Produced by Richard Tonsing, deaurider and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) _PITMAN'S TEXTILE INDUSTRIES SERIES_ _Edited by Roberts Beaumont, M.Sc., M.I.Mech.E._ HOSIERY MANUFACTURE HOSIERY MANUFACTURE BY WILLIAM DAVIS M.A. _Principal of the Buceleuch Technical Institute, Hawick._ _WITH 61 ILLUSTRATIONS including many original photo-micrographs._ LONDON: SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD. BATH, MELBOURNE AND NEW YORK PRINTED BY SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., LONDON, BATH, MELBOURNE AND NEW YORK PREFACE This work is being issued at a period of unparalleled development in the industry of knitted fabrics, when our British manufacturers are straining every nerve towards attaining a dominating position in this vital branch of the production of textile goods. It is highly gratifying and full of promise to note the spirit of enterprise which animates our younger generation of manufacturers, and the keenness and alertness which permeate the industry at the present time. Increased concentration by our machine builders on the numerous mechanical improvements being brought out in rapid succession from time to time is certain to have a great influence on the further expansion of the industry, and has the effect of considerably extending the horizon to the maker of knitted goods. With so many new firms springing up in different parts of the country, there has arisen an increased demand for books dealing with the knitting industry, and this work is presented in the hope that it will do something towards satisfying this widespread desire. The study of looped fabric structure is wide in scope, and none the less difficult because, on a first view, it appears simple and elementary. The prospect of the maker of knitted goods of all kinds, is further enhanced by the enormous production possible on the present-day knitting machinery and on the fact that the garments are made ready-to-wear. In this work an effort is made to outline the principles underlying the technology of the industry, and endeavours have been made to clarify certain problems of fabric structure which require still greater attention from the students of technology before they can be regarded as solved. Emphasis has also been laid on the fundamentals of the knitting process as performed on various mechanisms, for, if these basic principles are clearly comprehended, the foundation is securely laid for a further grasp of the industry and its technology. Special attention is given to the structure and properties of knitting yarns, for in this texture it can be said with truth that the yarn is the fabric, seeing that the bulk of the productions are made from the single thread looped upon itself. Several problems relating to the weight of knitted fabric and similar questions are fully demonstrated, and the formulae explained from fundamental principles. A contribution is also made to the difficult subject of the setting of looped textures, generally so imperfectly understood in its theoretical significance. That this volume may contribute towards a fuller knowledge of the technology of the knitting industry is the earnest wish of the Author, WILLIAM DAVIS. TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, HAWICK, 1920. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE v CHAPTER I DEVELOPMENT OF THE KNITTED FABRIC 1-8 Peculiarities of Knitted Structure-Knitting Trade Definitions-Hand Knitting and Crochet CHAPTER II KNITTING AND WEAVING COMPARED 9-15 Hand Knitting-The Knitting Process-The Cut-up Trade-The Full-fashioned Trade-The Seamless Branch CHAPTER III LATCH NEEDLE KNITTING 16-26 Loop Formation with the Latch Needle-The Flat Knitter-Working of Cam Boxes to Give the Various Stitches-Patterns Produced CHAPTER IV TYPES OF KNITTING YARNS 27-36 Lamb's Wool, Shetland, Natural, and Fingering Knitting Yarns-Worsted Spun Underwear Yarns CHAPTER V SYSTEMS OF NUMBERING HOSIERY YARNS 37-45 Yarn Testing for Counts-Conversion from one Count into Another-Formulae for Calculating the Weight of Knitted Fabric, allowing for varying Take-up of Yarn-Calculations for Width, Counts, and Courses per inch CHAPTER VI CALCULATIONS FOR FOLDED KNITTING YARNS 46-56 Explanation of Formulae-Estimations for Plated Goods and Weight Percentages for Mixed Garments CHAPTER VII BEARDED NEEDLE KNITTING 57-66 Stages of Loop Formation with the Bearded Needle-Hand-frame Knitting Process, and the System of Knitting on Cotton's Patent Machine CHAPTER VIII SETTING OF KNITTED FABRICS 67-75 Texture Variation on individual Frames-Variation of Yarn and Effect of Yarn Quality-Variation in the Length of Loop-Comparison of Courses and Wales CHAPTER IX VARIOUS KNITTING YARNS 76-89 Cotton, Mercerised, and Various Silk Yarns-Silk-and-Wool and Cotton-and-Wool Mixture Yarns-Cashmere, Angora Rabbit, Camel Hair, and Alpaca-Nettle Fibre Yarn CHAPTER X WINDING OF HOSIERY YARNS 90-98 Description of a Modern Winding Machine, Bobbin Building and the Differential-Damping and Methods Adopted CHAPTER XI CIRCULAR KNITTING 99-106 Stocking Knitting Machine-Making of a Ribbed Sock-Full-fashioned Hosiery-English and French Foot CHAPTER XII COLOUR IN KNITTED GOODS 107-116 Naturals, Horizontal Stripes, Vertical Stripes, Tuck Work on Flat and Circular Frames-Check Designs and Spot Effects CHAPTER XIII COLOUR HARMONY AND CONTRAST 117-126 Attributes of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colours-Application of Colour Principles to the Hosiery Trade CHAPTER XIV DEFECTS IN FABRICS 127-134 Sinker and Needle Lines-Slurgalling and Pinholes-Stitches of Variable Symmetry ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 1. RIGHT SIDE KNITTED FABRIC 3 2. WRONG SIDE KNITTED FABRIC 3 3. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF THE PLAIN KNITTED LOOP 4 4 & 5. KNITTING ON THE HAND PINS 7 6 & 7. WORKING OF CROCHET STITCH 7 8. THE LATCH NEEDLE 17 9. STITCH FORMATION ON THE LATCH NEEDLE 17 10. THE DOUBLE-HEADED NEEDLE 17 11. SIDE ELEVATION OF THE LAMB FLAT KNITTER 20 12. VIEW OF THE CAM BOX 20 13, 14, DIFFERENT NEEDLE ARRANGEMENTS ON THE FLAT KNITTER 20 15. 16. TWO-AND-TWO RIB FABRIC 20 17-20. ARRANGEMENT OF CAMS TO PRODUCE RIB, CIRCULAR, AND 24 CARDIGAN STITCHES 21. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY WHEELING KNITTING YARN 28 22. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY WOOLLEN SPUN KNITTING 29 THREAD 23. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF HOSIERY LAMB'S WOOL YARN 30 24. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY NATURAL SHETLAND YARN 31 25. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY FINGERING YARN FOR HOSIERY 33 26 & 27. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF TWO-PLY UNDERWEAR YARNS, CONTINENTAL 33-35 SPUN 28. MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF THREE-PLY UNDERWEAR YARN 35 29. THE BEARDED NEEDLE 58 30-33. LOOP FORMATION ON THE BEARDED NEEDLE 58 34. STITCH FORMING PARTS OF THE OLD HAND-FRAME 63 35. STITCH FORMING PARTS OF THE COTTON'S PATENT FRAME 63 36. SHOWING EFFECT OF INCREASE OF YARN DIAMETER IN THE 69 BEARDED NEEDLE FRAME 37. SHOWING EFFECT OF INCREASE IN LOOP LENGTH IN THE BEARDED 71 NEEDLE FRAME 38. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SINGLE COTTON HOSIERY YARN 77 39. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SINGLE LOOSE TWISTED COTTON YARN FOR 77 BACKING 40. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF MERCERISED COTTON KNITTING YARN 79 41. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF ARTIFICIAL SILK KNITTING YARN 79 42. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SPUN SILK KNITTING YARN 81 43. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SPUN SILK KNITTING YARN 81 (GASSED) 44. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-FOLD SILK AND WOOL KNITTING YARN 82 45. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF SILK AND COTTON-AND-WOOL MERINO 84 FOLDED YARN 46. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF TWO-PLY PURE CASHMERE KNITTING YARN 85 47. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF YARN SPUN FROM THE NETTLE FIBRE 88 48. THE MODERN HOSIERY WINDING MACHINE 93 49. THREAD CLEARING APPARATUS 93 50. THE GRISWOLD CIRCULAR STOCKING KNITTER 101 51. ACTION OF THE CAMS IN STITCH FORMATION 101 52. STANDARD RIBBED SOCK 101 53. ONE-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR FLAT FRAMES 112 54. TWO-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR FLAT FRAMES 112 55. ONE-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR CIRCULAR BEARDED NEEDLE 113 FRAME 56. TWO-AND-ONE TUCK PRESSER FOR CIRCULAR BEARDED NEEDLE 113 FRAME 57. ENLARGEMENT OF THE ONE-AND-ONE TUCK FABRIC 114 58. ENLARGEMENT OF A SINKER LINE IN KNITTED FABRIC 128 59. ENLARGEMENT OF "JACOB'S LADDER" IN KNITTED FABRIC 130 60. ENLARGEMENT OF SLUR GALLING IN KNITTED FABRIC 131 61. ENLARGEMENT OF "PINHOLES" IN KNITTED FABRIC 132 HOSIERY MANUFACTURE CHAPTER I DEVELOPMENT OF THE KNITTED FABRIC There has been in recent years an extraordinary development in the scope and application of the knitted fabric which may be traced to a variety of causes. The chief explanation of this growth is to be found in the structure of the knitted fabric itself, the qualities of which have made it pre-eminently suitable for special departments of textiles. In its most elementary form the knitted texture is composed of a series of loops hung in rows one upon the other and constructed from the curvings of a single thread which runs continuously through the fabric. One set of loops is formed on the preceding row and any particular stitch is dependent for its support on neighbouring stitches above, below, and on either side of it; if the thread becomes severed at any point the loops lose contact all round and a considerable opening is incurred. This is its chief defect, but also its outstanding advantage as a texture; it is a defect to have the structure destroyed with the severance of the single ground thread, but it is the mutual interdependence of loops which accounts for its valuable stretch and elasticity. By virtue of this elasticity it becomes eminently suitable for articles of underclothing which have to be worn in close proximity to the cuticle; the fabric is enabled to yield to the slightest movement of any part and thus prevents the wearer becoming uncomfortably conscious of the garment. An inherent yielding quality of the loops causes the article to stretch and adapt itself to minor irregularities of size and shape; if a garment is not exactly to dimensions, it contracts to a smaller or expands to a larger form. This property of stretch must not be unduly taken advantage of to cover up indifferent systems of manufacturing, but within certain limits the property is of great value for certain discrepancies. The knitted fabric is essentially a weft fabric, the thread being inserted crosswise into the texture after the manner of filling so that the entire structure presents a horizontal appearance which is most evident with ground-coloured stripes when the different colours show themselves crosswise. This proves a serious limitation to the scope of the plain knitted texture, for the clothing trades have small use for horizontal effects as compared with vertical coloured stripes. The knitted structure is quite different in property to woven cloth where one has two series of separate threads, one being termed the warp and running longitudinally in the fabric, whilst the other series is named the weft and is intersected with the warp in the process of weaving. The warp threads are pre-arranged to the correct length and in order of pattern on the warp beam whilst the threads of weft are inserted consecutively during the operation of weaving in the loom. This mode of intersecting separate series of yarns at right angles to each other causes the threads to exert a much firmer grip on each other and the resulting fabric is remarkable for its strength and rigidity. It is firm and durable in structure, and possessing comparatively little stretch, it does not yield to the ordinary strains to which it is subjected. It is pre-eminently the fabric to be used for garments of outer wear which have to stand the rough service of every-day life, where a combination of friction, bending and abrasion subject the fabric to a severe test of endurance. In the case of a knitted texture there is a right and a wrong side, or face and back, the face comprising the straight portions of the loops whilst on the back the curved loop portions predominate. Fig. 1 gives a view of a plain knitted fabric showing the right side or the face of the texture where the loops may be distinguished by a characteristic V-shape, these Vs fitting into each other in a vertical direction. This side of the fabric is always worn outermost, as it presents the most even surface whilst it is also the most perfect as all imperfections such as knots, etc., are drawn on to the back of the cloth. Fig. 2 shows the same fabric on the wrong side where it will be noted that the chief feature is a series of interlocking semi-circles which have a distinctly crosswise determination given to them. The appearance on the back is decidedly raw and uninteresting, the straightened V-shaped portions of the loops presenting a much more attractive aspect. On the other hand, most rotary frames work their fabrics with the back in full view of the worker, and in case of analysis it is the wrong side of the fabric which will yield the most definite results to the analyst, for by examination of the curved loops one can discern more easily the character of the pattern and the nature of the ornamentation. [Illustration: FIGS. l and 2 ] _Peculiarities of Knitted Structure._âAn examination of the photo-micrograph of the plain knitted fabric (back view) shown in Fig. 3 will demonstrate that the loops are intimately dependent on each other and that the slightest dislocation at any part will at once affect the adjacent area. The knitted fabric is extremely difficult to make absolutely perfect, because each stitch is worked on its own needle distinct from its neighbour, and the slightest irregularity of yarn delivery affects the whole stitch area concerned. If a loop is drawn tighter than the normal at any point, then it is curtailed in size and the adjacent loops have to enlarge themselves to fill out the allotted space. In the woven fabric a missing thread usually influences that portion of the fabric only, but if the main thread of a knitted structure be broken, the entire cloth may be disintegrated with the slightest pull. The interspaces between the loops shown in Fig. 3 are intimately connected with the elastic property, because if the spaces are closed up by tight knitting, the elasticity is considerably reduced, if, on the other hand, the spaces are too large, the fabric loses its equilibrium and a slight pull will cause it to lose its form. An exception to this may be found in the light-weight fabrics so much in demand in recent seasons for wearing in an intermediate position in winter whilst in summer they are worn outermost for lightness. These are purposely knitted flimsy in texture so as to economize material and for summer they are quite elegant and serviceable when manufactured in attractive colourings. For winter use they are possessed of a heat-retaining property which would not be expected from their bulk, but to attain the best results they must be worn under a fabric of stronger and more durable construction. The theory of these surprising results is that free interspaces act as so many air chambers which contribute to non-conductivity of heat by the garment. Face veils are usually very flimsy structures, but on account of the "still layer" of air retained in the vicinity of the face the heat is effectively retained just as if a fabric of much heavier construction were employed. [Illustration: FIG. 3 ] This property should be fully investigated in a scientific manner in the light of increased cost of raw materials which has now become vital to the manufacturer and his public. In many circles weight of cloth is synonymous with warmth, but experience has shown that this is not the case and that the warmest garments are not always the heaviest. The latest converts to the light-weight article are the clothing departments of the services where, as a result of war experience they have altered many specifications to include fabrics much lighter in weight; formerly no gauge or sett could be too coarse and thick for their requirements, but now the products of all gauges in the equipment of the hosiery manufacturer are utilized. Now the matter is being brought more fully to the notice of the manufacturer on account of the great rise in the price of raw materials when it is essential to extract the utmost farthing of utility from every ounce of material. If we can more fully requisition the services of the "still layer of air" in this regard it will prove an inexpensive medium of clothing. _Knitting Trade Definition._âThe meaning of the term hosiery has undergone a great expansion during the past decade and its present meaning is an eloquent testimony to the enormous growth which the trade has recently experienced. Originally the term had reference chiefly to articles of footwear, it was in this regard that the utility of the knitted stitch was first recognized. The feet form a delicately susceptible part of our anatomy and require special care in fabric selection. In walking the muscles and tendons of the foot are in constant action and it is of vital importance to the comfort of the individual that the footwear should be worked in the most suitable fabric. To have footwear in the woven texture is unthinkable if from no other reason than the seams which would be necessary, and to have one of these located at the heel or along the sole of the foot would render the wearer unable to walk in a very short period. There is further the matter of perspiration which occurs so profusely at the pedal extremities, and the knitted texture above all others is adapted to that intimate sort of interaction between skin and fabric which is required for the absorption of perspiration. It laps it up and gives it back again gradually in the form of vapour. In a fabric of less absorbent qualities the article would soon fill with moisture and giving rise to wetness cause considerable discomfort to the wearer. The term hosiery has greatly outgrown its original significance as applied to footwear only and now embraces underwear, articles used for intermediate garments and an increasing range of garments suited for outer wear. There are now very few departments of clothing into which the knitted texture has not penetrated. For outer garments it is not always advisable to employ the knitted texture in its entirety because it obviously does not possess all the properties needed, but great progress has been made in the direction of giving greater stability by a judicious use of the more rigid woven texture at given points. For example, in the knitted vest trade the garment edges are often bound with tapes of woven stuff, whilst the linings are invariably made from these materials. Incidentally the colour of these reinforcing materials is so chosen as to harmonize with the ground so that the whole garment is enhanced in general appearance. Similarly it is found that the plain knitted loop is neither heavy nor close enough to give adequate comfort for an outer garment, which deficiency has been attended to by the hosiery machine builders who have made such improvements on the machines as will enable much more yarn to be inserted in a given space. This increases the sett of the loops and the weight and rigidity of texture, so that fabrics may now be obtained which are almost equal to the woven fabric in resistant properties. Such modifications of fabric structure usually result in a pattern with a prevailing one-sided effect, the wrong side being deficient in appearance and style. The ordinary plain knitted stitch _per se_ has little scope for ornamentation unless special machines are employed and where embellishment is required on a plain garment it often takes the form of added pieces of crochet. [Illustration: FIGS. 4, 5, 6 and 7 ] _Crochet Work._âThis is particularly useful in the trade for children's garments where many factories employ crochet workers who ornament the edges by crochet patterns worked in the same yarn. For the very tiny articles of this class it is often found uneconomical to employ machines, and in certain districts large numbers of such garments are produced by the hand crochet workers where the greatest freedom of loop selection is possible. The operation of hand crochet is illustrated in Figs. 6 and 7 where the hook is marked H; in Fig. 6 the hook with loop A upon it is about to grip a portion of the new yarn B, and in Fig. 7 this has been drawn through the old loop to add a new one to the chain. In this way one can have on a garment effects which could only be produced by changing to several types of machines, and when articles are small this changing is not economically sound. There are still a considerable number of these crochet workers in various parts of the United Kingdom notably in rural districts of Ireland and in various districts of Scotland and England. Many large firms have a number of such hands attached as an outside staff and they are useful for scrutinizing fashion publications and producing stitches with hand pins which may with good results be adapted to machine-made goods. They have subsidiary departments where customers are supplied with articles of distinctly novel character and for which they are prepared to pay enhanced prices. The freest of all mediums of ornamentation in this class is undoubtedly the crochet, and articles are often ornamented with distinctly elegant results by the use of the crochet hook. By this means yarn same as the ground is employed so as to render it homogeneous and elegance of pattern is due to the fact that the worker can select any point of the fabric for a new move of the pattern. We may have one style being worked at this point and an inch farther up a distinctly different pattern can be evolved. In many rural districts the workers have attained remarkable skill in pattern origination due to their life-long devotion to the handicraft; from the art view-point it is hoped that they will continue to secure such an outlet for their work as will reward their skill and devotion. It is admitted that such products may not hold their own in fierce competition of the open market, but "Man does not live by bread alone," and it is hoped that public taste for such artistic productions may be maintained and developed in contrast to the strictly utilitarian; the aesthetic sense is one which the British as a nation sadly lack. CHAPTER II KNITTING AND WEAVING Compared with the weaving branch of textiles the knitting industry has several outstanding advantages which are now being widely recognized. In weaving it is necessary to have a considerable amount of tackle and supplementary attachments if the fancy pattern trade is to be conducted. The knitted texture is essentially a one-sided composition, but when effects such as lace work, tuck stitches, or coloured styles are introduced these are notable on account of their effectiveness. For any of the machines used in the fancy departments of the knitting trade such as the Jacquard flat knitter, the lace or pearl machines, designs are in every case extremely effective, for minor alterations of the patterning devices produce a result which is at once distinctive and fancy elements show almost their full quota on the face. In the case of woven fabrics the loom and a complicated set of cards and shafts are needed to produce a figure of the most moderate dimensions. Colours in the ordinary twills only show about 50 per cent. of their effectiveness and the surface of the texture remains for the most part uniform. The producer of woven goods has an advantage in that he can make most forms of texture on one loom which he can alter in setting and tackle so as to give any degree of fineness or variety of design. The maker of knitted goods requires a series of entirely different machines in order to produce a full range of patterns and individual machines show but small variation in texture and weight. For any particular type of machine he requires to instal a series varying in the sett or gauge of the needles if a representative range of textures suitable for the changing seasons has to be devised. The average maker of knitted goods has to produce garments ready for the wearer, which renders his task more complicated, for he has to produce garments in full ranges of size and shape, thus combining the functions of fabric and garment producer. This has the advantage of enabling him to establish a more direct relationship with the wearer of his garments and most firms are adopting the policy of going direct to the retail, one which has had a most stimulating effect on the trade. This personal contact with the shopkeeper who places the goods in the hands of the wearer brings the manufacturer into close contact with the trend of public demand. _Hand Knitting._âThe war period witnessed a remarkable revival of hand knitting which arose from a desire to send comforts to soldier relatives, and the enormous quantities of articles produced in this way greatly helped our men to withstand the rigorous conditions of active service in winter. The usual articles were scarves, gloves, knitted helmets, but, above all, thick warm socks. Knitting was performed on all occasions and it proved a great comfort to many who had relatives in dangerous situations. Knitting acts as a soothing tonic, and there is the added satisfaction of producing something of direct usefulness whilst the skilful hand knitter may impart touches of elegance and distinction not possible by machine. If hand knitting is to be skilfully performed it is necessary to give attention to the size of the knitting pins and that of the yarn in relation. The gauges of knitting pins or needles are recognized in this country by a series of numbers quoted by all instruction books dealing with the subject, Walker's bell-shaped knitting gauge being largely used by those who make hand knitting an occupation of leisure. This is cut bell-shaped in bright polished metal, the various numbers corresponding to the size of the openings in the gauge. The full range of gauges runs from 1 to 24 and the needles are named after these according as they fit the various apertures. The coarsest knitting-needle in general use is termed 1 and is of such a thickness that it will pass through the space marked 1; knitting-needle number 2 will exactly fit opening number 2 and so on till gauge 5 is reached. The apertures gradually decrease in size till the smallest recognized hand knitting-needle is termed 24 gauge. Thickness of needle must correspond to the size of yarn or, in other words, the yarn must suit the thickness of needle. It is the needle which determines the interspaces in the fabric, for a certain proportion must be allowed if the fabric is to possess the required elasticity and stretch. This property is essential to good wearing service, for if loops are stiff and stodgy in construction, due to over-tight knitting or meagre allowance of space, the fabric will not yield to the movements which occur in wear and will more rapidly give way under strain. The thicker the yarn the larger the space required and _vice versÃ¢_, so that the needle determines the space which is to be allowed for any particular set of loops and should bear a definite relation to the thickness of yarn. _The Knitting Process._âThe elementary operation of knitting by hand may be followed by referring to Figs. 4 and 5, which illustrate the stages and show the method in which the loops hang on the hand knitting pins. In this case flat work is being produced, the needle A being shown with the row of loops upon it whilst the needle B is being used to form a new row. The thread N is seen to continue from the loops already made and the pin B is being pushed through the end loop M so that it may catch a piece of the thread N and form a new loop similar to M. This is in the act of completion in Fig. 5 where a new piece of thread N has been drawn through and the old loop M is about to be discharged from needle A, this being replaced by a new loop N now hanging on needle B. This operation is continued stitch by stitch until all the loops spread on needle A are replaced by new loops transferred to needle B. When this is complete needle A is stripped of its stitches, and then is used to re-transfer the stitches from B back again to itself. By this operation it will be seen that the knitting operation as performed by hand on two pins is an alternate process; you transfer stitches from a needle working from right to left as in Fig. 4, and at the next course you work from left to right transferring the stitches back again. In this we do not obtain perfectly plain fabric but what is known as the garter pattern or one and one pearl-stitch. If it is desired to make plain work on two hand pins, the worker in turning the direction of knitting must push the needle into the old stitch in the reverse direction so as to effect a cast-off same as in the previous course. For the making of hose and half-hose on hand knitting-needles at least three pins are necessary to enable us to knit in circular form so as to produce the article to fit the foot. A more convenient method of knitting in a circle is to use four pins with the idle stitches evenly distributed over three of these pins and using the fourth to transfer in the manner already described. In this way each needle in turn is released and is used as the operating pin to form and transfer the loops in knitting. Even if the pins are correct in gauge in relation to the size of the yarn it is easy to make defective material or texture should the loops not be worked at a proper tension. Slack knitters and tight knitters are known according as they work with the thread slack or tight; in this it is well to strike the happy medium, too slack tension makes working to correct size very difficult, whilst too tight work reduces the speed of knitting and the wearing qualities of the article. Correct tension is generally in the region of that which gives reasonable freedom of motion to the knitter. _Branches of the Knitting Industry._â_The Cut-up Trade._âThe manufacturer of knitted goods has not only to produce the fabric but in most cases completes the garments ready for wear and has thus to act as manufacturer and tailor combined. By the cut-up trade is meant that branch where the garments are made by cutting the component pieces from a roll or web of cloth similar to the manner of a tailor of outer garments. This branch is usually associated with the cheaper grades of the knitted industry because the cutting can be done in standard sizes, many plies at one and the same time using automatic cutting devices such as the circular electric machine. Similarly the making-up and trimming of the garments is performed on the principle of mass production where output is based on a large number of articles being produced in exactly the same manner and to a standard type. In recent years the relative advantages of the cut method of manufacture as compared with other systems have undergone some modification. In the first place we have the waste which is a heavy item in the cut branch, for no matter how skilfully the pieces may be carved from the plies of fabric there is always a considerable number of waste pieces at corners, etc., which it is not possible to utilize. The problem of waste has become more serious since materials have risen so much in value and has tended to augment the price of such goods on the market. On the other hand, one of the great objections to the cut method of manufacture lies in the kind of seam or join used to piece the various sections together because owing to the frayed edges of severed loops, the seamer has to secure a hold several stitches from each edge and this gives rise to a bulky portion at the join which in underwear particularly proved a serious obstacle to comfort. The activities of machine makers have, however, in recent years been concentrated on devising methods of seaming which will minimize these deficiencies, and there are now several machines such as the flat-lock, which in place of taking the stitches so far from each edge introduce a number of threads to form a kind of bridge of texture of their own with the edge loops. This makes a secure join and at the same time gives a seam of little more than normal bulk. _The Full-Fashioned Trade._âAs the term indicates, this section applies to articles made to the shape of the body these pieces being complete units with perfect selvedges which are afterwards united to form a garment where the edges are joined with comparatively little bulk of seam. The best examples of the full-fashioned trade are the garments produced on the Cotton's Patent Rotary frame which is built to work as many as twelve full width articles at the same time. This capacity of multi-production proves one of the strong points of the fashioned trade because the articles being worked identically effects a considerable reduction on the cost of making. Also the seam or join is made with selvedge loops which are perfect in formation so that the worker can use the end two loops as supports for the seaming thread which is of the same material as the garment and is thus inconspicuous and at the same time gives the correct elasticity. With the cut-up seam as at present practised clean-surfaced yarns have to be employed to the number of eight or more, and these are usually in white cotton which on a coloured garment at once proclaims its origin. In seaming fashioned goods each selvedge loop is joined to a corresponding stitch on the other side by the method termed "point-to-point" seaming, and under present conditions the slowness of this method and its greater cost has led many manufacturers of full-fashioned to reconsider seriously their position. The cup seamer can in many cases give a three-fold production and this is now being employed with success in such branches as the fashioned-hose trade. For high-class underwear, however, the point-to-point system still holds its own as being the best adapted for the work, and efforts are being made to have this type of machine accelerated to give increased production. In the novelty trade such as that of knitted coats the articles are so varied in style and shape that they have to be fashioned singly on a hand machine, and it is being recognized that the full-fashioned system is too expensive if the firm is to do trade on a large scale. To increase production in such goods, therefore, the articles are often cut from knitted web separately to the style and shape desired and seamed on one or other of the mechanisms now being improved to give a suitable join for such goods. The distinct difference lies in the method of cutting which is individualistic so that full expression can be given to shape and modifications of fashion. To work the full-fashioned branch of the hosiery trade requires an enormous outlay for equipment, as these multi-garment machines run to a high figure and have to be installed in a series of gauges so as to present a sufficiently large assortment of textures to the market. For the cut-up trade, on the other hand, we can obtain a large quantity of fabric from a few circular frames; what remains is to cut the material to shape and trim and finish the garments. _The Seamless Branch._âThis embraces another very important class of knitted fabrics which are produced for the most part without joins or seams and ready to fit the wearer. As most garments are circular in form this requires a plant of circular frames, or the flat knitter may be adapted for the making of circular fabric. The best example of this section is that of the hose and half-hose, or stockings and socks, which are required circular in form. Also large quantities of seamless gloves are placed on the market each season, these being worked with the fingers in the form of small circular bags to accommodate the fingers. Seamless fabric for hose and half-hose is of special value because any irregularities of texture instantly make themselves uncomfortably evident in footwear. The seamless hose trade is done on machines of small diameter with the needles arranged in circular form, and where suitable provision is made for the addition of pockets to accommodate the heel and toes. From machines of larger diameter are made garments such as nightdresses where the fabric is produced in the form of a large circular sack, a length of which is taken to form the body whilst similar circular pieces are produced on machines of smaller diameter for the sleeves. The practice of making garments of the sweater or "Jumper" class on circular frames is on the increase especially since machine types have been evolved which can make rib, plain, pearl and striped fabrics on one and the same machine with a suitable arrangement for narrowing. It stands to reason, however, that this method of making body garments does not allow of great accuracy of fit and that the greatest scope lies in garments which by their nature are of a loosely fitting description. At the same time the advent of the rib stitch in such machines enables the fabric to be given a latent amount of elasticity which can be utilized to fit the form of a slender person, whilst it can be stretched to accommodate an individual of more portly build. CHAPTER III LATCH NEEDLE KNITTING The latch needle is one of the indispensable instruments of the knitting industry, as was abundantly proved during the war period when shortage of needles threw large numbers of useful knitting machines into disuse, whilst inferior needles accounted for a great drop in efficiency. There is a great variety in form of the latch needle, but they are similar in essential features. A sketch of a normal type is given in Fig. 8 where the various parts are lettered thus: H = hook at the left extremity of the needle, L = latch, S = stem or shank of the needle, B = needle butt or heel, as it is often termed. The latch moves on a pivot from the dotted position when it shuts the hook to the normal position when the hook is open. The stem or shank varies in proportion of length according to the class of machine in which it is employed, whilst there is also a large diversity of forms of the needle heel or butt usually in the direction of strengthening by adding extra metal to withstand friction for large scale knitting. [Illustration: FIGS. 8, 9 and 10 ] _Loop Formation with Latch Needles._âThe matter of loop formation is of the greatest interest and importance in any study of knitting and is shown in detail by means of a series of sketches, 1 to 5 in Fig. 9, illustrating the operation at the various stages. This will be useful in studying any knitting frame, for an apparently complex piece of machinery may be quickly reduced to intelligible dimensions if the observer has a grasp of the process of loop formation. All machines using the latch needle, and they are many and varied, form their stitch on exactly the same principle, and when this is understood considerable progress has been made towards a thorough comprehension of the whole. Sections 1 to 5 of Fig. 9 represent the successive stages in stitch making, the needles being shown at the angle usually found in the flat knitting machine of the Lamb type. In Diagram 1 of the series the needle is shown in its normal non-operative position with the latch closed and the loop M inside it. In all knitting a division must be maintained between the old loop and the new yarn. In Diagram 2 the needle rises, and in so doing the old stitch M opens the latch L and passes on to the stem and the new yarn marked Y is in the act of being seized by the hook of the needle. In Diagram 3 the needle is noted to have sunk lower in position so that the old loop M closes the latch with the yarn Y inside, and the old loop covers the latch as shown. This stage is termed the "landing of the stitch" and in Diagram 4 the needle is noted to have dropped still farther, so that the old loop is pushed over the needle extremity and the new yarn drawn through the old loop M to form a complete stitch. Precautions have to be taken in the machine mechanism to have the old loop properly discharged over the needle end and the new yarn completely drawn through. When this is complete the needle again rises in its position as in Diagram 5, and in so doing the yarn inside the hook moves downwards and opens the latch preparatory to a new course of stitches. Diagram 10 illustrates another important form of the latch needle known as the double-headed needle as it has a hook at each extremity. This instrument forms the basis of utility of a series of different machines such as the rib hose frame and the pearl knitter. In these cases the needle moves from one knitting stage into another discharging its loop from the upper or lower hook according to the pattern of the rib or pearl fabric. _The Flat Knitter._âOne of the best known machines using the latch needle for its loop formation is the flat knitter which has an extensive use in the knitting industry. The scope of work produced on the flat knitter is truly wonderful and its great versatility of application accounts for its immense popularity. In addition to plain fabric it can make a large variety of fancy and reinforced stitches, which provide great extension to the textural scope of the knitted fabric, allowing it to be employed for a wider diversity of uses. Various colours can be introduced in stripe formation, and with attachments of Jacquard character or by the use of the double-headed needle the range of patterns is further diversified. In regard to making full-fashioned goods almost every form of garment can be made on it-pants, shirts, hose and half-hose, coats, vestings, caps and gloves, are only a few of the garments procurable. These can be fashioned by the worker to the required form and an interpretation can be given to symmetry and style of the human form. It has found an extensive application as a hand machine to the making of seamless gloves being used by the most progressive firms in the trade, and with the application of power it can be adapted with considerable success to the making of goods in the bulk. Hand machines are moderately priced so that to start a knitting factory with such a plant is not a really formidable proposition, quite a respectable equipment being procurable for a few hundred pounds; many a prosperous firm owes its initial successes to the adoption of the flat knitter and from this they have been able to launch larger schemes of development in the knitting business. With new starters in this trade to-day the flat knitting machine nearly always figures prominently when there is lack of capital, and on this basis quite a sound foundation may be laid. A diagrammatic side view of the Lamb flat knitting machine is shown in Fig. 11 where the foundation of the machine consists of two needle beds or stages marked NB which are cut with tricks or grooves into which the needles are placed as shown, each side being a duplicate of the other. The needle is marked N and on it will be recognized such essentials as the latch L, the hook H, the butt or heel B working inside the cam-box CB. The thread T passes from its bobbin through the eye of the thread-carrier TC and the needle is pushed into its position in the cam-box by the spring marked S shown at the extremity of the needle beds. The fabric is marked F and is noted to pass down through the centre of the machine whilst at its extremity is attached a set of weights which act as a means of drawing the fabric from the needle ends as they are formed and if the needles are not being sufficiently well cleared the amount of weight is increased. The weights have to be raised from time to time to a higher position in contact with the fabric as it is being worked. [Illustration: FIGS. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16 ] _Interior of Cam-box._âIn this machine the principal functional part is the cam-box CB, and from this the knitting action is imparted to the needles. On this account a full view is given in Fig. 12 of the set of cams used in the knitting machine made by Messrs. W. and J. Foster of Preston. This set of cams is placed on each bed right and left and the constituent parts are indicated as follows. Parts A and B are termed the knitting cams, whilst the parts C, D and E combine to form what is known as the knock-up cam. The part E is a fixture, whilst the needle path is indicated curved, and through this the needle butts N are seen to be passing. From the previously-given description of the making of loops on the latch needle it should not be difficult to note that the cams working on the needle butts in the needle path combine to raise the needles to secure the yarn from the thread-carrier and, having received the yarn, the needles are pulled down again to complete the loop by drawing the new yarn through the old loop. The cams have a side-to-side motion and pass over the needle bed from right to left and again from left to right. In so doing they operate as follows: when the cam-box is passing from right to left the needle heels are made to ascend the left side of C and D and are drawn down again by the inside of cam B; when the action is reversed and the cam-box is drawn from left to right, the needle heels pass up the right side of cam D and are drawn down again by passing along the inside of cam A, this alternate action being repeated during the process of making plain work on the flat knitting machine. _The Rib Stitch._âOne of the outstanding advantages of the flat knitter is the facility with which all kinds of rib stitches can be made, and this is due to the arrangement of the needle beds, where the needles of one side make their stitches in a direction contrary to those in the opposite side. In making rib work both sets of needles in back and front beds are in action at the same time; when the thread is supplied to the needles those on the back rise equally with those on the front and receive their share of yarn to form their own loops. Now it is clear that the knitting action on the right-hand needle is opposite in effect to that of a left-hand needle, this being expressed by the form of the knock-over of the stitch; the right-hand needles discharge their stitches to the left, whilst the left-hand needles discharge their stitches towards the right. It is this combination of stitches discharged in opposite directions which gives rise to the rib stitch which is such a valued adjunct to all forms of knitted texture. This difference in the direction of loop discharge causes one set of needles to form back-fabric stitches whilst the opposite needles knit right-side fabric stitches. The normal flat knitter has its two needle beds cut one-and-one, as shown in Fig. 13, each bed has accommodation for the same number of needles, these being set so as to pass up the centre between the opposite series. This is termed a one-and-one arrangement and the resulting fabric is known as the 1-and-1 rib stitch, one row of loops in a vertical direction appears as wrong-side fabric stitches, whilst the alternate rows work out as right-side fabric loops. This explains the great increase of elasticity found in rib texture as compared with plain because back-fabric stitches are always seeking the back. In their normal position they virtually pass to the back, only being visible on the face when stretch is applied in the width. The yarn in crossing from face to back and _vice versÃ¢_ undergoes a greatly increased amount of intersection which contracts the whole fabric in the width. This property is of the greatest practical value in garment manufacture, because the extremities are usually finished with a few inches of rib which enables the article to secure a firmer hold on the limb or part of the body and thus serves to keep it in position.
{'title': 'Hosiery Manufacture by M.A. William Davis', 'source': 'Project Gutenberg', 'lang': 'en'}