkages since AR5, with \r high level actions including the UN Climate Security Mechanism, \r launched in 2018 and tasked with providing integrated climate \r risk assessments to the United Nations Security Council and other \r UN bodies in partnership with UN and external actors (DPPA et al., \r 2020). G7 governments initiated an integrated agenda for resilience \r (Ruttinger et al., 2015) and the Berlin Call for Action in 2019 sought a \r foreign policy platform to address climate security concerns, focusing \r on risk-informed planning, enhanced capacity for action within the UN \r and improvements to operational response to climate security risks \r (Federal Foreign Office, 2019). The non-peer-reviewed literature that \r currently addresses these policy dimensions is often generated by a \r small number of consultancies funded by governments from the Global \r [...]"


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content:
"Climate-resilient peacebuilding has the potential to limit the impact \r of future climate change on peace efforts (medium confidence). \r Practical guidance has been developed, driven by policy concerns on \r climate-conflict links. The United Nations Environment Programme \r (UNEP), the European Union and Adelphi have developed a toolkit \r for addressing climate fragility risks in peacebuilding, adaptation \r and livelihoods support (UNEP et al., 2019). Crawford et al. (2015) \r provide recommendations for climate-resilient peacebuilding \r consistent with the UN Secretary General's five peacebuilding \r principles, including integrating ex-combatants through the \r construction of climate-resilient infrastructure, using climate impacts \r as a platform to engage previously conflicting groups, developing \r national DRR and management strategies, and climate-proofing \r economic development activities. The USAID, in a report prepared \r [...]"


id: 116d71caf1d0347f703b39dd4c548807
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"[...] for the Adaptation Thought Leadership and Assessments (ATLAS) \r programme (Adelphi & Chemonics International, 2020) that drew \r upon resilience and peacebuilding programmes in the Horn of Africa, \r recommend two critical conditions to ensure activities address \r compound climate fragility risks. Firstly, conducting local analyses \r of the links between climate, conflict and fragility to identify specific \r risks to target and, secondly, ensuring long-term commitment with a \r focus on participation and flexibility."


id: 7fcd1c9fb322c418745a34b55e0ec270
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"and National Adaptation strategies rarely and only implicitly address \r conflict and potential changes to power relations (Tanzler et al., 2019). \r Practitioners and policy researchers have attempted to address this \r gap by developing guidance and delivering training (e.g., Tanzler et al. \r (2019); Bob and Bronkhorst (2014)). However, there are real challenges \r relating to discounting indirect impacts on conflict and maladaptation \r (Asplund and Hjerpe, 2020) and risks of unintended outcomes \r (Mirumachi et  al., 2020). Crawford and Church (2020) highlight the \r synergies between adaptation planning under the UNFCCC's National \r Adaptation Plan process and conflict reduction. Discussing development \r more broadly, Abrahams (2020) suggests three barriers to development \r that incorporate conflict-climate risks: geographically disconnected \r impacts and outcomes, the discourse of climate as a threat multiplier \r (rather than underlying peace) and teleconnected risks occurring at \r [...]"


id: 43fe71b363e96596c81c2e111dca39f2
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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vector_id: 9199
content:
"[...] different scales. Effective approaches rely on understanding local power \r dynamics and social relations (Sovacool 2018; Roth et al. 2019; Sapiains \r et al. 2021) (high agreement, medium evidence)."


id: f96691d0b320677ceda4702aeaeb9926
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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vector_id: 41237
content:
"Gender-based approaches provide novel under-utilised pathways \r to achieving sustainable peace (high confidence). Security council \r resolutions have encouraged the incorporation of gender analysis into \r peacebuilding and research has shown that taking into account the \r gendered nature of networks and dialogues opens new avenues for \r cooperation that are conflict sensitive (Dunn and Matthew, 2015), \r creating potential for women's rights and advocacy groups to be drivers \r of peace (Cespedes-Baez, 2018). For example, women are working to \r reduce climate vulnerability security risks in urban settings by entering \r local politics and joining community-based organised and civil society \r networks (Kellog, 2020). The gendered nature of vulnerability and \r access to natural resources (Sections  4.6.4, 4.7.5.3, 5.4.2.3, 5.5.2.6, \r 5.8.2.2; Cross-Chapter Box GENDER in Chapter 18) will influence the \r efficacy of interventions to prevent conflict or to build durable peace \r [...]"


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"[...] (Pearse, 2017; Chandra et al., 2017; Frohlich et al., 2018). However, this \r understanding has not so far resulted in widespread employment of \r gender-led analyses (Frohlich and Gioli, 2015). This represents a key \r opportunity for expansion of the solution space for climate-related \r conflict. Analysis of peace processes more generally demonstrates \r the benefits of women's participation in peace processes for devising \r strategies for building peace (Paffenholz, 2018; Cardenas and Olivius, \r 2021) and for the durability of that peace (Shair-Rosenfield and Wood, \r 2017; Krause et al., 2018)."


id: d46dd562733b08627154bd224ba18076
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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"Stress testing is an approach for evaluating the extent to which health \r systems are prepared for a future different from today (Ebi et al., 2018a). \r These desk-based exercises identify a desirable future outcome, such \r as successfully managing an extreme heatwave, flood or storm with \r characteristics outside the range of recent experiences. The exercises \r move beyond identifying likely challenges from hazardous exposures \r to specifying policies and measures that could be successful under a \r different climate and development pathway. The exercises consider \r socioeconomic and political factors that can influence the extent of \r health system vulnerability and other factors that can affect health \r system demands by impacting population health. Stress testing is \r designed to identify conditions under which it would be difficult for \r the health system to maintain its essential functions and to identify \r interventions that could maintain essential system functions despite \r [...]"


id: b94d793fe9413acdc5ac90ffa1a13930
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 29812
content:
"UHC is when all people have access to the health services they need, \r when and where they need them, without financial hardship (WHO, \r 2021b). Achieving UHC is one of the targets in the SDGs. However, \r climate change is threatening to undermine the achievement of UHC \r through negative health outcomes and healthcare system disruptions \r (Salas and Jha, 2019; Phillips et  al., 2020; Kadandale et  al., 2020; \r Roa et  al., 2020). Climate change adaptation and UHC progress \r are closely linked to one another, as both may improve health and \r achieve health equity (Salas and Jha, 2019). Supporting UHC is key \r to securing population health under a changing climate as well as \r addressing structural inequalities (Roos et  al., 2021; Aleksandrova, \r 2020; Phillips et al., 2020). Many regions of the world with the highest \r levels of vulnerability to the health impacts of climate change also \r have low levels of UHC; an integrated approach to UHC planning that \r [...]"


id: efbf8f6332a6689b675e596b2a0fca95
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"[...] incorporates climate change will have great benefits particularly in \r improving health equity (Salas and Jha, 2019)."


id: 933e24d2f26f082d48e0531d6c501494
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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"The SDGs are globally agreed objectives that integrate the economic, \r environmental and social aspects of sustainable development to end \r poverty, protect nature and ensure that all people enjoy peace and \r prosperity. The SDGs were developed under the principle that the \r goals are integrated and indivisible, such that progress in one goal \r depends on progress in others (WHO, 2016b). Promoting health and \r well-being is not the sole responsibility of the health sector; it is also \r partially determined by strategies, policies and options such as poverty \r reduction, promoting gender equality, ensuring all people enjoy \r peace and prosperity, eliminating nutritional insecurity and ensuring \r availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation \r (Morton et  al., 2019; Bennett et  al., 2020). Unique themes in the \r SDGs for health policy and systems research include social protection, \r access to health services, stronger and more effective multi-sectoral \r [...]"


id: ed0f275d5c96605e1f90fd493f88f9f4
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content:
"[...] collaborations beyond the health sector to address the upstream \r drivers of health and well-being, and participatory and accountable \r institutions to strengthen civic engagement and local accountability \r within health systems (Bennett et al., 2020)."


id: dcfee2a234d69ab1cb3fb5f02dd0213b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"The 2018 Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration \r provides an important opportunity for planning for and responding \r to future climate-related migration and displacement (Kalin, 2018).\r Among its 23 objectives, the Compact explicitly encourages the \r international community to implement migration policies that facilitate \r voluntary migration and actively prepare for involuntary displacements \r due to climate change, especially in low- and middle-income countries. \r The Compact's objectives include reducing barriers to legal and safe \r migration, and facilitating the freer flow of remittances between sending \r and receiving communities. By doing so the Compact aims to increase \r the potential for migration to make positive contributions to sustainable \r development and to adaptive capacity-building. It also contains specific \r provisions pertaining to climate- and disaster-related migration and \r displacement. Objective 2 of the Compact aims at reducing drivers \r [...]"


id: 32c94598f7e8ea866e2c476bbc2439a2
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content:
"[...] of involuntary or low-agency migration and recommends that states \r establish systems for sharing information on environmental migration, "


id: 12cc46d9f43b54cbe3d63115650ebd67
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content:
"roles in peacebuilding, integrated programme design, and further \r research on gender, climate and security linkages. Inclusive approaches \r recognise that much of the vulnerability that drives conflict risk \r is generated by existing inequality and marginalisation of large \r proportions of the population--for example women and youth--and \r that peace cannot be achieved without their needs being taken into \r account and without their participation in peace processes (Mosello \r et al., 2021). Diverse and inclusive partnerships also require ways to \r better engage local-level participation, and improve understanding of \r how to build consensus through human rights-based approaches that \r recognize non-violent conflict and protest to be potentially positive \r and constructive elements of transformational approaches to building \r resilience (Nursey-Bray, 2017; Ensor et al., 2018; Schipper et al., 2021). \r Addressing the lack of participation of researchers and experts from \r [...]"


id: 838587d55ed028274bbb5d5a7325dce9
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"[...] countries most at risk of conflict in many climate-related conflict and \r peacebuilding assessments and initiatives could also support this \r objective. There is an increasing focus on the role of environmental \r defenders in highlighting violations and gaps in state obligations \r through non-violent protest (Butt et al., 2019; Scheidel et al., 2020)."


id: 5d73fcd8bd885d255e252714db487dc0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"develop climate adaptation and resilience strategies harmonised \r at sub-regional and regional levels, and cooperate on disaster risk \r prevention and response. Other objectives in the Compact relevant \r to climate-related migration include Objective 5 (increasing pathways \r for regular migration) and Objective 19 (facilitating migrants' ability \r to contribute to sustainable development). Objective 18, which links \r migration with skills development, is consistent with the 'migration with \r dignity' approach to displacement risks (McNamara, 2015; Kupferberg, \r 2021). The 2018 Global Compact on Refugees observes that climate \r hazards increasingly interact with the drivers of refugee movements. \r The guidelines this Compact provides to governments regarding actions \r for addressing the causes of refugee movements and considerations for \r assisting and supporting refugees are useful for governments seeking \r guidance for all forms of displacement more generally, including \r [...]"


id: 40b87a090eecc8bb72c13ab05d26ee91
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"CRDPs for sustainable peace also require different ways of gathering \r intelligence and informing conflict risk. Dynamics that affect such \r risks exist across scales from the local to the regional, and require \r response in a transboundary manner. There is increasing emphasis on \r engaging local stakeholders and diverse partnerships to inform context \r appropriate measures and better policy coordination (Bremberg et al., \r 2019; Tshimanga et  al., 2021; Abrahams, 2020). The UN's Climate \r Security Mechanism, working across three UN departments, takes an \r integrated approach to analyse and support timely and appropriate \r responses to conflict risk, focusing on risk assessments and early \r warning systems to aid conflict prevention, climate-informed peace and \r security activities and conflict-sensitive development, and to promote \r inter-sectoral cooperation, partnership and information sharing (DPPA \r et al., 2020). There is already acknowledgement that adaptation needs \r [...]"


id: 71d02c571953531fa1f5c49bd9eff43f
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] to be effectively monitored so that maladaptation can be avoided \r (Eriksen et al., 2021). Here, academic research, which until now has \r predominantly focused on understanding the causal relationship \r between conflict and climate, could contribute to advancing the \r monitoring and evaluation of climate-resilient peacebuilding initiatives \r (Mach et al., 2020; Gilmore et al., 2018)."


id: 1ef6c977d454e1e5e7cf09369cd6e091
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Achieving the Paris Agreement and SDGs can result in low-carbon, healthy, resilient and equitable societies with high well-being for all (very \r high confidence) (Alfredsson et al., 2018; O'Neill et al., 2018). Given the overlap in sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and co-pollutants \r in energy systems, strategies that pursue GHG emission reductions and improvements in energy efficiency hold significant potential health \r co-benefits through air pollution emission reductions (high confidence) (Gao et al., 2018). Air quality improvements alone can substantially \r offset, or most likely exceed, mitigation costs at the societal level (Schucht et al., 2015; Chang et al., 2017; Markandya et al., 2018; Vandyck \r et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2017; Woodward et al., 2019; Sampedro et al., 2020; Xie et al., 2018). Pursuit of a mitigation pathway compatible \r with warming of +1.5degC with associated cleaner air, avoided extreme events and improved food security and nutrition could result in 152 \r [...]"


id: 7944ed594e50cbab5924c666a7a91cf5
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content:
"[...] +- 43 million fewer premature deaths worldwide between 2020 and 2100 compared with a business-as-usual scenario (Shindell et al., \r 2018). Reaching the Paris Agreement could result in an annual reduction of 1.18 million air pollution-related deaths, 5.86 million diet\u0002related deaths and 1.15 million deaths due to physical inactivity across nine major economies by 2040 (Hamilton et al., 2021). In Europe, \r a mitigation scenario compatible with RCP2.6 could reduce total pollution costs, mostly from PM2.5, by 84%, with human health benefits \r equal to more than Euro 1 trillion over five years (Scasny et al., 2015). In the EU, ambitious climate mitigation policies could reduce years \r of lost life due to fine particulate matter (PM) from over 4.6 million in 2005 to 1 million in 2050, reduce ozone-related premature deaths \r from 48,000 to 7,000 and generate health benefits of Euro 62 billion yr-1 in 2050 (Schucht et al., 2015).\r [...]"


id: a24426d3995b5caa4a4d350d99ed366e
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"[...] However, there may be significant trade-offs between mitigation and other societal goals (Dong et  al., 2019; Gao et  al., 2018). In \r some scenarios, mitigation policies consistent with the NDCs may slow poverty reduction efforts (Campagnolo and Davide, 2019) with \r implications for health. A framework of 'co-impacts' that assumes neither a general beneficial nature of all implications from mitigation \r policy nor a hierarchy between climate and other types of benefits, may be more appropriate (Urge-Vorsatz et al., 2014; Cohen et al., 2017)."


id: 5003806345a85981340d5d09f0db6171
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content:
"Transitioning to affordable clean energy sources for all presents opportunities for substantial well-being, health, and equity co-benefits \r (high confidence) (Gibon et al., 2017; Lacey et al., 2017; Peng et al., 2018; Vandyck et al., 2018; Williams et al., 2018). Residential solid fuel \r use affects health and degrades indoor air quality for up to 3.1 billion people in low- and middle-income countries (WHO, 2016b; Wang \r et al., 2017a). Adherence to planned emission reductions from the Paris Agreement related to renewables could subsequently improve air \r quality and prevent 71,000-99,000 premature deaths annually by 2030 (Vandyck et al., 2018). This effect increases with a 2degC pathway, \r with 0.7-1.5 million premature deaths avoided annually by 2050 (Vandyck et al., 2018). Co-benefits are also observed at national and \r regional levels. For instance, China could expect 55,000-69,000 averted deaths in 2030 if it transitioned to a half-decarbonised power \r [...]"


id: a2e276ed409d32f1f5c83754701d083d
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content:
"Climate adaptation and mitigation policies in the building sector offer multiple well-being and health co-benefits (high confidence) \r (Diaz-Mendez et al., 2018; Macnaughton et al., 2018; Chpater 3 section 3.6.2). Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) \r certified buildings in the USA, Brazil, China, India, Germany and Turkey saved an estimated USD 7.5 billion in energy costs and averted \r 33 Mt of CO2 from 2000-2016 (Macnaughton et al., 2018). These measures can increase health benefits through better indoor air quality, \r reduction of the heat island effect, improved social well-being through energy poverty alleviation, creation of new jobs, increased \r productive time and income, increased thermal comfort and lighting indoors and reduced noise impact (Smith et al., 2016; McCollum \r [...]"


id: b54ad7dec4a2858a2c28813f49f233dc
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"[...] et al., 2018; Thema et al., 2017; Mirasgedis et al., 2014; Alawneh et al., 2019; Diaz-Mendez et al., 2018). The value of these multiple co\u0002benefits associated with climate actions in buildings is equal to or greater than the costs of energy savings (Urge-Vorsatz et al., 2016; \r Payne et al., 2015; Chapter 14 section 14.4.5)."


id: 917be9699f32e13d241bab9d83b8f6ee
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"Shifting to sustainable food systems that provide affordable, diverse and plant-rich diets with moderate quantities of GHG-intensive \r animal protein can bring health co-benefits and substantially reduce GHG emissions, especially in high income countries and where ill \r health related to overconsumption of animal-based products is prevalent (very high confidence) (Chapter 5 section 5.12.6; Chapter 7 \r section 7.4, Chapter 13 section 13.5; Springmann et al., 2018c; IPCC, 2019b; Clark and Tilman, 2017; Poore and Nemecek, 2018; Hayek \r et al., 2021). Transforming the food system by limiting the demand for GHG-intensive animal foods, reducing food over-consumption and \r transitioning to nutritious, plant-rich diets can have significant co-benefits to health (high confidence) (Hedenus et al., 2014; Ripple et al., \r 2014; Tirado, 2017; Springmann et al., 2018c; IPCC, 2018; IPCC, 2019a; IPCC, 2019b; Nelson et al., 2016; Willett et al., 2019; Tilman and \r [...]"


id: 208d8668ffb98be19b9c06f969316451
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content:
"[...] Clark, 2014; Green et al., 2015; Springmann et al., 2016b; Springmann et al., 2018b; Springmann et al., 2018a; Springmann et al., 2018c; \r Milner et al., 2015; Milner et al., 2017; Farchi et al., 2017; Song et al., 2017; Willett et al., 2019). Reduction of red meat consumption \r reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and colorectal cancer; the consumption of more fruits and vegetables can reduce the risk \r of CVD, type II diabetes, cancer and all causes of mortality (Tilman and Clark, 2014; Sabate and Soret, 2014; Willett et al., 2019; Chapter \r 7 section 7.4; Chapter 5 section 5.12.5). Globally, it is estimated that transitioning to more plant-based diets--in line with World Health \r Organization (WHO) recommendations on healthy eating--could reduce global mortality by 6-10% and food-related GHG emissions by \r 29-70% by 2050 (Springmann et al., 2016b). There are limitations in accessibility of affordable of healthy and diverse diets for all \r [...]"


id: 9a90af5a59fe31d98c076f959f950702
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content:
"[...] (Springmann et al., 2020) and trade-offs such as the potential increase of GHG emissions from producing healthy and diverse diets in \r low- and medium-income countries (Semba et  al., 2020). Agroecological approaches have mitigation and adaptation potential and \r deliver ecosystem services, biodiversity, livelihoods and benefits to nutrition, health and equity (Rosenstock et al., 2019; Bezner Kerr et al., \r 2021; Chapter 5 sections 5.4.4, 5.14.1; Chapter 13 section 13.5; Chapter 14 section 14.4.4)."


id: 449336e7b676934295e9ee7830f589f2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9298
content:
"Climate change will affect human health and well-being in a variety of direct and indirect ways that depend on \r exposure to hazards and vulnerabilities that are heterogeneous and vary within societies, and that are influenced \r by social, economic and geographical factors and individual differences (see Figure  FAQ7.1.1). Changes in the \r magnitude, frequency and intensity of extreme climate events (e.g., storms, floods, wildfires, heatwaves and dust \r storms) will expose people to increased risks of climate-sensitive illnesses and injuries and, in the worst cases, higher \r mortality rates. Increased risks for mental health and well-being are associated with changes caused by the impacts \r of climate change on climate-sensitive health outcomes and systems (see Figure FAQ7.1.2). Higher temperatures and \r changing geographical and seasonal precipitation patterns will facilitate the spread of mosquito- and tick-borne \r [...]"


id: cb816ecfca2450365af989bd1e2948bb
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content:
"[...] diseases, such as Lyme disease and dengue fever, and water- and food-borne diseases. An increase in the frequency \r of extreme heat events will exacerbate health risks associated with cardiovascular disease and affect access to \r freshwater in multiple regions, impairing agricultural productivity and increasing food insecurity, undernutrition \r and poverty in low-income areas."


id: 5ec35b0f0ea84a217207af90b3fb0c88
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13962
content:
"Climate change will have impacts on future migration patterns that will vary by region and over time, depending \r on the types of climate risks people are exposed to, their vulnerability to those risks and their capacity--and the \r capacity of their governments--to adapt and respond. Depending on the range of adaptation options available, \r households may use migration as a strategy to adapt to climate risks, often through labour migration. The most \r common drivers of climate-related displacement are extreme weather events, floods and droughts, especially when \r these events cause severe damage to homes, livelihoods and food systems. Rising sea levels will present a new \r risk for communities situated in low-lying coastal areas and small island states. The greater the scale of future \r warming and extreme events, the greater the potential scale of future, involuntary climate-related migration and \r [...]"


id: ad16c46b7ab1ae27a62c4df0fe2f4111
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content:
"[...] displacement.Progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) has strong potential to reduce \r future involuntary climate-related migration and displacement."


id: fc6928de291f8f8029df3d19a0a2ad41
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"The solution space includes policies, strategies and programmes that consider why, how, when and who should be \r involved to sustainably adapt to climate change. Effectively preparing for and managing the health risks of climate \r change requires considering the multiple interacting sectors that affect population health and effective functioning \r of health systems. Considering the close inter-connections between health, migration and conflict, interventions \r that address climate risks in one area often have synergistic benefits in others. For example, conflicts often result \r in large numbers of people being involuntarily displaced and facilitate the spread of climate-sensitive diseases; \r tackling the underlying causes of vulnerability and exposure that generate conflict reduces risks across all areas. \r A key starting point for health and well-being is strengthening public health systems so that they become more \r [...]"


id: a65997921f964f16a0885064cab5f483
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vector_id: 26482
content:
"[...] climate resilient, which also requires cooperation with other sectors (water, food, sanitation, transportation, etc.) to \r ensure appropriate funding and progress on sustainable development goals. Interventions to enhance protection \r against specific climate-sensitive health risks could reduce morbidity and mortality and prevent many losses and \r damages (Figure FAQ7.4.1). These range from malaria net initiatives, vector control programmes, health hazard \r (syndromic) surveillance and early warning systems, improving access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), heat \r action plans (HAPs), behavioural changes and integration with disaster risk reduction (DRR) and response strategies. \r More importantly, climate resilient development pathways (CRDPs) are essential to improve overall health and \r well-being, reduce underlying causes of vulnerability and provide a framework for prioritising mitigation and "


id: 5e6e63ebb3eff9be0bece7ad5b5403e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13904
content:
"Many actions taken in other sectors to address the risks of climate change can lead to benefits for health and \r well-being. Adaptive urban design that provides greater access to green and natural spaces simultaneously enhances \r biodiversity, improves air quality and moderates the hydrological cycle; it also helps reduce health risks associated \r with heat stress and respiratory illnesses, and mitigates mental health challenges associated with congested \r urban living. Transitioning away from internal-combustion vehicles and fossil fuel-powered generating stations \r to renewable energy mitigates greenhouse gas emissions, improves air quality and lowers the risks of respiratory \r illnesses. Policies and designs that facilitate active urban transport (walking and bicycling) increase efficiency in \r that sector, reduce emissions, improve air quality and generate physical and mental health benefits for residents. \r [...]"


id: eceea3d690198aeed6e5fc1392cdc9d5
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vector_id: 39052
content:
"[...] Improved building and urban design that foster energy efficiency improve indoor air quality and reduce risks of \r heat stress and respiratory illness. Food systems that emphasise healthy, plant-centred diets reduce emissions in the \r agricultural sector while helping in the fight against malnutrition."


id: 8ac5fcd318f5392b483df622b8b04ae9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21589
content:
"A growing range of economic and non-economic losses have \r been detected and attributed to climate extremes and slow\u0002onset events under observed increases in global temperatures \r (medium evidence, high agreement). If future climate change under \r high emissions scenarios continues and increases risks, without strong \r adaptation measures, losses and damages will likely2\r  be concentrated \r among the poorest vulnerable populations (high confidence). The \r intersection of inequality and poverty presents significant adaptation \r limits, resulting in residual risks for people and groups in vulnerable \r situations, including women, youth, elderly, ethnic and religious \r minorities, Indigenous People and refugees. Climate change is likely \r to force economic transitions among the poorest groups, accelerating \r the switch from agriculture to other forms of wage labour, with \r implications for labour migration and urbanisation (medium evidence, \r [...]"


id: 6a7e5aab65e77627f5fe5e396cf5e5b9
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 16017
content:
"[...] high agreement). Under an inequality scenario (Shared Socioeconomic \r Pathway (SSP) 4) the projected number of people living in extreme \r poverty may increase by 122  million by 2030 (medium confidence). \r {8.2, 8.3.4, 8.4.1, 8.4.5, Figure 8.6, Box 8.5, 16.5.2.3.4}"


id: 1c778627c21d82a991989dc3c2157b95
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2195
content:
"Observed societal impacts of climate change, such as mortality \r due to floods, droughts and storms, are much greater for regions \r with high vulnerability compared to regions with low vulner\u0002ability, which reveals the different starting points that regions \r have in their move towards climate resilient development (high \r confidence). Observed average mortality from floods, drought and \r storms is 15 times higher for regions and countries ranked as very high \r vulnerable, such as Mozambique, Somalia, Nigeria, Afghanistan and \r Haiti compared to very low vulnerable regions and countries, such as \r UK, Australia, Canada and Sweden in the last decade (high confidence). \r Over 3.3 billion people are living in countries classified as very highly \r or highly vulnerable, while around 1.8 billion people live in countries \r with low or very low vulnerability (high confidence). Approximately \r 3.6 billion people live in low and lower middle-income countries, which \r [...]"


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"[...] are most vulnerable and disproportionally bear the human costs of dis\u0002asters due to extreme weather events and hazards (high confidence). \r The population in most vulnerable countries is projected to increase sig\u0002nificantly by 2050 and 2100, while the population in countries with low \r vulnerability is projected to decrease or grow only slightly. Vulnerability \r is a result of many interlinked issues concerning poverty, migration, in\u0002equality, access to basic services, education, institutions and govern\u0002ance capacities, often made more complex by past developments, such \r as histories of colonialism (high confidence). {8.3.2, 8.3.3}"


id: cb59060f2244ad2e03d16564793c4d87
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"Mitigation and adaptation responses to climate change influence \r inequalities, poverty and livelihood security and thereby aspects \r of climate justice (medium confidence). Improving coherence \r between adaptations of different social groups and sectors at \r different scales can reduce maladaptation, enable mitigation \r and advance progress towards climate resilience (medium \r confidence). The poor typically have low carbon footprints but are \r disproportionately affected by adverse consequences of climate change \r and also lack access to adaptation options. In many cases, the poor \r and most vulnerable people and groups are most adversely affected by \r maladaptation (medium evidence, high agreement). Climate justice and \r rights-based approaches are increasingly recognised as key principles \r within mitigation and adaptation strategies and projects (medium \r confidence). Narrowing gender gaps can play a transformative role \r [...]"


id: b312bb073356a3f13356d76ba555fe51
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28748
content:
"[...] in pursuing climate justice (medium confidence). Climate resilient \r development is therefore closely coupled with issues of climate justice. \r Synergies between adaptation and mitigation exist, and these can \r have benefits for the poor (medium confidence). {8.4, 8.4.5.5, 8.6}"


id: 89e1e0a45a7a485b10597ac63bb75c3d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"The impacts of climate change have already significantly affected \r livelihoods and living conditions, especially of the poorest and most \r vulnerable, and will continue to undermine development during the \r coming century. This chapter assesses the societal consequences of \r climate change and related hazards in terms of adverse and irreversible \r consequences for the most vulnerable. To understand societal conse\u0002quences of climate change, we assess impacts through the perspective \r of vulnerability, poverty and livelihoods of people. We identify why cli\u0002mate events trigger sudden and slow-onset disasters, and how the most \r severe, acute and chronic impacts cause and deepen human suffering. \r We also examine issues of climate justice. Understanding and engaging \r with climate justice requires a plural focus on the historical social and \r institutional relations and inequalities that produce climate change, \r cause people to be vulnerable to climate hazards and shape responses \r [...]"


id: fad33feaf86b7704e04fec376339405e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"[...] to them (Newell et al., 2021). An assessment of observed impacts on the \r poorest and their strategies for adaptation carries important lessons for \r inclusive, broad-based solutions to climate change."


id: bf04ea3d38925316bb464f7fa2809dbe
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30876
content:
"As a starting point, this chapter examines linkages between climate \r change, specific climate-related hazards and impacts on multidimen\u0002sional poverty, vulnerability and livelihoods. Past assessments have \r identified the linkages between climate change, poverty, livelihoods \r and human vulnerability, and shown how climate change leads to \r differential consequences for different communities and populations. \r The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) identified socially and geo\u0002graphically disadvantaged people exposed to persistent inequalities \r at the intersection of various dimensions of discrimination based on \r gender, age, ethnicity, class and caste (IPCC, 2014a). AR5 also showed \r evidence that climate change is a universal driver and multiplier of \r risk that shapes dynamic interactions between these factors. Climate \r change is one stressor that shapes dynamic and differential livelihood \r [...]"


id: 4d1fd43bb68f830d9418590fb7bcb181
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"[...] trajectories. Also, the IPCC Special 1.5degC Report (IPCC SR 1.5degC) under\u0002scored with very high confidence that global mean temperature, harm \r and human well-being losses are increasing substantially (Hoegh\u0002Guldberg et al., 2018; Roy et al., 2018)."


id: 3d0157ff1bf7dc53090990da63bb62aa
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"The chapter outlines new approaches for identifying social tipping \r points, meaning moments of rapid, destabilising change across scales \r that can complement the discussion about physical tipping points in \r the climate system. It also addresses new perspectives on the baselines \r for assessing future vulnerabilities, and the potential for irreversible \r losses, emphasising not only economic but also non-economic losses, \r which are linked to past and present development trajectories. There \r is robust evidence on non-economic losses, including the loss of \r land, livelihoods, social networks, cultural values and the irreversible \r degradation of ecosystem functions, as observed, for example, in parts \r of the Amazon. Non-economic losses are intertwined with economic \r losses to influence human health, nutrition, well-being and social \r stability, and therefore also influence present and future vulnerabilities \r and adaptive capacities. Non-economic losses from climate change \r [...]"


id: 8d04f27240e648001d045f39c6b14762
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"[...] disproportionately affect the poor. People in vulnerable situations are \r often disproportionately affected as they are less resilient and have \r less access to institutional support (including protection mechanisms) \r and coping strategies. This knowledge is key for informing integrated \r strategies for sustainable livelihood transitions and adaptation."


id: 514d6f9c7566aa47135d1715439c42d9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
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content:
"New evidence highlights the potential for multi-hazard risks to push \r the poor into persistent traps of extreme poverty (Rasanen et  al., \r 2016). Risk of extreme impoverishment increases for low-income \r people experiencing repeated and successive climatic events, whereby \r before they have recovered from one disaster, they face another impact \r (Forzieri et  al., 2016). Cascading and compounding risks arise from \r multiple climate hazards coinciding to produce impacts, for example, \r in mountainous regions, where the combination of glacier recession \r and extreme rainfall result in landslides (Martha et al., 2015). There is \r robust evidence that this effect has been observed around slow- and \r rapid-onset climate events related to drought (i.e., rising temperatures, \r heatwaves and rainfall scarcity), with devastating consequences for \r agriculture (Vogt et al., 2018; Bouwer, 2019). In particular, the urban \r and rural landless poor face difficulties rebuilding assets following \r [...]"


id: c8b8b9c02566cb6dabf7738e745d514e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"There is high confidence that climate-related hazards, including both \r slow-onset shifts and extreme events, directly affect the poor through \r adverse impacts on livelihoods (see Figure 8.2), including reductions \r and losses of agricultural yields, impacts on human health and food \r security, destruction of homes, and loss of income (Hallegatte et al., \r 2015; Connolly-Boutin and Smit, 2016). One of the key factors that \r drives disproportionate impacts among poor households globally is \r lost agricultural income (high confidence) (Hallegatte et  al., 2015; \r Islam and Winkel, 2017). Also of concern are the impacts of climate \r hazards to human health, which is a primary resource that the poor \r rely on (Figure  8.2). There are only few robust global estimates of \r observed income losses to the poor that comprehensively account for \r all climate hazards; nevertheless, (Hallegatte and Rozenberg, 2017), \r estimating average impacts of climate change on incomes of the poor, \r [...]"


id: 2d2a901cc3ff0c5d2f4fb173ec9d0739
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5228
content:
"[...] found that across 92 developing countries, the poorest 40% of the \r population experienced losses that were 70% greater than the losses \r of people with average wealth."


id: ef5c5328bea55c20c9fca27d0217faea
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39482
content:
"Climate change is one driver among many that challenges livelihoods \r of the rural poor, including economic transitions associated with \r industrialisation and urbanisation, and also governance failures such \r as unclear property rights and civil conflict (e.g., Nyantakyi-Frimpong \r and Bezner-Kerr, 2015). Recent research adds evidence about the ways \r that climate hazards impact non-climatic stressors with implications for \r poverty reduction (Nelson et al., 2016). The risk that climate hazards may \r push the poor into persistent extreme poverty intensifies with stagnant \r wages, rising costs of living, mobility traps, and ethnic or religious \r discrimination (Cramer et  al., 2014; Carter et  al., 2016). Likewise in \r both urban and rural environments, non-climatic factors related to \r governance exacerbate the impacts of climate events among the \r poorest, including poor service provisioning (e.g., waste collection), poor \r [...]"


id: cb8740d5b49a42cd5634d233937a6db9
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 33137
content:
"[...] urban planning (e.g., waste water drainage) and water management \r failures (Di Baldassarre et al., 2010; Leal Filho et al., 2018), as well as \r poor rangeland management, intensification of farming land uses (i.e., \r overgrazing, deforestation), degradation of wetlands, shortage of water \r and soil erosion in rural areas (Olsson et al., 2019)."


id: 894a6d65ced0c2d2d417272d40dc96bc
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 21323
content:
"A key risk for the poor is shocks to specific livelihood assets that may \r force low-income groups into persistent poverty traps (Figure  8.4; \r Chambers and Conway, 1992; Cinner et al., 2018) but research also \r suggests that climate change impacts are also driving transient forms \r of poverty, a modality of poverty which is recurring (Angelsen et al., \r 2014). Recurrent poverty is, for instance, seen in relation to crop losses \r and decreasing agricultural production when income losses worsen \r living conditions (Ward, 2016; Kihara et  al., 2020). Recent research \r shows that climate change impacts may exacerbate poverty indirectly \r through increasing cost of food, housing and healthcare, among other \r rising costs borne by the poor (Islam et  al., 2014; Ebi et  al., 2017; \r Hallegatte et al., 2018) (high confidence). Severe adverse impacts of \r climate change at present and future risks may result from permanent, \r sudden, destabilising changes accompanying climate events such as \r [...]"


id: 8de71ff8a80e38e62d0f6f82d5693915
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] decreases in food security, large-scale migration, changes in labour \r capacity or conflict (Bentley et al., 2014). Overall, there is more evidence \r that even under medium warming pathways, climate change risks to \r poverty would become severe if vulnerability is high and adaptation is \r low (limited evidence, high agreement) (see Section 16.5.2.3.4)"


id: 3a556de7abbb73d12f0962c1bf5c7816
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"High confidence for observed livelihood impacts is spatially \r concentrated in South Asia, Africa, North America, and to a lesser extent \r Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (Figure 8.2c). The hazards most \r prevalent in all regions include warming trends, droughts and sea level \r rise (Figure 8.2c), and undermine crop productivity, crop varieties, and \r cropland in most regions (high confidence). Along coastlines, climate \r hazards threaten livelihoods particularly exposed to extreme weather, \r flooding and sea level rise, and where poor populations are heavily \r dependent on agriculture and fisheries (high confidence). One third of \r total sampled evidence on livelihood impacts was observed in just three \r countries--Bangladesh, India and Nepal--indicating accumulating \r experience with livelihood impacts in South Asia (Figure 8.2c). However, \r this spatial representation of confidence does not mean that observed \r [...]"


id: 1984c61d1f947a154ef58308a9e92670
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 1701
content:
"[...] livelihood impacts are not occurring in other regions as well. Relative to \r South Asia, in Central Asia and the Caribbean, for example, the weight \r of evidence of livelihood impacts though lighter is still robust. Among \r industrialised nations, there is high confidence that climate change has \r impacted livelihood resources in the USA."


id: d53fbcadf36cd9687f1e2467282f75e0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34843
content:
"New observations provide greater evidence on the role of extreme \r poverty and global inequality, most of the detrimental direct impacts of \r climate change (e.g., rising food insecurity) disproportionately affecting \r the Global South (Hasegawa et al., 2018; Mbow et al., 2019; Khan and \r Zhang, 2021) compared with the Global North. Poor populations in \r many countries are also disproportionately facing extreme L&D from \r heatwaves, flooding and tropical weather extremes (Gamble et  al., \r 2016). New case studies, such as the European heatwave of 2018, \r illustrate significant negative impacts across crop production in the \r Global North (Beillouin et al., 2020), livestock value chain (FAO, 2018; \r Godde et  al., 2021) and fishing (Plaganyi, 2019). Heatwave-induced \r intense fires can cause property damage, physical injury and death, as \r well as health and psychological harm of the victims. Heatwaves also \r create ideal conditions for the prevalence of certain pathogens, increase \r [...]"


id: e72b02ba0b03f511ba6ff43d001e97cf
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 37970
content:
"[...] the risk of temperature-related health problems and exacerbate many \r pre-existing diseases (Rossiello and Szema, 2019)."


id: d0845f61c7a7b9b0bce74e8b33fa7b50
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 34035
content:
"The negative impacts of climate change on groups of vulnerable or \r marginalised communities generate so-called 'residual impacts' and \r residual risks that can remain a challenge in their lives (Warner and \r Van der Geest, 2013; James et al., 2014; Klein et al., 2014; Boyd et al., \r 2017). Such 'unacceptable' L&Ds include the loss of income sources, \r food insecurity, malnutrition, permanent impacts to health and \r labour productivity, loss of life and loss of homelands, among others \r (McNamara and Jackson, 2019; Schwerdtle et al., 2020). The literature \r on L&D provides robust evidence not only on economic dimensions \r of global L&Ds, but also experiences of non-economic losses from the \r impacts of climate change (see detail in Section  8.3; Barnett et  al., \r 2016; Roy et al., 2018; McNamara and Jackson, 2019). The extreme \r events that have occurred in recent years highlight the potential for \r L&D, including 2019's Cyclone Kenneth, the strongest in the recorded \r [...]"


id: 44f02fd7b45a2eda321bdc75e3e3c394
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9357
content:
"[...] history of the African continent, which made landfall in northern \r Mozambique causing 45 deaths and destroying approximately 40,000 \r houses, leaving hundreds of thousands at risk of acquiring waterborne \r diseases such as cholera during a prolonged recovery period (Cambaza \r et al., 2019)."


id: bc9f55fecdc4fa510467767b2f14fd18
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30432
content:
"Extreme events (e.g., heatwaves, cold periods, icy conditions) occurring \r in the Global North illustrate that such events cause disproportionate \r impacts among ageing populations, due to their immobility, isolation, \r infrastructure deficiencies and poor health assistance (Carter et  al., \r 2016; Reckien et al., 2018). A well-known example is the heatwave \r in 2003 that killed thousands of elderly citizens across Europe \r (Poumadere et  al., 2005; Garcia-Herrera et  al., 2010; Laaidi et  al., \r 2011). More recently, in the Nordic region, elderly populations have \r been experiencing distress associated with heatwaves and extreme \r cold events, with significant increases in morbidity and mortality due \r to cardiovascular and respiratory failure, showing that both age and \r underlying health issues intersect with climate change impacts (Carter \r et al., 2016; Li et al., 2016). The elderly also experience severe impacts \r [...]"


id: 91c3417fb68e5675829114d2d1fa069d
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
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vector_id: 22869
content:
"[...] from extreme winter seasons, such as in Finland, where of the from \r 3000 deaths associated with extreme winter weather and 50,000 \r injuries associated with slippery pavement conditions, the majority \r were people over 65  years old (Carter et  al., 2016). Adaptation to \r extreme events including heatwaves, cold periods and icy conditions \r in the Global South and North will increase energy demand and the \r individuals' carbon footprint across all income levels (van Ruijven \r et al., 2019)."


id: 2c082be235abce5aad059c860a7ef975
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5004
content:
"There is now robust evidence from virtually every region on Earth \r showing that the livelihood impacts from a multitude of climate hazards \r are driving people to diversify rural income sources (Figure 8.2; Cross\u0002Chapter Box  MIGRATE in Chapter 7). Rural households frequently \r accomplish the goal of livelihood diversification with an increasing \r reliance on migration, urban wage labour and remittances (Marchiori \r et al., 2012; Bohra-Mishra et al., 2014; Gray and Wise, 2016; Nawrotzki \r and DeWaard, 2016; Banerjee et al., 2019a). What is different about \r rural-to-urban livelihood transitions under climate change impacts \r is that they accelerate both rural and urban stratification of wealth \r (Barrett and Santos, 2014; Thiede et al., 2016). On the one hand, climate \r change impacts on rural livelihoods increase the necessity of migration \r as an income strategy, accelerating migration (Cai et al., 2016) even \r while households that cannot select individuals for migration become \r [...]"


id: dd4fcacd4a368257b58546d6c3fb2076
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36197
content:
"New studies document the long-term effects of climate change \r impacts on people's livelihoods that persist long after a hazard event. \r For example, the impact of drought on livelihoods and food security \r is still recognisable in Mali, 30 years after 1982-1984, the period of \r most intense drought during the protracted late 20th century drying of \r the Sahel. The most food secure households associated with persistent \r drought-induced famine were those that diversified livelihoods away \r from subsistence agriculture during and after the famine (Giannini \r et al., 2017). Meanwhile, a larger fraction of households with fewer \r livelihood activities, lower food security with higher reliance on \r detrimental nutrition-based coping strategies (such as reducing the \r quantity or quality of meals) were those unable to diversify livelihoods \r 30 years previously. Sufficient time has passed to consider the long\u0002term outcomes for the poor in extreme cases featured in previous \r [...]"


id: 7bbea21e50de8a71a71a9ae920b95ba4
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18978
content:
"[...] IPCC assessments, including Hurricane Katrina (2005) (e.g., Fussell, \r 2015; Raker et  al., 2019) and Hurricane Mitch (1998) (e.g., Alaniz, \r 2017), forewarning that recovery is complex and requires significant \r sustained long-term investment in 'soft' aspects of development, \r including community organisation and mental health (O'Neill et  al., \r 2020; Fraser et al., 2021)."


id: 963a52f12b979bdd81cb03ac2e3554d2
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23623
content:
"There is high agreement and robust evidence that climate change \r impacts also have a major influence on key enabling conditions for \r migration, such as sociodemographic, economic and political factors \r (Abel et  al., 2019; Borderon et  al., 2019), and that climate change \r impacts to development and governance may affect how people migrate \r (Wrathall et al., 2019; CCB MIGRATE in Chapter 7). Mobility, which \r was considered the most viable climate change adaptation strategy \r to poor pastoralists, is restricted due to the political marginalisation \r of pastoral groups, land privatisation, governments' decentralisation \r policies and plantation investment (Blench, 2001; Randall, 2015; Leal \r Filho et al., 2020c). While migration can be an adaptation response \r to climate change impacts (Black et al., 2011; Gemenne and Blocher, \r 2017), climate change impacts can also act as a direct driver of forced \r displacement (Marchiori et al., 2012). Societal groups that are forced \r [...]"


id: 4291b617fd7b930d545eb0262fb26fcd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8905
content:
"[...] to involuntarily migrate in response to climate change impacts may \r lack resources to invest in planned relocation mainly due to lack of \r good governance systems (Reckien et al., 2018). For people displaced \r by climate change impacts, policy interventions have a determining \r influence on migration outcomes, such as the numbers of migrants, \r the timing of migration and destinations (Gemenne and Blocher, \r 2017; Wrathall et al., 2019).The process of displacement and forced \r migration leaves people more exposed to climate change-related \r extreme weather events, particularly in low-income countries which \r often host the highest number of displaced people (Adger et al., 2018)."


id: 20d20974bd87d6fadb6b9a9652d9bfa7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 2994
content:
"The IPCC Special Report on 1.5degC concluded that climate change has \r already increased the probability and intensity of individual extreme \r weather events occurring (Roy et  al., 2018), and our new baseline \r consideration should be that serious climate change impacts are \r already being experienced by the most vulnerable, with long-term \r implications for development (Box  8.1; Roy et  al., 2018). In both \r developing and developed countries the disproportionate impacts \r of the compounding effects of climate change on development are \r felt by the most disadvantaged. For example, the residual impacts of \r storms like Hurricane Maria (see Section 8.2.1.1) illustrate how rising \r temperatures, extreme weather events, coral bleaching and sea level \r rise come together and create compounding hazard-cascades to leave \r long-lasting effects on the lives of the poor, as well as their food \r and water security, health, livelihoods and prospects for sustainable \r [...]"


id: 9b67d9f103a45339143b672c72c0014b
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vector_id: 24595
content:
"[...] development--not only in developing countries (Adger et  al., 2014; \r Olsson et  al., 2014; Hoegh-Guldberg et  al., 2018; Roy et  al., 2018), \r but also in highly inequitable industrialised countries within the same \r region (Gamble et  al., 2016). According to the US National Climate \r Assessment (USGCRP, 2018), damages caused to communities \r by Hurricanes Irma and Maria in 2017 sparked unprecedented "


id: 95ced558d13af89bd0131bce95a530c7
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updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23553
content:
"humanitarian crises. Hurricane Maria, a category 5 hurricane, passed \r through Dominica, St Croix and Puerto Rico and is considered the worst \r climate disaster in recorded history to affect those islands (Rodriguez\u0002Diaz, 2018). Approximately 200,000 people migrated from Puerto Rico \r to the mainland USA in the weeks following the storm (Alexander et al., \r 2019). Estimates for direct and indirect casualties in Puerto Rico point \r out a total of 4645 excess deaths, equivalent to a 62% increase in the \r mortality rate (Kishore et al., 2018). The example of Hurricane Maria \r and Puerto Rico illustrates that vulnerability is part of a long history of \r discrimination and colonial governance, which led to greater impacts \r on the island (Moleti et al., 2020). In Puerto Rico, the economic costs of \r the collapse of the island's energy, water, transport, and communication \r infrastructures are estimated to range from USD 25 to USD 43 billion \r [...]"


id: 9cd06b8a24f54e2bdcc6238caf82d789
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 24825
content:
"[...] (USD in 2017), further indebting the island and putting its long-term \r development at risk. Meanwhile the economic impacts of Hurricanes \r Irma and Maria on the Caribbean region are estimated between USD 27 \r and USD 48 billion, and have long-term implications for state budgets \r for infrastructure supporting development of the poorest."


id: b29424a4050c4a711528a9aa62efc0af
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 28657
content:
"The poor frequently suffer the direct and indirect impacts of climate \r change, including the cost of adopting adaptive measures (Atteridge \r and Remling, 2018; Bro et al., 2020). Costs to the poor may also include \r the secondary impacts of first-order adaptation activities, including the \r livelihood consequences to people migrating due to climate change \r impacts. The poor frequently bear indirect impacts of adaptation \r interventions, such as flood protection barriers, which may displace \r flood waters away from high-income populations toward poorer \r communities (Mustafa and Wrathall, 2011). Adaptation programming \r may also indirectly affect the poor as public resources are drawn into \r risk reduction interventions, and away from spending on social welfare \r and safety nets (Eriksen et  al., 2015). Measures to enhance social \r welfare and safety nets themselves help enhance the poor's resilience \r to climate impacts because they focus on non-climatic stressors \r [...]"


id: b3a2c2bfb9ee8b051325aa6122448460
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
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content:
"[...] affecting livelihoods, which interact with climate hazards. Therefore, \r diverting attention away from safety nets may in fact undermine \r adaptation efforts (Leichenko and O'Brien, 2019; Tenzing, 2020)."


id: dc9821bf28a9477b511eea643dfee470
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"Populations of concern, who are extremely vulnerable to climate change impacts with limited capacity to adapt, are those displaced \r and resettled in the course of conflict or disaster, either internally or across borders (Burrows and Kinney, 2016). The risk for refugees \r and internally displaced people (IDPs) is two-fold: on the one hand, refugee and IDP settlements are disproportionately concentrated \r in regions (e.g., Central Africa and the Near East) that are exposed to higher-than-average warming levels and specific climate hazards, \r including temperature extremes and drought. On the other, these populations frequently inhabit settlements and legal circumstances that \r are intended to be temporary but are protracted across generations, and at the same time, face legal and economic barriers on their ability \r to migrate away from climate impacts. (Adams, 2016; Devictor and Do, 2016). Large concentrations of these settlements are located in \r [...]"


id: 49c298c0cf347894a3308b777c31924e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"[...] the Sahel, the Near East and Central Asia, where temperatures will rise higher than the global average, and extreme temperatures \r will exceed thresholds for safe habitation (Figure Box 8.1.1). Already largely dependent on state and humanitarian intervention, these \r immobile populations will require interventions to safely maintain residence in areas exposed to climate hazards. Adaptation planning \r should prioritise immobile populations living in an already destabilised development context, on improving their capacities to deal with \r the further consequences of climate change."


id: 1932dfbb4b57187a63d7f666c49b23f7
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"Refugees and IDPs fit into a global category of extremely structurally vulnerable people that are missing from standard poverty \r assessments, officially uncounted or uncountable using traditional census and survey methods (Carr-Hill, 2013). These include highly \r mobile populations, internally displaced by war and environmental hazards (UNHCR, 2020; IDMC, 2021); itinerant labourers; urban poor \r in informal settlements (Lucci et al., 2018); unauthorised migrants living in countries where they do not hold citizenship (Passel, 2006); \r guest workers (Reichel and Morales, 2017); the homeless and institutionalised (Caton et al., 2007); rural nomadic, pastoralist or landless \r populations (Randall, 2015); and Indigenous Peoples and forest-dwelling communities (Galappaththi et  al., 2020). Frequently living \r without social safety nets, such as health care and formal education, these uncounted or 'missing millions' are vulnerable to problems \r [...]"


id: c23d3bcef8b7d688f1575d6e26248b93
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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content:
"[...] associated with acute and chronic poverty, such as the spread of infectious disease and malnutrition (Ezeh et al., 2017). Because these \r 'missing' populations are not counted, they are frequently not a part of planning (Carr-Hill, 2013), including adaptation planning. In \r any particular national context, these missing populations may represent a small fraction of the population (about 5% in South Asian \r countries), however cumulatively hundreds of millions of people may be missing from official estimates (Carr-Hill, 2013). Over the last \r decade, techniques for estimating the locations, numbers and socioeconomic status of missing populations have moved beyond census \r and nationally representative household surveys, leveraging advances in satellite imagery (Kuffer et al., 2016; Bennett and Smith, 2017) \r and data from mobile digital devices (Jean et al., 2016; Xie et al., 2016; Steele et al., 2017)."


id: bf9744287f93afa2811f00c221dd6108
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 30970
content:
"ecological Thresholds\r Climate change threatens to rapidly transform unique and threatened \r ecosystems (Reasons for Concern RFC1), such as tropical rain forests, \r coral reefs, arctic and high-mountain ecosystems, as well as the \r indigenous and forest-dwelling people whose livelihoods, cultures \r and identities are dependent on these ecosystems. In recent years, the \r case of Amazonia has illustrated how such systems are transforming, \r with detrimental consequences for Indigenous Peoples, and the vital \r role that Indigenous Peoples serve in protecting vulnerable ecosystems \r (Ricketts et  al., 2010; Box  8.6). Globally, indigenous territories cover \r the greatest area of remaining tropical forest in comparison to other \r protected areas. They encompass the bulk of Earth's biodiversity and \r are the locus for a number of key ecosystem services across spatial and \r temporal scales (Walker et al., 2020). Specifically, in 2014 indigenous \r [...]"


id: a4c512715083ba3ba77dc24a569d7688
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 26214
content:
"[...] territories and other protected areas represented the equivalent of \r 58.5% of all the carbon stored in the Brazilian Amazon biome and had \r the lowest deforestation rate (2.1%) and fire incidences, evidencing the \r effectiveness in safeguarding important ecosystems services and well\u0002being (Nogueira et al., 2018). It is estimated that indigenous territories \r in the Brazilian Amazon contribute at least USD 5 billion each year to the \r global economy through food and energy production, GHG emissions \r offsets, and climate regulation and stability (Siqueira-Gay et al., 2020). \r Given the high incidence of poverty of Amazonian countries and high \r proportion of traditional and Indigenous Peoples, remoteness and \r neglected governance place these unique ecosystems and indigenous \r populations as highly vulnerable to climate change impacts (Pinho \r et al., 2014; Brondizio et al., 2016; Mansur et al., 2016; Kasecker et al., \r [...]"


id: 431bb48d865a9e770d34bd2701d740cb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9013
content:
"[...] 2018). Despite their importance, the survival of Indigenous Peoples in \r the Amazon is on the brink in the wake of increasing deforestation, \r land conflicts and invasions, cattle ranching, mining, fire incidence, \r health problems and human rights violation (Ferrante and Fearnside, \r 2019). There is robust evidence that both economic and non-economic \r L&Ds are currently, and will be, unevenly experienced by populations \r in vulnerable conditions, such as children, women, Indigenous Peoples \r and traditional communities (Pinho, 2016; Lapola et al., 2018; Roy et al., \r 2018; Eloy et al., 2019; Machado-Silva et al., 2020). Increasing wildfires \r inside protected areas, in particular, territories of Indigenous Peoples \r and traditional communities, is worrisome and presents challenges for "


id: 69092f43c35041ce6674438fe13760e5
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15749
content:
"Many of the observed outcomes of climate change, for example, \r migration, are also outcomes of multidimensional poverty in low\u0002income countries (Burrows and Kinney, 2016). Future impacts may be \r better understood if the vulnerability and the capacity for adaptation \r is understood to be rooted in a sustainable development context (see \r Box 8.2). The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim \r to reduce poverty and inequality, and identify options for achieving \r development progress, also provide insight on reducing climate \r vulnerability (United Nations, 2015). First, climate change impacts may \r undermine progress toward various SDGs (medium confidence), primarily \r poverty reduction (SDG1), zero hunger (SDG2), gender equality (SDG5) \r and reducing inequality (SDG10), among others (medium evidence, \r high agreement). In both developing and high-income countries, \r climate change hazards in connection with other non-climatic drivers \r [...]"


id: c9f0f89504db703bd57622ed8469f93e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
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vector_id: 32854
content:
"[...] already accelerate trends of wealth inequality (SDG 1) (Leal Filho et al., \r 2020b). Climate impacts on SDGs illustrate the complex interrelations in \r development. For example, in regions encountering obstacles to SDGs, \r characterised by high levels of inequality and poverty, such as in Africa, \r Central Asia and Central America, climate change is exacerbating water \r insecurity (SDG 6), which may then also drive food insecurity (SDG 2), \r impacting the poor directly (e.g., via crop failure), or indirectly (e.g., via \r rising food prices) (Conway et al., 2015; Hertel, 2015; Cheeseman, 2016; \r Rasul and Sharma, 2016). There is a pressing need to address poverty \r issues, since these may negatively influence the implementation of all \r SDGs (Leal Filho et al., 2021a)."


id: 65ebe743eaa9d80def78ead862bb97e6
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 15193
content:
"Overall, this case study illustrates the benefits of promoting resilient crop production in Gargey Village, as an example of displaced atoll \r communities. Innovative and sustainable CSA strategies have offered broader insights and lessons for enhancing adaptive capacity \r and resilience, on a degraded landscape. The coherent strategies and methods employed have strengthened livelihood opportunities by \r improving access to services, knowledge and resources. By its concurrent focus on enhancing food security through traditional crops, \r coupled with nutrient-rich vegetables, promoting rainwater harvesting systems and water conservation, and promoting resilient household \r livelihood opportunities, atoll communities brought together crucial elements needed to reduce vulnerabilities and to better cope with \r disasters and climate extremes, while embracing the traditional culture. The location-specific yet knowledge-intensive CSA methods \r [...]"


id: 5b59b6b8467fad0ce2fdaaf7ebacb311
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13316
content:
"[...] deployed, offered opportunities for atoll communities to revitalise themselves, overcoming barriers while adjusting to new landscapes."


id: 765211afde9305703a8189abc8e39ba3
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 18038
content:
"During the COVID-19 pandemic, countries such as India were affected by hydro-meteorological hazards (Raju, 2020) making it extremely \r difficult to handle a public health crisis in the context of compounding risks and cascading hazards (Phillips et al., 2020). The COVID-19 \r pandemic can increase the adverse consequences of climate change since it has the potential to delay some key adaptation actions. On \r the other hand, the pandemic also highlights the importance of better preparedness to the impacts of climate change (Djalante et al., \r 2020). Overall, the COVID-19 pandemic has worsened the economic situation within many countries and local communities particularly \r for already marginalised groups (Gupta et al., 2021). The accumulation of crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic alongside climate \r change impacts, underscore the fact that stressors do not occur in isolation, but are interlinked, with clear implications for structural \r [...]"


id: ea10dd2db80142f728a18e830e888472
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 38528
content:
"[...] vulnerability and adaptation options available to the poorest (Sultana, 2021). Responses to COVID-19 have led to significant economic \r and social distress within and across societies and local communities, especially in poorer countries. The direct health and economic \r impacts of the lockdowns have further limited the ability of many people across the developing world to pursue income-generating \r activities, and sustain livelihoods that are already affected by climate hazards. In addition, poor or most vulnerable groups face further \r marginalisation due to misinformation that these groups transmit the virus to other wealthier groups and areas. The pandemic has \r intensified inequalities in both developing countries (FAO, 2020) and in industrialised nations (Anderson et al., 2020; McCloskey et al., \r 2020), whereby vulnerable groups are especially affected (Raju et al., 2021). Whereas different models and scenarios contain different \r [...]"


id: e087f096e72579cb1027b2adf6355a
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 36756
content:
"[...] data and figures, there is high agreement that it is likely that socioeconomic impacts are particularly severe within selected global regions \r and areas that are already characterised by a rather high level of human vulnerability (see also Section 8.3). This also implies that the \r capacity of people to prepare for present and future climate change impacts will further decrease within these countries and population \r groups under the direct and indirect consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic."


id: 5c42e7618b9685c4eb3bfef923cb3acd
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 13485
content:
"In addition, observed climate change responses, including autonomous \r and planned adaptation, can exacerbate poverty and vulnerability \r (Eriksen et al., 2021). There is robust evidence that planned responses \r to climate change, such as large-scale adaptation projects, in some \r context can also increase vulnerability due to the reinforcement of \r inequalities and the effects of further marginalisation (Fritzell et al., \r 2015; Eriksen et  al., 2021). There is increasing evidence that the \r responses to indirect impacts of climate change, such as to shifts in \r marine or terrestrial ecosystems due to climate change (Seddon et al., \r 2016) also affect different groups differently and impact poverty \r and livelihood security. Apart from influences on agriculture trends \r (Reichstein et al., 2014) and changes in yields (Reyes-Fox et al., 2014; \r Craparo et al., 2015), climate change has significant (direct and indirect) \r [...]"


id: 3d8f92b72ed0f81038a0a3999435873c
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 8005
content:
"[...] impacts on livelihood assets and resources such as forests, livestock \r production and fisheries, which may undermine the livelihoods security \r in the medium and long run."


id: 94a4a4799654fd8e87df3781d949c7bb
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:56
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 23356
content:
"Many of the observed responses to climate change aim to reduce \r exposure of people to climate-related hazards, such as flood defences, \r sea walls and embankments (Gralepois et  al., 2016), rather than \r aiming specifically to address structural vulnerability to climate \r change, which means the root causes of vulnerability (e.g., Mikulewicz, \r 2020; McNamara et  al., 2021a). Evidence suggests that responses \r to the impacts of climate change should consider the physical \r climate event, and also historical and institutional root causes that \r make people or systems vulnerable. However, addressing structural \r vulnerability must be balanced with the political context and the \r range of options available to people, communities or countries (see \r Section  8.3). Political frameworks need to consider both types of \r responses, to revive democratic debate and citizenship (Pepermans \r et  al., 2016). In addition to reducing poverty and vulnerability, \r [...]"


id: 237ff55207aa482ac83a98eca14426d0
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 3445
content:
"to increase their effectiveness. This requires higher levels of vertical \r and horizontal coordination and integration (GIZ, 2019). Horizontal \r coordination encompasses, for example, the integrated coordination \r of responses to climate change across different sectors, which requires \r suitable governance structures and processes that allow for such a \r coordination (Di Gregorio et  al., 2017; Burch et  al., 2019). Vertical \r integration is needed in order to ensure that effective responses also \r include different levels of governance and benefit from knowledge at \r different scales. The inclusion of local knowledge within national or \r provincial adaptation strategies requires such linkages and vertical \r coordination. Overall, there is an increasing body of literature that \r highlights the importance of improved integration and coordination \r also in order to promote a higher effectiveness of strategies and an \r improved consideration of social justice and climate justice when \r [...]"


id: edeaf2325018437a6265123ea3bebf75
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 39226
content:
"The maladaptation outcomes also emerge when responses are not \r equitable at the policy level, and exacerbate the precarity of vulnerable \r populations by excluding them from benefits and support, while \r attending to the needs of people of the most enfranchised segments \r of society (Thomas and Warner, 2019; Asplund and Hjerpe 2020). In \r Tanzania, the political marginalisation of pastoralist access to critical \r riparian wetlands and increasing expansion of agriculture may result \r in adaptation pathways that heighten risk for these groups, while \r reducing risk for others (Smucker et  al., 2015). Salim et  al. (2019) \r found that adaptation to flooding in Jakarta privileges political \r economic elites, while poor infrastructure in poorest neighbourhoods \r exacerbates loss of assets, housing and displacements (Salim et  al., \r 2019). In Bangladesh, intense and consecutive flooding led to national \r and regional adaptation plans, that resulted in maladaptive trajectories \r [...]"


id: 2f8d287c4e7b6c13776b049984ac3e06
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
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index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 5629
content:
"[...] as local poverty context and precarities of properties were not carefully \r considered and disconnected from local autonomous practice (Rahman \r and Hickey, 2019)."


id: 442141b6573b5b79e44b846f1a87c52e
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 9224
content:
"Overall, the assessment shows that understanding impacts of climate \r change should not be limited to the analysis of direct impacts or \r physical changes under different climatic conditions, but needs also \r account for the distributional effects that responses to climate change \r may imply. For example, responses implemented in order to benefit one \r sector or social group (e.g., farmers), should not undermine the well\u0002being of others (e.g., pastoralists). Documented cases of maladaptation \r (see Eriksen et al., 2021) hint that responses to climate change can \r exacerbate existing inequality in some cases and may discourage other \r types of responses (see also Sections 8.5; 8.6). Furthermore, responses \r to similar climate change impacts and hazards may be extremely \r differentiated according to various social contexts (see Section 8.3). In \r some cases, responses to climate change (e.g., relocation programmes) \r can even trigger social tipping points when climate change responses \r [...]"


id: f69af833dca4c235850234a60fb69535
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 40759
content:
"Effective responses to climate change impacts for one group could \r impose higher costs and negative consequences for other groups, in \r terms of shifts in exposure and vulnerability. This category of response \r is known as maladaptation. Maladaptation actions defined in the IPCC \r SR1.5degC (IPCC, 2018b) and in the Land Report (IPCC, 2019a) are the \r ones that usually have unintended consequences, and can lead to \r increased negative risk to poor population mostly in the Global South \r to climate hazards by either increasing GHG emissions or by increasing \r the vulnerabilities to climate change with diminished welfare, now \r and in the near future (Roy et al., 2018). For example, migration to \r urban centres can represent a significant adaptation opportunity for \r the migrants themselves, but can also increase the vulnerability of \r their community of origin or destination (e.g., through a depletion \r of the workforce or an addition pressure on environmental resources \r [...]"


id: 5402708e8a722c5f269723ad5264e47b
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 12053
content:
"[...] and infrastructure respectively) (Gemenne and Blocher, 2017). Some \r types of observed responses to climate change may not yield long-term \r benefits. For example, food imports during droughts or adverse climate \r conditions are not a fully adequate response, since they may alleviate \r a problem on the one hand (i.e., an imminent food shortage due to \r crop failure) but, on the other, lead to no long-lasting improvements "


id: 296854280691f3d607bf552007e95e27
created_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
updated_at: 2023-04-19 13:22:57
content_type: text
index: climate_gpt_v2
vector_id: 4503
content:
"Climate change impacts carry the risk of amplifying or aggravating existing tensions within and between communities or countries \r (Sakaguchi et al., 2017). There is, however, limited evidence for a universal direct causal linkage between climate change and violent \r conflicts (Mach et al., 2019). The triggering of conflicts related to climate impacts is strongly determined by contextual factors, such as \r the type of government or the level of development (Mach et al., 2019). A study of 156 countries (Abel et al., 2019) showed that an \r increase in periods of drought exacerbate the risk of conflict, especially in democratic countries. This influence was particularly marked \r during the period 2010-2012 in countries of western Asia and northern Africa that were undergoing political transformations, such as the \r Arab Spring. Conflict can then represent people's discontent in governments' inefficient responses to climate impacts (Abel et al., 2019). \r [...]"


