Abstract
Innovation is simultaneously reflected in the variety and diversity of art. Over the past century, art forms have progressed along a continuum from static to dynamic, and then to interactive and participatory. The therapeutic value of creating and engaging in all of these art forms has also been identified. Furthermore, educators have recognized the profound value of art and design within the context of scientific and technical learning, and STEAM (science, technology, engineering, art, and math) has emerged as an educational philosophy with a strong base of support. This paper defines and articulates participatory elements of STEAM projects, and provides guidance for how to design art installations for learning that are fully participatory. To do this, we 1) present emerging social and organizational models that align with STEAM, and then 2) develop a design framework for creating new participatory art that meets the goals of STEAM learning. This project is the result of an undergraduate senior capstone project at XXX University. We are grateful to the many professors who were involved in providing incremental help and feedback along the way.
Introduction
Advancements in science and technology have routinely been expressed through art, creating a symbiotic relationship between the advancement of all three. Furthermore, scientific discovery leads to the development of new technology, and the creation of new art. STEAM (science, technology, engineering, art, and math) captures this dynamic interplay and helps raise awareness of its existence. But art has evolved from being static, to dynamic, to interactive, and finally to participatory. (Hu, 2013) Static art is unchanging, while dynamic art transforms based on environmental factors without user interaction. Interactive forms change based on the viewer's behavior and control of sensory input and only finds its final form as a consequence of that interaction (Kluszczynski, 2010) .
Introduction
Participatory art breaks down conventional notions of the viewer and artifact, facilitating interactivity that ultimately becomes the artistic experience, and demonstrating how cooperation and critical reflection contribute to value creation. This study provides a "Design for STEAM" canvas that incorporates guidelines, heuristics, metrics, and models to build agile learning environments from participatory art.
Background and Literature Review
Changes brought upon by rapid advancements in technology and globalization have increased the need for interdisciplinary approaches in education to stay competitive, leading to the rise of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) programs. But STEM does not always help students cultivate the creativity needed to solve complex problems. (Land, 2013) STEAM bridges this gap, studied as early as Yakman (2006) who has since trained teachers to implement STEAM globally (STEAM Education, 2016) .
Engagement in STEAM
STEAM teaching should facilitate inquiry, encourage engagement, and challenge limitations. Artistic engagement in STEM encourages learners to interpret the material based on personal experience, thus increasing the value and intrinsic enjoyment of learning. (Land, 2013) It also supports customization and support of unique needs. (Connor et al., 2014) Creative exploration allows students to experience interrelationships between topics that are otherwise obscured, so STEAM learning fosters a more meaningful approach that empowers individual autonomy. It aligns with the social constructivist pedagogy, which emphasizes the pursuit of shared meaning. Through social construction of knowledge, learners can explore new ideas, pursue emerging paths, and reflect on how learning helps people fit into new social and professional roles. (Benton & Radziwill, 2011) Social construction of knowledge breaks down the conventional roles of teacher and student, and creates a network of empowered learners (Radziwill, Benton & Moellers, 2015) . Active learning thus creates a personally relevant learning experience that leverages the aptitude inequality by encouraging collaboration as a means to grow, as interaction results from participation. (Kluszcynski, 2010; Zhao & Chen, 2013) Engagement is an ongoing process that increases stakeholders' desire to participate due to a renewed sense of agency. (Marcum, 2013) The balance of participation, engagement, and agency leads to meaningful learning experiences in STEAM education.
Therapeutic Value of Art
Creating and engaging with art can improve health and wellness --a balance of the whole person, which includes body, mind and spirit. (Hacker, 2012) To experience art means to know or to reconnect with a small part of oneself. Typically, therapeutic value emerges when art engages the sense of spirit, leading to a deeper personal understanding of self, others, or the environment.
Therapeutic Value of Art
Finding purpose can clarify self-identity, enhance empowerment, and improve mental health and social inclusion. (Hacking et al., 2008) The Mental Health Foundation (2011), exploring the needs of the elderly who often suffer from social disconnectedness, discovered that participatory art can help them update their sense of self with positive attributes and improve their status and reputation in social groups. When artistic engagement has been applied as a treatment, studies (e.g. Stuckey, 2010) show that it can remedy stress, depression, and chronic illness. Virtual reality research (e.g. Rothbaum et al., 1995) also supports these findings.
Social and Organizational Models
Power structures have been long associated with competition and disengagement. But since the 1990's, new management concepts have emerged including transformation, experiential empathy, and co-creation of value (prosumerism) to enhance personal agency and co-ownership over competition. Transformation is a change in the fundamental nature of an organization, and is typically associated with discontinuous, high-impact improvements (Hacker, 2012) It requires purposeful change, catalyzed from within the changing systems, and is demonstrated when people start living according to new values (Joy, 2010) .
Social and Organizational Models
Effective growth through transformation sometimes requires major shifts --a co-evolution of staff, customers, and stakeholders -and always requires learning. These efforts are typically systematic and empowering. Change is simultaneously acknowledged by the learner, the individuals in the learning community, and even friends or family that the learner interacts with on a daily basis. (Henderson, 2002) Transformation shifts identities.
Social and Organizational Models
According to McGrath (2014) , the idea from the early to mid-1900's of organization as machine is also shifting. By the 1990's, executives realized that managing knowledge was critical, and the concept of organization as complex system emerged. As a living organism, capabilities could be generated, shaped, and expanded. As intelligent systems gain traction we are once again at a crossroads where organizations must create complete and meaningful experiences. To do this, empathy is prerequisite. Humans thriving occurs by sharing ideas and cooperating to achieve shared goals, not by selfish hoarding of resources and power or eliminating competitors (Waal, 2009 ) -and traditional organizational models can inhibit empathy via the manufactured need to compete. These models are summarized in Table 1 Table 1 . Organizations compared to types of art.
Social and Organizational Models
According to Heimans & Timms (2014) , executive leadership is shifting as well --from command and control to "new power" --an open and participatory style, most effective when knowledge and resources are allowed to flow freely. This represents the shift from competition and dominance to participation and collaboration, and is evident in the rise of crowdsourcing and increased promotion of co-ownership in design. (Howe, 2006) Co-creation of value can also occur between the organization and its customers, strengthening alignment between company goals and customer needs. (Payne, 2007) This requires dynamic capabilities and personalization. (Prahalad, 2004) When value is jointly generated through mutually beneficial dialogue and exchange (Vargo, 2008) , blurring the boundaries between producers and consumers (Ritzer, 2010) , organizations can become more adaptable and resilient. (Payne et al., 2008) The Agile Organizing Framework (AOF) can also inform STEAM artifact design. (Benton & Radziwill, 2011 ) AOF promotes social creation of knowledge through engagement and experience, reducing inequality in student abilities through active learning environments, and growing knowledge through inquiry-based problem solving and ongoing reflection. Based on AOFs key principles (Vidgen & Wang, 2009) , STEAM efforts should promote collective mindfulness and active team-based learning, change management should accommodate differences in how quickly adaptation occurs, and student autonomy should be honored. The learning environment should provide material and help the learner create new learning paths.
Methodology and Results
This study applied design science to create a "Design for STEAM" canvas by: 1) identifying a structure by studying Design for X (DfX) tools, 2) exploring guidelines associated with Participative and Participatory Design, and 3) conducting an Affinity/Pareto Analysis to identify success factors based on Radziwill et al. (2015) . The final step, extracting applicable guidelines and heuristics from the literature review, is covered in Section 4 with the canvas.
Methodology and Results
Design is a process that separates professions and trades from the sciences (Glasser, 1976) and aligns problems with appropriate solutions. Outcomes include material artifacts, remedies, improvements, strategies, and plans that can generate new knowledge and catalyze innovation. Design for X (DfX) tools can be used to improve quality, reduce costs, and enhance productivity and efficiency (Eastman, 2012) . These include Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA),
Methodology and Results
Design for Sustainability (DfS), and Design for Reliability (DfR). They share common elements that help establish a sense of purpose and an emphasis on shared goals: guidelines and heuristics, checklists, metrics, methods, and mathematical models (Chiu & Okudan, 2010) .
Methodology and Results
Participative design focuses on quality and process improvement by breaking down bureaucracy in favor of more democratic processes. Participatory design, in contrast, is more like co-creation of value or prosumerism because it involves customers and/or stakeholders in the design process. Proponents of participative design argue that tapping into the full mental capacity of the workforce is the key to quality improvement, but these efforts fail when responsibility is not truly shifted. An entrenched hierarchy prevents the self-management necessary to foster democratic decision making. (Emery, 1995) For optimal success, participative design says that who does the work should design the work. Participative design and participatory design are both broadly motivated by enhancing agency. They both expose the necessity for individual empowerment and inclusion through engagement, leading to better results. (Holmlid, 2012) The Explanatory Sequential mixed methods approach was used to identify, rank, and evaluate the critical elements for scaling. (Figure 2) . A group of 12 students and faculty who had built participatory art projects using technology gathered to create an affinity map. (Figure 3 ) The prompt was: "What factors influence the success of a participatory art project as it is being scaled from idea to broad availability?" They arranged factors into themes, and weighted them with scores from 1 (low importance) to 10 (high importance). Pareto analysis (Figure 4) highlighted the "vital 20%" of key factors, drawn from goals emerging from design philosophy, logistical concerns, and fitness for use. (Radziwill & Simmons, 2012) Takeaways were: 1) a default activity should be defined, with opportunities for sub-activities, 2) a social element should be integrated to encourage participation and self-reflection beyond the time and spatial bounds of the experience, 3) a data collection element should be integrated at the end to foster reflection, and 4) a feasibility check should be performed to make sure that the designed experience can support the volume of participants expected (e.g. personnel, materials, energy requirements). The STEAM Journal, Vol. 3, Iss. 2 [2018] , Art. 8
Methodology and Results
https://scholarship.claremont.edu/steam/vol3/iss2/8
Integration of Elements into "Design for STEAM"
Participatory art for STEAM should:
Integration of Elements into "Design for STEAM"
• Create unique, meaningful experiences balancing participation, engagement, and agency
Integration of Elements into "Design for STEAM"
• Stimulate self-inquiry, raise questions about how the individual sees him or herself
Integration of Elements into "Design for STEAM"
• De-emphasize competition and dominance in favor of co-creation
Integration of Elements into "Design for STEAM"
• Strengthen self-identity by enabling individual creative exploration
Integration of Elements into "Design for STEAM"
• Be emergent: art finds its final form only after dialog between consumer/prosumer
Integration of Elements into "Design for STEAM"
• Honor personal agency for the co-creator/participant
Integration of Elements into "Design for STEAM"
• Adapt to their changing needs and level of understanding
Integration of Elements into "Design for STEAM"
• Provide opportunities for pursuing new knowledge and deepening existing knowledge.
Integration of Elements into "Design for STEAM"
We organized these into design heuristics using Simon's (2010) principles for participatory art (Table 1) Participants can also be asked to list which aspects they enjoyed the most, and why; whether the experience enhanced their knowledge, interest, or appreciation; whether knowledge or understanding of foreign cultures was enhanced, whether they experienced beauty and awe; and whether they would return. Creative data acquisition can be embedded within the experience itself, for example, determining the proportion of visitors who leave a contribution (e.g. a response to a guided question left on a public board for others to see). It can be combined with other goals, for example, encouraging visitors to help keep a museum clean by depositing their entrance passes in bins that correspond to survey questions, or "filling out a survey item" by walking through a labeled door or opening (Simon, 2010) . Another idea is to gauge a participant's positivity (Fredricksen, 2009) before and/or after the experience. Integrating these findings, Design for STEAM (Table 2) is proposed to facilitate planning, foster engagement, establish inquiry-based and active learning, and cultivate new power models that demonstrate empathy and catalyze the free flow of ideas.
Integration of Elements into "Design for STEAM"
Although important, feasibility and models (e.g. cost reduction, optimization of engagement) were not explored. These could be addressed in future research to enhance the value of the canvas. 
Identify Default Activity

Identify Sub-Activities
• What activities could the co-creator choose to become engaged in after being exposed to the default activity? • How will co-creators know those choices are available? How will they make the decision to engage in the sub-activity, or return to the main activity?
Define Value Propositions
• What specific benefits will be part of the 

{'paper_id': '116333275', 'title': 'Design for STEAM: Creating Participatory Art with Purpose', 's2_url': 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:116333275', 'source': 'S2ORC'}