Produced by David T. Jones, Mardi Desjardins & the Online Distributed Proofreaders Canada team at http://www.pgdpcanada.net Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). [Illustration: Portrait with inscription - Yours faithfully Charles Wesley Emerson] P S Y C H O V O X OR THE EMERSON SYSTEM OF VOICE CULTURE. BY CHARLES WESLEY EMERSON. _Founder of the Emerson College of Oratory_, BOSTON, MASS. [Illustration: logo] EMERSON PUBLISHING COMPANY MILLIS, MASS. 1923 COPYRIGHT, 1897. BY CHARLES WESLEY EMERSON. CONTENTS Voice, the Natural Reporter of the Individual. Organs that Produce, Reinforce, and Give Resonant Forms to the Voice. Relation of the Proper Use of the Voice to Health. Relation of the Proper Use of the Voice to the Nervous System. Relation of Pitch to Resonance. Methods for Cultivating the Voice. Exercises. Rhythm. Quality of Voice. Vocal Technique. Index. â_When a man lives with God, his_ _voice shall be as sweet as the murmur of_ _the brook and the rustle of the corn._â =PSYCHO VOX.= =_VOICE, THE NATURAL REPORTER OF THE INDIVIDUAL._= It is true in nature, in both organic and inorganic matter, that sound reports the quality of substance, that is, the quality of the sound indicates the quality of the object which produces it. This is very apparent in the animal kingdom. The naturalist knows by the tone of the birdâs voice what kind of bird it is. The hunter knows by the voice of a wild animal heard in the distance whether it is carniverous or herbiverous; for in the voice of the former he hears something which is savage, something which tears, while in the latter he hears the softer tones of the milder animal. In this treatise I shall consider the human voice as the natural reporter of the individual, his character, and his physical and mental states. I am not considering the individual in any narrow sense, but in the sense of his entire beingâbody and mind. Modern research shows that the mind affects all parts of the body,âthe brain most immediately. I would not be understood, however, to imply that the brain thinks, or that any part of the body thinks; but that the soul uses the body in this world as a medium through which to manifest its thoughts, emotions, and purposes. One of natureâs laws is expression. What is inmost shall be outermost. What is spoken in secret âshall be proclaimed upon the housetops.â This law is never supplanted, never circumscribed, it always was, is, and ever will be constant in its action. The mind expresses its degree of development through the vocal mechanism. As the individual rises in development, more thought is expressed in his voice. The voice of a baby has little mind in it; it reports little more than physical sensations. If its physical sensations are agreeable, the âcooâ tells it more clearly than words could. As the mind continues to develop, one power after another manifests itself in the voice until we hear thought, affection, and choice speaking in unmistakable tones. The voice is educated through inducing right states of mind while using it. Mont Blanc rises shoulder to shoulder with other mountains; then, towering above them, its brow pierces the clouds. One speaking while inspired with a sense of its sublimity need not be told not to speak on a high pitch, for he will feel no impulse so to do. Education means to draw out; therefore all true education is from within. If there ever was an age of the world in which this needed to be said, it is to-day. Materialism has spread all over the civilized world, influencing men in religion and in education. I admit that man is influenced by environment, but it must be remembered that man is not confined to material environment alone, his immediate environment is Spirit. Man learns not only from without, but from within; not through sense merely, but through soul. Singing is heart speaking to heart; inward life speaking to inward life. The power of moving the feelings is the power by which the world is governed. A person may possess reason, but reason must speak in the form of feeling before it becomes effective in influencing others. Elementally considered, the singing and the speaking voices are one. Good teaching for the one is good teaching for the other. The first step in educating the voice is to teach the pupil to think in sounds. The voice is capable of expressing every mental activityâintellectual as well as emotional. The voice rarely fails to reveal the lower order of feelings, as physical pleasure or pain; it can also reveal the higher realm of feelings,âbenevolence, love of truth for its own sake, love of good, sympathy with all conscious being, hope, faith, and all spiritual perceptions. The mind must be trained to the perception of beautiful vocal sounds; it must hold these sounds as ideals while practising with the voice. It is at this point that the chief difficulty in vocal culture arises, viz., that of keeping the mind constantly and exclusively concentrated upon its ideals. If a person holds the right ideal steadily before his mind while properly practising, repetition will cause this ideal to take dominating possession of the tones, and thus shape them to itself and become incarnated in them. I once heard a most interesting conversation between two gentlemen, one of whom was a Russian violinist. A young Italian had been entertaining a company by playing upon a violin. The Russian asked to see the instrument, and said to a gentleman sitting near, âThis is a very old violinâprobably a hundred years old.â The other replied, âI suppose it must be very valuable, then, for we are told that the longer a violin is played upon the better it becomes.â âAh, my friend,â continued the Russian, âthat all depends upon what kind of music has been played upon it. The tone of this violin indicates to my mind that it has deteriorated in value in consequence of its having been compelled to discourse music of an inferior quality.â What a revelation in nature! The molecules that compose the wood of a violin can be marshalled into harmony by the music played upon it! If in the mind of the violinist there is melody and harmony of a high order, it finds its way through his fingers into the bow that touches the strings, and all the molecules of the resounding wood waltz into harmonious forms. What a spectacle for the eye of reason to see all these molecules begin to form into line and step out to the concord of sweet sounds born of the mind of the musician! If this principle is true of the violin, is it not pre-eminently true of the vocal organism which was designed by its infinite Creator for the especial purpose of responding to the activities of the mind that inhabits it? As the mind thinks mystery, grandeur, or solemnity, the vocalized breath is shaped into corresponding forms of expression. In the throat is a beautiful instrument, made by Him who made the soul to require such an organ for its expression. It is a fatal mistake to consider the voice as something separate from the man. The true voice is the soul incarnated in tone. The mission of the voice is to communicate to others what is in the soul of each. The eyes of no two persons receive the same rays of light. All men know more than one man, because each person has his own individual point from which to view life and the world. If we listen not to the report of others, our lives will contain but little truth. A person with a grand intellect lies as open to the thoughts of others as the placid lake to the stars which it nightly reflects. Narrow minds will entertain only those thoughts which come to them through some channel in favor of which they maintain a prejudice. The receptive mind will âprove all thingsâ by entertaining all things, and then âhold fast that which is good.â This power to communicate thought through sound is beautiful and mysterious. A person listening to an orchestral composition often finds that the thoughts awakened in him correspond to those which inspired the composer. I know that Beethoven believed in Godâs government on earth, because once while listening to one of his compositions, which no words accompanied, visions arose before my mind. I saw the early condition of this world; I heard a sound as if a thousand wild animals were tearing each other into fragments with snarls, and yells, and fierce cries. The blood was flowing, and their eyes were shooting fire. I next saw men tearing each other as the beasts had done before. I saw the glitter of arms and the coats of mail; I saw the onset and heard the shock of the charge. I saw men fall, and then there went up a groan of agony which finally merged into a cry toward heaven for help. It was a universal prayer of suffering humanity. Then there came a voice to which all heaven seemed to contribute, a voice that was helpful, a voice of forgiveness, a voice that seemed to soothe the cry of agony, and fully answer the prayer. Old things had passed away, and behold, all things had become new. There was a new heaven and a new earth wherein dwelt righteousness. Human beings I saw, not as âtrees walking,â but as gods crowned with love, glory, and immortality. It was then I was made to realize what the apostle meant when he said he was caught up into heaven and saw things unlawful to utter,ânot against the laws of man, but above the laws of language. The composition of Beethoven made me think what words could not tell. In the poem, â_Aux Italiens_,â Owen Meredith describes the power exerted upon the minds of others through a composition of Verdi when rendered by Mario. Of all the operas that Verdi wrote, The best, to my taste, is the Trovatore; And Mario could soothe with a tenor note The souls in purgatory. The moon on the tower slept soft as snow, And who was not thrilled in the strangest way, As we heard him sing, while the gas burned low, â_Non ti scordar di me!_â The Emperor there, in his box of state, Looked grave, as if he had just then seen The red flag wave from the city gate, Where his eagles in bronze had been. There was something in the voice of the singer which caused the Emperorâs mind to see the red flag standing where âhis eagles in bronze had been.â The Empress, too, had a tear in her eye. Youâd have said that her fancy had gone back again For one moment under the old blue sky To the old, glad life in Spain. The tones of Mario caused the Empress to see her early home; and the chief character in the poem to see his first love, and to even smell the flower he had seen her wear. Meanwhile, I was thinking of my first love, As I had not been thinking of aught for years, Till over my eyes there began to move Something that felt like tears. . . . . . . . . . . For I thought of her grave below the hill, Which the sentinel cypress tree stands over, And I thought,ââWere she only living still, How I could forgive her and love her!â And I swear, as I thought of her thus, in that hour, And of how, after all, old things were best, That I smelt the smell of that jasmin-flower Which she used to wear in her breast. An orator, by his tones as well as by his words, causes definite mental activities to take possession of his audience, thus influencing them with the action of their own minds. The language of tone is the language of the spheres, it is the language of the invisible world, it is the language of the angels. The soul knows what tones to employ for the purpose of communicating its own activities to other souls. The impulse of the soul constructs the form of the tone which communicates its thought to the audience. There is no such thing as true voice which soul has not formed. The proper study of the voice is a study of the manifestations of the soul. Life is rich and valuable if we live from the interior. Life is disappointing, life is the blasting of all highest hopes, life is the shatterer and annihilator of all ideals, if we live not from the soul. âIn the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.â âAll things were made by Him; and without Him was not anything made that was made.â Think what an estimate the Bible puts upon the âWord!â The Word, which is the fruition of the soul in manifestation, is used as a symbol of the relation of Jesus Christ to the Father. The Word is represented as being the Truth, the Life, the Creative Energy, and the Being of God Himself. Manâs word, when he lives truly, is but an expression, a moving out upon the world, and upon the hearts of others, of the love, the truth, the worship of his soul. True words, then, are not sounds separate from the spirit; they are the incarnated soul. I would never teach voice, I would never teach oratory, if words were not, in their true nature, Divine things, if they were not forms of the spirit and of the soul! =_ORGANS THAT PRODUCE, REINFORCE, AND GIVE RESONANT FORMS TO THE VOICE._= VOICE DEFINED. The human voice is that sound, caused by the vibration of the vocal cords in the larynx and reinforced by the resonant chambers, which reports the physical and mental states of man. CAUSE OF VOICE. Voice is caused by the contraction of the muscles of expiration, which brings sufficient pressure upon the lungs to drive the air from them out between the vocal cords, thus causing their edges to vibrate, thereby throwing the column of breath into such rapid vibration as to produce sound. ORGANS THAT PRODUCE VOICE. Larynx, (Including Vocal Cords), Lungs, Muscles of Respiration. _LARYNX._ The larynx is the principal organ of voice. It is situated in the front of the neck, and forms the prominence sometimes called âAdamâs appleâ; it also forms a part of the anterior boundary of the pharynx. At the upper part it has the form of a triangular box, with one angle directly in front. It is composed of nine cartilages moved by muscles, and lined with mucous membrane. Six of its cartilages are in pairs; three are single. The three single cartilages are the thyroid, cricoid, and epiglottis; the three pairs are the arytenoid, cuneiform, and cornicula laryngis. The larynx is sometimes called a music-box; from it proceeds the sound called voice. [Illustration: =SIDE VIEW OF THE LARYNX AND TWO RINGS OF THE TRACHEA.=] VOCAL CORDS. Across the larynx are stretched the true vocal cords. [Illustration: =SHAPE OF THE GLOTTIS WHEN AT REST.=] [Illustration: =THE GLOTTIS DILATED.=] [Illustration: =GLOTTIS, CLOSED, AND MUSCLES CLOSING IT.=] Each cord consists of a band of yellow tissue, covered by mucous membrane. By means of the action of the muscles of the larynx that connect with the cartilages which enter into its structure, the vocal cords are so adjusted that when the muscles of expiration force the air, which is compressed in the lungs, out between these cords, their edges are set in vibration. This is the beginning of the sound which we call voice, but before it is heard in speech or song it is reinforced by the chambers of resonance.[1] ----- [1] For the function of the false, or superior vocal cords, see pp. 68-71, _Physical Culture_. PITCH. The various degrees of pitch in the compass of the voice depend upon the rate of vibration of the vocal cords. This rate of vibration, the pressure of breath being the same, is caused by the different degrees of tension of the vocal cords. If the vocal cords are drawn thin and short, the pitch will be high; as the tension diminishes, the pitch will be lower. The greater the number of vibrations to the second, the higher will be the pitch. A sound consisting of sixteen vibrations to the second produces the lowest pitch that has been recognized by the human ear as sound; while more than 38,000 vibrations per second have not been heard. The lowest rate of vibration on record of any voice is about forty-four vibrations per second, while the highest rate in any voice on record is a little over nineteen hundred. LOUDNESS. Different degrees of loudness of voice are caused by different degrees of amplitude of the waves of vibration. THE LUNGS. The two lungs are the essential organs of respiration; the right lung has three lobes, the left, two. The base of each lung rests upon the convex surface of the diaphragm. [Illustration: =FRONT VIEW OF THE HEART AND LUNGS, AND LARGE BLOOD-VESSELS.=] The root of each lung is formed by the bronchus and blood-vessels, which enter the lung a little above the middle of its inner surface, and connect it to the heart and trachea. With the exception of the root, the surface of each lung is free and moves in the cavity of the thorax. The bronchus is one of two tubes which arise from the bifurcation of the trachea. It conducts the air from the trachea to either lung. The bronchial tubes are sub-divisions, or ramifications, of the bronchus and terminate in the air-cells. _MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION._ Inasmuch as voice is vocalized breath, it is important to give attention to respiration. The principal muscles used in the ordinary movements of inspiration are:â I. Diaphragm. II. Levatores costarum. III. External intercostals. The principal muscles used in expiration are:â I. Internal intercostals with the infracostals. II. Triangularis sterni. { Transversalis. III. Abdominal muscles { Rectus. { Internal oblique. { External oblique. There are many accessory muscles which aid in violent respiratory movements, both inspiratory and expiratory. All the muscles which elevate the scapula may act through it upon the ribs; the three scalene muscles act directly upon the first rib. The principal muscles of inspiration may be assisted by the I. Serratus posticus superior. II. Serratus magnus. III. Pectoralis major. IV. Pectoralis minor. The principal muscles of expiration may be aided by the following muscles:â I. Serratus posticus inferior, II. Longissimus dorsi, III. Sacro lumbalis, and all the muscles which tend to depress the ribs. [Illustration: =THE DIAPHRAGM.=] DIAPHRAGM. The diaphragm separates the cavity of the thorax from the cavity of the abdomen, and constitutes the floor for the heart and lungs to rest upon, and also a close-fitting cover for the contents of the abdomen. Therefore it is evident that the moving of the diaphragm moves the organs which are immediately above and those below it. In reposeful breathing the enlargement of the cavity of the chest is chiefly accomplished by the contraction of the diaphragm. As it contracts it presses upon the abdominal viscera. The abdominal muscles antagonize the diaphragm by pressing back the abdominal viscera, thus causing its ascent as soon as the diaphragm has become relaxed. As the diaphragm contracts, the air rushes through the nostrils or mouth to fill the lungs. By lifting the ribs the thorax can be sufficiently enlarged to meet ordinary demands for breath; therefore the lungs would not immediately suffer if the diaphragm was not contracted. The principal sufferers in such a case would be the stomach, liver, and intestines, for without this exercise which the contraction of the diaphragm gives them they would not as vigorously perform their functions. It is taught in many works on physiology that men inhale by means of the contraction of the diaphragm chiefly, while in adult women the diaphragm is exercised little, if any, during respiration. This statement was first given in early physiologies without due warrant from close observation. This idea, having once found its way into a standard work, has continued in successive works until now. This theory is of such vital interest to all that the authority for it should be carefully examined. It is a fact that more women than men breathe wholly by means of elevating and lowering the ribs; it is also a well-observed fact that the healthiest women and the healthiest men breathe alike, with no movement of the upper part of the chest during reposeful respiration. It is only when an unusual amount of air is required that the healthiest men and women ever move the upper part of the chest during respiration; then the diaphragm is exercised vigorously, and the movements of the ribs take place only for the purpose of enlarging the cavity of the thorax beyond what it is possible for the diaphragm alone to accomplish. During the last twenty-five years I have cured hundreds of people, both men and women, of dyspepsia and its attendant weaknesses by teaching them how to exercise the diaphragm in respiration, and in the production of tone. To say nothing of the incorrect way in which women breathe, I find that a majority of men breathe improperly. The shape of the diaphragm, when it is relaxed, resembles an open umbrella. When the diaphragm is flattened by contraction it no longer retains its dome-like shape, and thus gives greater depth to the thorax. DIFFERENCE IN THE ACTION OF THE DIAPHRAGM DURING EXPIRATION OF THE BREATH AND DURING THE PRODUCTION OF TONE. During expiration of breath the diaphragm is fully relaxed, while during the production of tone it should be somewhat contracted. In the proper adjustment of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles during voice production, the diaphragm by its contraction resists, to some extent, the pressure caused by the contraction of the abdominal muscles, and thus only gradually yields to the force brought against it by the contraction of these muscles, in consequence of which a firm and steady support is given to the voice. BREATHING THROUGH THE NOSE. The question is often asked, âShould one breathe through the nose or through the mouth?â Nature has so constructed the organs of respiration and determined their action that a person in health breathes through the nose, while a person in ill health often breathes through the mouth. By âbreathing through the nose,â of course, is meant reposeful breathing. In extraordinary breathing some persons are obliged to breathe through the mouth, but this is always an indication of exhaustion or weakness. Every person should, if possible, maintain the habit of breathing through the nose. [Illustration: Median Section of _Mouth_, _Nose_, _Pharynx_, and _Larynx_:â_a_, septum of nose; below it, section of hard palate; _b_, tongue; _c_, section of velum pendulum palati; _d_, _d_, lips; _u_, uvula; _r_, anterior arch or pillar of fauces; _i_, posterior arch; _t_, tonsil; _p_, pharynx; _h_, hyoid bone; _k_, thyroid cartilage; _n_, crycoid cartilage; _s_, epiglottis; _v_, glottis; 1, posterior opening of nares; 3, isthmus faucium; 4, superior opening of larynx; 5, passage into Åsophagus; 6, mouth of right Eustachian tube.] _ORGANS WHICH REINFORCE VOICE._ The organs that reinforce voice are its resonant chambers, viz.:â Nares, Mouth, Pharynx, Trachea. Resonance means resounding or sounding again, and is caused by means of the air conveying the vibrations of one substance to another substance. This is familiarly illustrated in the echo. There are two classes of resonant chambers; one class is comparatively fixed, and consists of the nares and trachea; the other class may, for convenience, be termed the transient forms of resonance. [2]A transient resonant chamber is one that is formed on the instant for a particular purpose, and may be broken as quickly. Elements of speech are formed by producing a succession of definitely formed but transient molds of resonance. The pharynx is for the purpose of reinforcing the tone, giving it projection and some assistance in proper direction. All the other transient resonant molds are for the purpose of producing elements of speech. ----- [2] See Tyndall on sound, page 227. NARES (Nasal cavities). The nares are the cavities in the head extending through the nose to the pharynx. The walls of the nares are smooth, and, with their turbinated bones, suggest the inside of a sea-shell. PHARYNX. The pharynx is a membranous sac. It has seven openings, the two posterior nares, the two Eustachian tubes, the larynx, the Åsophagus, and the isthmus faucium, which is the opening into the mouth. [Illustration: =LARYNX, TRACHEA, AND BRONCHI.=] TRACHEA. The trachea, or windpipe, is a cylindrical tube extending from the lower part of the larynx to where it divides into the bronchi. The interior surface is firm and beautiful. _ORGANS WHICH GIVE RESONANT FORMS TO VOICE._ Lips, Upper gum, Hard palate, Soft palate, Tongue, Nares. Although the quality of the voice produced by the vocal cords of the human being cannot be distinguished from that produced by the vocal cords of the lower animals the organs which resound it give it a distinct quality. No one of these agents alone molds the tone, but their proper relation to each other constitutes resonant molds as definite as those into which melted ore is cast to give it form and stamp. This proper relationship cannot be secured by exercising the organs in any strictly mechanical way, but only by forming definite ideal tones in the mind and exercising the voice while these ideal tones are firmly fixed as steady objects of thought. If these mental objects drop from the mind at any time during the vocal practice, no mechanical ingenuity can possibly take their places in rightly affecting the voice. Later in this work, I shall more fully elaborate this point. =_RELATION OF THE PROPER USE OF THE VOICE TO HEALTH._= Many years of observation and study have convinced me that the voice exerts a powerful effect upon the whole physical system. It either builds up the body, sustains its power and adds to its health, or it devitalizes the body and brings a dangerous strain upon the entire system. The voice cannot be a reporter of the person, mental and physical, without holding the most delicate relations to mind and body. The exercise of the voice subtly and vitally affects the organs that promote health and give life. I could give many illustrations showing that the wrong use of the voice has injured health, and that its right use has promoted health; but if the principles involved in this chapter are fully understood, I need not relate incidents to prove that the voice is a life-giver or a death-dealer, depending entirely upon _how_ it is used. The Greeks were taught the right use of the voice as a part of their physical, intellectual, and moral culture. In modern times we have neglected voice culture to a very great extent, and have suffered much ill health in consequence. _RELATION OF THE PROPER USE OF THE VOICE TO THE VITAL ORGANS._ EFFECT OF THE VOICE UPON THE LUNGS. Great wisdom is exhibited in the construction of the human lungs. In the arrangement of the air cells, the greatest possible amount of surface is presented in order that the air may freely enter the blood. The lungs are largely made up of blood vessels, bronchial tubes, and air cells. When a person breathes, the oxygen, entering the lungs through the trachea and the bronchial tubes, penetrates the thin walls of these cells and passes at once into the blood. When the blood enters the lungs it is dark in color, but when it leaves the lungs it is of a light vermilion hue. The oxygen which has been taken into the lungs has wrought this change. So wonderful is this element of nature that some have called it life. If there is an elixir of life in the material world surely it is oxygen, for it has to do minutely and intimately with every power of the human body. The more a person breathes this oxygen as it is mixed in the common air, the more life and power he possesses. It is essential to perfect health that every avenue to the lungs should be kept open and free, and that the air cells should be kept clear, for if the walls of the cells thicken, oxygen cannot penetrate them. If these cells are not properly filled during respiration, the walls thicken, and substances collect in the cells. If any trouble occurs in the air cells, except for traumatic reasons, it will first be found in the apexes of the lungs. In the production of tone, whether on a low, high, or medium pitch, the vocal cords are drawn so closely together that the air cannot immediately escape from the lungs; therefore, unable to get out readily, it is pressed up into the apexes of the lungs by the expiratory muscles, filling the air cells to the utmost, thus keeping them clear and their walls thin and healthy. In correct singing or speaking, the apexes of the lungs are filled with air. Tubercule seeks devitalized tissue for its development. Therefore tuberculosis usually begins in the apexes of the lungs because they are not kept clear and healthy through proper respiration and vocal exercise. Voice was given to man to make him strong and expressive, to give him life and power. THE EFFECT OF THE VOICE UPON THE STOMACH. The stomach is the principal organ of digestion. Out of the nutriment taken into it all the tissues of the body are renewed. It lies under the diaphragm, and is held in place by the abdominal muscles. The stomach is moved during respiration, descending with every inspiration, and rising with every expiration. In addition to this exercise during the production of tone, the stomach is held firmly between the diaphragm and abdominal muscles. At the close of the tone the muscles which thus hold the stomach relax. [Illustration: A view of the Organs of Digestion, opened in nearly their whole length; a portion of the Åsophagus has been removed on account of want of space in the figure; the arrows indicate the course of substances along the canal: 1, the upper lip, turned off the mouth; 2, its frÃ¦num; 3, the lower lip, turned down; 4, its frÃ¦num; 5, 5, inside of the cheeks, covered by the lining membrane of the mouth; 6, points to the opening of the duct of Steno; 7, roof of the mouth; 8, lateral half-arches; 9, points to the tonsil; 10, velum pendulum palati; 11, surface of the tongue; 12, papillÃ¦ near its point; 13, a portion of the trachea; 14, the Åsophagus; 15, its internal surface; 16, inside of the stomach; 17, its greater extremity or great cul-de-sac; 18, its lesser extremity or smaller cul-de-sac; 19, its lesser curvature; 20, its greater curvature; 21, the cardiac orifice; 22, the pyloric orifice; 23, upper portion of duodenum; 24, 25, the remainder of the duodenum; 26, its valvulÃ¦ conniventes; 27, the gall-bladder; 28, the cystic duct; 29, division of hepatic ducts in the liver; 30, hepatic duct; 31, ductus communis choledochus; 32, its opening into the duodenum; 33, ductus Wirsungii, or pancreatic duct; 34, its opening into the duodenum; 35, upper part of jejunum; 36, the ileum; 37, some of the valvulÃ¦ conniventes; 38, lower extremity of the ileum; 39, ileo-colic valve; 40, 41, cÅcum, or caput coli; 42, appendicula vermiformis; 43, 44, ascending colon; 45, transverse colon; 46, 47, descending colon; 48, sigmoid flexure of the colon; 49, upper portion of the rectum; 50, its lower extremity; 51, portion of the levator-ani muscle; 52, the anus.] [Illustration: LIVER. The inferior or concave surface of the liver, showing its subdivisions into lobes: 1, center of the right lobe; 2, center of the left lobe; 3, its anterior, inferior, or thin margin; 4, its posterior, thick, or diaphragmatic portion; 5, the right extremity; 6, the left extremity; 7, the notch in the anterior margin; 8, the umbilical or longitudinal fissure; 9, the round ligament or remains of the umbilical vein; 10, the portion of the suspensory ligament in connection with the round ligament; 11, pons hepatis, or band of liver across the umbilical fissure; 12, posterior end of longitudinal fissure; 13, 14, attachment of the obliterated ductus venosus to the ascending vena cava; 15, transverse fissure; 16, section of the hepatic duct; 17, hepatic artery; 18, its branches; 19, vena portarum; 20, its sinus, or division into right and left branches; 21, fibrous remains of the ductus venosus; 22, gall-bladder; 23, its neck; 24, lobulus quartus; 25, lobulus Spigelii; 26, lobulus caudatus; 27, inferior vena cava; 28, curvature of liver to fit the ascending colon; 29, depression to fit the right kidney; 30, upper portion of its right concave surface over the renal capsule; 31, portion of liver uncovered by the peritoneum; 32, inferior edge of the coronary ligament in the liver; 33, depression made by the vertebral column.] EFFECT OF VOICE UPON THE LIVER. The liver is a glandular organ, intended for the secretion of bile from the blood. It is situated under the diaphragm and partially over the stomach; therefore the exercises which produce pressure and relief upon the stomach, exert the same effect upon the liver. That the liver may properly perform its function it is necessary for it to be thus exercised. One cannot speak or sing well without moving the diaphragm, and when this is moved it moves nearly all the organs contained in the trunk of the body, and especially promotes the healthy activity of the lungs, stomach, liver, and intestines. EFFECT OF THE IMPROPER USE OF THE VOICE UPON THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE. Mucous membrane lines all those passages by which the internal parts communicate with the exterior, and is continuous with the skin at the various orifices of the surface of the body. The mucous membrane, beginning with the lips, lines the mouth, throat, Åsophagus, stomach, and in short, the entire alimentary canal. It also lines the nares, larynx, bronchial tubes, and air cells. It is one because unbroken. Its function is to secrete mucous for the purpose of preventing dryness. Sympathetic relations exist throughout the whole human system, and especially between different parts of the same organ; if one part of the mucous membrane is injured, another part is as liable to suffer as that immediately injured. If congestion takes place in any part of this mucous membrane, it may cause congestion in some remote part of the membrane, without affecting the intervening parts. There is a certain common misuse of the voice which creates in the pharynx an irritation called âclergymanâs sore throat.â By the law of sympathy, this congestion is likely to be communicated from the pharynx to the mucous membrane of the stomach. It may also attack the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes and through them affect the lungs. Although this disease caused by the misuse of the voice is called âclergymanâs sore throat,â it is not confined to clergymen; it prevails to a considerable extent among school teachers, lawyers, and auctioneers. It is dangerous for one to enter upon any form of public speaking without having a sufficient knowledge of the voice to use his own correctly. This is true not merely because it gives power to speak more effectively, but because it enables one to preserve his own health, and thereby prolong his usefulness. âClergymanâs sore throatâ is caused by making too close a chamber of resonance in the pharynx while speaking. This is a confirmed habit with a very large number of persons; in fact, it might almost be said to be a prevailing difficulty, but it does not always cause a sore throat until the voice is more constantly used than it ordinarily is in private life. A clergyman or others may for years have practised this habit without feeling the effect upon the throat; but as soon as they come to speak steadily for a half hour or more, and that, too, for the purpose of being heard in a large room, begin to realize a huskiness which soon develops into an irritation of the throat. This finally develops into a congestion, and sooner or later into a cough, which results in the breaking down of the powers of the individual, and if it does not receive immediate and proper attention consumption may be the result. No medicine, however good, can give more than a temporary relief. So long as the cause (which is the misuse of the voice), remains, the difficulty must return. Sometimes âclergymanâs sore throatâ is not introduced by huskiness; the first symptom observed is that of dryness or irritation. This is especially true if the voice is characterized by a metallic element. All these evils can be cured by proper vocal education, providing the patient does not wait too long. [Illustration: =CONVOLUTIONS AND FISSURES OF THE OUTER SURFACE OF THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE.=] =_RELATION OF THE PROPER USE OF THE VOICE TO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM._= The vocal organs may be said to be tools, and the nerves the workmen appointed to use them. Nerves are whitish and elastic bundles of fibers, with their accompanying tissues. They transmit nervous impulses between nerve centers and various parts of the animal body. âNerves are composed of one or more (sometimes nearly a hundred) nerve fibers, each fiber forming a means of communication between two parts more or less distant from each other.ââ_Dutton._ The brain is contained in the cranium, and may be said to be the controller of the entire nervous system. From it proceed twelve pairs of cranial nerves. I. Olfactory, nerve of smell,âdistributed in the mucous membrane of the nose. II. Optic, nerve of sight,âdistributes its branches to the eye ball. III. Motor oculi,âmotor of the eye. IV. Patheticus,âassists in moving the eye. V. Trigeminus,ânerve of sensation, motion, and taste. VI. Abducens,âassists the movements of the eye. VII. Facial (or nerve of expression),âmoves the face, ear, palate, and tongue. By means of this nerve the tongue is directly connected with the brain, and receives its impulse of action therefrom. VIII. Auditory,ânerve of hearing. IX. Glosso-pharyngeal, nerve of sensation and taste,âit is distributed to the back of the tongue, middle ear, tonsils, and pharynx. X. Pneumogastric,âthe auriculo-laryngo-pharyngo-Åsophago-tracheo-pulmono-cardio-gastro-hepatic nerve. It is a nerve of sensation and motion, probably receiving its motor influence from its spinal accessory. XI. Spinal accessory furnishes motor power to the pneumogastric. XII. Hypo-glossal,âmotor of the tongue. It communicates with the pneumogastric and sympathetic nerves. [Illustration: =DIAGRAM OF THE FIRST SIX CRANIAL NERVES, WITH THEIR CHIEF BRANCHES OF DISTRIBUTION.=] [Illustration: =DIAGRAM OF THE LAST SIX CRANIAL NERVES, WITH THEIR CHIEF BRANCHES OF DISTRIBUTION.=] * * * * * My principal object in writing of the relation of the voice to the nervous system is to show anatomical and physiological reasons for denominating the voice the reporter of the states of mind. We have before us the names of the nerves which connect the organs of speech with the organ of thought. Through some of the cranial nerves the mind immediately discharges its impulses upon certain organs, both consciously and subconsciously. This is illustrated by the motor occuli, patheticus, and abducens, which move the eye sometimes consciously and sometimes subconsciously. This shows that these nerves may, and often do, act upon the eye, without any conscious plan or purpose on the part of the individual. The mind often manifests, through the cranial nerves, states of mind of which the person is unconscious. While consciousness is the power by which one knows his own states of mind, there is no proof that consciousness takes note of all oneâs states of mind. The proof that it does not is found in the fact that people, through involuntary acts, often manifest mental activities of which they are unconscious. Spontaneous expression is truest. The facial nerve causes the muscles of the face to portray the thoughts and feelings of the soul more truthfully than any artist could delineate them with pencil and brush. Before we can properly teach vocal culture and oratorical expression we must understand the principle of spontaneous manifestation by means of cranial nerves as distinct from purposeful forms of expression. The facial nerve not only acts as a motor of expression through the face, causing it to reveal thought and emotion, but acts in the same manner upon the tongue, causing it to form and modulate tones in song and speech. Again note the nature of the hypo-glossal cranial nerve, which is not only a motor of the tongue, causing it to act spontaneously, but is distributed also to the muscles of the neck which are concerned in the movements of the larynx. The purpose of this distribution is probably to associate the action of the tongue with that of the larynx which is necessary for articulate speech. All the motions of the tongue are performed through the medium of these nerves. [Illustration: The drawing exhibits the cerebral connection of all the cerebral nerves except the first. It is from a sketch taken from two dissections of this part. D. Posterior optic tubercle. The generative bodies of the thalamus are just above it. E. Cerebellum. H. Spinal cord. I. Tuber cinereum. K. Optic thalamus divided perpendicularly. W. Corpus restiforme. X. Pons Varolii. _b b._ Optic nerves: this nerve is traced on the left side back beneath the optic thalamus and round the crus cerebri. It divides into four roots; the first (_g g_) plunges into the substance of the thalamus, the next runs over the external geniculate body and surface of the thalamus, the third goes to the anterior optic tubercle, the fourth runs to D, the testis or posterior optic tubercle. C. Third pair common oculo-muscular, arising by two roots like the spinal roots of the spinal nerves, the upper from the gray neurine of the locus niger, the lower from the continuation of the pyramidal columns in the crus cerebri and Pons Varolii, _p t_. _d_, Fourth pair, apparently arising from the inter-cerebral commissure (I _c_), but really plunging down to the olivary tract (_o t_) as it ascends to the optic tubercles. _e m._ Motor or non-ganglionic root of the fifth pair, arising from the posterior edge of the olivary tract. _e._ Sensory root of the fifth pair running down between the olivary tract and restiform body to the sensory tract. _f._ Sixth pair, or abducens, arising from the pyramidal tract. _g._ Seventh pair, facial nerve, or portio dura, arising by an anterior portion from the olivary tract and by a posterior portion from the cerebellic fibers of the anterior columns as they ascend on the corpus restiforme, W. _h._ Eighth pair, portio mollis, or auditory nerve, with its two roots embracing the restiform body. _i._ Ninth pair, or glosso-pharyngeal; and _j._ Tenth pair, or par vagum, plunging into the restiform ganglion. J J. Fibers of the optic nerve plunging into the thalamus; immediately below these letters is the corpus geniculatum externum. _k._ Eleventh pair, or lingual nerve; the olivary body has been nearly sliced off and turned out of its natural position; some of the filaments of the lingual nerve are traced into the deeper portion of the ganglion, which is left in its situation; others which are the highest are evidently connected with the pyramidal tract.] [Illustration: The course and distribution of the Hypoglossal or Ninth pair of nerves; the deep-seated nerves of the neck are also seen: 1, the hypoglossal nerve; 2, branches communicating with the gustatory nerve; 3, a branch to the origin of the hyoid muscles; 4, the descendens noni nerve; 5, the loop formed with the branch from the cervical nerves; 6, muscular branches to the depressor muscles of the larynx; 7, a filament from the second cervical nerve, and 8, a filament from the third cervical, uniting to form the communicating branch with the loop from the descendens noni; 9, the auricular nerve; 10, the inferior dental nerve; 11, its mylohyoidean branch; 12, the gustatory nerve; 13, the chorda tympani passing to the gustatory nerve; 14, the chorda tympani leaving the gustatory nerve to join the submaxillary ganglion; 15, the submaxillary ganglion; 16, filaments of communication with the lingual nerve; 17, the glosso-pharyngeal nerve; 18, the pneumogastric or par vagum nerve; 19, the three upper cervical nerves; 20, the four inferior cervical nerves; 21, the first dorsal nerve; 22, 23, the brachial plexus; 24, 25, the phrenic nerve; 26, the carotid artery; 27, the internal jugular vein.] The study of the functions of the cranial nerves convinces me that the state of mind which conceives a tone acts upon the organs of speech through the cranial nerves in a way to give vocal expression. In perfect expression the conception and the expression are absolutely synchronous. =_RELATION OF PITCH TO RESONANCE._= In the production of a good tone there is an exact relation between pitch and resonance. This relation is provided for in nature and a disobedience to it brings an unpleasant quality into the voice. This is true in both speech and song, for the speaking and singing voices rest upon the same fundamental principles. Speech is one application or use of the voice, song is another. The voice of true speech is as melodic as the voice of song. There are, however, many persons who use their voices better when they sing than when they speak, while others use their voices better in speaking than in singing. There is a difference between tone and noise. Voice is produced by a succession of vibrating waves of air. In a musical tone the waves are regular in their succession; in noise they are irregular. Resonance, or echo, is produced by the universal law of reflex action which manifests itself in light, sound, etc. How interesting and delightful is the echo! It makes the mountains, like the morning stars, sing together for joy. Listen to a thunder storm among the mountains. There is a sudden explosion, then a silence, as the vibrating waves of mighty amplitude pass over the valley to wake the voice of the mountain beyond, which, standing like a sentinel on guard, speaks in thunder tones to the next, and that repeats the sublime echo until all the mountains join in the chorus, answering back to the heavens. This law of sympathy, undulating from mountain to mountain, so inspired the Greeks that they said the gods spoke to each other from mountain peak to mountain peak. Every pitch in the human voice has its corresponding chamber of resonance, formed by the nares, by the trachea, by the pharynx, or by the mouth, and sometimes by more than one of these. The transient resonant chambers are formed by the adjustment of the lips, and by the relation of the tongue to the upper gum, the hard palate, the soft palate, and the pharynx. With the exception of the pharynx, these and the nasal forms constitute the resonant chambers which produce the different elements of speech in our language. The tone, though smooth when it leaves the vocal cords, may be made harsh by the transient resonant chambers. The nares resound different intervals of the scale in different portions of their length, never resounding two intervals in the same portion. The cultivation of the voice is produced, first, through perfecting the forms of the transient chambers of resonance; second, through establishing perfect freedom and regularity in the action of the vocal cords; third, through developing the rhythmic impulses of the tone. No person ever speaks continuously in a perfect monotone; the pitch is constantly changing with the varying thoughts; as the pitch changes, the resonant chambers change the quality. Nature, unhindered, never reports the same quality on two different degrees of pitch. It is not that the individual, while speaking, intends to change the quality; but nature has so arranged the vocal organs and so determined the laws of acoustics, that unless the voice be interfered with by wrong mental determination, she herself changes the quality as the voice rises or falls. It is a law of acoustics that a low pitch is resounded in a comparatively large resonant chamber; a high pitch in a comparatively small one. A simple and instructive experiment in illustration of this principle is this: Take a large bottle, strike a C tuning fork, hold it over the empty bottle, and no sound will be heard. The bottle does not respond, because the cavity is too large for the pitch of the fork. If water is poured into the bottle, the air column inside thereby being shortened until the proper sized chamber is formed, by then holding the high-pitched tuning fork over it, the sound of the fork will be resounded by the resonant chamber and the tone will burst forth quite loudly. Use any
{'title': 'Psycho Vox; or, The Emerson System of Voice Culture by Charles Wesley Emerson', 'source': 'Project Gutenberg', 'lang': 'en'}