Produced by Louise Hope, Carlo Traverso, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by the BibliothÃ¨que nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr and The Internet Archive (American Libraries)) [This e-text includes characters that will only display in UTF-8 (Unicode) text readers: Ä Ä Ä Ä« Å Å« (vowel with macron or âlongâ mark) Ä Ä Ä¬ Ä Ä Ä­ Å (vowel with breve or âshortâ mark) Å Å Ä (s, c with âacuteâ: mainly in Recording Indian Languages article) â¿ (small raised n, representing nasalized vowel) É Ê Ê (inverted letters) â (double vertical line There are also a handful of Greek words. Some compromises were made to accommodate font availability: The ordinary âcentsâ sign Â¢ was used in place of the correct form È¼, and bracketed [Â¢] represents the capital letter È». Turned c is represented by É (technically an open o). Bracketed [K] and [T] represent upside-down (turned) capital K and T. Inverted V (described in text) is represented by the Greek letter Î. If your computer has a more appropriate character, feel free to replace letters globally. Syllable stress is represented by an acute accent either on the main vÃ³wel or after the sylÂ´lable; inconsistencies are unchanged. Except for special characters noted above, and obvious insertions such as [Illustration] and [Footnote], brackets are in the original. Note that in the Sign Language article, hand positions identified by letter (A,Â B ... W, Y) are descriptive; they do not represent a âfinger alphabetâ. Italics are shown with _lines_. Boldface (rare) is shown with +marks+; in some articles the same notation is used for +small capitals+. The First Annual Report includes ten âAccompanying Papersâ, all available from Project Gutenberg as individual e-texts. Except for Yarrowâs âMortuary Customsâ, updated shortly before the present text, the separate articles were released between late 2005 and late 2007. For this combined e-text they have been re-formatted for consistency. Some articles have been further modified to include specialized characters shown above, and a few more typographical errors have been corrected. For consistency with later Annual Reports, a full List of Illustrations has been added after the Table of Contents, and each article has been given its own Table of Contents. In the original, the Contents were printed _only_ at the beginning of the volume, and Illustrations were listed _only_ with their respective articles. Errors and inconsistencies are listed separately at the end of each article and after the combined Index. Differences in punctuation or hyphenization between the Table of Contents, Index, or List of Illustrations, and the item itself, are not noted.] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * FIRST ANNUAL REPORT of the BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1879-â80 by J. W. POWELL Director [Illustration] WASHINGTON Government Printing Office 1881 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Bureau of Ethnology, _Washington, D.C., July, 1880._ Prof. SPENCER F. BAIRD, _Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution_, _Washington, D.C._: SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith the first annual report of the operations of the Bureau of Ethnology. By act of Congress, an appropriation was made to continue researches in North American anthropology, the general direction of which was confided to yourself. As chief executive officer of the Smithsonian Institution, you entrusted to me the immediate control of the affairs of the Bureau. This report, with its appended papers, is designed to exhibit the methods and results of my administration of this trust. If any measure of success has been attained, it is largely due to general instructions received from yourself and the advice you have ever patiently given me on all matters of importance. I am indebted to my assistants, whose labors are delineated in the report, for their industry; hearty co-operation, and enthusiastic love of the science. Only through their zeal have your plans been executed. Much assistance has been rendered the Bureau by a large body of scientific men engaged in the study of anthropology, some of whose names have been mentioned in the report and accompanying papers, and others will be put on record when the subject-matter of their writings is fully published. I am, with respect, your obedient servant, J. W. POWELL. TABLE OF CONTENTS. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR. Page. Introductory xi Bibliography of North American philology, by J. C. Pilling xv Linguistic and other anthropologic researches, by J. O. Dorsey xvii Linguistic researches, by S. R. Riggs xviii Linguistic and general researches among the Klamath Indians, by A. S. Gatschet xix Studies among the Iroquois, by Mrs. E. A. Smith xxii Work by Prof. Otis T. Mason xxii The study of gesture speech, by Brevet Lieut. Col. Garrick Mallery xxiii Studies on Central American picture writing, by Prof. E. S. Holden xxv The study of mortuary customs, by Dr. H. C. Yarrow xxvi Investigations relating to cessions of lands by Indian tribes to the United States, by C. C. Royce xxvii Explorations by Mr. James Stevenson xxx Researches among the Wintuns, by Prof. J. W. Powell xxxii The preparation of manuals for use in American research xxxii Linguistic classification of the North American tribes xxxiii ACCOMPANYING PAPERS. Page. ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE, BY J. W. POWELL. Process by combination 3 Process by vocalic mutation 5 Process by intonation 6 Process by placement 6 Differentiation of the parts of speech 8 SKETCH OF THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, BY J. W. POWELL. The genesis of philosophy 19 Two grand stages of philosophy 21 Mythologic philosophy has four stages 29 Outgrowth from mythologic philosophy 33 The course of evolution in mythologic philosophy 38 Mythic tales 43 The CÄ­n-aÃº-Ã¤v Brothers discuss matters of importance to the Utes 44 Origin of the echo 45 The SoÂ´-kÃ»s WaiÂ´-Ã»n-ats 47 Ta-vwots has a fight with the sun 52 WYANDOT GOVERNMENT, BY J. W. POWELL. The family 59 The gens 59 The phratry 60 Government 61 Civil government 61 Methods of choosing councillors 61 Functions of civil government 63 Marriage regulations 63 Name regulations 64 Regulations of personal adornment 64 Regulations of order in encampment 64 Property rights 65 Rights of persons 65 Community rights 65 Rights of religion 65 Crimes 66 Theft 66 Maiming 66 Murder 66 Treason 67 Witchcraft 67 Outlawry 67 Military government 68 Fellowhood 68 ON LIMITATIONS TO THE USE OF SOME ANTHROPOLOGIC DATA, BY J. W. POWELL. ArchÃ¦ology 73 Picture writing 75 History, customs, and ethnic characteristics 76 Origin of man 77 Language 78 Mythology 81 Sociology 83 Psychology 83 A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, BY H. C. YARROW. List of illustrations 89 Introductory 91 Classification of burial 92 Inhumation 93 Pit burial 93 Grave burial 101 Stone graves or cists 113 Burial in mounds 115 Burial beneath or in cabins, wigwams, or houses 122 Cave burial 126 Embalmment or mummification 130 Urn burial 137 Surface burial 138 Cairn burial 142 Cremation 143 Partial cremation 150 Aerial sepulture 152 Lodge burial 152 Box burial 155 Tree and scaffold burial 158 Partial scaffold burial and ossuaries 168 Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes 171 Aquatic burial 180 Living sepulchers 182 Mourning, sacrifice, feasts, etc. 183 Mourning 183 Sacrifice 187 Feasts 190 Superstition regarding burial feasts 191 Food 192 Dances 192 Songs 194 Games 195 Posts 197 Fires 198 Superstitions 199 STUDIES IN CENTRAL AMERICAN PICTURE WRITING, BY E. S. HOLDEN. List of illustrations 206 Introductory 207 Materials for the present investigation 210 System of nomenclature 211 In what order are the hieroglyphs read? 221 The card catalogue of hieroglyphs 223 Comparison of plates I and IV (Copan) 224 Are the hieroglyphs of Copan and Palenque identical? 227 Huitzilopochtli, Mexican god of war, etc. 229 Tlaloc, or his Maya representative 237 Cukulcan or Quetzalcoatl 239 Comparison of the signs of the Maya months 243 CESSIONS OF LAND BY INDIAN TRIBES TO THE UNITED STATES, BY C.Â C. ROYCE. Character of the Indian title 249 Indian boundaries 253 Original and secondary cessions 256 SIGN LANGUAGE AMONG NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, BY COL. GARRICK MALLERY. Introductory 269 Divisions of gesture speech 270 The origin of sign language 273 Gestures of the lower animals 275 Gestures of young children 276 Gestures in mental disorder 276 Uninstructed deaf-mutes 277 Gestures of the blind 278 Loss of speech by isolation 278 Low tribes of man 279 Gestures as an occasional resource 279 Gestures of fluent talkers 279 Involuntary response to gestures 280 Natural pantomime 280 Some theories upon primitive language 282 Conclusions 284 History of gesture language 285 Modern use of gesture speech 293 Use by other peoples than North American Indians 294 Use by modern actors and orators 308 Our Indian conditions favorable to sign language 311 Theories entertained respecting Indian signs 313 Not correlated with meagerness of language 314 Its origin from one tribe or region 316 Is the Indian system special and peculiar? 319 To what extent prevalent as a system 323 Are signs conventional or instinctive? 340 Classes of diversities in signs 341 Results sought in the study of sign language 346 Practical application 346 Relations to philology 349 Sign language with reference to grammar 359 Gestures aiding archÃ¦ologic research 368 Notable points for further researches 387 Invention of new signs 387 Danger of symbolic interpretation 388 Signs used by women and children 391 Positive signs rendered negative 391 Details of positions of fingers 392 Motions relative to parts of the body 393 Suggestions for collecting signs 394 Mode in which researches have been made 395 List of authorities and collaborators 401 Algonkian 403 Dakotan 404 Iroquoian 405 Kaiowan 406 Kutinean 406 Panian 406 Piman 406 Sahaptian 406 Shoshonian 406 Tinnean 407 Wichitan 407 ZuÃ±ian 407 Foreign correspondence 407 Extracts from dictionary 409 Tribal signs 458 Proper names 476 Phrases 479 Dialogues 486 Tendoy-Huerito Dialogue. 486 Omaha Colloquy. 490 BrulÃ© Dakota Colloquy. 491 Dialogue between Alaskan Indians. 492 Ojibwa Dialogue. 499 Narratives 500 NÃ¡tciâs Narrative. 500 Patricioâs Narrative. 505 Na-wa-gi-jigâs Story. 508 Discourses 521 Address of Kin ChÄ-Äss. 521 Tso-di-aÂ´-koâs Report. 524 Lean Wolfâs Complaint. 526 Signals 529 Signals executed by bodily action 529 Signals in which objects are used in connection with personal action 532 Signals made when the person of the signalist is not visible 536 Scheme of illustration 544 Outlines for arm positions in sign language 545 Types of hand positions in sign language 547 Examples 550 CATALOGUE OF LINGUISTIC MANUSCRIPTS IN THE LIBRARY OF THE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY, BY J.Â C. PILLING. Introductory 555 List of manuscripts 562 ILLUSTRATION OF THE METHOD OF RECORDING INDIAN LANGUAGES. FROM THE MANUSCRIPTS OF MESSRS. J. O. DORSEY, A. S. GATSCHET, AND S. B. RIGGS. How the rabbit caught the sun in a trap, by J. O. Dorsey 581 Details of a conjurerâs practice, by A. S. Gatschet 583 The relapse, by A. S. Gatschet 585 Sweat-Lodges, by A. S. Gatschet 586 A dogâs revenge, by S. R. Riggs 587 FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. BY J. W. POWELL, _Director._ INTRODUCTORY. The exploration of the Colorado River of the West, begun in 1869 by authority of Congressional action, was by the same authority subsequently continued as the second division of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Territories, and, finally, as the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. By act of Congress of March 3, 1879, the various geological and geographical surveys existing at that time were discontinued and the United States Geological Survey was established. In all the earlier surveys anthropologic researches among the North American Indians were carried on. In that branch of the work finally designated as the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, such research constituted an important part of the work. In the act creating the Geological Survey, provision was made to continue work in this field under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, on the basis of the methods developed and materials collected by the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. Under the authority of the act of Congress providing for the continuation of the work, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution intrusted its management to the former director of the Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, and a bureau of ethnology was thus practically organized. In the Annual Report of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region for 1877, the following statement of the condition of the work at that time appears: ETHNOGRAPHIC WORK. During the same office season the ethnographic work was more thoroughly organized, and the aid of a large number of volunteer assistants living throughout the country was secured. Mr. W.Â H. Dall, of the United States Coast Survey, prepared a paper on the tribes of Alaska, and edited other papers on certain tribes of Oregon and Washington Territory. He also superintended the construction of an ethnographic map to accompany his paper, including on it the latest geographic determination from all available sources. His long residence and extended scientific labors in that region peculiarly fitted him for the task, and he has made a valuable contribution both to ethnology and geography. With the same volume was published a paper on the habits and customs of certain tribes of the State of Oregon and Washington Territory, prepared by the late Mr. George Gibbs while he was engaged in scientific work in that region for the government. The volume also contains a Niskwalli vocabulary with extended grammatic notes, the last great work of the lamented author. In addition to the map above mentioned and prepared by Mr. Dall, aÂ second has been made, embracing the western portion of Washington Territory and the northern part of Oregon. The map includes the results of the latest geographic information and is colored to show the distribution of Indian tribes, chiefly from notes and maps left by Mr. Gibbs. The Survey is indebted to the following gentlemen for valuable contributions to this volume: Gov. J. Furujelm, Lieut. E. De Meulen, Dr. Wm. F. Tolmie, and Rev. Father Mengarini. Mr. Stephen Powers, of Ohio, who has spent several years in the study of the Indians of California, had the year before been engaged to prepare a paper on that subject. In the mean time at my request he was employed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs to travel among these tribes for the purpose of making collections of Indian arts for the International Exhibition. This afforded him opportunity of more thoroughly accomplishing his work in the preparation of the above-mentioned paper. On his return the new material was incorporated with the old, and the whole has been printed. At our earliest knowledge of the Indians of California they were divided into small tribes speaking diverse languages and belonging to radically different stocks, and the whole subject was one of great complexity and interest. Mr. Powers has successfully unraveled the difficult problems relating to the classification and affinities of a very large number of tribes, and his account of their habits and customs is of much interest. In the volume with his paper will be found a number of vocabularies collected by himself, Mr. George Gibbs, General George Crook, U.S.A., General W.Â B. Hazen, U.S.A., Lieut. Edward Ross, U.S.A., Assistant Surgeon Thomas F. Azpell, U.S.A., Mr. Ezra Williams, Mr. J.Â R. Bartlett, Gov. J. Furujelm, Prof. F.Â L.Â O. Roehrig, Dr. William A. Gabb, Mr. H.Â B. Brown, Mr. Israel S. Diehl, Dr. Oscar Loew, Mr. Albert S. Gatschet, Mr. Livingston Stone, Mr. Adam Johnson, Mr. Buckingham Smith, Padre Aroyo; Rev. Father Gregory Mengarini, Padre Juan Comelias, Hon. Horatio Hale, Mr. Alexander S. Taylor, Rev. Antonio Timmeno, and Father Bonaventure Sitjar. The volume is accompanied by a map of the State of California, compiled from the latest official sources and colored to show the distribution of linguistic stocks. The Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, of Maryland, has been engaged for more than a year in the preparation of a grammar and dictionary of the Ponka language. His residence among these Indians as a missionary has furnished him favorable opportunity for the necessary studies, and he has pushed forward the work with zeal and ability, his only hope of reward being a desire to make a contribution to science. Prof. Otis T. Mason, of Columbian College, has for the past year rendered the office much assistance in the study of the history and statistics of Indian tribes. On June 13, Brevet Lieut. Col. Garrick Mallery, U.S.A., at the request of the Secretary of the Interior, joined my corps under orders from the honorable Secretary of War, and since that time has been engaged in the study of the statistics and history of the Indians of the western portion of the United States. In April last, Mr. A. S. Gatschet was employed as a philologist to assist in the ethnographic work of this Survey. He had previously been engaged in the study of the languages of various North American tribes. In June last at the request of this office he was employed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs to collect certain statistics relating to the Indians of Oregon and Washington Territory, and is now in the field. His scientific reports have since that time been forwarded through the honorable Commissioner of Indian Affairs to this office. His work will be included in a volume now in course of preparation. Dr. H. O. Yarrow, U.S.A., now on duty at the Army Medical Museum, in Washington, has been engaged during the past year in the collection of material for a monograph on the customs and rites of sepulture. To aid him in this work circulars of inquiry have been widely circulated among ethnologists and other scholars throughout North America, and much material has been obtained which will greatly supplement his own extended observations and researches. Many other gentlemen throughout the United States have rendered me valuable assistance in this department of investigation. Their labors will receive due acknowledgment at the proper time, but I must not fail to render my sincere thanks to these gentlemen, who have so cordially and efficiently co-operated with me in this work. A small volume, entitled âIntroduction to the Study of Indian Languages,â has been prepared and published. This book is intended for distribution among collectors. In its preparation I have been greatly assisted by Prof. W.Â D. Whitney, the distinguished philologist of Yale College. To him I am indebted for that part relating to the representation of the sounds of Indian languages; aÂ work which could not be properly performed by any other than a profound scholar in this branch. I complete the statement of the office-work of the past season by mentioning that a tentative classification of the linguistic families of the Indians of the United States has been prepared. This has been a work of great labor, to which I have devoted much of my own time, and in which I have received the assistance of several of the gentlemen above mentioned. In pursuing these ethnographic investigations it has been the endeavor as far as possible to produce results that would be of practical value in the administration of Indian affairs, and for this purpose especial attention has been paid to vital statistics, to the discovery of linguistic affinities, the progress made by the Indians toward civilization, and the causes and remedies for the inevitable conflict that arises from the spread of civilization over a region previously inhabited by savages. IÂ may be allowed to express the hope that our labors in this direction will not be void of such useful results. In 1878 no report of the Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region was published, as before its completion the question of reorganizing all of the surveys had been raised, but the work was continued by the same methods as in previous years. The operations of the Bureau of Ethnology during the past fiscal year will be briefly described. In the plan of organization two methods of operation are embraced: First. The prosecution of research by the direct employment of scholars and specialists; and Second. By inciting and guiding research immediately conducted by collaborators at work throughout the country. It has been the effort of the Bureau to prosecute work in the various branches of North American anthropology on a systematic plan, so that every important field should be cultivated, limited only by the amount appropriated by Congress. With little exception all sound anthropologic investigation in the lower states of culture exhibited by tribes of men, as distinguished from nations, must have a firm foundation in language Customs, laws, governments, institutions, mythologies, religions, and even arts can not be properly understood without a fundamental knowledge of the languages which express the ideas and thoughts embodied therein. Actuated by these considerations prime attention has been given to language. It is not probable that there are many languages in North America entirely unknown, and in fact it is possible there are none; but of many of the known languages only short vocabularies have appeared. Except for languages entirely unknown, the time for the publication of short vocabularies has passed; they are no longer of value. The Bureau proposes hereafter to publish short vocabularies only in the exceptional cases mentioned above. The distribution of the Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages is resulting in the collection of a large series of chrestomathies, which it is believed will be worthy of publication. It is also proposed to publish grammars and dictionaries when those have been thoroughly and carefully prepared. In each case it is deemed desirable to connect with the grammar and dictionary a body of literature designed as texts for reference in explaining the facts and principles of the language. These texts will be accompanied by interlinear translations so arranged as greatly to facilitate the study of the chief grammatic characteristics. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICAN PHILOLOGY, BY MR. J. C. PILLING. There is being prepared in the office a bibliography of North American languages. It was originally intended as a card catalogue for office use, but has gradually assumed proportions which seem to justify its publication. It is designed as an authorâs catalogue, arranged alphabetically, and is to include titles of grammars, dictionaries, vocabularies, translations of the scriptures, hymnals, doctrinÃ¦ christianÃ¦, tracts, school-books, etc., general discussions, and reviews when of sufficient importance; in short, aÂ catalogue of authors who have written in or upon any of the languages of North America, with a list of their works. It has been the aim in preparing this material to make not only full titles of all the works containing linguistics, but also to exhaust editions. Whether full titles of editions subsequent to the first will be printed will depend somewhat on the size of the volume it will make, there being at present about four thousand five hundred cards, probably about three thousand titles. The bibliography is based on the library of the Director, but much time has been spent in various libraries, public and private, the more important being the Congressional, Boston Public, Boston AthenÃ¦um, Harvard College, Congregational of Boston, Massachusetts Historical Society, American Antiquarian Society of Worcester, the John Carter Brown at Providence, the Watkinson at Hartford, and the American Bible Society at New York. It is hoped that Mr. Pilling may find opportunity to visit the principal libraries of New York and Philadelphia, especially those of the historical societies, before the work is printed. In addition to personal research, much correspondence has been carried on with the various missionaries and Indian agents throughout the United States and Canada, and with gentlemen who have written upon the subject, among whom are Dr. H. Rink, of Copenhagen, Dr. J.Â C. E. Buschman, of Berlin, and the well-known bibliographers, Mr. J. Sabin, of New York, Hon. J.Â R. Bartlett, of Providence, and SeÃ±or Don J. G. Icazbalceta, of the City of Mexico. Mr. Pilling has not attempted to classify the material linguistically. That work has been left for a future publication, intended to embody the results of an attempt to classify the tribes of North America on the basis of language, and now in course of preparation by the Director. LINGUISTIC AND OTHER ANTHROPOLOGIC RESEARCHES, BY THE REV. J. OWEN DORSEY. For a number of years Mr. Dorsey has been engaged in investigations among a group of cognate Dakotan tribes embracing three languages: [Â¢]egiha, spoken by the Ponkas and Omahas, with a closely related dialect of the same, spoken by the Kansas, Osage, and Kwapa tribes; the [T]Éiwere, spoken by the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri tribes; and the HotcaÃ±gara, spoken by the Winnebago. In July, 1878, he repaired to the Omaha reservation, in the neighborhood of which most of these languages are spoken, for the purpose of continuing his studies. Mr. Dorsey commenced the study of the [Â¢]egiha in 1871, and has continued his researches in the group until the present time. He has collected a very large body of linguistic material, both in grammar and vocabulary, and when finally published a great contribution will be made to North American linguistics. These languages are excessively complex because of the synthetic characteristics of the verb, incorporated particles being used in an elaborate and complex scheme. In these languages six general classes of pronouns are found: 1st. The free personal. 2d. The incorporated personal. 3d. The demonstrative. 4th. The interrogative. 5th. The relative. 6th. The indefinite. One of the most interesting features of the language is found in the genders or particle classifiers. The genders or classifiers are _animate_ and _inanimate_, and these are again divided into the _standing_, _sitting_, _reclining_, and _moving_; but in the Winnebago the _reclining_ and _moving_ constitute but one class. They are suffixed to nouns, pronouns, and verbs. When nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions are used as predicants, _i.e._, to perform the function of verbs, these classifiers are also suffixed. The classifiers point out with particularity the gender or class of the subject and object. When numerals are used as nouns the classifiers are attached. In nouns and pronouns case functions are performed by an elaborate system of postpositions in conjunction with the classifiers. The verbs are excessively complex by reason of the use of many incorporated particles to denote _cause_, _manner_, _instrument_, _purpose_, _condition_, _time_, etc. Voice, mode, and tense are not systematically differentiated in the morphology, but voices, modes, and tenses, and a great variety of adverbial qualifications enter into the complex scheme of incorporated particles. Sixty-six sounds are found in the [Â¢]egiha; sixty-two in the [T][c]iwere; sixty-two in the HotcaÃ±gara; and the alphabet adopted by the Bureau is used successfully for their expression. While Mr. Dorsey has been prosecuting his linguistic studies among these tribes he has had abundant opportunity to carry on other branches of anthropologic research, and he has collected extensive and valuable materials on sociology, mythology, religion, arts, customs, etc. His final publication of the [Â¢]egiha will embrace a volume of literature made up of mythic tales, historical narratives, letters, etc., in the Indian, with interlinear translations, aÂ selection from which appears in the papers appended to this report. Another volume will be devoted to the grammar and a third to the dictionary. LINGUISTIC RESEARCHES, BY THE REV. S. R. RIGGS. In 1852 the Smithsonian Institution published a grammar and dictionary of the Dakota language prepared by Mr. Riggs. Since that time Mr. Riggs, assisted by his sons, A. L. and T. L. Riggs, and by Mr. Williamson, has been steadily engaged in revising and enlarging the grammar and dictionary; and at the request of the Bureau he is also preparing a volume of Dakota literature as texts for illustration to the grammar and dictionary. He is rapidly preparing this work for publication, and it will soon appear. The work of Mr. Riggs and that of Mr. Dorsey, mentioned above, with the materials already published, will place the Dakotan languages on record more thoroughly than those of any other family in this country. The following is a table of the languages of this family now recognized by the Bureau: LANGUAGES OF THE DAKOTAN FAMILY. 1. DakÃ³ta (Sioux), in four dialects: (_a_) MdÃ©wakaâ¿toâ¿waâ¿ and WaqpÃ©kute. (_b_) WaqpÃ©toâ¿waâ¿ (Warpeton) and SisÃ­toâ¿waâ¿ (Sisseton). These two are about equivalent to the modern Isaâ¿Â´yati (Santee). (_c_) IhaÃ±kÂ´toâ¿waâ¿ (Yankton), including the Assiniboins. (_d_) TÃ­toâ¿waâ¿ (Teton). 2. [Â¢]egiha, in two (?) dialects: (_a_) Umaâ¿Â´haâ¿ (Omaha), spoken by the Omahas and Ponkas. (_b_) UgÃ¡qpa (Kwapa), spoken by the Kwapas, Osages, and Kansas. 3. [T]ÉiwÃ©re, in two dialects: (_a_) [T]ÉiwÃ©re, spoken by the Otos and Missouris. (_b_) [T]ÉÃ©Êiwere, spoken by the Iowas. 4. HotcaÃ±Â´gara, spoken by the Winnebagos. 5. NÃºmaÃ±kaki (Mandan), in two dialects: (_a_) MitÃºtahaÃ±kuc. (_b_) RuptÃ¡ri. 6. HiÂ¢Ã¡tsa (Hidatsa), in two (?) dialects: (_a_) HidÃ¡tsa or Minnetaree. (_b_) AbsÃ¡roka or Crow. 7. TÃºtelo, in Canada. 8. KatÃ¢Â´ba (Catawba), in South Carolina. LINGUISTIC AND GENERAL RESEARCHES AMONG THE KLAMATH INDIANS, BY MR. A.Â S. GATSCHET. Of the Klamath language of Oregon there are two dialects--one spoken by the Indians of Klamath Lake and the other by the Modocs--constituting the Lutuami family of Hale and Gallatin. Mr. Gatschet has spent much time among these Indians, at their reservation and elsewhere, and has at the present time in manuscript nearly ready for the printer a large body of Klamath literature, consisting of mythic, ethnic, and historic tales, aÂ grammar and a dictionary. The stories were told by the Indians and recorded by himself, and constitute a valuable contribution to the subject. Some specimens will appear in the papers appended to this report. The grammatic sketch treats of both dialects, which differ but slightly in grammar but more in vocabulary. The grammar is divided into three principal parts: Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax. In Phonology fifty different sounds are recognized, including simple and compound consonants, the vowels in different quantities, and the diphthongs. A characteristic feature of this language is described in explaining syllabic reduplication, which performs iterative and distributive functions. Reduplication for various purposes is found in most of the languages of North America. In the Nahuatl, Sahaptin, and Selish families it is most prominent. Mr. Gatschetâs researches will add materially to the knowledge of the functions of reduplication in tribal languages. The verbal inflection is comparatively simple, for in it the subject and object pronouns are not incorporated. In the verb Mr. Gatschet recognizes ten general forms, aÂ part of which he designates as _verbals_, as follows: 1. Infinitive in -a. 2. Durative in -ota. 3. Causative in -oga. 4. Indefinite in -ash. 5. Indefinite in -uÄ­sh. 6. Conditional in -asht. 7. Desiderative in -ashtka. 8. Intentional in -tki. 9. Participle in -ank. 10. Past participle and verbal adjectives in -tko. Tense and mode inflection is very rudimentary and is mostly accomplished by the use of particles. The study of the prefixes and suffixes of derivation is one of the chief difficulties of the language, for they combine in clusters, and are not easily analyzed, and their functions are often obscure. The inflection of nouns by case endings and postpositions is rich in forms; that of the adjective and numeral less elaborate. Of the pronouns, only the demonstrative show a complexity of forms. Another feature of this language is found in verbs appended to certain numerals, and thus serving as numerical classifiers. These verbs express methods of counting and relate to form; that is, in each case they present the Indian in the act of counting objects of a particular form and placing them in groups of tens. The appended verbs used as classifiers signify _to place_, but in Indian languages we are not apt to find a word so highly differentiated as _place_, but in its stead a series of words with verbs and adverbs undifferentiated, each signifying _to place_, with a qualification, as _I place upon_, _I lay alongside of_, _I stand up, by_, etc. Thus we get classifiers attached to numerals in the Klamath, analogous to the classifiers attached to verbs, nouns, numerals, etc., in the Ponka, as mentioned above. These classifiers in Klamath are further discriminated as to form; but these form discriminations are the homologues of attitude discriminations in the Ponka, for the form determines the attitude. It is interesting to note how often in these lower languages attitude or form is woven into the grammatic structure. Perhaps this arises from a condition of expression imposed by the want of the verb _to be_, so that when existence in place is to be affirmed, the verbs of attitude, _i.e._, _to stand_, _to sit_, _to lie_, and sometimes _to move_, are used to predicate existence in place, and thus the mind comes habitually to consider all things as in the one or the other of these attitudes. The process of growth seems to be that verbs of attitude are primarily used to affirm existence in place until the habit of considering the attitude is established; thus participles of attitude are used with nouns, &c., and finally, worn down by the law of phonic change, for economy, they become classifying particles. This view of the origin of classifying particles seems to be warranted by studies from a great variety of Indian sources. The syntactic portion is divided into four parts: 1st. On the predicative relation; 2d. On the objective relation; 3d. On the attributive relation; and the 4th. Exhibits the formation of simple and compound sentences, followed by notes on the incorporative tendency of the language, its rhetoric, figures, and idioms. The alphabet adopted by Mr. Gatschet differs slightly from that used by the Bureau, particularly in the modification of certain Roman characters and the introduction of one Greek character. This occurred from the fact that Mr. Gatschetâs material had been partly prepared prior to the adoption of the alphabet now in use. Mr. Gatschet has collected much valuable material relating to governmental and social institutions, mythology, religion, music, poetry, oratory, and other interesting matters. The body of Klamath literature, or otherwise the text previously mentioned, constitutes the basis of these investigations. STUDIES AMONG THE IROQUOIS, BY MRS. E. A. SMITH. Mrs. Smith, of Jersey City, has undertaken to prepare a series of chrestomathies of the Iroquois language, and has already made much progress. Three of them are ready for the printer, and that on the Tuscarora language has been increased much beyond the limits at first established. She has also collected interesting material relating to the mythology, habits, customs, &c., of these Indians, and her contributions will be interesting and important. WORK BY PROF. OTIS T. MASON. On the advent of the white man in America a great number of tribes were found. For a variety of reasons the nomenclature of these tribes became excessively complex. Names were greatly multiplied for each tribe and a single name was often inconsistently applied to different tribes. Several important reasons conspired to bring about this complex state of synonymy: 1st. A great number of languages were spoken, and ofttimes the first names obtained for tribes were not the names used by themselves, but the names by which they were known to some other tribes. 2d. The governmental organization of the Indians was not understood, and the names for gentes, tribes, and confederacies were confounded. 3d. The advancing occupancy of the country by white men changed the habitat of the Indians, and in their migrations from point to point their names were changed. Under these circumstances the nomenclature of Indian tribes became ponderous and the synonymy complex. To unravel this synonymy is a task of great magnitude. Early in the fiscal year the materials already collected on this subject were turned over to Professor Mason and clerical assistance given him, and he has prepared a card catalogue of North American tribes, exhibiting the synonymy, for use in the office. This is being constantly revised and enlarged, and will eventually be published. Professor Mason is also engaged in editing a grammar and dictionary of the Chata language, by the late Rev. Cyrus Byington, the manuscript of which was by Mrs. Byington turned over to the Bureau of Ethnology. The dictionary is Chata-English, and Professor Mason has prepared an English-Chata of about ten thousand words. He has also undertaken to enlarge the grammar by a further study of the language among the Indians themselves. THE STUDY OF GESTURE SPEECH, BY BREVET LIEUT. COL. GARRICK MALLERY, U.S.A. The growth of the languages of civilized peoples in their later stages may be learned from the study of recorded literature; and by comparative methods many interesting facts may be discovered pertaining to periods anterior to the development of writing. In the study of peoples who have not passed beyond the tribal condition, laws of linguistic growth anterior to the written stage may be discovered. Thus, by the study of the languages of tribes and the languages of nations, the methods and laws of development are discovered from the low condition represented by the most savage tribe to the highest condition existing in the speech of civilized man. But there is a development of language anterior to this--a prehistoric condition--of profound interest to the scholar, because in it the beginnings of language--the first steps in the organization of articulate speech--are involved. On this prehistoric stage, light is thrown from four sources: 1st. Infant speech, in which the development of the language of the race is epitomized. 2d. Gesture speech, which, among tribal peoples, never passes beyond the first stages of linguistic growth; and these stages are probably homologous to the earlier stages of oral speech. 3d. Picture writing, in which we again find some of the characteristics of prehistoric speech illustrated. 4th. It may be possible to learn something of the elements of which articulate speech is compounded by studying the inarticulate language of the lower animals. The traits of gesture speech that seem to illustrate the condition of prehistoric oral language are found in the synthetic character of its signs. The parts of speech are not differentiated, and the sentence is not integrated; and this characteristic is more marked than in that of the lowest oral language yet studied. For this reason the facts of gesture speech constitute an important factor in the philosophy of language. Doubtless, care must be exercised in its use because of the advanced mental condition of the people who thus express their thought, but with due caution it may be advantageously used. In itself, independent of its relations to oral speech, the subject is of great interest. In taking up this subject for original investigation, valuable published matter was found for comparison with that obtained by Colonel Mallery. His opportunities for collecting materials from the Indians themselves were abundant, as delegations of various tribes are visiting Washington from time to time, by which the information obtained during his travels was supplemented. Again, the method of investigation by the assistance of a number of collaborators is well illustrated in this work, and contributions from various sources were made to the materials for study. The methods of obtaining these contributions will be more fully explained hereafter. One of the papers appended to this report was prepared by Colonel Mallery and relates to this subject. During the continuance of the Survey of the Colorado River, and of the Rocky Mountain Region, the Director and his assistants made large collections of pictographs. When Colonel Mallery joined the corps these collections were turned over to him for more careful study. From various sources these pictographs are rapidly accumulating, and now the subject is assuming large proportions, and valuable results are expected. An interesting relation between gesture speech and pictography consists in the discovery that to the delineation of natural objects is added the representation of gesture signs. Materials in America are very abundant, and the prehistoric materials may be studied in the light given by the practices now found among Indian tribes. STUDIES IN CENTRAL AMERICAN PICTURE WRITING, BY PROF. E. S. HOLDEN. In Central America and Mexico, picture writing had progressed to a stage far in advance of anything discovered to the northward. Some of the most interesting of these are the rock inscriptions of Yucatan, Copan, Palenque, and other ruins of Central America. Professor Holden has devoted much time to the study of these inscriptions, for the purpose of discovering the characteristics of the pictographic method and deciphering the records, and the discoveries made by him are of great interest. The Bureau has given him clerical assistance and such other aid as has been found possible, and a paper by him on this subject appears with this volume. THE STUDY OF MORTUARY CUSTOMS, BY DR. H. C. YARROW. The tribes of North America do not constitute a homogeneous people. In fact, more than seventy distinct linguistic stocks are discovered, and these are again divided by important distinctions of language. Among these tribes varying stages of culture have been reached, and these varying stages are exhibited in their habits and customs; and in a territory of such vast extent the physical environment affecting culture and customs is of great variety. Forest lands on the one hand, prairie lands on the other, unbroken plains and regions of rugged mountains, the cold, naked, desolate shores of sea and lake at the north and the dense chaparral of the torrid south, the valleys of quiet rivers and the cliffs and gorges of the caÃ±on land--in all a great diversity of physical features are found, imposing diverse conditions for obtaining subsistence, in means and methods of house-building, creating diverse wants and furnishing diverse ways for their supply. Through diversities of languages and diversities of environment, diversity of traditions and diversity of institutions have been produced; so that in many important respects one tribe is never the counterpart of another. These diversities have important limitations in the unity of the human race and the social, mental, and moral homogeneity that has everywhere controlled the progress of culture. The way of human progress is one road, though wide. From the interesting field of research cultivated by Dr. Yarrow an abundant harvest will be gathered. The materials already accumulated are large, and are steadily increasing through his vigorous work. These materials constitute something more than a record of quaint customs and abhorrent rites in which morbid curiosity may revel. In them we find the evidences of traits of character and lines of thought that yet exist and profoundly influence civilization. Passions in the highest culture deemed most sacred--the love of husband and wife, parent and child, and kith and kin, tempering, beautifying, and purifying social life and culminating at death, have their origin far back in the early history of the race and leaven the society of savagery and civilization alike. At either end of the line bereavement by death tears the heart and mortuary customs are symbols of mourning. The mystery which broods over the abbey where lie the bones of king and bishop, gathers over the ossuary where lie the bones of chief and shamin; for the same longing to solve the mysteries of life and death, the same yearning for a future life, the same awe of powers more than human, exist alike in the mind of the savage and the sage. By such investigations we learn the history of culture in these important branches, and in a paper appended to this report Dr. Yarrow presents some of the results of his studies. INVESTIGATIONS RELATING TO CESSIONS OF LAND BY INDIAN TRIBES TO THE UNITED STATES, BY C. C. ROYCE. When civilized man first came to America the continent was partially occupied by savage tribes, who obtained subsistence by hunting, by fishing, by gathering vegetal products, and by rude garden culture in cultivating small patches of ground. Semi-nomadic occupancy for such purposes was their tenure to the soil. On the organization of the present government such theories of natural law were entertained that even this imperfect occupancy was held to be sufficient title. Publicists, jurists, and statesmen agreed that no portion of the waste of lands between the oceans could be acquired for the homes of the incoming civilized men but by purchase or conquest in just war. These theories were most potent in establishing practical relations, and controlling governmental dealings with Indian tribes. They were adjudged to be dependent domestic nations. Under this theory a system of Indian affairs grew up, the history of which, notwithstanding mistakes and innumerable personal wrongs, yet demonstrates the justice inherent in the public sentiment of the nation from its organization to the present time. The difficulties subsisting in the adjustment of rights between savage and civilized peoples are multiform and complex. Ofttimes the virtues of one condition are the crimes of the other; happiness is misery; justice, injustice. Thus, when the civilized man would do the best, he gave the most offense. Under such circumstances it was impossible for wisdom and justice combined to avert conflict. One chapter in the history of Indian affairs in America is a doleful tale of petty but costly and cruel wars; but there are other chapters more pleasant to contemplate. The attempts to educate the Indians and teach them the ways of civilization have been many; much labor has been given, much treasure expended. While to a large extent all of these efforts have disappointed their enthusiastic promoters, yet good has been done, but rather by the personal labors of missionaries, teachers, and frontiersmen associating with Indians in their own land than by institutions organized and supported by wealth and benevolence not immediately in contact with savagery. The great boon to the savage tribes of this country, unrecognized by themselves, and, to a large extent, unrecognized by civilized men, has been the presence of civilization, which, under the laws of acculturation, has irresistibly improved their culture by substituting new and civilized for old and savage arts, new for old customs--in short, transforming savage into civilized life. These unpremeditated civilizing influences have had a marked effect. The great body of the Indians of North America have passed through stages of culture in the last hundred years achieved by our Anglo-Saxon ancestors only by the slow course of events through a thousand years. The Indians of the continent have not greatly diminished in numbers, and the tribes longest in contact with civilization are increasing. The whole body of Indians is making rapid progress toward a higher culture, notwithstanding the petty conflicts yet occurring where the relations of the Indian tribes to our civilization have not yet been adjusted by the adoption upon their part of the first conditions of a higher life. The part which the General Government, representing public sentiment, has done in the extinguishment of the vague Indian title to lands in the granting to them of lands for civilized homes on reservations and in severalty, in the establishment and support of schools, in the endeavors to teach them agriculture and other industrial arts--in these and many other ways justice and beneficence have been shown. Thus the history of the tribes of America from savagery to civilization is a history of three: First. The history of acculturation--the effect of the presence of civilization upon savagery. Second. The history of Indian wars that have arisen in part from the crimes and in part from the ignorance of either party. Third. The history of civil Indian affairs. This last is divided into a number of parts: 1st. The extinguishment of the Indian title. 2d. The gathering of Indians upon reservations. 3d. The instrumentalities used to teach the Indians civilized industries; and 4th. The establishment and operation of schools. From the organization of the Government to the present time these branches of Indian affairs have been in operation; lands have been bought and bought again; Indian tribes have been moved and moved again; reservations have been established and broken up. The Government has sought to give lands in severalty to the Indians from time to time along the whole course of the history of Indian affairs. Every experiment to teach the Indians the industries of civilization that could be devised has been tried, and from all of these there has resulted a mixture of failure and success. A review of the centuryâs history abundantly demonstrates that there is no short road to justice and peace; but a glance at the present state of affairs exhibits the fact that these tribal communities will speedily be absorbed in the citizenship of the republic. No new method is to be adopted; the work is almost done; patient and persistent effort for a short future like that of the long past will accomplish all. It remains for us but to perfect the work wisely begun by the founders of the Government. The industries and social institutions of the pristine Indians have largely been destroyed, and they are groping their way to civilized life. To the full accomplishment of this, three things are necessary: 1st. The organization of the civilized family, with its rules of inheritance in lineal descent. 2d. The civilized tenure of property in severalty must be substituted for communal property. 3d. The English language must be acquired, that the thoughts and ways of civilization may be understood. To the history of Indian
{'title': 'First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology by James Owen Dorsey et al.', 'source': 'Project Gutenberg', 'lang': 'en'}