Produced by Jonathan Niehof, Juliet Sutherland, Moti Ben-Ari and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net The History _of_ Nations JAPAN [Illustration: Emblem] GHENT EDITION [Illustration: THE JAPANESE AND RUSSIAN COMMANDERS OF THE LATE WAR IN THE PENINSULA OF LIAO-TUNG, MANCHURIA] GENERAL NODZU _Opposed to General Bilderding at the Battle of Mukden_ GENERAL BARON KUROKI _Commander-in-Chief of the First Japanese Army_ GENERAL KUROPATKIN _Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army in the Far East_ GENERAL LIGNIEVITCH _Successor to General Kuropatkin_ GENERAL NOGI _Japanese Commander before Port Arthur_ GENERAL OKU _Opposed to General Kaulbars at the Battle of Mukden_ MARSHAL OYAMA _Commander of the Japanese Field Forces. Victor at Liao-yang, Sha-ho and Mukden_ _From drawings made by H. W. Koekkoek from photographs_ THE HISTORY OF NATIONS HENRY CABOT LODGE, Ph.Â D., LL.Â D. EDITOR-IN-CHIEF JAPAN From the Japanese Government History Edited With Supplementary Chapters by K. ASAKAWA Instructor in Japanese Civilization Yale University Volume VII [Illustration: Emblem] Illustrated P Â· F Â· COLLIER & SON PUBLISHERS NEW YORK Copyright, 1907, by JOHN D. MORRIS & COMPANY Copyright, 1910, by THE H. W. SNOW & SON COMPANY Copyright, 1913, by P. F. COLLIER & SON Designed, Printed, and Bound at The Collier Press, New York THE HISTORY OF NATIONS EDITOR-IN-CHIEF HENRY CABOT LODGE, Ph.D., LL.D. Associate Editors and Authors ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, LL.D., _Professor of Assyriology, Oxford University_ CHRISTOPHER JOHNSTON, M.D., Ph.D., _Associate Professor of Oriental History and Archaeology, Johns Hopkins University_ C.W.C. OMAN, LL.D., _Professor of History, Oxford University_ THEODOR MOMMSEN, _Late Professor of Ancient History, University of Berlin_ ARTHUR C. HOWLAND, Ph.D., _Department of History, University of Pennsylvania_ CHARLES MERIVALE, LL.D., _Late Dean of Ely, formerly Lecturer in History, Cambridge University_ J. HIGGINSON CABOT, Ph.D., _Department of History, Wellesley College_ SIR WILLIAM W. HUNTER, F.R.S., _Late Director-General of Statistics in India_ GEORGE M. DUTCHER, Ph.D., _Professor of History, Wesleyan University_ SIR ROBERT K. DOUGLAS, _Professor of Chinese, King's College, London_ JEREMIAH WHIPPLE JENKS, Ph.D., LL.D., _Professor of Political Economy and Politics, Cornell University_ KANICHI ASAKAWA, Ph.D., _Instructor in the History of Japanese Civilization, Yale University_ WILFRED HAROLD MUNRO, L.H.D. _Professor of European History, Brown University_ G. MERCER ADAM, _Historian and Editor_ FRED MORROW FLING, Ph.D., _Professor of European History, University of Nebraska_ FRANÃOIS AUGUSTE MARIE MIGNET, _Late Member of the French Academy_ JAMES WESTFALL THOMPSON, Ph.D., _Department of History, University of Chicago_ SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., _Professor of Modern History, King's College, London_ P.W. JOYCE, LL.D., _Commissioner for the Publication of the Ancient Laws of Ireland_ JUSTIN McCARTHY, LL.D., _Author and Historian_ AUGUSTUS HUNT SHEARER, Ph.D., _Instructor in History, Trinity College, Hartford_ W. HAROLD CLAFLIN, B.A., _Department of History, Harvard University_ CHARLES DANDLIKER, LL.D., _President of Zurich University_ ELBERT JAY BENTON, Ph.D., _Department of History, Western Reserve University_ SIR EDWARD S. CREASY, _Late Professor of History, University College, London_ ARCHIBALD CARY COOLIDGE, Ph.D., _Assistant Professor of History, Harvard University_ WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A., _Professor of Russian and other Slavonic Languages, Oxford University_ CHARLES EDMUND FRYER, Ph.D., _Department of History, McGill University_ E.C. OTTE, _Specialist on Scandinavian History_ EDWARD S. CORWIN, Ph.D., _Instructor in History, Princeton University_ PAUL LOUIS LEGER, _Professor of Slav Languages, CollÃ¨ge de France_ WILLIAM E. LINGELBACH, Ph.D., _Assistant Professor of European History, University of Pennsylvania_ BAYARD TAYLOR, _Former United States Minister to Germany_ SIDNEY B. FAY, Ph.D., _Professor of History, Dartmouth College_ J. SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., _President Royal Geographical Society_ ALBERT GALLOWAY KELLER, Ph.D., _Assistant Professor of the Science of Society, Yale University_ EDWARD JAMES PAYNE, M.A., _Fellow of University College, Oxford_ PHILIP PATTERSON WELLS, Ph.D., _Lecturer in History and Librarian of the Law School, Yale University_ FREDERICK ALBION OBER, _Historian, Author and Traveler_ JAMES WILFORD GARNER, Ph.D., _Professor of Political Science, University of Illinois_ JOHN BACH McMASTER, Litt.D., LL.D., _Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania_ JAMES LAMONT PERKINS, Managing Editor * * * * * The editors and publishers desire to express their appreciation for valuable advice and suggestions received from the following: Hon. Andrew D. White, LL.D., Alfred Thayer Mahan, D.C.L., LL.D., Hon. Charles Emory Smith, LL.D., Professor Edward Gaylord Bourne, Ph.D., Charles F. Thwing, LL.D., Dr. Emil Reich, William Elliot Griffis, LL.D., Professor John Martin Vincent, Ph.D., LL.D., Melvil Dewey, LL.D., Alston Ellis, LL.D., Professor Charles H. McCarthy, Ph.D., Professor Herman V. Ames, Ph.D., Professor Walter L. Fleming, Ph.D., Professor David Y. Thomas, Ph.D., Mr. Otto Reich and Mr. Francis J. Reynolds. NOTE The editors of "The History of Nations" concluded their work with the chronicling of events to October, 1905, and all additions thereafter, bringing the histories to date, have been supplied by the publishers. PREFACE The present revised edition of the "History of the Empire of Japan" (compiled, in 1893, for the Imperial Japanese Commission of the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, by Messrs. K. Takatsu, S. Mikami, M. Isoda, and others, and published in TÅkyÅ by order of the Department of Education) is not intended to supersede the original edition, the high qualities of which are, on the contrary, recommended to all students of Japanese history. That work admirably represents what might be termed the orthodox view of the national history, and is free alike from the unscientific method of the more conservative historian, and from the superficial speculations of the more radical, but not more scientific, student. Were the present editor to write an original work on Japanese history, however, he would, it is unnecessary to say, change the entire manner of presentation in order to make it accord with his own conception of the subject-matter. In this revision, he has not changed the general order of the original work, but has merely corrected a few data which are obviously out of date, omitted those minor facts which may well be dispensed with, and made the general narrative somewhat smoother than it was. The fourth part is, however, the editor's own work. The primary aim in this division of the volume has been to supply a popular and accurate account of certain phases of the national progress that has taken place since the "History of the Empire" was prepared a dozen years ago. The substance of chapter XVIII has appeared among the new chapters supplied by the editor to the new edition of Brinkley's (edit.) "Japan," (J.Â B. Millet Co., Boston, 1905), and has been inserted here with the permission of those publishers. K. Asakawa YALE UNIVERSITY INTRODUCTION The Empire of Japan consists to-day of a group of islands marshaled in the northwest corner of the Pacific Ocean, off the eastern coast of the Asiatic continent. These islands--including Formosa and the Pescadores ceded by China in 1895, and the southern half of Sakhalin, acquired from Russia in 1905--lie between the parallels of 50Â° 56' and 21Â° 48' north latitude, and the longitude of their extreme eastern and western points are 156Â° 32' and 119Â° 20', respectively, east of Greenwich. The empire thus covers 29Â° 8' of latitude and 37Â° 12' of longitude. On the east it faces the Pacific; on the southwest it looks across the waters of the China Sea to the mainland of China; on the northwest the Sea of Japan and Gulf of Tartary separate it from Korea and Siberia. The fiftieth parallel divides the Japanese half of Sakhalin from the northern or Russian half, and the Kurile Strait intercepts the Chishima or Kurile group of islands on the north from the Russian peninsula of Kamchatka. The whole group includes five and one-half large islands and nearly six hundred islets. The large island lying in the center constitutes the mainland; the island directly to the north is HokkaidÅ (Yezo or Ezo), and that to the south, KiushÅ«; on the southwest of the mainland and east of KiushÅ« is Shikoku; and stretching in a northwesterly direction from HokkaidÅ are the Chishima or Kuriles, while the chain of the RiukiÅ« (Loochoo) Archipelago leads to Formosa. Floating, as it were, in the Sea of Japan are the islets of Sado, Oki, and Tsushima, the last lying only about fifty miles from the southern coast of Korea. Scattered in the Pacific Ocean, at a distance of nearly 500 miles from the southwest coast of the mainland, lies the Ogasawara group (Bonins). To these must now be added the recently ceded southern half of the Island of Sakhalin. Owing to the insular nature of the country, the area of the empire, exclusive of the half of Sakhalin, which is perhaps as much as 12,000 square miles, little exceeds 161,000 square miles, or slightly larger than the area of the British Isles. More than half of this superficies is comprised in the main island. The coastline of the fourteen larger islands and archipelagoes, again excepting Sakhalin, stretches to a length of 13,500 miles. Little indented, the coast along the Sea of Japan offers few bays or promontories; but the Pacific and the China Sea coasts are broken into innumerable capes and inlets, and abound in good harbors. The country is mountainous, and has little flat land. Two systems of mountain chains extend north to south and east to west, each having numerous branches. The highlands of the empire are the two provinces of Shinano and Kai, situated in the center of the main island. At the boundary of Kai and Suruga stands Fujisan, or Mount Fuji, capped with perpetual snows, its summit rising to 12,300 feet above the sea level. Its position as the loftiest peak in the country has been lost by the acquisition of Formosa, which contains Mount Morrison, now called Mount Niitaka, the altitude of which is not less than 14,200 feet. The mountains of the main island are for the most part volcanic, the active volcanoes numbering 170, and the ranges that comprise them stretch across the extent of the country. Mines and mineral springs consequently abound. Frequency of earthquakes also results from the abundance of volcanoes. Minor shocks average from thirty or forty to several hundreds annually, and of severe shocks history shows that there have been some two or three in each century, entailing sometimes a frightful destruction of life and property. From the general configuration of the country it follows that great rivers with long courses are few, but numerous streams of lesser magnitude traverse all parts of the empire, affording excellent facilities for drainage and irrigation. Many of the larger of these are even navigable. The Ishikari River in HokkaidÅ, with a length of 407 miles, is the longest in the empire, followed by the Shinano, in the main island, about 240 miles long. Nor is the land richer in extensive plains than in great streams. Valleys lying deep in the bosoms of the hills, plateaus along the margins of the great rivers, gentle slopes at the foot of mountain ranges, or stretches by the seashore, are the only comparatively level places to be seen. The Ishikari Moor, bordering the Ishikari River in HokkaidÅ, is perhaps the most extensive. Its soil is rich, and it abounds in timber and verdure. Other well-known plains in the north lie along the course of the Tokachi River and by the seashore at Kushiro and Nemuro. Passing to the main island, we find, in the northeasterly section, the ÅshÅ« plateau, traversed by the Kitakami and Abukuma Rivers, and extending over the provinces of RikuchÅ«, Rikuzen, Iwashiro, and Iwaki. There, too, the soil is rich, and fruitful lands cover a wide area. In the central section the valley of the Tone River forms the HasshÅ« plain of the KwantÅ, spreading into the four provinces of Musashi, KÅzuke, Hitachi, and ShimÅsa. Thickly populated and highly fertile, this plain is the most extensive in the main island. Next in order of magnitude comes the valley of the Kiso River, forming a part of the provinces of Mino and Owari, and making one great cultivated field. The Echigo plain, along the lower waters of the Shinano River, is the most extensive of all the littoral plains of Japan. For the rest, very wide plains exist in Kinai, along the banks of the Yodo and Yamato Rivers; while in Shikoku, the most extensive flat-lands are found along the course of the Yoshino River, and in KiushÅ« the lands by the banks of the Chikugo down to the Ariyake seabeach give to the provinces of Chikugo and Hizen a broad area of irrigated fields. The main island of Japan, being situated in the temperate zone, enjoys, for the most part, a medium degree of temperature. But the climate of the empire is much varied, owing to the elongated shape of the country, which extends over nearly thirty degrees of latitude, to the great differences of altitude that characterize the surface of the land, and also to the action of a warm and a cold current that flow past its shores. Thus, in the northern part of HokkaidÅ and in the Chishima Islands the snow never disappears, the sea freezes in winter, and sleet and fogs prevail. On the other hand, in the southern district, as well as in the RiukiÅ« and Ogasawara groups, the heat is very great, and neither snow nor ice is seen in winter. In the central parts, again, the temperature varies according to the elevation of the land, and the configuration of the mountains and seas. As for Formosa, it is partly situated within the tropical zone, and the two extremes of the entire island are recorded to be 96Â° and 41Â° Fahrenheit. The warm ocean current, known as the Kuro-shiwo or Black Stream, from the deep somber color it displays in cloudy weather, rises from the distant Equator, and possesses an average temperature of 81Â° Fahrenheit in summer. Immediately after leaving the Equator it travels along the eastern coast of China, and thence passing northward, approaches the coast of KiushÅ«, where it bifurcates. The branch stream enters the Sea of Japan, and flows to the north; the principal stream passes by the southern coast of Shikoku and the main island, until it reaches the north of Cape InubÅ in ShimÅsa, where it again bifurcates, a branch turning northward, and the current itself traveling in a northeastern direction until it leaves the main island. In consequence, perhaps, of the heat received from this warm current, all the provinces of KiushÅ«, Shikoku, SanyÅ-dÅ and TÅkai-dÅ seldom see snow. There is also a cold stream called the Oya-jiwo, of which the average summer temperature is as low as 37Â°. Its source is in the Sea of Okhotsk, whence it passes through the Kurile Islands, and flowing by HokkaidÅ and the east coast of the northern section of the main island, reaches the neighborhood of Cape InubÅ, where it disappears. Situated in a high degree of latitude, HokkaidÅ and the northern part of the main island, being further exposed to the influence of this cold stream, have a severe climate. The snow lies there in masses for many days and the winter is long. The rainfall is heavy in summer and light in winter. It is greatest along the coasts washed by the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan, and least in the central portions of the country along the two coasts of the Inland Sea, as well as in the northern end of the main island. HokkaidÅ has an average fall. Rich soil, a genial climate, and a sufficient rainfall produce luxuriant vegetation. Cultivated fields and gardens succeed each other for wide areas. The extraordinary position of the islands stretching from north to south also adds greatly to the variety of vegetation. Thus in KiushÅ« and Shikoku are to be seen thick, verdant forests abounding in giant trees. Sugar-canes, tobacco, and cotton, find a soil congenial to their growth. The cocoa, the banyan tree, the banana and their congeners flourish in the RiukiÅ« and Ogasawara Islands. In short, the general aspect is tropical. Passing thence to the central districts, great varieties of plant life are found. The pine (_pinus densiflora_ and _pinus massoniana_), oak (_quercus dentata_), hi-no-ki (_thuya obtusca_), sugi (_cryptomeria japonica_), camphor and bamboo grow in the woods; while the mulberry, tea plant, lacquer tree, millet, the five cereals, vegetables, and various kinds of fruits are seen in the fields and gardens. Finally, even in the cold and little cultivated HokkaidÅ, its fruitful soil and luxuriant vegetation invite agriculture. The forms of animal life are also much varied. Among domestic animals are the ox, the horse, the pig, the dog, and the cat; while the more important wild animals are the hog, the deer, the hare, the fox, the badger, and the monkey. Ferocious beasts and noxious reptiles are limited to the bear of the northern districts and the habu (a kind of snake) of RiukiÅ«. In the waters that lave the HokkaidÅ coasts sea-otters and fur-seals abound; whales frequent the seas in the north and those adjacent to Shikoku and KiushÅ«; and along all the coasts fish and crustaceans are found in such abundance that they more than suffice for the ordinary food of the inhabitants. Of birds there is great abundance, some possessing beautiful plumage, others melodious notes, and others being suitable for food. To the last mentioned class belong barn-door fowls and ducks. Among insects, the silk-worm is largely reared throughout the main island, the climate and soil being peculiarly suited for the purpose. Although the country has no mountains of exceptional altitude or rivers of extraordinary length, the conditions of climate and soil are such that not one of the mountains is without woods nor one of the rivers without limpid water. So well distributed, too, are the highlands and streams, that places of beauty are everywhere to be found in the interior, and owing to the configuration of the coasts as well as to the number of islets, gems of scenic loveliness abound by the seaside in all the provinces. Moreover, in addition to wealth of natural charms, numerous shrines and temples of note exist in the choice districts of the main island, so that architectural, glyptic, pictorial, and horticultural beauties supplement the attractions of the scenery. The main island is richest in places of note, and Kinai and its neighborhood are the most favored parts of the main island in this respect. From 794 A.Â D., when the Emperor Kwammu made KyÅto his capital, until the Emperor Mutsuhito moved to TÅkyÅ, a period of over eleven centuries, KyÅto remained the imperial seat of government. Hence it offers numbers of historical relics, and is further happy in the possession of scenic beauties attractive at all seasons of the year. Separated from KyÅto by a range of hills is the largest lake in the empire, Lake Biwa, noted for the Åmi-hakkei which have ever been the theme of poets and the inspiration of painters. At a distance of nearly twenty-five miles from KyÅto is Nara, the imperial residence during a large part of the eighth century. Nara abounds in things historical, the most noteworthy being the shrine of Kasuga and the Temple of HÅriuji, places nobly planned and naturally lovely. TÅdaiji, a large temple erected by the Emperor ShÅmu, is more than a thousand years old, and contains the celebrated Great Image of Buddha. The cherries of Mount Yoshino and the plums of Tsukigase, displays of bloom that have no peers elsewhere in the country, are in the same province as Nara. Farther west the face of the Inland Sea between Shikoku and SanyÅ-dÅ is strewn with hundreds of little islands whose shining white sands and green pine-trees combine to make a beautiful picture. Among spots renowned for exquisite seascapes may be mentioned Waka-no-ura in Kii, the Sumiyoshi beach in Settsu, Suma-no-ura, the Maiko beach, and Akashi-no-ura in Harima, and Itsukushima in Aki. The last-named place is a small island close to the seashore, composed almost entirely of fantastically shaped cliffs and strange rocks. On it stands a gracefully modeled shrine said to have been built by Taira-no-Ki-yomori of the twelfth century, the hall and veranda of which seem to float on the surface of the water. The singular combination of water effect and architecture and the loveliness of the whole view suggests an enchanted abode of fairies. In KiushÅ«, Yabakei is renowned for its landscape, and the UsajingÅ« shrine for its architecture. Still more celebrated is Ama-no-Hashidate in San-indÅ. Here a sandy promontory completely covered with pine-trees stretches far into the sea, offering a scene of beauty and making with Matsushima and Itsukushima the three most celebrated views in Japan. Among places of note in the neighborhood of TÅkyÅ is Kamakura on the southeast coast, which was the seat of the feudal government of Japan for more than a century and a half till 1333, and still offers many spots of historical interest. To the north of the capital the most celebrated places are NikkÅ and Matsushima. At NikkÅ is the mausoleum of Tokugawa Ieyasu. The beauties of its architectural decoration, the fineness of its carvings, and the loveliness of its scenery have inspired a popular saying that without seeing NikkÅ a man is not qualified to speak of the beautiful (_NikkÅ wo minai uchi wa kekkÅ wo iuna_). Matsushima, one of the three landscapes of Japan, is on the seashore of Rikuzen. Here scattered over the face of the bay are hundreds of tiny islets, every one of which is clothed in a luxury of pine-trees. Viewed from the top of the hills, the scene is like a creation of fancy rendered on the canvas of a skillful painter. Japan proper is divided into nine principal regions according to its configuration: they are Kinai, TÅkai-dÅ, TÅsan-dÅ, Hokuriku-dÅ, Nankai-dÅ, Sanin-dÅ, SanyÅ-dÅ, and Hokkai-dÅ. These, again, are subdivided into eighty-five provinces (_koku_ or _kumi_). The province, however, has little importance in the administrative divisions of the country. The unit of the latter is either the urban (_chÅ_) or rural (_son_) district, which, together with the larger divisions, city (_shi_) and county (_gun_), constitutes a self-governing entity. Over and above these divisions are one board of HokkaidÅ (_dÅ-chÅ_), three of TÅkyÅ, KyÅto, and Åsaka, and forty-three prefectures or _ken_. At present, there are, outside of Formosa, 638 gun, 58 shi, 1054 chÅ and 13,468 son. The city of TÅkyÅ was formerly, under the name Edo, the seat of the feudal government for nearly two and three-quarters centuries. To-day it is the capital of the empire. It occupies a central position and is the largest city in the country. Its fifteen wards have a total population of nearly a million and a half. KyÅto, the old capital, is divided into two wards and has a population of over 353,000. Åsaka, the third of the cities, was the seat of the TaikÅ's administration. Possessing exceptional facilities for communication by sea and by river, it has been a trading center from olden times. It is divided into four wards, and has a population of 825,000. These three cities constitute the three _fu_. Next in order of importance come Nagoya, between TÅkyÅ and KyÅto, with a population of 245,000; Kanazawa, in the north of the main island, with a population of 85,000; Sendai, in the northeast, with a population of 84,000; Hiroshima, in the southwest, with a population of 123,000; Kumamoto, in KiushÅ«, with a population of 62,000. Among the open ports, Yokohama, with a population of 195,000, and KÅbe, with a population of 216,000, are the two most important, Nagasaki, Hakodate, and Niigata following at a considerable interval. The total population of Japan proper is nearly forty-seven millions, and that of Formosa about three millions. The distribution per square mile, exclusive of Formosa, varied in 1898 from 495 in the western part of the main island to 23.7 in HokkaidÅ, with the average at about 300. To-day it is approximately 324. The recent national activity of these people will be briefly described in the last division of this volume, and the career of their ancestors in the earlier parts. Before we proceed, however, a few words may be said regarding the general nature of the historical account of Japan. In ancient times Japan possessed neither literary script nor a regular system of calendar and chronology. All events had to be transmitted from generation to generation by oral tradition. The use of writing was imported from China, probably one or two hundred years before Christ, but the general use of letters for the purpose of recording events dates from the fifth century A.Â D., while the compilation of the national annals began two centuries later still. But such historical records as were then compiled suffered almost total destruction a short time afterward by fire, and the oral records of remote antiquity must have already been greatly disfigured by omissions, errors, and confusion of facts. Regretting this, and perceiving that unless steps were then taken to correct the annals, subsequent generations would be without any trustworthy record of remote events, the Emperor Temmu ordered an eminent scholar, Hieda-no-Are, to prepare a brief chronicle of sovereigns and important events. Unfortunately the death of the emperor, which occurred in 689, interrupted this work. Some twenty years later the Empress GemmyÅ instructed Å-no-Yasumaro to continue the compilation of Hieda-no-Are's annals. The work thus completed in 712 is the "_Kojiki_" as we now possess it. It must be regarded as the most trustworthy record extant of the events of ancient times. Eight years after the appearance of the "_Kojiki_," or in 720, the "_Nihongi_" was compiled. We find, on comparing these works, that although, on the whole, they agree, certain discrepancies exist between them. In these two works, however, is found the chief material for the reconstruction of the history of ancient Japan. If curious supernatural incidents figure in their pages, it should be remembered that literature being then in its infancy and a long interval having elapsed since the time of many of the events recorded, the annalists were untrained in the selection of matters worthy of a place in authentic history, while, at the same time, in the oral traditions on which they relied, errors had doubtless been included, and, ordinary events drifting out of sight, extraordinary incidents and supernatural stories had alone survived. As regards the ancient chronology of Japan it is recorded that almanacs first came into use in Japan in 604 A.Â D., although it appears that the Chinese calendar had been imported about the middle of the preceding century. The compilation of annals, as already stated, had preceded the latter event by a considerable interval. We may therefore conjecture that some method of reckoning months and years had been practiced from an early era, but no certain knowledge of this matter is available. In Japan from ancient time chronology was not based on an era. Originally the method pursued was to reckon years after the accession of each emperor to the throne. In 645 A.Â D., however, was introduced the Chinese fashion of using year periods designated usually in two felicitous Chinese characters and changed as frequently as was desired. The change of the name of a year period thus occurred at the beginning of each new reign, and also on the recurrence of a cyclical year of ill-omened designation, as well as on occasions of exceptional good or bad fortune, so that there are extreme instances of five or six changes of designation within the reign of one single emperor. It results, of course, that a troublesome effort is required to commit to memory the sequence and dates of the various year periods. The Chinese, in the reign of the Ming sovereign Taitsu, decided that there should be no change in the designation of a year period throughout the reign of a sovereign. A similar ruling was made in 1868 on the accession of the present Emperor of Japan, from which time also the era of Jimmu began to be used as a chronological basis. This latter era is officially fixed at 660 B.Â C.[1] As to the later sources of Japanese history, following the already mentioned "_Kojiki_" and "_Nihongi_," they are abundant, increasing as we move further from earlier ages. Much of this vast historical literature has been published and edited (though thus far little translated into European languages), but more has neither been extensively circulated nor even seen light. The Japanese Government, which has been searching for hidden material all over the land, is now publishing, through the Imperial University of Tokyo, historical documents, mostly unpublished hitherto, in two large series[2] of two and three hundred volumes, respectively, to be completed in about fifteen years. The history of Japan does not lend itself to the customary division of the ancient, mediÃ¦val, and modern ages. On the basis of the important changes that have taken place in the administration and politics of Japan, her history will, in the following pages, be divided into three parts of unequal lengths. Part one covers the long space of time between the founding of the empire and the beginning of the feudal rÃ©gime toward the end of the twelfth century. During this period, the power of the government rested, theoretically, in spite of great fluctuations which took place, in the hands of the sovereign. This was followed by nearly seven centuries of military autocracy, which constitutes the second part. The third part begins in 1868, since which year administrative power has reverted to the emperor, a constitutional rÃ©gime with representative institutions has been established, and the general aspects of the life of the nation have undergone a profound change. FOOTNOTES: [1] It should always be remembered that the historic account of Japan before the fifth century A.Â D., must be allowed a large latitude in regard to its events and their dates. [2] Called the "_Dai-Nihon Komon-sho_" and the "_Dai-Nihon Shi-ryÅ_." CONTENTS PART I FROM THE FOUNDING OF THE EMPIRE TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FEUDAL RÃGIME. 660 B.Â C.-1186 A.Â D. CHAPTER PAGE I. THE MYTHICAL AGE 3 II. THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 660 B.Â C.-192 A.Â D. 6 III. RELATIONS WITH KOREA AND CHINA. 192-645 A.Â D. 12 IV. THE TAIKWA REFORM. 645-708 A.Â D. 22 V. THE NARA EPOCH. 710-794 A.Â D. 31 VI. THE HEI-AN EPOCH. 794-1186 A.Â D. 38 PART II THE FEUDAL AGES. 1186-1868 VII. THE KAMAKURA GOVERNMENT. 1186-1339 65 VIII. THE TEMPORARY RESTORATION OF IMPERIAL POWER. 1339-1393 83 IX. THE MUROMACHI PERIOD. 1393-1573 92 X. INTERNAL PEACE AND EXTERNAL WAR. 1573-1603 109 XI. THE FOUNDATION OF THE EDO GOVERNMENT. 1603-1651 122 XII. THE DECLINE OF THE EDO GOVERNMENT. 1651-1837 140 XIII. THE FALL OF THE EDO GOVERNMENT. 1837-1868 155 PART III THE NEW JAPAN. 1868-1893 XIV. INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 1868-1893 173 XV. FOREIGN RELATIONS. 1868-1893 188 PART IV APPENDIX. 1893- XVI. THE CONSTITUTION IN THEORY AND IN PRACTICE. 1893-1906 199 XVII. PARTIES AND POLITICS. 1893-1906 213 XVIII. ECONOMIC PROGRESS. 1893-1906 242 XIX. THE CHINO-JAPANESE WAR. 1894-1895 252 XX. JAPAN AND RUSSIA IN KOREA AND MANCHURIA. 1893-1904 275 XXI. THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR AND ITS AFTERMATH. 1904-. 303 BIBLIOGRAPHY 331 INDEX 337 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS GENERALS OF THE LATE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR (Photogravure) _Frontispiece_ FACING PAGE AINOS WORSHIPING 28 ABDUCTION OF GOSHIRAKAWA (_in color_) 60 THE INVASION BY THE MONGOL TARTARS 76 THE PROCESSION OF FEUDAL LORDS 124 A PICNIC ON THE ASUKA HILL IN THE FLOWERY SEASON 156 TEXT MAPS PAGE JAPAN BEFORE THE FIFTH CENTURY 10 JAPAN 61 NORTHERN JAPAN 85 SOUTHERN JAPAN 99 KOREA 117 CENTRAL JAPAN 124 JAPANESE PORTS OPENED TO FOREIGN TRADE. 1858 159 DOWNFALL OF THE EDO GOVERNMENT. 1867-1868 168 THE INSURRECTION IN THE ISLAND OF KIUSHÅª. 1877 181 ISLAND POSSESSIONS OF JAPAN 193 FIRST ENGAGEMENTS OF CHINO-JAPANESE WAR. 1894 261 CAMPAIGNS IN KOREA AND MANCHURIA 268 WEI-HAI-WEI, FORMOSA, AND PESCADORES 270 FOREIGN SPHERES OF INFLUENCE IN CHINA AND MANCHURIA 278 JAPANESE ADVANCE TO LIAO-YANG 309 BATTLE OF THE SEA OF JAPAN, RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 315 PART I FROM THE FOUNDING OF THE EMPIRE TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FEUDAL RÃGIME. 660 B.Â C.-1186 A.Â D. HISTORY OF JAPAN Chapter I THE MYTHICAL AGE The period prior to the reign of the Emperor Jimmu is known as the Age of the Deities. From this era strange and incredible legends have been transmitted, some of which follow. Tradition says that in remote times the deities Izanagi and Izanami were commanded by the God of Heaven to form a country out of the islets floating in space. They forthwith descended to the island Onokoro, and there, becoming husband and wife, created the Eight Great Islands of Japan. Thereafter were created deities to rule the sea, the mountains, the winds, fire, herbs, and trees. Subsequently the divine pair gave birth to the goddess Amaterasu-Åmikami and the gods Tsukiyomi and SusanoÃ¶. These newly-born divine beings proving themselves greatly superior to other deities, found high favor with Izanagi. He commissioned Amaterasu to govern Takama-no-hara, or the Heavenly Region; Tsukiyomi to govern Yo-no-osukuni, or the Land of Night; and SusanoÃ¶ to govern Unabara, or the Seas. But this last deity proving unfaithful to his father's commands, Izanagi, in anger, expelled him from his kingdom, whereupon he ascended to the Heavenly Region to convey to his sister the news of his misfortune. The fierce and enraged demeanor of the dethroned deity led his sister to imagine that he had come with aggressive intentions, and she hesitated to receive him. But SusanoÃ¶ vehemently declared the integrity of his purpose and succeeded in partially reassuring the goddess. Nevertheless, his behavior was so disorderly that Amaterasu, becoming fearful, secluded herself in a cave, with the result that total darkness overshadowed her realm and troubles of various sorts ensued. The other deities thereupon met in conclave and took measures to pacify the goddess, so that she finally emerged from her retreat and light once more shone upon the Heavenly Region and Nakatsu-kuni (Midland). The deities then inflicted upon SusanoÃ¶ the punishment of exile. Driven from heaven, he proceeded to Izumo, and there destroyed an eight-headed dragon, obtaining from its body a precious sword, which he later presented to his sister Amaterasu. Subsequently, he married the daughter of an earthly deity and settled at Suga in Izumo. At a later date, leaving one of his sons, Åkuni-nushi, to govern the land, he himself proceeded to Korea. Åkuni-nushi had many brothers, who were all engaged in a struggle for the sovereign power. The victory remained with Åkuni-nushi, but his realm continuing to be more or less disturbed, Sukunahikona, a son of the Deity of Heaven, came over the sea to Izumo and aided in restoring peace. Thenceforth Åkuni-nushi and his sons administered the realm in tranquillity. Meanwhile, in the Heavenly Region, Amaterasu, concluding that Midzuho-no-kuni in Toyo-ashihara, which is perhaps Japan proper now, ought to be governed by her son, Amano-oshihohomimi, commanded him to descend and assume authority in the land. Inasmuch, however, as he represented his proposed realm to be in a very disordered state, Amaterasu, by order of the Deity of Heaven, held a council of deities, by whom a mandate to restore peace was given to Amano-hohi. He failed to accomplish his purpose, and another deity was afterward sent on the same errand. The latter was, however, likewise conquered by Åkuni-nushi and did not return to heaven. Once more a council of deities was convened in the Heavenly Region, and Nanakime was dispatched to reconnoiter the land. He, however, was killed by Ama-no-wakahiko. Finally, Takemikazuchi, being intrusted with the duty, proceeded to Izumo and informed Åkuni-nushi of the command given by the Deity of Heaven that the son of Amaterasu should assume sovereignty over the country then ruled by Åkuni-nushi. The command was at last obeyed. Åkuni-nushi ceded his kingdom to the son of the goddess, and, with his sons, left the region. Takemikazuchi having carried this intelligence to Amaterasu, she, conforming always with the commands of the Deity of Heaven, summoned her son, Amano-oshihomimi, and informed him that, peace having been restored in the land below, he must proceed to govern it. He, however, prayed that his son, Ninigi, might be sent in his stead, and the goddess consenting, gave to Ninigi a mandate to rule over Japan and to maintain its prosperity so long as heaven and earth should endure. She further gave him the Yasaka Jewel, the Yasaka Mirror, and the Kusanagi Sword, saying: "This mirror is my spirit; regard it as myself." Thenceforth the Jewel, Mirror, and Sword, venerated as the three precious relics of the goddess, were transmitted as insignia from emperor to emperor through all generations. The terrestrial deity, Sarudahiko, receiving news of the approach of Ninigi and his divine retinue, came out to greet him. Under his guidance Ninigi passed to Takachiho Mountain in HyÅ«ga, KiushÅ«, and took up his abode at Kasasa Promontory in Ada (now Kaseda port in Satsuma). Ninigi took to wife the daughter of a terrestrial deity, and by her had two sons, Hosuseri and Hikohohodemi. These deities fell out and fought, with the result that the younger subdued the elder by the aid of the deity of the sea, whose daughter he had married. The victor's son, Ugayafukiaezu, also married a daughter of the marine deity and had four sons, Itsuse, Inahi, Mikenu, and Iwarehiko, of whom the fourth and youngest afterward became the Emperor Jimmu. Inahi went to the dominion of his mother over the waves, and Mikenu to the far-distant Tokoyo, or the Region of Eternal Night.[1] FOOTNOTE: [1] Abridged genealogy of the "Deities." Izanagi (male) Izanami (female) | | +------------------------------------------------------+ | | | +-----------+ | +------------- | | | Amaterasu Tsukiyomi SusanoÃ¶ | | +-----------------------------+ | | | | Amano-oshihomimi Amano-hohi Åkuni-nushi | Hikoho-no-ninigi | +-------------------------+ | | Hikohohodemi Hosuseri | Ugayafukiaezu | +--------------------------------+ | | | | Itsuse Inahi Mikenu The Emperor JIMMU. Chapter II THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE 660 B.Â C.-192 A.Â D. According to tradition, Itsuse and Iwarehiko took counsel together one day in their residence in HyÅ«ga, as to the place most suitable for the seat of administration, and resolved to proceed eastward. At the straits between KiushÅ« and Shikoku they were received by a terrestrial deity, and under his guidance reached Usa in the present Buzen, where the inhabitants built a palace for them and treated them hospitably. Passing next to Chikuzen, they subsequently crossed the sea to Aki on the main island, and thence journeyed to Kibi, ten years being devoted to these travels. From Kibi they passed over by Naniwa to Tadetsu in the present Izumi province. The objective point of the expedition was Yamato, where then ruled a powerful chieftain named Nagasunehiko who, under the authority of Nigihayahi, a scion of a god of Heaven, whom he had received, had extended his sway over the surrounding region. This chieftain, learning of the approach of the deities and their following, marshaled his forces to oppose them. In the battle that ensued Itsuse was wounded by an arrow. The invading army therefore turned their course over the sea to Kii, where Itsuse died of his wound. His brother, Iwarehiko, then advanced to the east coast of Kii, and, having there killed a local chieftain, pushed on to Yoshino under the guidance of Prince Michiomi (ancestor of the Åtomo family) and Prince Åkume (ancestor of the Kume family). The inhabitants, cave-dwellers, learning that a scion of the god of Heaven had arrived, went out to meet him and made submission. Prosecuting his campaign, Iwarehiko struck down several rebel chiefs, and once more planned an expedition against Nagasunehiko. The latter, however, sent him a message, saying: "Prince Nigihayahi, son of the Deity of Heaven, came hither in a strong boat, and married my sister, Kashiya, by whom he has a son, Prince Umashimate. I have made obeisance to Prince Nigihayahi as sovereign of the land. There cannot possibly be two legitimate representatives of the Heavenly Deity. You must have come to deprive us wrongfully of the realm under pretext of celestial origin." To this Iwarehiko replied: "There is more than one son of the Deity of Heaven. If your sovereign be in truth the offspring of the Celestial Deity, he must possess some proofs. Let me see them." Nagasunehiko thereupon produced arrows and an arrow-case which Prince Nigihayahi had brought with him. Iwarehiko, having examined them, declared them to be genuine, and showed his own arrows and arrow-case to Nagasunehiko. But the latter, though fully sensible that Iwarehiko was of celestial origin, maintained an obstinate mien and would not change his view. Prince Nigihayahi, now clearly perceiving his unreasonable disposition, put him to death, and passed over with all his men to serve in the invading army. Well pleased by this act, Iwarehiko treated the prince kindly and rewarded his loyal conduct. Orders were then issued to the captains to exterminate all the insurgents in the land, and the Yamato district having been brought into complete subjection, the conqueror established his capital at Kashiwabara in Yamato, and ordained the deities of the various officials of his court, the imperial power being thus extended and the administration placed on a fixed basis. This was the opening year of Japanese history. Later annalists fixed the year at 660 B.Â C., and styled the victorious prince the Emperor Jimmu, the first sovereign of the Empire of Japan. After his death his younger son, Prince Takishimimi, sought to usurp the sovereignty. The eldest son, Prince Kamyaimimi, suspecting the plot, revealed it to his younger brother, Kannuna-gawamimi, who shot the usurper. Thereupon the elder prince waived the throne in favor of his valiant brother, who thus became the second emperor, Suisei. After him followed the Emperors Annei, Itoku, KÅshÅ, KÅan, KÅrei, KÅgen, and Kaikwa, whose reigns are said to have lasted 450 years and are singularly bare of recorded events. In these primitive ages the life of the people was naturally simple. The population must have been small, and the communication between different parts of the small empire extremely difficult. Boats were propelled by oars, for sails were unknown. The invaders must have attained to a higher stage of culture than the vanquished natives. The dwellings of the aristocracy, for example, were rudely constructed wooden houses, the simple model of which still survives in the ShintÅ shrines of the present day, while the autochthons mostly dwelt in pits dug underground. On the whole, however, both classes had partially advanced to an agricultural mode of life, and depended for subsistence largely on fishing and hunting. Bows and arrows or snares were the chief implements used in hunting, and hooks, cormorants, and weirs served for purposes of fishing. Methods of preparing food had already been elaborated, and the art of brewing _sakÃ©_ was known. Marked progress had also taken place in matters of dress. From skins of animals or textile fabrics woven from hemp and dyed red and green with juices of herbs, were made hats, robes, and pantaloons. Ornaments for the neck, arms, and legs consisted of beads of crystal, agate, glass, serpentine and polished gems, shaped into cylinders or crescents and strung together. The arts of mining and smelting ores, as well as of casting metal, were known, for, besides arrow-heads and other weapons of stone, spears and swords of copper or iron, together with plows and hatchets of hard metals, were in evidence. [Illustration: JAPANESE FISHING WITH TRAINED CORMORANTS _Painting by A Richter_] It is interesting to know that at marriage the bridegroom, contrary to the modern custom, went to the house of the bride. A man also was permitted to have several wives, but a woman was never allowed to have more than one husband. Divination was always employed to solve doubtful questions. Music and dancing were already known, the _koto_ and the flute being employed as musical instruments. Emotions of grief or joy, love or disappointment, were expressed in song, the most ancient song now extant being attributed to the deity SusanoÃ¶. The Emperor Jimmu also frequently commemorated brave deeds of war in song, thus encouraging and reviving the spirit of his warriors. A profound awe and respect toward the national deities, as well as a superstitious fear of innumerable spirits, seems to have prevailed everywhere in all classes of society. If the people submitted readily to the sway of the Emperor Jimmu, it was largely because they regarded him as a scion of the gods. The emperor, on his side, firmly convinced that good and evil were controlled by divine will, never neglected to perform sacrificial rites. Out of the custom of extreme reverence toward the deities grew abhorrence for impurity in any form, so that separate huts came to be built for the bodies of the dead or for women at times of parturition, and if any man came in contact with an unclean object, he bathed in a river to purify himself. Naturally, little distinction existed between religion and government, between shrine and palace. At the completion of his work of conquest, Jimmu erected a building at Kashiwabara, in which he deposited the three insignia, and in which he himself resided and personally governed the empire. Each one of his eight successors followed his example. The tenth emperor, Sujin, however, fearing that the insignia might be polluted, made duplicates of the Mirror and the Sword, and reverently deposited the originals in a shrine at Kasanui in Yamato, where one of the imperial princesses was intrusted with the duty of guarding them and performing due religious rites. Thus, shrine and palace were at last separated. Subsequently, these sacred objects were removed to Ise, and placed in the shrine now existing there. The Sword, however, was afterward carried to Atsuta in Owari, where it now lies in the Atsuta Shrine. During the reigns of Sujin and his successor, Suinin, the agriculture and communication of the country are recorded to have been greatly encouraged, troubles near the court exterminated, and also the area of the empire largely extended. The extension of the imperial domain, however, brought it in sharp conflict with the still unsubdued tribes of the north and the south. From the reign of KeikÅ, Suinin's successor, we hear of the story of the conflict. The Kumaso of Tsukushi, KiushÅ«, rose in arms. How seriously this was regarded is seen from the fact that the emperor in person conducted a campaign for several years in KiushÅ«. No sooner was peace restored than the southern tribes again rebelled. This time the brave Prince Yamato-dake, who was sent to Tsukushi to subdue the insurgents, had to resort to strategy instead of war. Having disguised himself as a girl, he obtained entry into the house of the Kumaso chief, where he killed the chief and his warriors while they were lying drunk. He also overthrew many other rebellious princes and returned to Yamato in triumph. In the meantime the emperor, after his return from KiushÅ«, had heard from a special commissioner whom he had sent that in the northeast of the empire there was a strange region named Hidakami, where the people of both sexes wore their hair tied up, tattooed their bodies, and performed deeds of valor. They were known as the Emishi, and their land, being extensive and fertile, the commissioner represented, ought to be added to the imperial domain. These Emishi rose in rebellion shortly after the return of Prince Yamato-dake from the conquest of the Kumaso. Thereupon the prince boldly offered to undertake the conquest of the new insurgents. After subduing local uprisings on his way, he proceeded by sea to the region of the northern rebellion. As his boats drew near the shore he displayed a large mirror at the prow of his vessel, and when the rebel chieftains and their followers sighted the ships, they were terrified by such evidences of pomp and power, and throwing away their bows and arrows, made submission. The prince accepted their homage, and enlisting their aid, conquered other rebels who still resisted the progress of the imperial forces. It seems probable that on that occasion Prince Yamato-dake advanced as far as the present province of Iwaki. On his return journey, which was again beset with local difficulties, he was seized with a severe illness, which soon proved fatal. The emperor bitterly lamented the death of his beloved son, and the story of the gallant prince is still dear to the heart of every child of Japan. [Illustration: JAPAN AS KNOWN TO THE EMPERORS BEFORE THE FIFTH CENTURY] The local administration of the empire so materially extended during three successive reigns was now reorganized by the Emperor ShÅmu, son of KeikÅ. The nature of ShÅmu's reform is, however, little known. When the Emperor Jimmu established the office of local governor, there were only nine provinces, but the number was increased by more than ten during the reigns of Kaika, Sujin, and KeikÅ, and became sixty-three in the time of the Emperor ShÅmu. The imperial sway then extended northward as far as Shinobu (the present Mutsu), Sado and Noto; eastward to Tsukuba (now Hidachi); westward to Amakusa, and southward to Kii. Throughout the whole of this district, governors were appointed to administer local affairs. Subsequently the process of division continued until, in the reign of the Emperor SuikÅ, the total number of provinces reached 144, at which figure it remained until 645 A.Â D.,
{'title': "Japan: From the Japanese Government History by Kan'ichi Asakawa", 'source': 'Project Gutenberg', 'lang': 'en'}