Produced by Tom Cosmas Transcriber Note Text emphasis is denoted as _Italics_. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Farmersâ Bulleting 630 Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, Henry W. Henshaw, Chief. February 13, 1915. SOME COMMON BIRDS USEFUL TO THE FARMER. By F. E. L. Beal, _Assistant Biologist_. Note.âThe habitat, food habits, and economic relation to agriculture of more than 50 birds common to farming sections are discussed in this bulletin. It supersedes Farmersâ Bulletin 54. CONTENTS. Page. The bluebirds 2 The robins 3 The titmice 4 The wrens 6 Brown thrasher 7 Catbird 7 The swallows 8 Towhee 9 The sparrows 9 House finch 11 The grackles 12 Brewer blackbird 12 Baltimore oriole 13 Bullock oriole 14 The meadowlarks 14 The red-winged blackbirds 15 Bobolink 17 Crow 17 Blue jay 19 Pacific coast jays 20 The phÅbes 21 The kingbirds 23 Nighthawk 24 The woodpeckers 25 The cuckoos 27 INTRODUCTION. Whether a bird is beneficial or injurious depends almost entirely upon what it eats. In the case of species which are very abundant, or which feed to some extent on the crops of the farmer, the question of their average diet becomes one of supreme importance, and only by stomach examination can it be satisfactorily solved. Field observations are at best but fragmentary and inconclusive and lead to no final results. Birds are often accused of eating this or that product of cultivation, when an examination of the stomachs shows the accusation to be unfounded. Accordingly, the Biological Survey has conducted for some years past a systematic investigation of the food of those species which are most common about the farm and garden. Within certain limits birds eat the kind of food that is most accessible, especially when their natural food is scarce or wanting. Thus they sometimes injure the crops of the farmer who has unintentionally destroyed their natural food in his improvement of swamp or pasture. Most of the damage done by birds and complained of by farmers and fruit growers arises from this very cause. The berry-bearing shrubs and seed-bearing weeds have been cleared away, and the birds have no recourse but to attack the cultivated grain or fruit which have replaced their natural food supply. The great majority of land birds subsist upon insects during the period of nesting and moulting, and also feed their young upon them during the first few weeks. Many species live almost entirely upon insects, taking vegetable food only when other subsistence fails. It is thus evident that in the course of a year birds destroy an incalculable number of insects, and it is difficult to overestimate the value of their services in restraining the great tide of insect life. In winter, in the northern part of the country, insects become scarce or entirely disappear. Many species of birds, however, remain during the cold season and are able to maintain bike by eating vegetable food, as the seeds of weeds. Here again is another useful function of birds in destroying these weed seeds and thereby lessening the growth of the next year. In the following pages are discussed the food habits of more than 50 birds belonging to 12 families. Many are eastern forms which are represented in the West by slightly different species or subspecies, but unless the food habits differ they are not separately described. In some cases specific percentages of food are given, but for the most part the statements are made without direct reference to the data on which they are based.[1] [1] Farmersâ Bulletins describing the food habits of wild birds and groups of birds, or presenting methods of attracting them about our homes have been issued as follows: 54. Some Common Birds in their Relation to Agriculture, by F. E. L. Beal, 1897. The present bulletin is largely a revision of this bulletin and supersedes it. 383. How to Destroy English Sparrows, by Ned Dearborn, 1910. This bulletin has been superseded by Farmersâ Bulletin 493. 450. Our Grosbeaks and Their Relation to Agriculture, by W. L. McAtee, 1911. 493. The English Sparrow as a Pest, by Ned Dearborn, 1912. 497. Some Common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in Relation to Man, by W. L. McAtee and F. E. L. Beal, 1912. 506. Food of Some Well-known Birds of Forest, Farm, and Garden, by F. E. L. Beal and W. L. McAtee, 1912. 513. Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard, prepared under the direction of Henry W. Henshaw, 1913. This bulletin was issued with illustrations in color, and the demand for it was so enormous that it is no longer available for free distribution. Copies may be had for 15 cents (postage stamps not accepted) of the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. 609. Bird Houses and How to Build Them, by Ned Dearborn, 1914. 621. How to Attract Birds in Northeastern United States, by W. L. McAtee, 1914. The parts of this bulletin relating to the crow and blue jay were contributed by E. R. Kalmbach, and the discussion of the nighthawk is by W. L. McAtee, both of the Bureau of Biological Survey. THE BLUEBIRDS. [Illustration: Fig. 1.âBluebird. Length, about 6Â½ inches.] The eastern bluebird[2] (fig. 1), one of the most familiar and welcome of our feathered visitors, is a common inhabitant of all the States east of the Rocky Mountains from the Gulf of Mexico to southern Canada. In the Mississippi Valley it winters as far north as southern Illinois, and in the East as far as Pennsylvania. It is one of the earliest northern migrants, and everywhere is hailed as a harbinger of spring. Very domestic in habits, it frequents orchards and gardens, and builds its nests in cavities of trees, crannies in farm buildings, or boxes provided for its use. [2] _Sialia sialis._ The bluebird has not been accused, so far as known, of stealing fruit or of preying upon crops. An examination of 855 stomachs showed that 68 per cent of the food consists of insects and their allies, while the other 32 per cent is made up of various vegetable substances, found mostly in stomachs taken in winter. Beetles constitute 21 per cent of the whole food, grasshoppers 22, caterpillars 10, and various other insects 9, while a number of spiders and myriapods, about 6 per cent, comprise the remainder of the animal diet. All these are more or less harmful, except a few predacious beetles, which amount to 9 per cent. In view of the large consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars we may at least condone this offense, if such it may be called. The destruction of grasshoppers is very noticeable in August and September, when these insects make up about 53 per cent of the diet. It is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is governed more by abundance than by choice. Predacious beetles are eaten in spring, as they are among the first insects to appear; but in early summer caterpillars form an important part of the diet, and these are later replaced by grasshoppers. Beetles are eaten at all times, except when grasshoppers are more easily obtained. So far as its vegetable food is concerned the bluebird is positively harmless. The only trace of any useful product in the stomachs consisted of a few blackberry seeds, and even these probably belonged to wild rather than cultivated varieties. Following is a list of the various seeds which were found: Blackberry, chokeberry, juniperberry, pokeberry, partridgeberry, greenbrier, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, holly, strawberry bush, false spikenard, wild sarsaparilla, sumac (several species), rose haws, sorrel, ragweed, grass, and asparagus. This list shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden to supply its needs and how easily, by encouraging the growth of some of these plants, many of which are highly ornamental, the bird may be induced to make its home on the premises. Two species of bluebirds inhabit the Western Statesâthe mountain bluebird[3] and the western bluebird.[4] In their food habits they are even more to be commended than their eastern relative. Their insect food is obtainable at all times of the year, and the general diet varies only in the fall, when some fruit, principally elderberries, is eaten, though an occasional blackberry or grape is also relished. In an examination of 217 stomachs of the western bluebird, animal matter (insects and spiders) was found to the extent of 82 per cent and vegetable matter to the extent of 18 per cent. The bulk of the former consists of bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars. Grasshoppers, when they can be obtained, are eaten freely during the whole season. Caterpillars also are a favorite food and are eaten during every month of the year; March is the month of greatest consumption, with 50 per cent, and the average for the year is 20 per cent. Two stomachs taken in January contained 64 and 50 per cent, respectively, of caterpillars. Beetles also are eaten and comprise mostly harmful species. [3] _Sialia currucoides._ [4] _Sialia mexicana subspecies._ The vegetable matter consists of weed seeds and small fruits. In December a few grapes are eaten, but elderberries are the favorites whenever they can be found. It is only when these are in their greatest abundance that vegetable exceeds animal food. THE ROBINS. [Illustration: Fig. 2.âRobin. Length, about 10 inches.] The robin[5] (fig. 2), in many parts of the country one of the most cherished of our birds, is found throughout the States east of the Great Plains, and is represented farther west and south by slightly different subspecies.[6],[7] It breeds far north through Canada, and is found even in Alaska. Although the great bulk of the species leaves the Northern States in winter, a few individuals remain in sheltered swamps, where wild berries furnish abundant food. The robin is an omnivorous feeder and its food habits have sometimes caused apprehension to the fruit grower, for it is fond of cherries and other small fruits, particularly the earlier varieties. For this reason many complaints have been lodged against the bird, and some persons have even gone so far as to condemn it. It is, however, far too valuable to be exterminated, and choice fruit can be readily protected from its depredations. [5] _Planesticus migratorius._ [6] _Planesticus migratorius propinquus._ [7] _Planesticus migratorius achrusterus._ Examinations of 1,236 stomachs show that 42 per cent of its food is animal matter, principally insects, while the remainder is made up largely of small fruits or berries. Over 16 per cent consists of beetles, about one-third of which are useful ground beetles, taken mostly in spring and fall when other insects are scarce. Grasshoppers make up about 5 per cent of the whole food, but in August they comprise 17 per cent. Caterpillars form about 9 per cent, while the rest of the animal food, about 11 per cent, is made up of various insects, with a few spiders, snails, and angleworms. All the grasshoppers, caterpillars, and bugs, with a large portion of the beetles, are injurious, and it is safe to say that noxious insects comprise more than one-third of the robinâs food. Vegetable food forms 58 per cent of the stomach contents, over 42 per cent being wild fruits and only a little more than 8 per cent being possibly cultivated varieties. Cultivated fruit amounting to about 25 per cent was found in the stomachs in June and July, but only a trifle in August. Wild fruit, on the contrary, is eaten every month and constitutes a staple food during half the year. No less than 65 species of fruit were identified in the stomachs; of these, the most important were 4 species of dogwood, 3 of wild cherries, 3 of wild grapes, 4 of greenbrier, 2 of holly, 2 of elder; and cranberries, huckleberries, blueberries, barberries, service berries, hackberries, and persimmons; together with 4 species of sumac and various other seeds not strictly fruit. The depredations of the robin seem to be confined to the smaller and earlier fruits, few, if any, complaints being made that it eats apples, peaches, pears, grapes, or even late cherries. By the time these are ripe the forests and hedges are teeming with wild fruits which the bird evidently finds more to its taste. The cherry, unfortunately for man, ripens so early that it is almost the only fruit accessible at a time when the birdâs appetite has been sharpened by a long-continued diet of insects, earthworms, and dried berries, and it is no wonder that at first the rich juicy morsels are greedily eaten. While the robin takes some cultivated fruits, it must be remembered that, being a natural enemy of the insect world, it has been working during the whole season to make that crop a possibility, and when the fruit ripens the robin already has a standing account with the farmer for services rendered, with the credits up to this time entirely on his side. Since the robin takes ten times as much wild as cultivated fruit, it seems unwise to destroy the birds to save so little. Nor is this necessary, for with care both birds and fruit may be preserved. Where much fruit is grown it is no great loss to give up one tree to the birds, and in some cases the crop can be protected by scarecrows. Where wild fruit is not abundant, a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines judiciously planted will serve for ornament and provide food for the birds. The Russian mulberry is a vigorous grower and a profuse bearer, ripening at the same time as the cherry. So far as observation has gone, most birds seem to prefer its fruit to any other. It is believed that a number of mulberry trees planted around the garden or orchard would fully protect the more valuable fruits. Much has been written about the delicate discrimination of birds for choice fruit and their selection of only the finest and costliest varieties. This is contrary to observed facts. Birds, unlike human beings, seem to prefer fruit that, like the mulberry, is sweetly insipid, or that, like the chokecherry or holly, has some astringent or bitter quality. The so-called black alder, a species of holly, has bright scarlet berries tasting as bitter as quinine, that ripen late in October and remain on the bushes through November. Though frost grapes, the fruit of the Virginia creeper, and several species of dogwood are abundant at the same time, the birds have been found to eat the berries of the holly to a considerable extent. It is, moreover, a remarkable fact that the wild fruits upon which birds largely feed are those which man neither gathers for his own use nor adopts for cultivation. THE TITMICE. Birds of the titmouse family, though insignificant in size, are far from being so in the matter of food habits. What they lack in size of body they more than make up in numbers of individuals. While in the case of some larger birds, as, for instance, the flicker, there is one pair of eyes to look for food for one large stomach, we have in the case of the ten times as numerous titmice an equivalent stomach capacity divided into 10 parts, each furnished with a pair of eyes and other accessories, as wings and feet. As against the one place occupied by the larger bird, 10 are being searched for food at the same time by the smaller species. The character of the food of titmice gives a peculiar value to their services, for it consists largely of the small insects and their eggs that wholly escape the search of larger birds. Throughout the year most of the species of this group remain on their range, so that they are constantly engaged in their beneficial work, continuing it in winter when the majority of their co-workers have sought a milder clime. It is at this season that the titmice do their greatest good, for when flying and crawling insects are no more to be found, the birds must feed upon such species as they find hibernating in crevices, or upon the eggs of insects laid in similar places. In winterâs dearth of moving insects the search for such animal food as may be found is perforce thorough and unremitting. Within the boundaries of the United States are some 17 species of titmice, with nearly as many races or subspecies, so that there is no portion of the country lacking one or more forms. The western coast region is peculiarly rich in representatives of the family. In the eastern portion of the country the best-known and most widely distributed species is the common black-capped chickadee[8] (fig. 3). This bird, or some of its subspecies, occupies the whole of that part of the United States north of the latitude of Washington and extends into Canada. It is a prolific breeder, usually rearing from six to eight young in a brood. [8] _Penthestes atricapillus._ [Illustration: Fig. 3.âBlack-capped chickadee. Length, about 5Â¼ inches] Examination of 289 stomachs of this chickadee shows that its food consists of 68 per cent animal matter (insects) and 32 per cent vegetable matter. The former is made up of small caterpillars and moths and their eggs. Prominent among the latter are the eggs of the tent-caterpillar moths, both the orchard and forest species. As these are two of our most destructive insects, the good done by the chickadee in devouring their eggs needs no comment. During the winter the chickadeeâs food is made up of larvÃ¦, chrysalids, and eggs of moths, varied by a few seeds, but as spring brings out hordes of flying, crawling, and jumping insects, the bird varies its diet by taking also some of these. Flies and bugs are the favorites until the weather becomes quite warm, when beetles and small wasps also are enjoyed. Among the bugs may be mentioned the plant lice and their eggs which are eaten in winter. The beetles nearly all belong to the group of snout beetles, more commonly known as weevils. These insects are mostly of small size, and nearly all are known to the farmer or fruit raiser as pests. Seventeen of them were found in one stomach. The plum curculio and the cotton-boll weevil may be taken as fair examples. Grasshoppers do not at any time constitute an important element of the food of the chickadee, as they are too large for so small a bird; moreover they are for the most part terrestrial insects, while the bird is essentially arboreal. Small wasps and ants are eaten to some extent. Spiders constitute an important element of the food and are eaten at all times of the year, the birds locating them when they are hibernating in winter, as well as when they are active in summer. The vegetable food of the chickadee consists largely of small seeds except in summer when they are replaced by pulp of wild fruit. The wax from the seeds of poison ivy is eaten during the winter months, but the seeds themselves are not taken. In this respect the chickadee differs from most other birds which swallow the seeds whole; these, after digesting the wax, pass the seeds through the alimentary canal, and so scatter them broadcast to reproduce the noxious plants. In the southern part of the country the Carolina chickadee[9] and the tufted tit[10] replace the black-cap, but their food habits are so similar that there is practically no difference in the work done. In the West several other species occur; one of the most interesting is the bush tit[11] which, with several subspecies, occupies the whole Pacific coast region. They are active, social little creatures, and except for a short time during the breeding season are found in flocks, flitting from tree to tree, busily hunting for insects and their eggs The contents of 66 stomachs of these birds were found to consist mostly of injurious insects to the extent of 83 per cent. Of these the most important was a small hemipterous insect which amounted to more than half of the stomach contents. These insects are of considerable economic importance, as they frequently infest grapevines and other plants to a harmful extent. Several stomachs were almost exclusively filled with these minute creatures, some containing as many as 100 individuals. [9] _Penthestes carolinensis._ [10] _BÃ¦olophus bicolor._ [11] _Psaltriparus minimus._ Perhaps the most important and interesting insect found was the black olive scale, which occurred in 24 stomachs and amounted to a little more than 18 per cent of the food. In addition a number of the stomachs were more or less filled with another scale, which was not further identified. A number of small snout beetles (weevils) were eaten and some small caterpillars; there were also the remains of a spider. The vegetable food of the species seemed to consist mostly of seeds, but they were so broken up as to defy recognition. A little fruit pulp and a little mast were also found. Among the stomachs of the bush tits examined were those of one brood of eight nestlings about 10 days old. The vegetable matter in these stomachs was only three-fourths of 1 per cent and consisted of one seed and some rubbish. The animal matter was made up of beetles, wasps, bugs, caterpillars and pupÃ¦, and spiders. The greatest interest lies in the fact that every one of these stomachs contained pupÃ¦ of the codling moth, on an average of over five to each. The oak tree in which these birds were found was in a belt of timber near a neglected orchard which the parent birds used as a foraging ground, and they did their best to remedy the neglect of the owner. As feeding and digestion in the case of nestling birds is almost continuous during the hours of daylight, the above record would be several times repeated during a dayâs feeding. There were probably not less than a dozen nests of the bush tit along the border of this orchard, and these birds must have exerted a great restrictive influence upon the increase of the codling moth, as well as of other insects in that vicinity. THE WRENS. [Illustration: Fig. 4.âHouse wren. Length, about 4Â¾ inches.] The diminutive house wren[12] (fig. 4) frequents barns and gardens, and particularly old orchards in which the trees are partially decayed. He makes his nest in a hollow where perhaps a woodpecker had a domicile the year before, but he is a pugnacious character, and if he happens to fancy one of the boxes put up for bluebirds, he does not hesitate to take it. He is usually not slow to avail himself of boxes, gourds, tin cans, or empty jars placed for his accommodation. [12] _Troglodytes aÃ«don._ In food habits the house wren is entirely beneficial. He may be said to live upon animal food alone, for an examination of 88 stomachs showed that 98 per cent of the contents was made up of insects or their allies, and only 2 per cent was vegetable food, including bits of grass and similar matter, evidently taken by accident with the insects. Half of this food consisted of grasshoppers and beetles; the remainder of caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. As the wren is a prolific breeder, frequently rearing in a season from 12 to 16 young, a family of these birds must cause considerable reduction in the number of insects in a garden. Wrens are industrious foragers, searching every tree, shrub, and vine for caterpillars, and examining every post and rail of the fence and every cranny in the wall for insects or spiders. The house wren is only one of a numerous group of small birds of similar habits. There are within the limits of the United States 28 species and subspecies of wrens, occupying more or less completely the whole country from the Atlantic to the Pacific. With the exception of the marsh wrens,[13] they all appear to prefer some cosy nook for a nesting site, and, as it happens, the farm buildings afford just the place desired. This has led several of the wrens to seek out the habitations of man, and he is benefited by their destruction of noxious insects. No species of wren has been accused of harm, and their presence should be encouraged about every farm, ranch, village, or suburban residence. [13] _Telmatodytes palustris._ BROWN THRASHER. [Illustration: Fig. 5.âBrown thrasher. Length, about 11 inches.] The brown thrasher[14] (fig. 5) breeds throughout the United States east of the Great Plains, and winters in the South Atlantic and Gulf States. It occasionally visits the garden or orchard, but nests in swamps or in groves standing upon low ground. The thrasherâs favorite time for singing is in early morning, when, perched on the top of a tall bush or low tree, it gives an exhibition of vocal powers which would do credit to a mocking bird. Indeed, in the South, where the latter bird is abundant, the thrasher is known as the sandy mocker. [14] _Toxostoma rufum._ The food of the brown thrasher consists of both fruit and insects. An examination of 636 stomachs showed 36 per cent of vegetable and 64 of animal food, practically all insects, and mostly taken in spring before fruit was ripe. Half the insects were beetles and the remainder chiefly grasshoppers, caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. A few predacious beetles were eaten, but on the whole the work of the species as an insect destroyer may be considered beneficial. Eight per cent of its food is made up of fruits like raspberries and currants which are or may be cultivated, but the raspberries at least are as likely to belong to wild as to cultivated varieties. Grain, made up mostly of scattered kernels of oats and corn, is merely a trifle, amounting to only 3 per cent. Though some of the corn may be taken from newly planted fields, it is amply paid for by the destruction of May beetles which are eaten at the same time. The rest of the food consists of wild fruit or seeds. Taken all in all, the brown thrasher is a useful bird, and probably does as good work in its secluded retreats as it would about the garden, for the swamps and groves are no doubt the breeding grounds of many insects that migrate thence to attack the crops of the farmer. CATBIRD. [Illustration: Fig. 6.âCatbird. Length, about 9 inches.] The catbird[15] (fig. 6), like the thrasher, is a lover of swamps and delights to make its home in a tangle of wild grapevines, greenbriers, and shrubs, where it is safe from attack and can find its favorite food in abundance. It is found throughout the United States west to the Rocky Mountains, and extends also from Washington, Idaho, and Utah northward into the provinces of Canada. It winters in the Southern States, Cuba, Mexico, and Central America. [15] _Dumetella carolinensis._ Reports from the Mississippi Valley indicate that the catbird is sometimes a serious annoyance to fruit growers. The reason for such reports may possibly be found in the fact that on the prairies fruit-bearing shrubs, which afford so large a part of this birdâs food, are conspicuously absent. With the settlement of this region comes an extensive planting of orchards, vineyards, and small-fruit gardens, which furnish shelter and nesting sites for the catbird as well as for other species. There is in consequence a large increase in the numbers of the birds, but no corresponding gain in the supply of native fruits upon which they were accustomed to feed. Under these circumstances what is more natural than for the birds to turn to cultivated fruits for their food? The remedy is obvious: Cultivated fruits can be protected by the simple expedient of planting the wild species which are preferred by the birds. Some experiments with catbirds in captivity show that the Russian mulberry is preferred to any cultivated fruit. The stomachs of 645 catbirds were examined and found to contain 44 per cent of animal (insect) and 58 per cent of vegetable food. Ants, beetles, caterpillars, and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the animal food, the remainder being made up of bugs, miscellaneous insects, and spiders. One-third of the vegetable food consists of cultivated fruits, or those which may be cultivated, as strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries; but while we debit the bird with the whole of this, it is probableâand in the eastern and well-wooded part of the country almost certainâthat a large part is obtained from wild vines. The rest of the vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit, as cherries, dogwood, sour gum, elderberries, greenbrier, spiceberries, black alder, sumac, and poison ivy. Although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by destroying small fruit, it can not on the whole be considered injurious. On the contrary, in most parts of the country it does far more good than harm. THE SWALLOWS. [Illustration: Fig. 7.âBarn swallow. Length, about 7 inches.] Seven common species of swallows are found within the limits of the United States, four of which have abandoned to some extent their primitive nesting habits and have attached themselves to the abodes of man. In the eastern part of the country the barn swallow[16] (fig. 7) now builds exclusively under roofs, having entirely abandoned the rock caves and cliffs in which it formerly nested. More recently the cliff swallow[17] has found a better nesting site under the eaves of buildings than was afforded by the overhanging cliffs of earth or stone which it once used and to which it still resorts occasionally in the East and habitually in the unsettled West. The martin[18] and the white-bellied, or tree, swallow[19] nest either in houses supplied for the purpose, in abandoned nests of woodpeckers, or in natural crannies in rocks. The northern violet-green swallow,[20] the rough-winged swallow,[21] and the bank swallow[22] still live in practically such places as their ancestors chose. [16] _Hirundo erythrogastra._ [17] _Petrochelidon lunifrons._ [18] _Progne subis._ [19] _Iridoprocne bicolor._ [20] _Tachycineta thalassina._ [21] _Stelgidopteryx serripennis._ [22] _Riparia riparia._ Field observation convinces an ordinarily attentive person that the food of swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured in mid-air or picked from the tops of tall grass or weeds. This observation is borne out by an examination of stomachs, which shows that the food is made up of many small species of beetles which are much on the wing; many species of mosquitoes and their allies, together with large quantities of flying ants; and a few insects of similar kinds. Most of these are either injurious or annoying, and the numbers destroyed by swallows are not only beyond calculation but almost beyond imagination. Unlike many other groups of birds, the six species of swallows found in the Eastern States extend in a practically unchanged form across the continent, where they are reinforced by the northern, or Pacific-coast, violet-green swallow. It is a mistake to tear down from the eaves of a barn the nests of a colony of cliff swallows, for so far from disfiguring a building they make a picturesque addition to it, and the presence of swallows should be encouraged by every device. It is said that cliff and barn swallows may be induced to build their nests in a particular locality, otherwise suitable, by providing a quantity of mud to be used by them as mortar. Barn swallows may also be encouraged by cutting a small hole in the gable of the barn, while martins and white-bellied swallows will be grateful for boxes like those for the bluebird, but placed in a higher situation. TOWHEE. [Illustration: Fig. 8.âTowhee. Length, about 8 inches.] The towhee, chewink, or ground robin[23] (fig. 8), as it is variously known, inhabits nearly the whole of the United States east of the Great Plains. It breeds from the Middle States northward and winters in the southern half of the country. Naturally associated with the catbird and brown thrasher, it lives in much the same places, though it is more given to haunting hedgerows along roads and fences. After snow has disappeared in early spring an investigation of the rustling so often heard among the leaves near a fence or in a thicket will frequently disclose a towhee hard at work scratching for his dinner after the manner of a hen; and in these places and along the sunny border of woods old leaves will be found overturned where the bird has been searching for hibernating beetles and larvÃ¦. The good which the towhee does in this way can hardly be overestimated, since the death of a single insect at this time, before it has had an opportunity to deposit its eggs, is equivalent to the destruction of a host later in the year. The towhee has also been credited with visiting potato fields and feeding upon the potato beetle. Its vegetable food consists of seeds and small wild fruits, but no complaint on this score is known to have been made. So far as observation goes, the bird never touches either cultivated fruit or grain; in fact, it is too shy and retiring even to stay about gardens for any length of time. [23] _Pipilo erythrophthalmus._ THE SPARROWS.[24] [24] The sparrows here mentioned are all native species. A full account of the English, or house, sparrow (_Passer domesticus_), including its introduction, habits, and depredations, was published in Bul. No. 1 of the Division of Ornithology in 1889. For information in regard to combating the English sparrow, see Farmersâ Bulletin 493, The English Sparrow as a Pest, by Ned Dearborn, 1912. Sparrows are not obtrusive birds, either in plumage, song, or action. There are some 40 species, with nearly as many subspecies, in North America. Not more than half a dozen forms are generally known in any one locality. All the species are more or less migratory, but so widely are they distributed that there is probably no part of the country where some can not be found throughout the year. While sparrows are noted seed eaters, they do not by any means confine themselves to a vegetable diet. During the summer, and especially in the breeding season, they eat many insects and feed their young largely upon the same food. Examination of stomachs of three speciesâthe song sparrow[25] (fig. 9), chipping sparrow,[26] and field sparrow[27] (fig. 10)âshows that about one-third of the food consists of insects, comprising many injurious beetles, as snout beetles or weevils, and leaf beetles. Many grasshoppers are eaten. In the case of the chipping sparrow these insects form one-eighth of the food. Grasshoppers would seem to be rather large morsels, but the bird probably confines itself to the smaller species; indeed, the greatest amount (over 36 per cent) is eaten in June, when the larger species are still young and the smaller most numerous. Besides the insects already mentioned, many wasps and bugs are taken. Predacious and parasitic hymenopterous insects and predacious beetles, all useful, are eaten only to a slight extent, so that as a whole the insect diet of the native sparrows may be considered beneficial. There are several records of potato-bug larvÃ¦ eaten by chipping sparrowâs. [25] _Melospiza melodia._ [26] _Spizella passerina._ [27] _Spizella pusilla._ [Illustration: Fig. 9.âSong sparrow. Length, about 6Â½ inches.] Their vegetable food is limited almost exclusively to hard seeds. This might seem to indicate that the birds feed to some extent upon grain, but the stomachs examined show only one kind, oats, and but little of that. The great bulk of the food is made up of grass and weed seed, which form almost the entire diet during winter, and the amount consumed is immense. In the agricultural region of the upper Mississippi Valley, by roadsides, on borders of cultivated fields, or in abandoned fields, wherever they can obtain a foothold, masses of rank weeds spring up and often form almost impenetrable thickets which afford food and shelter for immense numbers of birds and enable them to withstand great cold and the most terrible blizzards. A person visiting one of these weed patches on a sunny morning in January, when the thermometer is 20Â° or more below zero, will be struck with the life and animation of the busy little inhabitants. Instead of sitting forlorn and half frozen, they may be seen flitting from branch to branch, twittering and fluttering, and showing every evidence of enjoyment and perfect comfort. If one of them is captured it will be found in excellent condition; in fact, a veritable ball of fat. [Illustration: Fig. 10.âField sparrow. Length, about 5Â½ inches.] The snowbird[28] and tree sparrow[29] are perhaps the most numerous of all the sparrows. Examination of many stomachs shows that in winter the tree sparrow feeds entirely upon seeds of weeds. Probably each bird consumes about one-fourth of an ounce a day. In an article contributed in 1881 to the New York Tribune the writer estimated the amount of weed seed annually destroyed by these birds in Iowa. On the basis of one-fourth of an ounce of seed eaten daily by each bird, and an average of ten birds to each square mile, remaining in their winter range 200 days, there would be a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or 875 tons of weed seed consumed in a single season by this one species. Large as are these figures, they unquestionably fall far short of the reality. The estimate of 10 birds to a square mile is very conservative, for in Massachusetts, where the food supply is less than in the Western States, the tree sparrow is even more abundant than this in winter. The writer has known places in Iowa where several thousand tree sparrows could be seen within the space of a few acres. This estimate, moreover, is for a single species, while, as a matter of fact, there are at least half a dozen birds (not all sparrows) that habitually feed during winter on these seeds. Farther south the tree sparrow is replaced in winter by the white-throated sparrow,[30] the white-crowned sparrow,[31] the fox sparrow,[32] the song sparrow, the field sparrow, and several others; so that all over the land a vast number of these seed eaters are at work during the colder months reducing next yearâs crop of worse than useless plants. [28] _Junco hyemails._ [29] _Spizella monticola._ [30] _Zonotrichia albicollis._ [31] _Zonotrichia leucophrys._ [32] _Passerella iliaca._ HOUSE FINCH. Of all the sparrow group, there is probably no member, unless it be the exotic form known as the English sparrow,[33] that has by reason of its food habits called down so many maledictions upon its head as the house finch,[34] red-head, or linnet, as it is variously called. This bird, like the other members of its family, is by nature a seed eater, and before the beginning of fruit raising in California probably subsisted upon the seeds of weeds, with an occasional taste of some wild berry. Now, however, when orchards have extended throughout the length and breadth of the State and every month from May to December sees some ripening fruit, the linnets take their share. As their name is legion, the sum total of the fruit that they destroy is more than the fruit raiser can well spare. As the bird has a stout beak, it has no difficulty in breaking the skin of the hardest fruit and feasting upon the pulp, thereby spoiling the fruit and giving weaker-billed birds a chance to sample and acquire a taste for what they might not otherwise have molested. Complaints against this bird have been many and loud, more especially in the years when fruit crops first came to be an important factor in the prosperity of the Pacific coast. At that time the various fruits afforded the linnets a new and easily obtained food, while cultivation had reduced their formerly abundant supply of weed seed. When the early fruit growers saw their expected golden harvest suddenly snatched away or at least much reduced in value by the little marauders, it is no wonder that they were exasperated and wished to destroy the authors of the mischief. [33] _Passer domesticus._ [34] _Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis._ In order to test the matter thoroughly and ascertain whether these birds ate any other kind of food that might to some extent offset the damage inflicted upon the fruit, the horticulturists and ornithologists of California were requested to secure a number of the stomachs of these birds and send them to the Biological Survey. An agent was also sent to the fruit-raising sections, who watched the birds in the orchards and collected a number of them. In this way 1,206 stomachs were obtained and carefully examined, and the result shows that animal food (insects) constituted 2.44 per cent and vegetable food 97.56 per cent of the stomach contents, not counting gravel. So small a proportion of animal food can not, of course, mean a great destruction of insects. As these stomachs were collected in every month, with the greater number taken during the summer, it is evident that whatever good one may expect from the linnet must not be looked for in this direction. Unlike most of the sparrow family, the linnet does not feed its young upon insects to any great extent. The contents of the stomachs of a number of nestlings were carefully examined, and the only animal food was found to consist of woolly plant lice. These also constituted the great bulk of the animal food eaten by adults. The vegetable food of the species consists of three principal itemsâgrain, fruit, and weed seeds. Grain amounts to less than 1Â½ per cent in August, which is the month of greatest consumption, and the average for the year is a trifle more than one-fourth of 1 per cent. Fruit attains its maximum in September, when it amounts to 27 per cent of the whole food, but the average for the year is only 10 per cent. The seeds of weeds constitute the bulk of the diet of the linnet, and in August, the month of least consumption, amount to about 64 per cent of the food. The average for the year is 86 per cent. From the foregoing it is evident that whatever the linnetâs sins may be, grain eating is not one of them. In view of the great complaint made against its fruit-eating habit, the small quantity found in the stomachs taken is somewhat of a surprise. But it must be remembered that the stomach contents do not tell the whole story. When a bird takes a single peck from a cherry or an apricot, it spoils the whole fruit, and in this way may ruin half a dozen in taking a single meal. It is safe to say that the fruit pulp found in the stomach does not represent more than one-fifth of what is actually destroyed. That the linnets are persistent and voracious eaters of early fruits, especially cherries and apricots, every fruit raiser in California will bear testimony. That the damage is often serious no one will deny. It is noticeable, however, that the earliest varieties are the ones most affected; also, that in large orchards the damage is not perceptible, while in small plantations the whole crop is frequently destroyed. THE GRACKLES. The crow blackbird or grackle[35] (fig. 11) in one or more of its subspecies is a familiar object in all the States east of the Rocky Mountains. Throughout the year it is resident as far north as southern Illinois, and in summer extends its range into the Canadian Provinces. In the Mississippi Valley it is one of the most abundant of birds, preferring to nest in the artificial groves and windbreaks near farms instead of in the natural âtimberâ which it formerly used. It breeds also in parks and near buildings, often in considerable colonies. Farther east, in New England, it is only locally abundant, though frequently seen in migration. In the latter days of August and throughout September it is found in immense numbers before moving southward. [35] _Quiscalus quiscula._ The grackle is accused of many sins, such as stealing grain and fruit and robbing the nests of other birds. An examination of 2,346 stomachs shows that nearly one-third of its food consists of insects, most of which are injurious. The bird also eats a few snails, crawfishes, salamanders, small fish, and occasionally a mouse. The stomach contents do not indicate that it robs other birdsâ nests to any great extent, as remains of birds and birdsâ eggs amount to less than half of 1 per cent. It is on account of its vegetable food that the grackle most deserves condemnation. Grain is eaten during the whole year, and only for a short time in summer is other food attractive enough to induce the bird to alter its diet. The grain taken in winter and spring probably consists of waste kernels from the stubble. The stomachs do not indicate that the bird pulls sprouting grain; but the wheat eaten in July and August and the corn eaten in fall are probably from fields of standing grain. The total amount of grain consumed during the year constitutes 45 per cent of the food, but it is safe to say that at least half is waste grain and consequently of no value. Although the crow blackbird eats a few cherries and blackberries in their season, and in the fall some wild fruit, it apparently does no damage in this way. [Illustration: Fig. 11.âPurple grackle. Length, about 12 inches.] Large flocks of grackles no doubt do considerable injury to grain crops, and there seems to be no remedy, except the destruction of the birds, which is in itself expensive. During the breeding season, however, the species does much good by eating insects and by feeding them to its young, which are reared almost entirely upon this food. The bird does the greatest amount of good in spring, when it follows the plow in search of large grubworms, of which it is so fond that it sometimes literally crams its stomach full of them. BREWER BLACKBIRD. The Brewer blackbird[36] takes the place in the Western States of the grackle, or crow blackbird, which lives in the Mississippi Valley and farther east and is very similar in appearance and habits. It breeds east to the Great Plains and north into Canada, and winters over most of its breeding range in the United States and south to Guatemala. At home in fields, meadows, and orchards, and about ranch buildings and cultivated lands generally, it nests in bushes and weeds, sometimes in trees, and is very gregarious, especially about barnyards and corrals. The bird feeds freely in stockyards and in cultivated fields, and when fruit is ripe does not hesitate to take a share. During the cherry season in California the birds are much in the orchards. In one case they were observed feeding on cherries, but when a neighboring fruit grower began to plow his orchard almost every blackbird in the vicinity was upon the newly opened ground close after the plowmanâs heels in its eagerness to secure the insects turned up. [36] _Euphagus cyanocephalus._ The laboratory investigation of this birdâs food covered 312 stomachs, collected in every month and representing especially the fruit and grain sections of southern California. The animal portion of the food was 32 per cent and the vegetable 68 per cent. Caterpillars and their pupÃ¦ amounted to 12 per cent of the whole food and were eaten every month. They include many of those pests known as cutworms. The cotton-boll worm, or corn-ear worm, was identified in at least 10 stomachs, and in 11 were found pupÃ¦ of the codling moth. The animal food also included other insects, and spiders, sow bugs, snails, and eggshells. The vegetable food may be divided into fruit, grain, and weed seeds. Fruit was eaten in May, June, and July, not a trace appearing in any other month, and was composed of cherries, or what was thought to be such, strawberries, blackberries or raspberries, and fruit pulp or skins not further identified. However, the amount, a little more than 4 per cent for the year, was too small to make a bad showing, and if the bird does no greater harm than is involved in its fruit eating it is well worth protecting. Grain amounts to 54 per cent of the yearly food and forms a considerable percentage in each month; oats are the favorite and were the sole contents of 14 stomachs, and wheat of 2, but no stomach was completely filled with any other grain. Weed seeds, eaten in every month to the extent of 9 per cent of the food, were found in rather small quantities and irregularly, and appear to have been merely a makeshift. Stomachs of nestlings, varying in age from 24 hours to some that were nearly fledged, were found to contain 89 per cent animal to 11 per cent vegetable matter. The largest items in the former were caterpillars, grasshoppers, and spiders. In the latter the largest items were fruit, probably cherries; grain, mostly oats;
{'title': 'Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer (1915 edition) by F. E. L. Beal', 'source': 'Project Gutenberg', 'lang': 'en'}