Produced by Sonya Schermann, Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) PORCELAIN [Illustration: _PLATE I._ JAPANESE IMARI WARE] PORCELAIN BY EDWARD DILLON, M.A. [Illustration: The Connoisseurâs Library] METHUEN AND CO. 36 ESSEX STREET LONDON _First published in 1904._ PREFACE How extensive is the literature that has grown up of late years round the subject of porcelain may be judged from the length of our âselectedâ list of books dealing with this material. Apart from the not inconsiderable number of general works on the potterâs art in French, German, and English, there is scarcely to be found a kiln where pottery of one kind or another has been manufactured which has not been made the subject of a separate study. And yet, as far as I know, the very definite subdivision of ceramics, which includes the porcelain of the Far East and of Europe, has never been made the basis of an independent work in England. It has been the aim of the writer to dwell more especially on the nature of the paste, on the glaze, and on the decoration of the various wares, and above all to accentuate any points that throw light upon the relations with one another--especially the historical relations--of the different centres where porcelain has been made. Less attention has been given to the question of marks. In the authorâs opinion, the exaggerated importance that has been given to these marks, both by collectors and by the writers that have catered to them, has more than anything else tended to degrade the study of the subject, and to turn off the attention from more essential points. This has been above all the case in England, where the technical side has been strangely neglected. In fact, we must turn to French works for any thorough information on this head. In the bibliographical list it has been impossible to distinguish the relative value of the books included. I think that _something_ of value may be found in nearly every one of these works, but in many, whatever there is of original information might be summed up in a few pages. In fact, the books really essential to the student are few in number. For Oriental china we have the Franks catalogue, M. Vogtâs little book, _La Porcelaine_, and above all the great work of Dr. Bushell, which is unfortunately not very accessible. For Continental porcelain there is no âup-to-dateâ work in English, but the brief notes in the catalogue prepared shortly before his death by Sir A. W. Franks have the advantage of being absolutely trustworthy. The best account of German porcelain is perhaps to be found in Dr. Brinckmannâs bulky description of the Hamburg Museum, which deals, however, with many subjects besides porcelain, while for SÃ¨vres we have the works of Garnier and Vogt. For English porcelain the literature is enormous, but there is little of importance that will not be found in Professor Churchâs little handbook, or in the lately published works of Mr. Burton and Mr. Solon. The last edition of the guide to the collection lately at Jermyn Street has been well edited by Mr. Rudler, and contains much information on the technical side of the subject. On many historical points the notes in the last edition of Marryat are still invaluable: the quotations, however, require checking, and the original passages are often very difficult to unearth. In the course of this book I have touched upon several interesting problems which it would be impossible to thoroughly discuss in a general work of this kind. I take, however, the occasion of bringing one or two of these points to the notice of future investigators. Much light remains to be thrown upon the relations of the Chinese with the people of Western Asia during the Middle Ages. We want to know at what time and under what influences the Chinese began to decorate their porcelain, first with blue under the glaze, and afterwards by means of glazes of three or more colours, painted on the biscuit. The relation of this latter method of decoration to the true enamel-painting which succeeded it is still obscure. So again, to come to a later time, there is much difference of opinion as to the date of the first introduction of the _rouge dâor_, a very important point in the history and classification of Chinese porcelain. We are much in the dark as to the source of the porcelain exported both from China and Japan in the seventeenth century, especially of the roughly painted âblue and white,â of which such vast quantities went to India and Persia. So of the Japanese âKakiyemon,â which had so much influence on our European wares, what was the origin of the curious design, and what was the relation of this ware to the now better known âOld Japanâ? When we come nearer home, to the European porcelain of the eighteenth century, many obscure points still remain to be cleared up. The currently accepted accounts of BÃ¶ttgerâs great discovery present many difficulties. At SÃ¨vres, why was the use of the newly discovered _rose Pompadour_ so soon abandoned? And finally, in England, what were we doing during the long years between the time of the early experiments of Dr. Dwight and the great outburst of energy in the middle of the eighteenth century? The illustrations have been chosen for the most part from specimens in our national collections. I take this opportunity of thanking the officials in charge of these collections for the facilities they have given to me in the selection of the examples, and to the photographer in the reproduction of the pieces selected. To Mr. C. H. Read of the British Museum, and to Mr. Skinner of the Victoria and Albert Museum, my thanks are above all due. To the latter gentleman I am much indebted for the trouble he has taken, amid arduous official duties, in making arrangements for photographing not only examples belonging to the Museum, scattered as these are through various wide-lying departments, but also several other pieces of porcelain at present deposited there by private collectors. To these gentlemen, finally, my thanks are due for permission to reproduce examples of their porcelain--to Mr. Pierpont Morgan, to Mr. Fitzhenry, to Mr. David Currie, and above all to my friend Mr. George Salting, who has interested himself in the selection of the objects from his unrivalled collection. The small collection of marks at the end of the book has no claim to originality. The examples have been selected from the catalogues of the Schreiber collection at South Kensington, and from those of the Franks collections of Oriental and Continental china. For permission to use the blocks my thanks are due, as far as the first two books are concerned, to H. M.âs Stationery Office and to the Education Department; in the case of the last work, to Mr. C. H. Read, who, I understand, himself drew the original marks for Sir A. W. Franksâs catalogue. In a general work of this kind much important matter has had to be omitted. That is inevitable. I only hope that specialists in certain definite parts of the wide field covered will not find that I have committed myself to rash or ungrounded generalisations. Let them remember that the carefully guarded statements and the reservations suitable to a scientific paper would be out of place in a work intended in the main for the general public. E. D. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE, v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, xii SELECTED LIST OF WORKS ON PORCELAIN, xxvi KEY TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST, xxxiii LIST OF WORKS ON OTHER SUBJECTS REFERRED TO IN THE TEXT, xxxv CHAPTER I. Introductory and Scientific, 1 CHAPTER II. The Materials: Mixing, Fashioning, and Firing, 14 CHAPTER III. Glazes, 30 CHAPTER IV. Decoration by means of Colour, 38 CHAPTER V. The Porcelain of China. Introductory--Classification--The Sung Dynasty--The Mongol or Yuan Dynasty, 49 CHAPTER VI. The Porcelain of China (_continued_). The Ming Dynasty, 78 CHAPTER VII. The Porcelain of China (_continued_). The Manchu or Tsing Dynasty, 96 CHAPTER VIII. The Porcelain of China (_continued_). Marks, 117 CHAPTER IX. The Porcelain of China (_continued_). King-te-chen and the PÃ¨re DâEntrecolles, 123 CHAPTER X. The Porcelain of China (_continued_). Forms and uses--Descriptions of the various Wares, 137 CHAPTER XI. The Porcelain of Korea and of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, 168 CHAPTER XII. The Porcelain of Japan, 177 CHAPTER XIII. From East to West, 208 CHAPTER XIV. The First Attempts at Imitation in Europe, 233 CHAPTER XV. The Hard-Paste Porcelain of Germany. BÃ¶ttger and the Porcelain of Meissen, 244 CHAPTER XVI. The Hard-Paste Porcelain of Germany (_continued_). Vienna--Berlin--HÃ¶chst--FÃ¼rstenberg--Ludwigsburg--Nymphenburg --Frankenthal--Fulda--Strassburg. The Hard and Soft Pastes of Switzerland, Hungary, Holland, Sweden, Denmark, and Russia, 259 CHAPTER XVII. The Soft-Paste Porcelain of France. Saint-Cloud--Lille--Chantilly-- Mennecy--Paris--Vincennes--SÃ¨vres, 277 CHAPTER XVIII. The Hard-Paste Porcelain of SÃ¨vres and Paris, 305 CHAPTER XIX. The Soft and Hybrid Porcelains of Italy and Spain, 316 CHAPTER XX. English Porcelain. Introduction. The Soft-Paste Porcelain of Chelsea and Bow, 326 CHAPTER XXI. English Porcelain (_continued_). The Soft Paste of Derby, Worcester, Caughley, Coalport, Swansea, Nantgarw, Lowestoft, Liverpool, Pinxton, Rockingham, Church Gresley, Spode, and Belleek, 350 CHAPTER XXII. English Porcelain (_continued_). The Hard Paste of Plymouth and Bristol, 375 CHAPTER XXIII. Contemporary European Porcelain, 387 EXPLANATION OF THE MARKS ON THE PLATES, 395 MARKS ON PORCELAIN, 400 INDEX, 405 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS I. JAPANESE, Imari porcelain (âOld Japanâ). (H. c. 19 in.) Vase, slaty-blue under glaze, iron-red of various shades and gold over glaze. Early eighteenth century. Salting collection......(_Frontispiece._) II. CHINESE, Ming porcelain. (H. c. 15 in.) Jar with blue-black ground and thin, skin-like glaze. Decoration in relief slightly counter-sunk, pale yellow and greenish to turquoise blue. Probably fifteenth century. Salting collection......(_To face p. 44._) III. (1) CHINESE. (H. c. 9 in.) Figure of the Teaching Buddha. Celadon glaze, the hair black. Uncertain date. British Museum. (2) CHINESE, probably Ming dynasty. (H. 11Â¼ in.) Vase with open-work body, enclosing plain inner vessel. Thick celadon glaze. Victoria and Albert Museum......(_To face p. 64._) IV. CHINESE, Sung porcelain. (H. c. 12 in.) Small jar with thick pale-blue glaze, and some patches of copper-red; faintly crackled. _Circa_ 1200. British Museum......(_To face p. 71._) V. CHINESE, Ming porcelain. Three small bowls with apple-green glaze. Fifteenth or sixteenth century. British Museum. (1) Floral design in gold on green ground. (Diam. 4Â¾ in.) On base a coin-like mark, inscribed _Chang ming fu kwei_--âlong life, riches, and honour.â (2) Similar decoration and identical inscription to above (diam. 4Â¾ in.), set in a German silver-gilt mounting of sixteenth century. (3) Shallow bowl (diam. 5Â¼ in.). Inside, apple-green band with gold pattern similar to above; in centre, cranes among clouds--blue under glaze. .....(_To face p. 81._) VI. CHINESE. Ming porcelain. (H. 7Â¾ ins.) Spherical vase, floral decoration of Persian type in blue under glaze; the neck has probably been removed for conversion into base of hookah. Probably sixteenth century. Bought in Persia. Victoria and Albert Museum......(_To face p. 84._) VII. (1) CHINESE. Ming porcelain. (H. c. 18 in.) Baluster-shaped vase; greyish crackle ground, painted over the glaze with turquoise blue flowers (with touches of cobalt), green leaves and manganese purple scrolls; a little yellow in places, and around neck cobalt blue band _under glaze_. On base, mark of Cheng-hua, possibly of as early a date (1464-87). British Museum. (2) CHINESE. Ming porcelain. (H. c. 19 in.) Vase of square section with four mask handles, imitating old bronze form. Enamelled with dragons and phÅnixes; copper-green and iron-red over glaze with a few touches of yellow, combined with cobalt blue under glaze. Inscription, under upper edge, âDai Ming Wan-li nien shi.â _Circa_ 1600. British Museum......(_To face p. 90._) VIII. CHINESE. Ming porcelain. Covered inkslab (L. 9Â¾ in.), pen-rest (L. 9 in.), and spherical vessel (H. 8 in.). Decorated with scroll-work in cobalt blue under the glaze. Persian inscriptions in cartels, relating to literary pursuits. Mark of Cheng-te (1505-21). Obtained in Pekin. British Museum......(_To face p. 94._) IX. CHINESE, turquoise ware. Probably early eighteenth century. Salting collection. (1) Pear-shaped vase (H. 8Â½ in.), decorated with phÅnix in low relief. Six-letter mark of Cheng-hua. (2) Plate with pierced margin (diam. 11 in.). Filfot in centre encircled by cloud pattern, in low relief. (3) Small spherical incense-burner (H. 5 in.). Floral design in low relief......(_To face p. 98._) X. CHINESE, _famille verte_. (H. 18 in.) Vase of square section, decorated with flowers of the four seasons. Green, purple, and yellow enamels and white, as reserve, on a black ground. Mark of Cheng-hua. _Circa_ 1700. Salting collection. .....(_To face p. 100._) XI. CHINESE, _famille verte_. (H. 26 in.) Baluster-shaped vase, decorated with dragons with four claws and snake-like bodies amid clouds. Poor yellow, passing into white, green of two shades, and manganese purple upon a black ground. A very thin skin of glaze, with dullish surface. Probably before 1700. Salting collection. (_To face p. 102._) XII. _Chinese_, egg-shell porcelain. _Famille rose._ (1) Plate (diam. 8Â¼ in.). On border, vine with grapes, in gold. In centre, lady on horseback, accompanied by old man and boy carrying scrolls. 1730-50. British Museum. (2) Plate (diam. 8Â½ in.) In centre the arms of the Okeover family with elaborate mantling. Initials of Luke Okeover and his wife on margin. Early _famille rose_, the _rouge dâor_ only sparingly applied. _Circa_ 1725. British Museum. .....(_To face p. 108._) XIII. (1) CHINESE, _famille verte_. Long-necked, globular vase (H. 17 in.), enamelled with figures of Taoist sages, etc.: green, iron-red, yellow, purple, and opaque blue, all over the glaze. Early eighteenth century. Salting collection. (2) CHINESE. Tall cylindrical vase (H. 18 in.). Red fish among eddies of gold on blue ground. Early eighteenth century. Salting collection. (3) CHINESE. Spindle-shaped vase (H. 18 in.). Pure white, chalky ground; three fabulous animals seated. 1720-40. Salting collection. .....(_To face p. 110._) XIV. JAPANESE. Imari porcelain. Large dish (diam. 20 in.). Painted under the glaze with cobalt blue in various shades, relieved with gold. In centre, landscape with Baptism of Christ. Below, in panel on margin--Mat. 3 16. Seventeenth century. Victoria and Albert Museum. .....(_To face p. 133._) XV. (1) CHINESE. Open-work cylinder (H. 5Â¼ in.) formed of nine interlacing dragons; the top pierced with nine holes. Plain white ware, with greyish white glaze. Probably Ting ware of Ming period. Victoria and Albert Museum. (2) CHINESE. Ming porcelain. Water-vessel for base of hookah (H. 4Â¾ in.). Cobalt blue under glaze. Chinese sixteenth century; made for the Persian market. Victoria and Albert Museum. .....(_To face p. 142._) XVI. CHINESE. Two vases for flowers (H. 11Â¼ and 10Â½ in.). Floral design in white slip upon a _fond laque_ or âdead leafâ ground. Seventeenth century. Bought in Persia. Victoria and Albert Museum......(_To face p. 146._) XVII. CHINESE. Three vases, examples of _flambÃ©_ or âtransmutationâ glazes. First half eighteenth century. Salting collection. (1) Vase with monster handles (H. 9 in.); glaze irregularly crackled. (2) Cylindrical vase, made in a mould (H. 10 in.). (3) Small pear-shaped vase (H. 7Â½ in.), mottled red and blue......(_To face p. 150._) XVIII. (1) CHINESE âblue and white.â Small vase (H. 7Â½ in.). The paste pierced before glazing to form an open-work pattern filled up by glaze. Eighteenth century. British Museum. (2) CHINESE âblue and white.â Mortar-shaped vase (H. 10 in.). Scattered figures of Taoist sages in pale blue. Chinese, probably sixteenth century. British Museum. .....(_To face p. 154._) XIX. CHINESE, Ming porcelain. Vase (H. 9Â½ in.), shaped into vertical, convex panels. The top has been ground down. Very thick paste, showing marks of juncture of moulds. Decoration of kilins and pine-trees in exceptionally brilliant cobalt blue under glaze. Probably fifteenth century. Victoria and Albert Museum. .....(_To face p. 157._) XX. CHINESE. Globular vase with long neck (H. 17Â¾ in.). Design built up of lines of iron-red and gold. _Circa_ 1720. Bought in Persia. Victoria and Albert Museum......(_To face p. 162._) XXI. CHINESE armorial porcelain. Octagonal plate (diam. 16 in.). Talbot arms in centre surrounded by design of books, scrolls, etc.--all in blue under glaze. Early eighteenth century. British Museum......(_To face p. 164._) XXII. CHINESE porcelain from Siam. Three covered bowls, probably enamelled in Canton for the Siamese market. Early nineteenth century. Victoria and Albert Museum. (1) Floral design in iron-red, green and yellow over glaze. (H. 6Â½ in.) (2) Buddhist divinities in panels amid flame-like ground. Opaque enamels--iron-red, pink, yellow and black. (H. 9 in.) (3) Floral design in cobalt blue under glaze. (H. 6Â¼ in.) Brass rim and foot. Said to be a cinerary urn. (_Tho-khÃ´t._).....(_To face p. 174._) XXIII. JAPANESE, Kakiyemon ware. _Circa_ 1650. British Museum. (1) Saucer or plate with scalloped edge (diam. 9Â¾ in.). Prunus springing from straw hedge, Chinese boy and tigers. Enamels--green, yellow, iron-red and blue, all over glaze. (2) Four-sided bottle (H. 8Â¾ in.). Formally treated flowers in iron-red, green and blue, all over glaze. (3) Octagonal saucer (diam. 5Â¾ in.). Decoration of quails and flowers in iron-red, green and gold over glaze, with cobalt blue under glaze. .....(_To face p. 184._) XXIV. (1) CHINESE. Covered bowl (H. 8 in.). Floral rosette with fourteen lobes in imitation of the Japanese _kiku-mon_. Iron-red, green and gold over glaze with deep cobalt blue under glaze. Early eighteenth century; made at King-te-chen in imitation of the contemporary Imari ware. Salting collection. (2) JAPANESE, Imari ware. Bowl with scalloped edge (diam. 9 in.). Chrysanthemum flowers in low relief; iron-red, green and gold over glaze and cobalt blue under glaze. _Circa_ 1700. Salting collection. .....(_To face p. 186._) XXV. JAPANESE, Imari ware. Large plate (diam. 22 in.). On margin, mandarin ducks, cranes and doves in panels amid flowers; in centre, two eagles. Iron-red of various shades, gold and a few touches of green over glaze with deep cobalt blue under glaze. Late seventeenth century. Salting collection......(_To face p. 188._) XXVI. JAPANESE, Kutani ware. Jar (H. 13 in.); on a greyish white, somewhat crackled ground, grotesque dancing figures; iron-red, manganese purple, yellow, green, and blue, all over glaze. Seventeenth century. British Museum. .....(_To face p. 204._) XXVII. JAPANESE. Kutani, kaolinic stoneware. Octagonal bottle, in shape of double gourd (H. 12 in.). Thick enamels--green (predominant), iron-red, purple and blue, all over glaze. _Circa_ 1700. Victoria and Albert Museum. .....(_To face p. 206._) XXVIII. CHINESE âblue and white.â Two bowls, set in copper-gilt mounts of English make, _circa_ 1600-1620. From a set of five pieces long preserved at Burleigh House. Pierpont Morgan collection. (1) Shallow bowl (diam. 9 in.), in centre medallion with phÅnix. Mark of Wan-li (1572-1619). (2) Bowl, with deer in panels (diam. 10 in.). _Circa_ 1600......(_To face p. 222._) XXIX. MEDICI porcelain. Late sixteenth century. Victoria and Albert Museum. (1) Pear-shaped vase (H. 6â  in.). Floral design in cobalt blue, outlined with manganese black, both under glaze. (2) Double-necked cruet (H. 6 in.). Design in pale blue under glaze. On the neck, A and O, for _aceto_ and _oglio_......(_To face p. 236._) XXX. MEDICI porcelain. Plate or shallow bowl (diam. 7 in.). Floral design in somewhat Persian style, in cobalt blue under glaze. On back, the dome of Sta. Maria del fiore and the letter F. Late sixteenth century. Fitzhenry collection......(_To face p. 238._) XXXI. MEISSEN porcelain. Hexagonal vase with cover (H. 12 in.). Floral design in coloured enamels of the Kakiyemon style. Mark, the crossed swords in blue. 1730-50. Franks collection (Bethnal Green)......(_To face p. 253._) XXXII. (1) MEISSEN porcelain. Plate with wavy edge (diam. 9 in.). Claret border with gold sprigs. Humming-bird in centre. Mark, the crossed swords with dot in blue. 1763-74, in imitation of Chelsea ware. Victoria and Albert Museum, ex Bernal collection. (2) LUDWIGSBURG porcelain. Plate (diam. 9Â¼ in.). Scrolls in low relief in white round margin; scattered flowers in lilac _camaÃ¯eu_. Mark, double C under crown, for Carl, Duke of WÃ¼rtemberg. 1760-70. Victoria and Albert Museum......(_To face p. 266._) XXXIII. (1) ROUEN porcelain. Cup (H. 3Â¼ in.). Conventional design, in dark blue under glaze, in style of seventeenth century. Thin and very translucent body. Probably before 1700. Fitzhenry collection. (2) SAINT-CLOUD porcelain. Ewer with cover (H. 7Â¾ in.). Scale pattern in relief. Celadon glaze of sagy-green tint. Mounted with thumb-piece and rim of engraved silver. _Circa_ 1700. Fitzhenry collection. (3) SAINT-CLOUD porcelain. Ewer with cover (H. 5Â¼ in.). Conventional design, in blue under glaze, in style of seventeenth century. _Circa_ 1700. Fitzhenry collection. .....(_To face p. 282._) XXXIV. CHANTILLY porcelain. Two cylindrical vases with covers (H. 7 in.). Rims mounted in silver (one gilt). Enamelled over the glaze in the Kakiyemon style-Chinese landscape and boys playing. Mark, hunting-horn in red. _Circa_ 1730-40. Fitzhenry collection. .....(_To face p. 286._) XXXV. (1) SÃVRES, white biscuit-ware (H. 6Â½ in.). Young girl seated with a _sabot_ in her lap, a child crouching beside her. Mark, F incised (perhaps for Falconet or for the year 1758). Franks collection (Bethnal Green). (2) MENNECY, white glazed ware. Figure of bagpiper (H. 9Â½ in.). _Circa_ 1750. (From an engraving by J. Dumont le Rom, 1739.) Franks collection (Bethnal Green). .....(_To face p. 288._) XXXVI. (1) VINCENNES or EARLY SÃVRES porcelain. Ewer with cover (H. 4Â¾ in.). _Gros bleu_ ground with birds and flowers in white reserves. Mark, double L with three dots, in blue under glaze. _Circa_ 1750. Victoria and Albert Museum; Jones collection. (2) and (3) SÃVRES porcelain. Two small _sucriers_ (H. 3 in.). _Gros bleu_ and green ground, with birds on branches painted in white reserves. No mark, but early. Victoria and Albert Museum; Jones collection. .....(_To face p. 294._) XXXVII. SÃVRES porcelain. Vase (H. 10Â¾ in.), one of a pair, decorated with wreaths of flowers on a white ground. Mark, the letter I, for 1761. Victoria and Albert Museum; Jones collection. .....(_To face p. 296._) XXXVIII. SÃVRES porcelain. _Ãcuelle_ and saucer (diam. 5 in. and 7Â½ in.). Turquoise ground; panels with pastoral scenes. Mark, the letter Q for 1768, and _ch._ for the painter Chabry. Victoria and Albert Museum; Jones collection. .....(_To face p. 298._) XXXIX. SÃVRES porcelain. _Sucrier_, saucer and caddy from _Cabaret_ (H. 4 in., 4Â¾ in., and 3 in.). _Rose carnÃ©_ ground; flowers, etc., painted on white reserves. Mark, the letter H for 1760, and an anchor for the painter Buteux pÃ¨re. Victoria and Albert Museum; Jones collection. .....(_To face p. 300._) XL. SÃVRES porcelain. Covered cup (H. 3Â¾ in.) and saucer (diam. 5 in.). Jewelled decoration on white ground. Studs of opaque white and turquoise and transparent ruby, connected by foliage of transparent green lined by gold. 1780-86. No mark. Currie collection. .....(_To face p. 302._) XLI. (1) and (2) VENETIAN porcelain. Tall cup (H. 4â  in.) and saucer (diam. 5â  in.). Birds and vines in blue under glaze with slight gilding. Mark, Ven^{a} on cup, the same in script on saucer. Probably the work of the Vezzi family (1719-40). Franks collection (Bethnal Green). (3) MEISSEN porcelain. Pot-pourri with cover (H. 5Â½ in.). Fluted sides, flowers in high relief enamelled in colours. Mark, crossed swords in blue. _Circa_ 1750. From the Strawberry Hill collection. Franks collection (Bethnal Green). (4) FRANKENTHAL porcelain. Ewer and cover (H. 6â  in.). Painted in lilac _camaÃ¯eu_ with landscape (signed--Magnus pi.) Gilt borders. 1761-78. Mark, C. T. under crown in blue. Franks collection (Bethnal Green). .....(_To face p. 316._) XLII. (1) CAPO DI MONTE porcelain. Scent bottle (H. 3â  in.). Child in swaddling-clothes of blue and lilac. _Circa_ 1750. Victoria and Albert Museum. (2) CAPO DI MONTE porcelain. Siren (H. 2â  in.), plain white, made for stand of vessel. _Circa_ 1750. From the Bandinel collection. Victoria and Albert Museum. (3) CAPO DI MONTE porcelain. Triton (H. 2â  in.). Plaque in low relief, made for application. _Circa_ 1750. Victoria and Albert Museum. (4) DOCCIA porcelain. Cup with cover (H. 4â  in.). Plain white, vine branches in relief. Victoria and Albert Museum. .....(_To face p. 320._) XLIII. CHELSEA porcelain. Saucer (diam. 4Â½ in.), sugar-basin (H. 4 in.), and cream-jug (H. 2Â¾ in.), forming part of an extensive tea equipage. Claret ground with rich gilding; pastoral figures in reserve panels. _Circa_ 1760. Victoria and Albert Museum; Thomson bequest. .....(_To face p. 340._) XLIV. CHELSEA porcelain. Two figures of minuet dancers (H. 11Â½ in. and 10Â¾ in.). Enamelled with winy-red, pale opaque turquoise, and a little green and iron-red--the ladyâs stays lavender. These figures seem to have been suggested by the principal dancers in Watteauâs _FÃªte ChampÃªtre_ now at Edinburgh (engraved by Laurent Carrs, 1734, as _FÃªtes Venitiennes_). _Circa_ 1760. Victoria and Albert Museum; Schreiber collection......(_To face p. 342._) XLV. (1) CHELSEA porcelain. Plate (diam. 8 in.) with wavy edge. Enamelled with shades of iron-red and green, with blue under glaze and gilding, in imitation of brocaded Imari ware. 1750-60. Victoria and Albert Museum. (2) BOW porcelain. Octagonal plate (diam. 9 in.). In centre, two fighting cocks, in the Kakiyemon style; the wreaths of flowers suggested rather by Dresden. Iron-red, claret, and an opaque, poor blue enamel, laid on thickly, with gilding. _Circa_ 1760. Victoria and Albert Museum......(_To face p. 346._) XLVI. WORCESTER porcelain. Tea-poy (H. 6Â½ in.), sugar-basin (H. 4Â¾ in.), and milk-jug (H. 5 in.) from a tea equipage. Trellis design. _Circa_ 1780. Victoria and Albert Museum. .....(_To face p. 362._) XLVII. WATER-COLOUR DRAWING (17 in. by 18Â½ in.), by Thomas Baxter, junior; signed and dated 1810. The studio of Thomas Baxter, senior, 1 Gough Square. Porcelain painters at work. A price-list of Coalport white china is seen on the wall. Victoria and Albert Museum. .....(_To face p. 366._) XLVIII. (1) PLYMOUTH porcelain. Market-woman with flower-basket (H. 10 in.). Plain white, with lines of dirty brown in folds of drapery and stand. _Circa_ 1770. Victoria and Albert Museum; Schreiber collection. (2) BRISTOL porcelain. Female figure, âAutumnâ (H. 10 in.). Belt with signs of zodiac. Enamels--green, lilac, iron-red, and yellowish-green, with gilding. _Circa_ 1775. Victoria and Albert Museum; Schreiber collection. .....(_To face p. 380._) XLIX. (1) BRISTOL biscuit-ware. Medallion (max. diam. of plaque, 6 in.) with head of Washington in centre, from a contemporary medal (âGeneral of the Continental Armiesâ). _Circa_ 1778. British Museum. (2) BRISTOL porcelain. Ink-stand (H. 7Â½ in.), in plain white ware, supported by three griffins. Victoria and Albert Museum. .....(_To face p. 382._) SELECTED LIST OF WORKS ON PORCELAIN ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUTHORS ALEXANDRA PALACE: _Catalogue of Collection of English Porcelain and Pottery on Loan in 1873._ BACHELIER ET GOUELLAIN: _MÃ©moire Historique sur la Porcelaine de la France, rÃ©-Ã©ditÃ© avec prÃ©face, par G. G._ Paris, 1878. BARBER (E. A.): _Pottery and Porcelain in the United States._ New York, 1901. BEMROSE (W.): _Bow, Chelsea, and Derby Porcelain._ London, 1898. BERTIN (HENRI): _Catalogue and Notice of âCabinet Chinois.â_ Paris, 1815. BING (M. S.): _La CÃ©ramique Japonaise_ (in Gonzeâs _Art Japonais_). Paris, 1883. BINNS (R. W.):-- _A Century of Potting in the City of Worcester._ Worcester, 1883. _Catalogue of Collection of Porcelain at Royal Porcelain Works._ Worcester, 1882. BRINCKMANN (J.): _Hamburgisches Museum fÃ¼r Kunst und Gewerbe. Beschreibung des EuropÃ¤ischen Porzellans._ Hamburg, 1894. BRINKLEY (F.): _History of Japanese Ceramics_ (_Chrysanthemum_, iii., 1883). Yokohama. BRONGNIART (ALEXANDRE): _TraitÃ© des Arts CÃ©ramiques._ 2 vols. and Atlas. Paris, 1844, 1854, and 1857 (with additions by A. SalvÃ©tat). BRONGNIART ET RIOCREUX: _SÃ¨vres, MusÃ©e CÃ©ramique._ Paris, 1845. BURTON (W.):-- _History of English Ceramics._ 1902. _The Influence of Material on Design of Pottery._ Cantor Lectures, 1897. BURLINGTON FINE ARTS CLUB:-- _English and Continental Porcelain._ 1873. _Blue and White Oriental China._ 1895. _Coloured Chinese Porcelain._ 1896. BUSHELL (S. W.):-- _Oriental Ceramic Art, illustrated by selections from the Collection of W. T. Walters._ Folio. New York, 1897; Text Edition, 8vo., 1899. _Chinese Porcelain before the present Dynasty._ Pekin, 1886. CHAFFERS (W.):-- _The Ceramic Gallery, with 500 Illustrations._ 1872. _Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain._ 9th edition. 1900. CHAMPFLEURY: _Bibliographie CÃ©ramique._ Paris, 1881. CHANTILLY: _La Manufacture de Porcelaine de C._ Paris, 1892. CHURCH (A. H.):-- _English Earthenware_ (South Kensington Art Handbook). 1884. _English Porcelain_ (South Kensington Art Handbook). 1885 and 1898. _Scientific and Artistic Aspects of Pottery._ Cantor Lectures, 1881. DâENTRECOLLES (PÃRE): _Lettres Ãdifiantes et Curieuses._ DAVILLIER (J. C.):-- _Les Origines de la Porcelaine en Europe._ Paris, 1882. _Les Porcelaines de SÃ¨vres et Mme. du Barry._ Paris, 1870. DRAKE (SIR W.): _Notes on Venetian Ceramics._ Privately printed, 1868. DUBREUIL: _La Porcelaine._ Part 42 of Fremyâs _EncyclopÃ©die Chimique_. Paris, 1885. ENGELHARDT (C. A.): _J. F. BÃ¶ttger, Erfinder des SÃ¤chsischen Porzellans._ Leipsic, 1837. FALKE (Jacob von): _Die K.K. Wiener Porzellan Fabrik._ Vienna, 1887. FRANKS (SIR A. W.):-- _Catalogue of Oriental Pottery and Porcelain._ 1878. _Catalogue of Continental Porcelain._ 1896. _Japanese Pottery_ (South Kensington Handbook). 1880. _The Manufacture of Porcelain at Chelsea. ArchÃ¦ological Journal._ 1862. GARNIER (ÃDOUARD):-- _Histoire de la CÃ©ramique._ Tours, 1882. _The Soft-Paste Porcelain of SÃ¨vres._ 50 Plates. 1892. _Copenhagen, Manufacture Royale de Porcelaine_ (_Bulletin de lâArt et de lâIndustrie_). Paris, 1894. GARNIER ET GASNAULT: _MusÃ©e National, Limoges, Catalogue._ 1881. GASNAULT ET GARNIER: _French Pottery_ (South Kensington Handbook). 1884. GEOLOGICAL MUSEUM: _See_ REEKS, T. GERSAINT: _Catalogue of the Fonspertuis Collection._ Paris, 1747. GINORI (MARCHESE CARLO): _La Manifattura Ginori a Doccia._ Florence, 1867. GONZE (LOUIS): _LâArt Japonais._ Paris, 1886. GOUELLAIN: _see_ BACHELIER. GRAESSE (J. G. T.): _Guide de lâamateur de Porcelaine et de Potterie._ Dresden, 4th edition, 1873. GRANDIDIER (E.): _La CÃ©ramique Chinoise._ Paris, 1894. GRIGGS (W.): _Examples of Armorial China._ Folio. 1887. GULLAND (W. G.): _Chinese Porcelain_ (notes by T. J. Larkin). 1898 and 1903. HASLEM (JOHN): _The Old Derby China Factory._ 1876. HIPPISLEY (ALFRED): _Ceramic Art in China_ (Smithsonian Institute). Washington, 1890. HIRTH (F.): _Ancient Chinese Porcelain._ Leipsic, 1888. HOFFMANN: _MÃ©moire sur la CÃ©ramique du Japon_ (Appendix to Juliens work). HOUDOY (JULES): _Histoire de la CÃ©ramique Lilloise._ Paris, 1869. JACQUEMART (A.) ET LE BLANC (E.): _Histoire de la Porcelaine._ Folio; etchings by Jules Jacquemart. Paris, 1862. JACQUEMART (A.):-- _Histoire de la CÃ©ramique._ Paris, 1873. English translation by Mrs. Palliser. 1873. _Les Merveilles de la CÃ©ramique._ Paris, 1866-69. JAENNICKE (FRIEDRICH):-- _Grundriss der Keramik._ Stuttgart, 1878-79. _Die Gesammte Keramische Litteratur._ Stuttgart, 1882. JEWITT (LL.):-- _The Ceramic Art of Great Britain._ 1883. _A History of the Coalport Porcelain Works._ 1862. JULIEN (STANISLAS): _Histoire et Fabrication de la Porcelaine Chinoise._ Translated from the Chinese. Notes by SalvÃ©tat; and memoir on Japanese Porcelain by Hoffmann. Paris, 1856. KOLBE (G.): _Geschichte der K. Porzellan Manufactur zu Berlin._ Berlin, 1863. LITCHFIELD (FRED.): _Pottery and Porcelain._ 1900. MACON (G.): _Les Arts dans la Maison de CondÃ©._ Paris, 1903. MARRYAT (JOSEPH): _History of Pottery and Porcelain._ 3rd edition, 1868. METEYARD (ELIZA): _Life of Josiah Wedgwood._ 1865. MEYER (A. B.): _Lung-chÃ¼an yao, oder alter Seladon Porzellan._ Berlin, 1889. MILLY (COMTE DE): _LâArt de la Porcelaine._ Paris, 1771. MONKHOUSE (COSMO): _History and Description of Chinese Porcelain._ (Notes by S. W. Bushell.) 1901. NIGHTINGALE (J. E.): _Contributions towards the History of English Porcelain, from contemporary sources._ Salisbury, 1881. OWEN (HUGH): _Two Centuries of Ceramic Art at Bristol._ 1873. PARIS (Exposition Universelle, 1900): _Histoire de lâart de Japon._ PATENT OFFICE: _Patents relating to Pottery and Porcelain._ 1863. PIOT (EUGÃNE): _Histoire de la Porcelaine_ (Cabinet de lâAmateur). Paris, 1863. RANDALL (JOHN): _A History of Madeley, including Coalport_, etc. Madeley, 1880. REEKS (T.), and RUDLER (F. W.): _Catalogue of English Pottery in the Museum of Practical Geology._ 1893. RIAÃO (DON JUAN): _Handbook of Spanish Arts_ (South Kensington). 1879. RICCIO: _La Fabbrica della Porcellana in Napoli._ Naples, 1878. RIS-PAQUOT (O. E.): _Dictionnaire des Marques et Monogrammes de Porcelaines._ Paris, 1880 and 1893. SALVÃTAT (A.): _LeÃ§ons de CÃ©ramique._ Paris, 1857. SARTEL (O. DU): _La Porcelaine de Chine._ Paris, 1881. SCHREIBER COLLECTION, _Catalogue of_. 1885. SEIDLITZ (W. VON): _Die Meissner Porzellan Manufactur unter BÃ¶ttger_ (_Society of Saxon History_, vol. ix.) SOIL, EUGÃNE: _Recherches sur les Anciennes Porcelaines de Tournay._ Paris, 1883. SOLON (M. L.): _History of Old English Porcelain._ 1903. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM:-- _List of Books on Pottery and Porcelain in the National Library._ 2nd edition, 1885. _Classified Catalogue of Printed Books, Ceramics._ 1895. STEGMANN (H.): _Die FÃ¼rstliche Braunschweigische Porzellan Manufactur zu FÃ¼rstenberg._ Brunswick, 1893. STRÃ LE (G. H.): _RÃ¶rstrand et Marieberg. CÃ©ramiques SuÃ©doises du dix-huitiÃ¨me SiÃ¨cle._ Stockholm, 1872. THIANCOURT et DAVILLIER: _LâArt de Restaurer les Porcelaines._ Paris, 1865. TIFFEN (W. F.): _A Chronograph of the Bow, Chelsea, and Derby China Manufactories._ Salisbury, 1875. TURNER (W.): _The Ceramics of Swansea and Nantgarw._ 1897. UYEDA, TOKUNOSUKE. _La CÃ©ramique Japonaise._ Paris, 1895. VERNADSKY. _Molecular Composition of Porcelain._ â_Comptes Rendus_,â 1890, p. 1377. VOGT (GEORGES): _La Porcelaine._ Paris, 1893. WALLACE COLLECTION (Hertford House): _Catalogue of Porcelain_, etc. 1902. WALPOLE (HORACE): _Ãdes StrawberrianÃ¦: Catalogue of the Strawberry Hill Collection._ Privately printed, 1784. WURTZ (HENRY): _Chemistry and Composition of Porcelain and Porcelain Rocks in Japan._ Philadelphia Exhibition Reports, 1877. ZAIS (E.): _Die Kurmainzische Porzellan-Manufactur zu HÃ¶chst._ Mainz, 1887. KEY TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST ALPHABETICAL LIST OF TOPOGRAPHY AND SUBJECT _America._ Barber. _Berlin._ Kolbe. _Bibliography._ Champfleury, Jaennicke, South Kensington. _Bow._ Bemrose, Tiffen. _Bristol._ Owen. _Buen Retiro._ RiaÃ±o. _Capo di Monte._ Riccio. _Catalogues._ Burlington Fine Arts Club, Bertin, Binns, Franks, Garnier, Schreiber, Walpole, Wallace. _Chantilly._ Chantilly, Gasnault, Macon. _Chelsea._ Bemrose, Franks, Tiffen. _China._ Burlington Fine Arts Club, Bushell, DâEntrecolles, Franks, Griggs, Gulland, Grandidier, Hirth, Hippisley, Julien, Meyer, Monkhouse, Du Sartel. _Coalport._ Randall. _Composition and Chemistry._ Brongniart, Church, Reeks, Vernadsky. _Continental Porcelain._ Brinckmann, Franks, Garnier. _Derby._ Bemrose, Haslem, Tiffen. _Doccia._ Ginori. _Dresden._ See _Meissen_. _English Porcelain._ Alexandra Palace, Burton, Church, Jewitt, Nightingale, Reeks, Solon. _FÃ¼rstenberg._ Stegmann. _General._ Chaffers, Garnier, Jacquemart, Jaennicke, Litchfield, Marryat, Piot, Vogt. _HÃ¶chst._ Zais. _Japan._ Brinkley, Bushell, Bing, Franks, Gonze, Hoffmann, Paris Exhibition, Uyeda, Wurtz. _Korea._ Bushell. _Lille._ Houdoy. _Manufacture._ See _Technology_. _Marks._ Chaffers, Franks, Jaennicke, Ris-Paquot. _Medici._ Davillier. _Meissen._ Brinckmann, Engelhardt, GrÃ¤sse, Seidlitz. _Nantgarw._ Turner. _Plymouth._ Owen. _Repairing._ Thiancourt. _Saint-Cloud._ Lister, Gasnault. _Saxony._ See _Meissen_. _SÃ¨vres._ Bachelier, Davillier, Garnier, Gasnault, Vogt. _Swansea._ Turner. _Sweden._ StrÃ¥le. _Technology._ Brongniart, Burton, Bushell, DâEntrecolles, Dubreuil, Julien, Reeks, SalvÃ©tat, Vogt, Wurtz. _Tournay._ Soil. _Venice._ Davillier, Drake. _Vienna._ Falke. _Wedgwood._ Meteyard. _Worcester._ Binns. LIST OF WORKS ON OTHER SUBJECTS REFERRED TO IN THE TEXT BORLASE. _Natural History of Cornwall._ Oxford, 1758. CHARDIN. _Voyages en Perse._ Amsterdam, 1686. DAVIS (SIR JOHN): _The Chinese._ 1857. GERTZ. _Les Produits de la Nature Chinoise et Japonaise._ Yokohama. HIRTH (F.):-- _China and the Roman Orient._ 1855. _Fremde EinflÃ¼sse in der Chinesischen Kunst._ Leipsic, 1896. _Chinesische Studien._ Munich, 1890. LISTER (DR. MARTIN): _Journey to Paris._ London, 1699. POLO (MARCO):-- _Le Livre de M. P._ Edited by M. G. Pauthier. Paris, 1865. _The Book of Ser M. P._ Edited by H. Yule, 1871. PALÃOLOGUE: _LâArt Chinois._ Paris, 1887. PLOT (DR.): _Natural History of Oxfordshire._ Oxford, 1677. REIN (J. J.): _Industries of Japan._ 1889. RICHTHOFEN (FERDINAND V.): _China._ Berlin, 1877. YULE (H.): _Cathay and the Way Thither._ 1866. PORCELAIN CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY AND SCIENTIFIC It is with a comparatively small branch of the art of the potter that we are concerned in this book. Porcelain or china, in all countries except the one where it was slowly brought to perfection, has always remained something of an exotic, and even in China we shall see that it was the immediate Imperial patronage and the constant demand for the court at Pekin that brought about the great development of the art under the present dynasty. In Japan, the first independent country to which the new art spread, it was under the eye of the greater and smaller feudal lords, often in the very garden of their palaces, that the kilns were erected, while the ware produced was reserved for the use of the prince and his household. Both in China and Japan we shall find the decline of the art to go hand in hand with the advance of the demand for the Western market, so that by the beginning of the nineteenth century we lose all interest in the manufacture. This dependence upon royal or princely support is equally prominent in the history of the shortlived porcelain factories of Europe. Their success or failure has generally followed closely upon the greater or less interest taken in them by the reigning prince, and few of these kilns survived the political changes of the end of the eighteenth century. No doubt, within the last twenty years or so a certain revival has come about both in the Far East and in certain European countries, and that under totally different conditions from those which prevailed in the eighteenth century. Here and there, at least, the manufacture of porcelain has come within the sphere of the new impulses that have brought about such changes in the âArts and Craftsâ at the end of the nineteenth century. In its main lines, the history of porcelain is a very simple one. Slowly developed during the Middle Ages in China, the manufacture became concentrated at one spot, at King-te-chen, and there reached its highest development early in the eighteenth century. In Europe, the repeated attempts to produce a similar ware had about the same time been crowned with complete success in Saxony; while in England and in France a ware closely resembling in aspect the Chinese, but softer and more fusible, had been accepted as an equivalent. Speaking generally, then, we can make these three statements with regard to the history of porcelain:-- 1. That the art had its origin and complete development in China. 2. That it has seldom flourished except under royal or princely patronage. 3. That porcelain, from the artistic point of view, is essentially a product of the eighteenth century, and that this statement is true in the main as regards the country of its origin, though in this latter case we must make a certain reserve in favour of the earlier wares. Our subject may seem a simple one compared with some kindred branches of the industrial arts, such, for example, as the history of glass-making, or that of cloisonnÃ© and other enamels. We come indeed at more than one time into contact with both these arts, and it is just at these points that some of our chief difficulties arise. It is in view of such questions as these, and indeed of many others equally important in the history of porcelain, that the necessity of a thorough understanding of the technical and even chemical side of our subject becomes evident. Of course, if in discussing the different kinds of porcelain we are concerned only with their merits or demerits as artistic products, we can put aside these practical questions as âbeneath the dignity of our argument.â But such a treatment of the subject would land us only too surely in vague generalities and in an arrangement based upon personal caprice. We require, above all at the start, a firm basis, and this can only be found in a thorough comprehension not only of the technical processes that are involved in the manufacture of porcelain, but of the physical and chemical nature of the substance itself. But first we need some kind of preliminary definition of what is meant by the word. Porcelain, then, is distinguished from other fictile wares by possessing in a pre-eminent degree the following qualities: hardness, difficult fusibility, translucency, and whiteness of body or paste. Any specimen of ceramic ware that possesses all these qualities may be classed as porcelain, and from a practical point of view, the more it excels under these heads, the better specimen of porcelain it is. These were the qualities by which the porcelain brought from the East in the seventeenth century was distinguished from any ware made at that time in Europe. Our ancestors dwelt especially on the practical advantages of the hard glaze and the elastic compact paste of the new ware, which compared favourably with the easily scratched surface and the crumbly body of the earthenware then in general use. The greater infusibility that accompanies this hardness was not a point of much importance to them, but they marvelled at the translucency of the edges, as of some natural stone, and we find absurdly exaggerated accounts of the transparency both of the original ware and of the imitation that they claimed to have made. Finally, they noticed that the whiteness of the surface was not given by an artificial layer more or less closely adhering to an earthy base, but was the natural colour of the paste to which the thin layer of transparent glaze merely gave the effect of the polish on ivory or on marble. What then was this hard, white, translucent substance? What wonder if from one end of Europe to the other, scheming minds--chemists, alchemists, physicians, potters, and charlatans--were at work trying to make something that should resemble it? The history of this long search is a very interesting one, but it would be impossible to explain its failures, its partial failures (these last resulting in a compromise--soft-paste porcelain), and the final success of BÃ¶ttger, without, as it were, going behind the scenes, and giving some account of porcelain from a modern, scientific point of view. And first let us say that, although when treating of porcelain from the historical and especially from the Ã¦sthetic standpoint (and this after all is our principal business in this book), it is well to take a wide grasp and include a whole class of china--I mean the soft-paste ware--which does not come up to our standard of hardness and infusibility, this is not the case when we are considering the physical, and especially the chemical, nature of porcelain. By confining ourselves, for the present, to true hard porcelain, we have the advantage of dealing with a substance which chemically and physically may be compared to a definite mineral species. Nay more, we propose here to confine ourselves to the consideration of the hard pastes used at the present day in the wares of France and Germany, neglecting for the present the softer and more irregular porcelain of the Chinese. First as regards hardness, the surface of the paste of a true porcelain, when free from glaze, can be scratched by a crystal of quartz, but it is untouched by the hardest steel. That is to say, it would be classed by the mineralogist with felspar, and given a hardness of 6 to 6Â·5 on his scale.[1] The freshly broken edge shows a white, perfectly uniform substance, a glassy or vitreous lustre, a finely granular texture, and a fracture conchoidal to splintery. When struck, a vessel of porcelain gives a clear, bell-like note, and in this differs from other kinds of pottery. When held against the light it allows, where the piece is sufficiently thin, a certain amount to pass through, but even in the thinnest splinters porcelain is never transparent. If a thin section be made of a piece of porcelain, and this be examined under the microscope by transmitted light, we see, scattered in a clear, or nearly clear, paste, a vast number of minute, slender rods, and between them many minute granules (Churchâs _English Porcelain_, p. 6). These belonites and spherulites, as they have been called, doubtless reflect the light which would otherwise pass through the glassy base in which they float, and the partial reflection and partial transmission of the light may not be unconnected with the lustrous fracture so characteristic of porcelain. Their presence points to the fact that we are dealing with a more or less definite substance, one which may be compared to a natural mineral species, and not merely with a semi-fused clay, something between stoneware and glass. Now when we come to treat of the chemical constitution of porcelain, we shall find that this view is confirmed. This structure is developed in the paste by the exposure, for a considerable period of time, to a temperature of from 1300Â° to 1500Â° centigrade, a temperature which is sufficient to reduce all other kinds of pottery, with the exception of some kinds of stoneware, to a glassy mass. In the case of porcelain, this great and prolonged heat allows of a complete rearrangement of the molecules in the softened mass. The process may be compared to that by which certain minerals and rocks are formed in the depths of the earth. We see, then, that not only from the standpoint of history, but on the basis of the physical properties and intimate constitution of the material, we are able to draw a sharp line between porcelain and other fictile wares. This distinction is even more definitely shown by a chemical analysis.[2] We are dealing, as in the case of so large a part of the rocks and minerals of the earthâs surface, with certain silicates of the alkalis and alkaline earths, with silicates of alumina above all. All natural clays used for fictile purposes consist essentially of silicates of various bases, such as alumina, lime, iron, potash, and soda, more or less intimately combined with water, and with the addition, generally, of some free silica. If the clay be good in working quality and colour, the next point the potter has to look to is the question of its fusibility. It may be said generally that the simpler the constitution of a silicate, that is the smaller the number of bases that it contains, the greater will be its resistance to fire. Silicate of alumina is unaltered at 1500Â° C., a temperature which may be taken as the maximum at the command of the potter. The fusing-point is reduced by the addition of silica, especially if some other bases such as oxide of iron or lime, or again an alkali, are present even in small quantity. But beyond a certain point the addition of silica raises the fusing-point, and it is important to note that it is this excess of silica that renders certain stonewares and fire-clays so infusible. In the case of porcelain, on the other hand, the resistance to high temperatures depends more upon the percentage of alumina present, and the absence or small amount of other bases. Thus in comparing the composition of different porcelains, we find that it is those that contain the most silica that are the most fusible, or rather, to speak more accurately, that become âporcelainisedâ at a lower temperature.[3] The relation of porcelain to stoneware on the one hand, and to ordinary pottery on the other, will be made clear by the following figures, which give the composition of stoneware, Meissen porcelain, and of a red Samian ware:-- Stoneware. Meissen Porcelain. Samian Ware. Silica, 80 per cent. 58 per cent. 61 per cent. Alumina, 12 â 36 â 21 â Potash and Soda, 5 â 5 â 5 â Lime and Iron, 3 â 1 â 13 â The refractory stoneware contains a large excess of silica over the amount required to combine with the alumina and the âother bases.â In the easily fusible Roman pottery, the âother basesâ nearly equal in amount the alumina, while the Meissen porcelain not only contains less silica than the pottery, but the âother basesâ only amount to a sixth part of the alumina present. But it is not enough for the manufacturer to discover a clay of which the chemical composition corresponds to that of the type of porcelain which he proposes to make. The question, as an experiment of Brongniart long ago proved, is more complicated. Brongniart weighed out the separate constituents for his porcelain--the silica, the alumina, and the alkalis--and from them he formed his paste. He found, however, that the paste readily melted at the heat of the porcelain furnace. The analysis then of any ceramic product can give us but an imperfect clue to the nature and properties of the ware. We want to know how the elements are arranged, and this can only be inferred from a knowledge of the materials employed in the manufacture. I will illustrate this point by comparing the composition of Meissen porcelain with that of our Dorsetshire pipe-clay, the most famous of our English clays, but a material not sufficiently refractory for use in the manufacture of porcelain. Both substances contain the same amount of alumina--36 per cent.; in the Poole clay (after removing the water) there is 55 per cent. of silica and 9 per cent. of âother bases,â against 58 per cent. and 6 per cent. respectively in the porcelain. The composition, therefore, of the two bodies is nearly the same: the clay, while it contains more iron-oxide and lime than the porcelain, is poorer in silica. True porcelain has indeed never been made from any other materials than those so long employed by the Chinese and first described by the missionary, PÃ¨re DâEntrecolles, nearly two hundred years ago. The two essential elements in the composition of porcelain are--(_a_) The hydrated silicate of alumina, which is provided by the white earthy clay known as kaolin or china-clay, a substance infusible at the highest temperature attainable by our furnaces (about 1500Â° C.); (_b_) The silicate of alumina and potash (or more rarely soda), that is to say felspar. But the felspar is generally associated with some amount of both quartz and mica, and is itself in a more or less disintegrated condition. This is the substance known as petuntse or china-stone. It is fusible at the higher temperatures of the porcelain kiln. Of those substances the first is an immediate product of the weathering of the felspar contained in granitic rocks; while the second, the petuntse, is nothing else than the granite
{'title': 'Porcelain by Edward Dillon', 'source': 'Project Gutenberg', 'lang': 'en'}