Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) HANDBOOK OF RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION; FOR THE USE OF AMERICAN ENGINEERS. CONTAINING THE NECESSARY RULES, TABLES, AND FORMULÃ FOR THE LOCATION, CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, AND MANAGEMENT OF RAILROADS, AS BUILT IN THE UNITED STATES. With 158 Illustrations BY GEORGE L. VOSE, CIVIL ENGINEER âRULES THEMSELVES OBLIGE US TO REFLECT, THAT WE MAY SEE WHETHER WE HAVE NOT DEPARTED FROM THEM.ââNAPOLEON. BOSTON AND CAMBRIDGE: JAMES MUNROE AND COMPANY. 1857. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, by JAMES MUNROE AND COMPANY, In the Clerkâs Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. CAMBRIDGE: ALLEN AND FARNHAM, PRINTERS. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ PREFACE. The object of this work is to give in the plainest possible manner all instructions, rules, and tables necessary for the location, construction, equipment, and management of railroads. As a general thing, American engineers are not educated for their business; and when they do possess a knowledge of pure science, they are at a loss how to apply it. The reader is presumed acquainted with the elements of arithmetic, geometry, algebra, and mechanics: being thus provided, he will, by a perusal of what follows, be enabled to correctly proportion bridges, of wood, stone, and iron: abutments, piers, retaining walls, superstructure, and locomotive engines; and to plan and lay out, execute, and estimate any description of work occurring upon railroads. As the object has been more to be useful than original, the best engineering writers and experimenters have been consulted; among whom are,âGauthey, Navier, Vieat, Tredgold, Barlow, Totten, Fairbairn, Hodgkinson, Clark, and Lardner. Also a great number of reports by American civil engineers upon railroad matters. If assumptions take the place of demonstration, it will be on good authority. Readers will bear in mind that the work is a âhandbook,â and not a âtreatise.â It is intended more as an office companion than as a text-book for students. It will give in all cases the actual numerical result needed, whether it be the scantling of a bridge chord, the thickness of a wall, or the dimensions of a locomotive boiler. In connection, it will be found convenient to use the works of Trautwine and Henck, on Field Work: of Lieutenant Smith, on Topography; Davies, on Surveying; and Gurley, on the Use of Instruments. Any one wishing a complete treatise on the principles of bridge construction is referred to the excellent work of Hermann Haupt. I take this opportunity of heartily thanking the engineers who in many ways have aided in making the work, as it is believed, of some worth. G. L. V. GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER I.â RECONNOISSANCE 12 II.â SURVEY 24 III.â LOCATION 41 IV.â PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS 55 V.â LAYING OUT WORK 89 VI.â EARTHWORK 97 VII.â ROCKWORK 115 VIII.â WOODEN BRIDGING 122 IX.â IRON BRIDGING 192 X.â STONE BRIDGING 233 XI.â MASONRY 248 XII.â FOUNDATIONS 261 XIII.â SUPERSTRUCTURE 272 XIV.â EQUIPMENT 302 XV.â STATIONS 403 XVI.â MANAGEMENT 413 APPENDIX 459 ANALYTICAL INDEX. INTRODUCTION. PAGE Rise and progress of railroads 1 Influence of railroads 3 Safety of railroad travelling 5 Preliminary operations 5 Mechanical principles of locomotion 6 Determination of character of road 7 Gauge 8 General establishment of route 10 CHAPTER I. RECONNOISSANCE. General topography 12 Barometrical levelling 18 CHAPTER II. SURVEY. Topographical sketching 24 General establishment of grades 32 Equating for grades 34 Comparison of surveyed lines 39 CHAPTER III. LOCATION. Alignment 41 Final adjustment of grades 46 Comparison of located lines 47 CHAPTER IV. PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS. Specification 55 Contract 81 Solicit 84 Bid 85 Comparison of bids 87 CHAPTER V. LAYING OUT WORK. Slopes 89 Culverts 90 Masonry 91 Tunnels 95 CHAPTER VI. EARTHWORK. Form of railroad sections 97 Excavation and embankment 104 Transport of material 106 Average haul 106 Drainage 109 Method of conducting construction operations 111 CHAPTER VII. ROCKWORK. Rock excavation 115 Blasting and quarrying 115â117 Tunnelling 118 CHAPTER VIII. WOODEN BRIDGING. Of the forces at work in bridges 122 Extension 123 Compression 123 Cross strain 124 Detrusion 126 Strength of materials 126 Rules for practice 131 Of the truss 139 Of the arch 169 Of the road-way 174 Lateral bracing 175 Pile bridging 178 Trestling 180 Draw bridges 181 Centres 182 CHAPTER IX. IRON BRIDGES. Nature and strength of iron 192 Classification of iron bridges 194 Iron truss frames 195 Suspension bridges 203 Boiler plate bridges 223 CHAPTER X. STONE BRIDGING. Of the water-way 233 Form of the arch 236 Thickness of voussoirs 238 Form and thickness of abutments 239 Form and dimensions of piers 245 CHAPTER XI. MASONRY. Stone 248 Cements, mortars, and concretes 249 Construction of arches, wings, and parapet 253 Culverts and drains 255 Retaining walls 256 CHAPTER XII. FOUNDATIONS. Pile driving, common system 262 Mitchellâs screw pile 266 Pottsâs atmospheric system 266 Coffer-dam 267 Caisson 269 CHAPTER XIII. SUPERSTRUCTURE. Timber work 273 Rail section 276 Chairs and joints 282 Frogs 290 Switches 294 Sidings and crossings 298 Elevation of exterior rail 298 CHAPTER XIV. EQUIPMENT. PART I. LOCOMOTIVES. Introduction 302 Birth and growth of the locomotive 302 The English locomotive of 1850 304 The American locomotive of 1855 305 General description 306 Mechanical and physical principles 312 Resistance to the motion of trains 312 Traction and adhesion 316 Fuel 317 Generation of steam 330 Application of steam 336 Boiler proportions and dimensions 340 Rules and tables for practice 354 Adaptation of locomotives to the movement of trains 360 Classification of engines 371 PART SECOND. CARS. Wheels and axles 396 Classification of cars 400 Retarding of trains 401 CHAPTER XV. STATIONS. Classification of buildings 403 Location of buildings 403 Terminal passenger house 403 Terminal freight house 405 Engine house and appurtenances 405 Way passenger and freight house 407 Wood shed and tank 407 CHAPTER XVI. MANAGEMENT. Organization of employees 413 Duties of employees 415 Number of trains to be used 418 Amount of service of engines 418 Expenses, receipts, profits 420 Express trains 428 Comparative cost of working heavy and light trains 434 Branch roads 436 Reproduction of road and of stock 437 Working railroads by contract 439 Classification of freight 439 Time tables 443 Locomotive registers 444 Electric telegraph 454 New York and Erie Railroad 456 APPENDIX. A.âDecimal Arithmetic 459 B.âAlgebraic formulÃ¦ 461 C.âWeights and measures 464 D.âValue of the Birmingham gauges 465 E.âLocomotive boilers 466 F.âEffect of grades on the cost of working 468 G.âForm for a locomotive specification 471 H.âRelative cost of transport by railroad and by stage 476 I.âForm for experimental trips with locomotives 478 K.âProper weight for locomotives 479 ADDITIONS, ALTERATIONS, AND CORRECTIONS. The reader is particularly requested to apply the following errata before perusing the work. They are partly mistakes in printing, and partly errors in the original MS. The only excuse the writer can offer for the number is, that, being engaged in Missouri, while his publishers were in Boston, he has been prevented from seeing a single proof-sheet in time for its correction. Page 5, line 7, for â499.999,â read â499,999.â â 5, l. 9, for â49.999,â read â49,999.â â 10, l. 1, for âcan be,â read âcan never be.â â 12 to 23, headings, for âreconnoitre,â read âreconnoissance.â â 18, l. 24, for â36.9,â read â36.8.â â 19, l. 6, for âtable B,â read âtable D.â â 24, l. 1, for âany thing,â read âevery thing.â â 25, l. 17, for âhorizontal line m m m,â read âline 1, 2, 3,â etc. â 26, l. 2, for âland,â read âlevel.â â 27, l. 1, for âat the place,â read âat the right place.â â 28, l. 29, for âreconnoitre,â read âreconnoissance.â â 30, l. 3, for âA _c d_ B,â read âA C D B.â â 32, l. 2, the point _m_ in the cut, is one whole division above C; it should be only three fourths of a division. â 38, l. 10 from bottom, for â276,â read â268.â â 39, l. 10 from bottom, for â142.13,â read â143.13â; and last line, for â58.46,â read â48.46.â â 40, l. 7, for â10310,667,â read â10,277,333.â â 42, l. 9, for âThus,â read âThese.â â 42, l. 8 from bottom, for â2Â°.81 or 2Â° 48â².6â read â2Â°.86 or 2Â°.51.6.â â 43, l. 27, for âHencke,â read âHenck.â â 47, 48, 49, for âMcCullum,â read âMcCallum.â â 47, l. 18, for âdistance,â read âresistance.â â 48, l. 6, for âinfringing,â read âimpingingâ; line 9, for âslacking,â read âshacklingâ; l. 8 from bottom, for âincreased,â read âincreases.â â 50, l. 17, for â110 + 15.60,â read â110 + 15.62.â â 52, l. 15, for â45.59,â read â45.49â; also l. 17, for â1132,â read â11.32.â â 58, l. 10, for âof size,â read âand size.â â 58, l. 5 from bottom, for âone cent,â read â/100 of a cent.â â 61, l. 3, for âare necessary,â read âare not necessary.â â 63, l. 28, for âstretches,â read âstretchers.â â 65, l. 15, for âspanded,â read âspandrel.â â 71, l. 6 from bottom, for âleft,â read âlet.â â 73, l. 19, for âchains,â read âchairs.â â 74, l. 5, for âacross ties,â read âon cross-ties.â â 74, l. 12, for â28 inches,â read â27 inches.â â 75, l. 18, for âland,â read âhaul.â â 76, l. 8, for âtop,â read âbottom,â and for âcharred when,â read âcharred where.â â 76, l. 11, for âtwopenny,â read âtenpenny.â â 78, l. 1 and 2, for âbase,â read âbasis.â â 84, l. 13, for âas,â read âor.â â 89, l. 6, for âWhenever,â read âWhereverâ; l. 12, for âLetting,â read âSetting.â â 90, l. 4, for âcost,â read âcut.â â 93, l. 6, for â37 and 38,â read â36 and 37.â â 95, l. 1, for âbeach,â read âbenchâ; l. 3, for âto so,â read âso toâ; l. 13, for âb being 10 ft. back of 2 is ... 100.00,â read âb being 10 ft. back of 2 is 0.1 ft. higher than 2, or ... 100.10.â â 102, l. 1, head of middle col., for âSlopes 1Â¼,â read âSlopes 1Â½.â â 103, l. 4 from bottom, for âand ten feet,â read âand one end ten feet.â â 104, l. 9, for âany,â read âvery.â â 108, l. 9, for âElwood,â read âEllwood.â â 115, l. 5, for âa loam,â read âa bermâ; l. 16, for âa rent,â read âa vent.â â 117, l. 7, for âvolcanic,â read âvoltaic.â â 117, l. 9, for âRound Drum,â read âRound Down.â â 117, l. 18, for âCol. Puseling,â read âCol. Pasley.â â 118, l. 2, for âMaillefaut,â read âMaillefert.â â 118, l. 16, for âinsert,â read âinvert.â â 118, l. 25, for âquointed,â read âgrouted.â â 119, l. 30, for âfurnished,â read âfinished.â â 120, Table, for âNochistingo,â read âNochistongoâ; for âSupperton,â read âSappertonâ; and for âBlack Rock, W. S.â read âBlack Rock, U. S.â â 121, l. 19, for âBelchingly,â read âBlechingly.â â 125, in table at bottom, for â90/69,â read â90/66,â and for â140, 20/140, 20/160 or 0.13,â read â111, 20/111, 20/131, or 0.15.â â 126, l. 1, for âextensive,â read âextensile.â â 127, l. 10, for â67,200,â read â65,251.â â 127, l. 26, for âHodgekinson,â read âHodgkinson.â â 128, l. 4, for â12000,â read â11000.â â 128, l. 15 and 22, for âHodgekinson,â read âHodgkinson.â â 129, l. 5, for â12000,â read â11000.â â 129, l. 2 from bottom, for âSun Wood,â read âIronwood.â â 130, l. 7, for â_WL^2_ = 4_Sbd^2_,â read â_WL_ = 4_Sbd^2_.â â 131, l. 9, for âwood 143,â read âwood 133.â â 134, in art. 164, for â700,â read â952.â â 136, for example there given, place the following:â Span 30 feet, Whenceâ Length 34 feet, Length 34 feet, Load 10 tons at centre. Span 30 feet, Depth 25Â½ inches, Lower flange 32.58 square inches, Upper flange 5.34 square inches, _a_ = (6 Ã 10 Ã 12 Ã 30)/(26 Ã (34 Ã 12)/16) = 32.58 and 32.58/6.1 = 5.34. â 141, last line, Fig. 63 A was omitted; it is the same as fig. 102, page 200, inverted. â 142, last line, for âspan,â read âspans.â â 146, head of col. 7, for âTop Washer,â read âThickness of Washer.â â 150, after line 9, Figs. 67 D and 67 E (page 153) should be inserted. â 151, l. 3, for â_W_ = 2249,â etc., read â_W_ = 2240,â etc. â 151, l. 18, for âopposite to 31,416, is the diam. 1â ,â read âopposite to 41,415, is the diam. 1â .â â 151, l. 19, for â1â ,â read â1â .â â 154, last line, for âtubular,â read âtabular.â â 156, l. 4 from bottom, for âwasher band,â read âwasher used.â â 164, l. 10 to 14, inclusive. The first number of ratios should be 20 instead of 15. â 166, l. 11, for â69 B,â read â69 A.â â 171, head of col. 5 of table, for âRod of Arch,â read âRad. of Arch.â â 173, l. 25, for âability,â read âstability.â â 173, l. 32, for âWhence,â read âWhere.â â 175, l. 8, for âtriangular,â read âdiagonal.â â 178, l. 3, for âarticle,â read âoutside.â â 184, l. 4 from bottom, for âbarriers,â read âvoussoirs.â â 187, fig. 96 is upside down; also, fig. 97, page 188, and fig. 98, page 189. â 193, l. 4, col. 3 of table, for â.00000675,â read â.00000685â; also, l. 16, col. 5, for âstraining,â read âshearingâ; l. 7 from bottom, for â15,000,â read â18,000;â and l. 6 from bottom, for â75,000,â read â105,000.â â 199, l. 7 from bottom, for â20,132,â read â20,312.â â 200, l. 4, for âA C,â read âA Gâ; and l. 6, for âthat on A R,â read âthat on A K.â â 202, l. 7, for âon page 193,â read âon page 138.â â 204, l. 5 from bottom, for âvaried line,â read âversed sine.â â 207, l. 5 and 6, for âF G, G E, in place of E F, E C,â read âG L, G E, in place of F L, F C.â â 210, in place of â_fâ²_ = (Ï_F_)/(4_ph_),â put â_D_ = â(Â¾[_V^2_ â _d^2_]) â â(Â¾[_l^2_ â _d^2_]). where _D_ = depression, _l_ = half length of curve before elongation, _V_ = half length of curve after elongation, _d_ = half distance between points of suspension.â Omit the remainder of the paragraph. â 211, omit the 6th and 7th lines, and in place of formula there given, use that on page 210, (as corrected,) _V_ being the length of semi-curve as elongated by heat instead of by tension; the elongations, both by heat and tension, being found by table on page 193. â 212, l. 2, for â510.69,â read â510.80,â which result, of course, runs through the whole example. â 213 and 214. The remarks under âAnchoring Masonry,â are evidently wrong throughout: 1st, the whole tension should be divided by _two_, instead of _four_, as half of the whole tension acts at each point of suspension; 2d, no reduction should be made for the direction of the pulling force. One half of the tension is 3,321,250 lbs.; which is resisted by a column of masonry of 3,321,250/160 = 20,758 cubic feet, or 20 Ã 20 Ã 52 feet, or by a mass 15 Ã 15 Ã 91 feet. â 214, l. 6, for â561,527,â read â562,542.â â 215, l. 14 from bottom, for âSTIFFENING TOWERS,â read âSTIFFENING TRUSSES.â â 225, l. 14, for â194,â read â193.â â 226, l. 3, for âsee page 128,â read âsee page 193.â â 227, l. 4, for âdetensional,â read âdetrusional.â â 228, in place of equations at l. 16, put â_R_ Ã _a_ = _Râ²_ Ã (2 _d_ Ã _t_)â, whence _d_ = (_R_ Ã _a_)/(2_Râ²_ Ã _t_); where _a_ = area of rivet, _d_ = distance, _t_ = plate thickness. â 229, in art. 242, the strengths of âwrought iron,â have been taken for those of âboiler plateâ; that is, 11,000 for 7,500, and 15,000 for 12,740, which is wrong. â 231, l. 21, for âchopped,â read âdropped.â â 234, l. 4, for âjoint,â read âjust.â â 235, l. 14, for â0.016 feet,â read â0.047 feet.â â 236, l. 9, for âcare,â read âease.â â 237, l. 3 from bottom, for ârepresenting,â read âseparating.â â 241, l. 2, for âlocalities,â read âlocality.â â 242, l. 7, omit âand _c_ _e_, the parapets.â â 243, l. 9, for âembankment,â read âabutment.â â 244, l. 9, for âis thus,â read âis found thus.â â 245, l. 17, for âlatter,â read âbatter.â â 249, l. 23, for âcommon hydraulic,â read âcommon mortar, hydraulic.â â 249, l. 27, for âargyle magnesia,â read âargil, magnesia.â â 251, l. 16, for â7Â½ to 2,â read â1Â½ to 2.â â 254, last l., for âcorners,â read âcourses.â â 256, l. 13, for âformed,â read âfound.â â 258, art. 276, in place of â20/2 Ã 15 Ã 1 Ã 100 Ã 20/3,â put â20 Ã 15 Ã 1 Ã 100 Ã 2 Ã 20/3,â where 2 represents the ratio between C^{_a_} 6, and 6â2; thus, 20 Ã 15 Ã 1 Ã 100 Ã 6.6/12 Ã 20/3 = 111,111, for the overthrowing force in place of 100,000. The overthrowing force is thus large, because the maximum weight of earth has been assumed to press against the wall with its whole force, no allowance being made for friction. In practice, 4/10 of the height has been found amply thick for walls retaining ordinary earth. â 262, last l. but one, for âsuperstratum,â read âsubstratum.â â 264, in example, l. 5, for â26,667,â read â48,000.â â 266, l. 25, for âGodwin,â read âGoodwin.â â 266, l. 26, for âThere, sands,â read âThese sands.â â 267, l. 22, for âbottom,â read âproper level.â â 281, l. 4 from bottom, for âcurve,â read âcone.â â 282, l. 20, for âDaniel,â read âDavid.â â 282, l. 4 from bottom, for âcup,â read âcap.â â 284, l. 10, and 285, l. 8, for âcompressed rails,â read âcompound rails.â â 285, l. 5, for âextension,â read âextensile.â â 289, invert col. 1 of table, so that it shall readâ At 100Â° place the rails in contact. At 90Â° at a distance of .00136 feet, or 0.016 inches. At 80Â° at a distance of .00272 feet, or 0.032 inches Etc. â 289, last l., for âlevelled,â read âbevelled.â â 291, last l., for â_a c_, 4.8,â read â_a c_, L 8.â â 292, l. 9, for â_e h_ and _d k_,â read â_e L_ and _d k_â; same p. l. 6 from bottom, for â_a_, 9 is three, etc.â read â_a b_ is three,â etc. â 293, l. 6 and 7, for â_i g_, _e h_, _b b_, 8, 9, _A s_ 79,â read â_i g_, _e h_, _a c_, _b c_.â â 296, l. 14, for â_R^2_ â (_R_ â 8)^2,â read â_R^2_ â (_R_ â _g_)^2.â â 303, art. 299, for âM. Leguire,â read âM. Seguin.â â 306, l. 2, for âR. R. & G.,â read âR. K. and G.â â 314, l. 2, for âD. R. Clark,â read âD. K. Clark.â â 320, l. 1, for âRailroad, three pounds (Pennsylvania),â read âRailroad (Pennsylvania), three pounds.â â 320, l. 7, for âcoal,â read âcoke.â â 331, near bottom, for âThe area is, therefore, Sides, twice length, etc., read âSides, twice length by height, etc., Back, twice height, etc., Back, height by width, etc., Front, twice height, etc., Front, height by width, etc., Top, twice length, etc.,â Top, length by width, etc.â â 334, l. 15, for â44.7 lbs.,â read â14.7 lbs.â â 335, l. 7, for âRailway Mechanics,â read âRailway Machinery.â â 335, l. 10, for âtwo velocities,â read âlow velocities.â â 336, last l., for âentering part,â read âentering port.â â 341, l. 11, for âproperties,â read âproportions.â â 341, last l., for âNollan,â read âNollau.â â 346, l. 17, for âpart,â read âport,â and for âconstruction,â read âcontraction.â â 355, l. 7, for â6300,â read â5170â; and l. 9, for â16,905,â read â15,775.â â 363, l. 17, for â44 Ã 2 = 80,â read â44 Ã 2 = 88.â â 363, l. 18, for â54Â½ Ã 3 = 103Â½,â read â54Â½ Ã 3 = 163Â½.â â 367, l. 16, for â15.0/10,â read â15.0/16,â â 368, l. 15, for â_u_ = 135,â read â_n_ = 135,â etc. â 370, l. 7, for âfeet,â read âper cent.â â 376, for â19090,â read â19050.â â 384, in last part of example, for â5280/(4Â½ Ã 3.1416) Ã 4 = 37300,â read â25 Ã 5280/(4 Ã 3.1416) Ã 4 = 37348.â â 421, bottom line, for âdecision,â read âdivision.â â 423 and 424, in table, for âcount,â read âcost.â â 427, l. 32, for âwhich,â read âwe.â â 428, l. 4, transpose âDr. Lardner, (1850,)â to the end of line 3. â 443, l. 28, for âvaluation,â read âsolution.â â 446, l. 11, for âattained,â read âobtained.â â 459, l. 20, for âHectametre,â read âHectometre.â â 459, l. 21, for âRidometre,â read âKilometre.â â 461, l. 7, for âless than _a_, or _o_,â read âless _a_, or 0.â â 468, l. 30, for âfractions,â read âfunctions.â â 474, l. 18, for âBalbett,â read âBabbitt.â â 479, l. 10, for âone sixth, with much less,â read âone sixth; with sand, much less.â HANDBOOK OF RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION. INTRODUCTION. âThey build not merely roads of earth and stone, as of old, but they build iron roads: and not content with horses of flesh, they are building horses of iron, such as never faint nor lose their breath.ââDR. BUSHNELL. RISE AND PROGRESS OF RAILROADS. 1. In 1825, the Stockton and Darlington Railroad (England), was opened. In 1827, the Quincy (of Massachusetts), and Mauch-Chunk (Pennsylvania), were completed. In 1829, the Liverpool and Manchester road, (England), was finished. In 1833, a road was opened from Charleston, (South Carolina), to Augusta (Georgia). In 1840, Belgium opened 190 miles of railroad. In 1843, the railroad from Paris to Rouen (France), was completed. In 1844, Belgium finished her system of 347 miles. In 1846, Russia opened a railroad from the Wolga to the Don. In 1847, Germany had in operation 2,828 miles. In 1852, the Moscow and St. Petersburg road was finished. 2. In 1856, the United States of America had in operation 23,000 miles, and in progress 17,000 miles; employing 6,000 locomotive engines, 10,000 passenger and 70,000 freight cars; costing in all about 750,000,000 of dollars; running annually 114,000,000 miles, and transporting 123Â½ millions of passengers, and 30 millions of tons of freight per annum; performing a passenger mileage of 4,750,000,000, and a freight mileage of 3,000,000,000. 3. By mileage is meant the product of miles run, by tons or by passengers carried. Thus, 500 persons carried 100 miles, and 750 persons carried 75 miles, give a passenger mileage of 500 Ã 100 + 750 Ã 75 = 106,250. 4. The rate of progress in the United States has been as follows:â In 1828, there were 3 miles. In 1830, 41 miles. In 1840, 2,167 miles. In 1850, 7,355 miles. In 1856, 23,242 miles. At the present time, January 1, 1857, there is probably, in round numbers, 25,000 miles of completed road, or enough to extend entirely around the world. As regards the ratio of completed road to population, and as regards the actual length of railroad in operation, the United States stand before any other country. INFLUENCE OF RAILROADS. 5. The effect of a judicious system of railroads upon any community is to increase consumption and to stimulate the production of agricultural products; to distribute more generally the population, to cause a balance between supply and demand, and to increase both the amount and safety of travelling. It is stated that within two years after the opening of the New York and Erie Railroad, it was carrying more agricultural produce than the entire quantity which had been raised throughout the tributary country before the road was built. 6. The following table, cut from a Chicago paper, shows the effect of railroad transport upon the cost of grain in that market:â â WHEAT. â CORN. âBy R. R. By Wagon.âBy R. R. By Wagon. At market,â $49.50 $49.50â $25.60 $25.60 10 miles,â 49.25 48.00â 24.25 23.26 50 miles,â 48.75 42.00â 24.00 17.25 100 miles,â 48.00 34.50â 23.25 9.75 150 miles,â 47.25 27.00â 22.50 2.25 200 miles,â 46.50 19.50â 21.75 0.00 250 miles,â 45.75 12.00â 21.00 0.00 300 miles,â 45.00 4.50â 20.25 0.00 330 miles,â 44.55 0.00â 19.80 0.00 Thus a ton of corn carried two hundred miles, costs, per wagon transport, more than it brings at market; while moved by railroad, it is worth $21.75 per ton. Also wheat will not bear wagon transport of three hundred and thirty miles; while moved that distance by railroad it is worth $44.55 per ton. 7. By railroads, large cities are supplied with fresh meats and vegetables, butter, eggs, and milk. An unhealthy increase of density of population is prevented, by enabling business men to live five, ten, or fifteen miles away from the city and yet do business therein. The amount of this diffusion is as the square of the speed of transport. If a person walks four miles per hour, and supposing one hour allowed for passing from the house to the place of business, he cannot live at a greater distance than four miles from his work. The area, therefore, which may be lived in, is the circle of which the radius is four, the diameter eight, and the area fifty and one quarter square miles. If by horse one can go eight miles per hour, the diameter becomes sixteen miles, and area two hundred and one square miles; and, if by railroad he moves thirty miles per hour, the diameter becomes sixty miles, and the area 2,827 square miles. The effect of such diffusion is plainly seen about Boston, (Massachusetts). People who in 1830 were mostly confined to the city, now live in Dorchester, Milton, Dedham, Roxbury, Brookline, Brighton, Cambridge, Charlestown, Somerville, Chelsea, Lynn, and Salem; places distant from two to thirteen miles. 8. In railroads, as in other labor saving (and labor producing) machines, the innovation has been loudly decried. But though it does render some classes of labor useless, and throw out of employment some persons, it creates new labor far more than the old, and gives much more than it takes away. Twenty years of experience shows that the diminished cost of transport by railroad invariably augments the amount of commerce transacted, and in a much larger ratio than the reduction of cost. It is estimated by Dr. Lardner, that 300,000 horses working daily in stages would be required to perform the passenger traffic alone, which took place in England during the year 1848. It is concluded, also, from reliable returns, that could the whole number of passengers carried by railroad, have been transported by stage, the excess of cost by that method above that by railroad would have been $40,000,000. SAFETY OF RAILROAD TRAVELLING. 9. If we know that in a given time the whole distance travelled by passengers was 500,000 miles, and that in such time there occurred one fatal accident, it follows that when a person travels one mile, the chances are 499,999 against one of losing life. If he travel ten miles, the chances are 49,999 against one, or ten times as many of meeting with loss of life; and generally the chances of accident are as the distance travelled. In 1855, the whole number of miles run by passengers in the United States was, in round numbers, 4,750,000,000, while there were killed one hundred and sixteen; or one in every 41,000,000, very nearly. (The ratio in England is one in every 65,000,000.) Now if for each 400,000 miles travelled by stage passengers, (a distance equal to sixteen times round the world,) one passenger was killed, and if the whole railroad mileage could be worked by stages, there would be annually 11,875 lives lost; or one hundred times the number annually lost by railroad. Thus it would be one hundred times safer to travel by railroad than by stage. The danger of steamboat travelling is far greater than by stage. PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS. 10. The first step to be taken in starting a railroad enterprise, is the choice of a board of directors (provisional), whose duty is to find all that can be known of the commercial, financial, and agricultural nature of the country to be traversed. To determine as near as possible its ability to build and support a road; and to obtain the necessary legislative enactments. 11. The determination of the increase of traffic which the road may be expected to excite, is a difficult matter. There can be few rules given for proceeding in such an inquiry. It seems very easy to prove by what roads have done, that any project will be profitable. An abstract of a report lately published, tries to prove that a road will pay forty-five and one half per cent. net; the working expenses being assumed at only thirteen and one half per cent. of the gross receipts. The error here lies in assuming the working expenses too low, as few roads in the country have been worked for less than forty per cent.; a more common ratio being fifty one-hundredths of the gross receipts. Not one half of railroads are built for the original estimate. In few cases has sufficient allowance been made for the sacrifice undergone in negotiating the companiesâ securities. All general instructions that can be given relating to the determination of prospective profits, are, to keep the estimate of constructing and working expenses high, and that of the assumed traffic low; not so low, however, as to require a too lightly built road. MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES OF LOCOMOTION. 12. The superiority which the modern railroad possesses over the common, McAdam, plank, or turnpike-road, consists, first, in the reduction of the resistance to motion, and second, in the application of the locomotive steam-engine. 13. The effect of grades of a given incline upon a railroad is _relatively_ more than upon common roads; for as the _absolute_ resistance on a level decreases, the _relative_ resistance of grades augments: whence to obtain the full benefit of the system, we must reduce much more the grades and curvature upon a railroad, than on a common road. For example, if the resistance to moving one ton upon a level upon a railroad was ten pounds, and upon a common road forty pounds, where a twenty-three feet grade would be admissible upon the former, we might use an incline of ninety-three feet per mile upon the latter. 14. The resistance to the motion of railroad trains increases rapidly with the speed;[1] whence the grades of a passenger road where a high average speed is used, may be steeper than those of a road doing a freight business chiefly. Footnote 1: See chapter XIV. DETERMINATION OF CHARACTER OF ROAD. 15. Upon a correct idea of what the road ought to be, depends in a great degree its success. The amount of capital expended upon the reduction of the natural surface, depends upon the expected amount of traffic. The traffic remaining the same, the greater the capital expended in reducing grades and curvature, the less will be the working expense; and the less the construction capital, the greater that for maintenance. The limit of expenditure must be such as to render the sum of construction and maintaining capital a minimum. The bad effect of grades upon the cost of maintaining and of working railroads, is not so great as many suppose. Of the whole cost of working, only about forty per cent. can be charged to locomotive power; and of this, not more than sixty-two per cent. is effected by grades.[2] Footnote 2: See appendix F. 16. The degree of curvature to be admitted upon any road depends somewhat upon the speeds at which trains are to be run. The larger the radius of curvature, the greater may be the speed; at the same time the elevation of the exterior rail upon curves may be less, and therefore more adapted to freight trains. High rates of speed are considered upon some competing roads necessary; but are, even in such cases, necessary evils. The wear of cars and of engines, of permanent way and of bridges, increase in a rapid ratio with the velocity. The maximum speed for freight trains should never exceed fifteen miles per hour, or for passenger trains from twenty to twenty-five miles per hour.[3] Footnote 3: See chapter XVI. 17. The agricultural nature of the country and its commercial position, will determine the nature of the traffic, whether passenger or freight, and also the amount. The amount and nature of the traffic will limit the curvature, and will partially determine the arrangement of grades. GAUGE. 18. The question of broad and narrow gauge has led to much discussion, and both plans claim among their advocates some of the best engineers. The narrow gauge (American and English,) is four feet eight and one half inches (from inside to inside of rail). The maximum adopted, is (the Great Western of England) seven feet. The American maximum (New York and Erie, and Ohio and Mississippi) is six feet. There is also in America four feet ten inches, five feet, and five feet six inches. The advantage of the broad gauge for a road doing an extensive business, is the increased stowage room in freight cars, thus rendering admissible shorter trains; by which the locomotive power is more directly applied on curves. More comfortable passenger cars, (the same length of car of course accommodates the same number of passengers). The disadvantages of a wide gauge are, increased expense of cutting, embanking, bridging, and masonry; increased expense of engines, cars, rails, sleepers, and all machinery; more wear and tear upon curves, by reason of greater difference between the lengths of inner and outer rails, and increased atmospheric resistance to fast trains, from increased bulk. 19. The general conclusion arrived at by a commission appointed by the Great Western Railway Company, (England,) consisting of Messrs. Nicholas Wood, J. K. Brunel, and John Hawkshaw, was, that four feet, eight and one half inches was rather narrow, but still enough for a certain class of roads; that two or three inches made no material difference; that seven feet was too wide for any road; that the weight of the broad gauge engine, compared with the small increase of power, was a serious evil; that engines could be run with perfect safety upon the narrow gauge at any speed from thirty to sixty miles per hour, and that no more had been attained upon the broad; that rolling friction was less upon the broad, owing to the increased diameter of wheels, but that friction from curves and atmospheric resistance was greater. 20. D. K. Clark, in âRailway Machinery,â p. 300, 301, makes the resistance as deduced from experiments made upon both the four feet, eight and one half inches, and the seven feet gauge, considerably greater upon the former than on the latter; but as the narrow gauge trials were made upon a curved road, with rails in a bad state, in average weather, while those upon the broad were made in good weather, upon a good and straight line, he leaves the gauge question open, and uses the same formula for all widths. 21. Want of increased power, can be an apology for increased gauge, until the capacity of the narrow gauge has been filled. The strongest engines in the world are upon the four feet, eight and one half inch gauge. No engines in America surpass or compare for absolute strength, with those upon the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. The most powerful passenger engine ever built for high speeds, is Cramptonâs engine âLiverpool,â (London and North-western Railroad, England,) gauge four feet, eight and one half inches. GENERAL ESTABLISHMENT OF ROUTE. 22. The straight and level line connecting any two points, is of course the best for the completed road; but this is seldom practicable. Way towns must be accommodated to a certain extent; but the main line should not be lengthened on that account, unless the traffic and capital furnished by such town is not only sufficient to pay for the construction and maintenance of the extra length, but also to carry the entire through traffic over such increased distance. If the town is unable to support such a burden, it may be able to build and maintain a branch. 23. Routes placed upon the immediate bank of a large stream, are generally crossed by a great number of deep gorges, which serve to drain the side lands. 24. Routes placed upon sloping land, when the axis of the road and the natural descent are at right angles to each other, are more subject to slides than when placed upon plateaus or âbottoms.â 25. Lines crossing the dividing ridges of separate waters, rise and fall a great deal; thus rendering necessary a strong motive power to work the road. Such roads are the Western of Massachusetts, passing from the valley of the Connecticut at Springfield, to the Hudson River valley at Greenbush. Also those roads crossing the Alleghanies. And such will be the Pacific road, crossing first the Rocky Mountains to the Great Basin, and second, the Sierra Nevada into the Sacramento valley. CHAPTER I. RECONNOISSANCE. 26. The object of the reconnoitre is to find approximately the place for the road, (i. e. within half of a mile,) to find the general form of the country, and to choose that part which with reference to the expected traffic, shall give the best gradients; to determine the elevations of summits upon competing routes; and, in fine, to prepare the way for the survey. GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY. 27. The general topography of a country may be ascertained by reference to State maps, where such exist, and when not, by riding over the district. The direction and size of watercourses, will show at once the position of summits. [Illustration: Fig. 1.] 28. Water flowing as in fig. 1, indicates a fall from B to E; and also traverse slopes from _a a_ and _c c_ to _d d_. [Illustration: Fig. 2.] 29. Fig. 2 shows a broken ridge _a a a_ from which the water flows in both directions; and in general, the sources of streams point towards the higher lands. [Illustration: Fig. 3.] 30. If it be required to join the points A and D by railroad, (fig. 3.) it may be better to pass at once from A through B and C, than to go by the streams F E, Fâ² Eâ². By the latter route the road would _ascend_ all of the way from A to E; and descend from Eâ² to D. By the first if it requires steep gradients to rise from A to B, and to fall from C to D, still if the section B C is a plateau, and if the rise between A and B and A and E is the same, by grouping the grades at B and C we may so adapt the motive power, as to take the same train from A to D without breaking. The general arrangement of grades by the line A B C D is then as fig. 4; and A F E Eâ² Fâ² D, as in fig. 5. The saving in this case is by length, as the same amount of power is required to overcome a given ascent. [Illustration: Fig. 4.] [Illustration: Fig. 5.] 31. Valleys generally rise much faster near their source, than at any point lower down; also the width increases as we approach the debouch. Fig. 6 shows the cross sections of a valley from its source to the mouth. [Illustration: Fig. 6.] 32. In the case of parallel valleys running in the same direction, the form will be as in fig 7. Let 1 2, 1 2, etc., represent a datum level, or a horizontal plane passing through the lowest point. The line _a b_, shows the height of the bottom at B; _c d_ that at D, _e f_ that at E, and _g h_ that at C. The broken lines _i, k, l, m, n_, show the general form of the land. Now by the route _m m m m_, from A to F, we have the profile _m m m m_, fig. 8, by _n n n n_, the profile _n n n n_, and by _o o o_, the profile _o o o_. [Illustration: Fig. 7.] [Illustration: Fig. 8.] [Illustration: Fig. 9.] 33. In the case of parallel valleys running in opposite directions, as in fig. 9, we have the form there shown; and the profiles corresponding to the several lines are shown in fig. 10. As we should always adopt the line giving the least rise and fall, other things being equal, it is plain which line on the plan we must follow. [Illustration: Fig. 10.] 34. In passing from A to B, figs. 11 and 12, by the several lines _c, d, e, f_, we have the profiles shown at _c, d, e, f_, from which it appears, that the nearer we cross to the heads of streams, the less is the difference of heights. [Illustration: Fig. 11.] [Illustration: Fig. 12.] [Illustration: Fig. 12 (_a_).] 35. If we wish to go from A to B, fig. 12 (_a_), we should of course take first the straight line; but being obliged to avoid the hill C, on arriving at _d_, we should not try to recover that line at _e_, but proceed at once to B. Also as we are obliged to pass through _d_, we ought to go _directly_ to _d_ and not by the way of _c_; and the same idea is repeated between A and _d_; the last line being A _b d_ B. Few rules can be given in the choice of routes. Practice only will enable the engineer to find the best location for a railroad. BAROMETRICAL LEVELLING. 36. The relative height of summits, the rate of fall of streams, and absolute elevation, within a few feet, may be easily, rapidly, and cheaply found by the barometer. This also affords an excellent check upon subsequent levelling operations. The results thus obtained depend upon the physical property, that the density of the air decreases as the square of the height. 37. The barometer is a glass tube, partly filled with mercury, having a vacuum in the upper part. By it the exact density of the air at any point is determined. Accompanying are two thermometers; one _attached_, showing the temperature of the _barometer_; the other _detached_, showing the _atmospheric_ temperature. 38. Knowing now the manner of finding the density of the air at any two points, and also the relation between density and height, the operation of levelling by the barometer is very simple. The _modus operandi_ is as follows, (see tables A, B, C, and D):â Let us have the notes. Barom. Attached Therm. Detached Therm. Upper Station, 29.75 28.5 27.9 Lower Station, 26.80 36.8 36.3 Latitude 46Â° N. We have by table A, against the bar. point, 29.75, 6108.6 also by table A, against the bar. point, 26.80, 5276.6 ââââââ The difference 832.0 Diff. of attached therm. 36.8Â°- 28.5Â° = 8.3Â° (table B) -12.2 ââââââ 819.8 Double the sum of detached thermometers multiplied by 1/1000 of 819.8 is 2(27.9 + 36.3) Ã .8198 = + 105.3 ââââââ 925.1 Correction (see table C) for lat. 46Â° N. and approximate height 925.1 + 3.1 ââââââ 928.2 Final correction by table D. The barometer at the lower station being 26.80, and the tabular number against 27.56 being 0.22, that for 26.80 will be 0.31, and we have 1000 to .31 as 928.2 to 0.287, or 0.3, which add to 928.2 and we have as the final height 928.5 metres, or 928.5 Ã 3.28 = 3045.48 feet. The tables above referred to, are those of Mr. Oltman, and are considered as the most convenient and reliable of any published. TABLE A. âââââââââââââââââ¬ââââââââââââââââ âEnglish Inches.â Metres. â âââââââââââââââââ¼ââââââââââââââââ¤ â 14.56â 418.5â â 14.61â 440.0â â 14.65â 461.5â â 14.68â 482.9â â 14.72â 504.2â â 14.76â 525.4â â 14.80â 546.6â â 14.84â 567.8â â 14.88â 588.9â â 14.92â 609.9â â 14.96â 630.9â â 15.00â 651.8â â 15.04â 672.7â â 15.08â 693.5â â 15.12â 714.3â â 15.16â 735.0â â 15.20â 755.6â â 15.24â 776.2â â 15.28â 796.8â â 15.31â 817.3â â 15.35â 837.8â â 15.39â 858.2â â 15.43â 878.5â â 15.47â 898.8â â 15.51â 919.0â â 15.55â 939.2â â 15.59â 959.3â â 15.63â 979.4â â 15.67â 999.5â â 15.71â 1019.5â â 15.75â 1039.4â â 15.79â 1059.3â â 15.83â 1079.1â â 15.87â 1098.9â â 15.91â 1118.6â â 15.95â 1138.3â â 15.98â 1157.9â â 16.02â 1177.5â â 16.06â 1197.1â â 16.10â 1216.6â â 16.14â 1236.0â â 16.18â 1255.4â â 16.22â 1274.8â â 16.26â 1294.1â â 16.30â 1313.3â â 16.34â 1332.5â â 16.38â 1351.7â â 16.42â 1370.8â â 16.46â 1389.9â â 16.50â 1408.9â â 16.54â 1427.9â â 16.57â 1446.8â â 16.61â 1465.7â â 16.65â 1484.7â â 16.69â 1503.4â â 16.73â 1522.2â â 16.77â 1540.8â â 16.81â 1559.5â â 16.85â 1578.2â â 16.89â 1596.8â â 16.93â 1615.3â â 16.97â 1633.8â â 17.01â 1652.2â â 17.05â 1670.6â â 17.09â 1689.0â â 17.13â 1707.3â â 17.17â 1725.6â â 17.20â 1743.8â â 17.24â 1762.1â â 17.28â 1780.3â â 17.32â 1798.4â â 17.36â 1816.5â â 17.40â 1834.5â â 17.44â 1852.5â â 17.48â 1870.4â â 17.52â 1888.3â â 17.56â 1906.2â â 17.60â 1924.0â â 17.64â 1941.8â â 17.68â 1959.6â â 17.72â 1977.3â â 17.76â 1994.9â â 17.79â 2012.6â â 17.83â 2030.2â â 17.87â 2047.8â â 17.91â 2065.3â â 17.95â 2082.8â â 17.99â 2100.2â â 18.03â 2117.6â â 18.07â 2135.0â â 18.11â 2152.3â â 18.15â 2169.6â â 18.19â 2186.9â â 18.23â 2204.1â â 18.27â 2221.3â â 18.31â 2238.4â â 18.35â 2255.5â â 18.39â 2272.6â â 18.42â 2289.6â â 18.46â 2306.6â â 18.50â 2323.6â â 18.54â 2340.5â â 18.58â 2357.4â â 18.62â 2374.2â â 18.66â 2391.1â â 18.70â 2407.9â â 18.74â 2424.6â â 18.78â 2441.3â â 18.82â 2458.0â â 18.86â 2474.6â â 18.90â 2491.3â â 18.94â 2507.9â â 18.98â 2524.3â â 19.02â 2540.8â â 19.05â 2557.3â â 19.09â 2573.7â â 19.13â 2590.2â â 19.17â 2506.6â â 19.21â 2622.9â â 19.25â 2639.2â â 19.29â 2655.4â â 19.33â 2671.6â â 19.37â 2687.9â â 19.41â 2704.1â â 19.45â 2720.2â â 19.49â 2736.3â â 19.53â 2752.3â â 19.57â 2768.3â â 19.61â 2784.4â â 19.65â 2800.4â â 19.68â 2816.3â â 19.72â 2832.2â â 19.76â 2848.1â â 19.80â 2864.0â â 19.84â 2879.8â â 19.88â 2895.6â â 19.92â 2911.3â â 19.96â 2927.0â â 20.00â 2942.7â â 20.04â 2958.4â â 20.08â 2974.0â â 20.12â 2989.6â â 20.16â 3005.2â â 20.20â 3020.7â â 20.24â 3036.2â â 20.28â 3051.7â â 20.31â 3067.2â â 20.35â 3082.6â â 20.39â 3097.9â â 20.43â 3113.3â â 20.47â 3128.6â â 20.51â 3143.9â â 20.55â 3159.2â â 20.59â 3174.4â â 20.63â 3189.7â â 20.67â 3204.9â â 20.71â 3220.0â â 20.75â 3235.1â â 20.79â 3250.2â â 20.83â 3265.3â â 20.87â 3280.3â â 20.90â 3295.3â â 20.94â 3310.3â â 20.98â 3325.3â â 21.02â 3340.2â â 21.06â 3355.1â â 21.10â 3370.0â â 21.14â 3384.8â â 21.18â 3399.6â â 21.22â 3414.4â â 21.26â 3429.2â â 21.30â 3443.9â â 21.34â 3458.6â â 21.38â 3473.3â â 21.42â 3487.9â â 21.46â 3502.5â â 21.50â 3517.2â â 21.54â 3531.8â â 21.57â 3546.3â â 21.61â 3560.8â â 21.65â 3575.3â â 21.69â 3589.8â â 21.73â 3604.2â â 21.77â 3618.6â â 21.81â 3633.0â â 21.85â 3647.4â â 21.89â 3661.7â â 21.93â 3676.0â â 21.97â 3690.3â â 22.01â 3704.6â â 22.05â 3718.8â â 22.09â 3733.0â â 22.13â 3747.2â â 22.17â 3761.3â â 22.20â 3775.4â â 22.24â 3789.5â â 22.28â 3803.6â â 22.32â 3817.7â â 22.36â 3831.7â â 22.40â 3845.7â â 22.44â 3859.7â â 22.48â 3873.7â â 22.52â 3887.6â â 22.56â 3901.5â â 22.60â 3915.4â â 22.64â 3929.3â â 22.68â 3943.1â â 22.72â 3956.9â â 22.76â 3970.7â â 22.80â 3984.5â â 22.83â 3998.2â â 22.87â 4011.9â â 22.91â 4025.6â â 22.95â 4039.3â â 22.99â 4052.9â â 23.03â 4066.6â â 23.07â 4080.2â â 23.11â 4093.8â â 23.15â 4107.3â â 23.19â 4120.8â â 23.23â 4134.3â â 23.27â 4147.8â â 23.31â 4161.3â â 23.35â 4174.7â â 23.39â 4188.1â â 23.43â 4201.5â â 23.46â 4214.9â â 23.50â 4228.2â â 23.54â 4241.6â â 23.58â 4254.9â â 23.62â 4268.2â â 23.66â 4281.4â â 23.70â 4294.7â â 23.74â 4307.9â â 23.78â 4321.1â â 23.82â 4334.3â â 23.86â 4347.4â â 23.90â 4360.5â â 23.94â 4373.7â â 23.98â 4386.7â â 24.02â 4399.8â â 24.06â 4412.8â â 24.09â 4425.9â â 24.13â 4438.9â â 24.17â 4451.9â â 24.21â 4464.8â â 24.25â 4477.7â â 24.29â 4490.7â â 24.33â 4503.6â â 24.37â 4516.4â â 24.41â 4529.3â â 24.45â 4542.1â â 24.49â 4554.9â â 24.53â 4567.7â â 24.57â 4580.5â â 24.61â 4593.2â â 24.65â 4606.0â â 24.68â 4618.7â â 24.72â 4631.4â â 24.76â 4644.0â â 24.80â 4656.7â â 24.84â 4669.3â â 24.88â 4682.0â â 24.92â 4694.5â â 24.96â 4707.1â â 25.00â 4719.7â â 25.04â 4732.2â â 25.08â 4744.7â â 25.12â 4757.2â â 25.16â 4769.7â â 25.20â 4782.1â â 25.24â 4794.6â
{'title': 'Handbook of Railroad Construction; For the use of American engineers. by Vose', 'source': 'Project Gutenberg', 'lang': 'en'}