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Volume I of this text is available separately from Project Gutenberg at: http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/48154 ------------------------------------------------------ HISTORY OF ANCIENT POTTERY ------------------------------------------------------ PLATE XLIX [Illustration: ATTIC BLACK-FIGURED HYDRIA: HARNESSING OF HORSES TO CHARIOT (BRITISH MUSEUM). ] ------------------------------------------------------ HISTORY OF ANCIENT POTTERY GREEK, ETRUSCAN, AND ROMAN BY H. B. WALTERS, M.A., F.S.A. BASED ON THE WORK OF SAMUEL BIRCH IN TWO VOLUMES VOLUME II WITH 300 ILLUSTRATIONS INCLUDING 8 COLOURED PLATES [ILLUSTRATION] NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNERâS SONS 1905 PRINTED BY HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD., LONDON AND AYLESBURY, ENGLAND. CONTENTS OF VOLUME II PAGE CONTENTS OF VOLUME II v LIST OF PLATES IN VOLUME II ix LIST OF TEXT-ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II xi PART III THE SUBJECTS ON GREEK VASES â CHAPTER XII _INTRODUCTORYâTHE OLYMPIAN DEITIES_ Figured vases in ancient literatureâMythology and artâRelation of subjects on vases to literatureâHomeric and dramatic themes and their treatmentâInterpretation and classification of subjectsâThe Olympian deitiesâThe GigantomachiaâThe birth of Athena and other Olympian subjectsâZeus and kindred subjectsâHeraâPoseidon and marine deitiesâThe Eleusinian deitiesâApollo and ArtemisâHephaistos, Athena, and AresâAphrodite and ErosâHermes and Hestia 1â53 CHAPTER XIII _DIONYSOS AND MISCELLANEOUS DEITIES_ Dionysos and his associatesâAriadne, Maenads, and SatyrsâNames of Satyrs and MaenadsâThe Nether WorldâGeneral representations and isolated subjectsâCharon, Erinnyes, Hekate, and ThanatosâCosmogonic deitiesâGaia and PandoraâPrometheus and AtlasâIris and HebeâPersonificationsâSun, Moon, Stars, and DawnâWindsâCities and countriesâThe MusesâVictoryâAbstract ideasâDescriptive names 54â92 CHAPTER XIV _HEROIC LEGENDS_ Kastor and PolydeukesâHerakles and his twelve laboursâOther contestsâRelations with deitiesâApotheosisâTheseus and his laboursâLater scenes of his lifeâPerseusâPelops and BellerophonâJason and the ArgonautsâTheban legendsâThe Trojan cycleâPeleus and ThetisâThe Judgment of ParisâStories of Telephos and TroilosâScenes from the IliadâThe death of Achilles and the Fall of TroyâThe OdysseyâThe OresteiaâAttic and other legendsâOrpheus and the AmazonsâMonstersâHistorical and literary subjects 93â153 CHAPTER XV _SUBJECTS FROM ORDINARY LIFE_ Religious subjectsâSacrificesâFuneral scenesâThe Drama and burlesquesâAthleticsâSport and gamesâMusical scenesâTrades and occupationsâDaily life of womenâWedding scenesâMilitary and naval subjectsâOrientals and BarbariansâBanquets and revelsâMiscellaneous subjectsâAnimals 154â186 CHAPTER XVI _DETAILS OF TYPES, ARRANGEMENT, AND ORNAMENTATION_ Distinctions of typesâCostume and attributes of individual deitiesâ PersonificationsâHeroesâMonstersâPersonages in everyday lifeâArmour and shield-devicesâDress and ornamentsâPhysiognomical expression on vasesâLandscape and architectureâArrangement of subjectsâOrnamental patternsâMaeander, circles, and other geometrical patternsâFloral patternsâLotos and palmettesâTreatment of ornamentation in different fabrics 187â235 CHAPTER XVII _INSCRIPTIONS ON GREEK VASES_ Importance of inscriptions on vasesâIncised inscriptionsâNames and prices incised underneath vasesâOwnersâ names and dedicationsâPainted inscriptionsâEarly Greek alphabetsâPainted inscriptions on early vasesâCorinthian, Ionic, Boeotian, and Chalcidian inscriptionsâInscriptions on Athenian vasesâDialectâArtistsâ signaturesâInscriptions relating to the subjectsâExclamationsâÎÎ±Î»á½¹Ï-namesâThe Attic alphabet and orthographyâChronology of Attic inscriptionsâSouth Italian vases with inscriptions 236â278 PART IV ITALIAN POTTERY CHAPTER XVIII _ETRUSCAN AND SOUTH ITALIAN POTTERY_ Early Italian civilisationâOrigin of EtruscansâTerramare civilisationâVillanuova periodâPit-tombsâHut-urnsâTrench- tombsâRelief-wares and painted vases from CervetriâChamber- tombsâPolledrara wareâBucchero wareâCanopic jarsâImitations of Greek vasesâEtruscan inscriptionsâSculpture in terracottaâArchitectural decorationâSarcophagiâLocal pottery of Southern ItalyâMessapian and Peucetian fabrics 279â329 CHAPTER XIX _TERRACOTTA IN ROMAN ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE_ Clay in Roman architectureâUse of bricksâMethods of constructionâTilesâOrnamental antefixaeâFlue-tilesâOther usesâInscriptions on bricks and tilesâMilitary tilesâMural reliefsâList of subjectsâRoman sculpture in terracottaâStatuettesâUses at RomeâTypes and subjectsâGaulish terracottasâPotters and centres of fabricâSubjectsâMiscellaneous uses of terracottaâMoney-boxes âCoin-moulds 330â392 CHAPTER XX _ROMAN LAMPS_ Introduction of lamps at RomeâSites where foundâPrincipal parts of lampsâPurposes for which usedâSuperstitious and other usesâChronological account of formsâTechnical processesâSubjectsâDeitiesâMythological and literary subjectsâ_Genre_ subjects and animalsâInscriptions on lampsâNames of potters and their distributionâCentres of manufacture 393â429 CHAPTER XXI _ROMAN POTTERY: TECHNICAL PROCESSES, SHAPES, AND USES_ IntroductoryâGeographical and historical limitsâClay and glazeâTechnical processesâStamps and mouldsâ_Barbotine_ and other methodsâKilns found in Britain, Gaul, and GermanyâUse of earthenware among the RomansâEcheaâDolia and AmphoraeâInscriptions on amphoraeâCadus, Ampulla, and Lagena âDrinking-cupsâDishesâSacrificial vasesâIdentification of names 430â473 CHAPTER XXII _ROMAN POTTERY, HISTORICALLY TREATED; ARRETINE WARE_ Roman Pottery mentioned by ancient writersââSamianâ wareâCentres of fabricâThe pottery of ArretiumâCharacteristicsâPottersâ stampsâShapes of Arretine vasesâSources of inspiration for decorationââItalian Megarian bowlsââSubjectsâDistribution of Arretine wares 474â496 CHAPTER XXIII _ROMAN POTTERY (continued); PROVINCIAL FABRICS_ Distribution of Roman pottery in EuropeâTransition from Arretine to provincial waresâ_Terra sigillata_âShapes and centres of fabricâSubjectsâPottersâ stampsâVases with _barbotine_ decorationâThe fabrics of GaulâSt. RÃ©myâGraufesenqueââMarbledâ vasesâVases with inscriptions (Banassac)âLezouxâVases with medallions (Southern Gaul)âFabrics of Germanyâ_Terra sigillata_ in BritainâCastor wareâUpchurch and New Forest waresâPlain potteryâ_Mortaria_âConclusion 497â555 INDEX 557 LIST OF PLATES IN VOLUME II (_Except where otherwise noted, the objects are in the British Museum_) PLATE XLIX. Attic black-figured hydria: Harnessing of horses to chariot (_colours_) _Frontispiece_ TO FACE PAGE L. Contest of Athena and Poseidon: vase at Petersburg (from Baumeister) 24 LI. Kotyle by Hieron: Triptolemos at Eleusis 26 LII. The Under-world, from an Apulian vase at Munich (from Furtwaengler and Reichhold) 66 LIII. Helios and Stars (the Blacas krater) 78 LIV. The Sack of Troy: kylix by Brygos in Louvre (from Furtwaengler and Reichhold) 134 LV. Scenes from funeral lekythi (Prothesis and cult of tomb) 158 LVI. Early Etruscan red ware 300 LVII. Etruscan hut-urn and Bucchero ware 302 LVIII. Etruscan imitations of Greek vases 308 LIX. Etruscan antefix and sarcophagus 316 LX. Sarcophagus of Seianti Thanunia 322 LXI. Roman mural reliefs: Zeus and Dionysos 366 LXII. Roman mural reliefs: Theseus; priestesses 370 LXIII. Roman lamps (1st century B.C.) 402 LXIV. Roman lamps: mythological and literary subjects 412 LXV. Roman lamps: miscellaneous subjects 416 LXVI. Moulds and stamp of Arretine ware 492 LXVII. Gaulish pottery (Graufesenque fabric) 520 LXVIII. Gaulish pottery from Britain (Lezoux fabric) 526 LXIX. Romano-British and Gaulish pottery 544 LIST OF TEXT-ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II FIG. PAGE 111. Gigantomachia, from Ionic vase _Mon. dellâ Inst._ in Louvre 13 112. Poseidon and Polybotes, from _Gerhard_ kylix in Berlin 14 113. The birth of Athena _Brit. Mus._ 16 114. Hermes slaying Argos (vase at _Wiener Vorl._ Vienna) 20 115. Poseidon and Amphitrite _Ant. Denkm._ (Corinthian pinax) 23 116. Apollo, Artemis, and Leto _Mon. dellâ Inst._ 30 117. Aphrodite and her following á¼Ï. á¼ÏÏ. (vase at Athens) 43 118. Eros with kottabos-stand _Brit. Mus._ 48 119. Hermes with Apolloâs oxen (in _Baumeister_ the Vatican) 51 120. Dionysos with Satyrs and _Brit. Mus._ Maenads (Pamphaios hydria) 59 121. Maenad in frenzy (cup at _Baumeister_ Munich) 63 122. Charonâs bark (lekythos at _Baumeister_ Munich) 70 123. Thanatos and Hypnos with body _Brit. Mus._ of warrior 71 124. Nike sacrificing bull _Brit. Mus._ 88 125. Herakles and the Nemean lion _Brit. Mus._ 96 126. Herakles bringing the boar to _Brit. Mus._ Eurystheus 97 127. Apotheosis of Herakles (vase _Arch. Zeit._ at Palermo) 107 128. Peleus seizing Thetis _Brit. Mus._ 121 129. Judgment of Paris (Hieron cup _Wiener Vorl._ in Berlin) 122 130. Capture of Dolon _Brit. Mus._ 129 131. Pentheus slain by Maenads _Brit. Mus._ 142 132. Kroisos on the funeral pyre _Baumeister_ (Louvre) 150 133. Alkaios and Sappho (Munich) _Baumeister_ 152 134. Scene from a farce _Brit. Mus._ 161 135. Athletes engaged in the _Brit. Mus._ Pentathlon 163 136. Agricultural scenes _Baumeister_ (Nikosthenes cup in Berlin) 170 137. Warrior arming; archers _Hoppin_ (Euthymides amphora in Munich) 176 138. Banqueters playing kottabos _Brit. Mus._ 181 139. Maeander or embattled pattern 212 140. Maeander (Attic) 212 141. Maeander (Ionic) 212 142. Maeander and star pattern 212 143. Maeander (Attic, 5th century) 213 144. Maeander (Attic, about 480 B.C.) 213 145. Net-pattern 215 146. Chequer-pattern 216 147. Tangent-circles 216 148. Spirals under handles (Exekias) 217 149. Wave-pattern (South Italy) 218 150. Scale-pattern (Daphnae) 218 151. Guilloche or plait-band (Euphorbos pinax) 219 152. Tongue-pattern 219 153. Egg-pattern 220 154. Leaf- or chain-pattern 221 155. Ivy-wreath (black-figure period) 222 156. Ivy-wreath (South Italian) 222 157. Laurel-wreath (South Italian) 223 158. _Vallisneria spiralis_ (Mycenaean) 224 159. Lotos-flower (Cypriote) 224 160. Lotos-flowers and buds _Riegl_ (Rhodian) 225 161. Palmette-and lotos-pattern (early B.F.) 225 162. Lotos-buds (Attic B.F.) 226 163. Chain of palmettes and lotos (early B.F.) 226 164. Palmettes and lotos under handles (Attic B.F.) 227 165. Palmette on neck of red-bodied amphorae 228 166. Enclosed palmettes (R.F. period) 228 167. Oblique palmettes (late R.F.) 229 168. Palmette under handles (South Italian) 230 169. Rosette (Rhodian) 231 170. Rosette (Apulian) 231 171. Facsimile of inscription on _Brit. Mus._ Tataie lekythos 242 172. Facsimile of Dipylon _Ath. Mitth._ inscription 243 173. Scheme of alphabets on Greek vases 248 174. Facsimile of inscription on _Roehl_ Corinthian pinax 251 175. Facsimile of signatures on _Furtwaengler and FranÃ§ois vase Reichhold_ 257 176. Facsimile of signature of _Brit. Mus._ Nikias 259 177. Figure with inscribed scroll (fragment at Oxford) 264 178. Etruscan tomb with cinerary _Ann. dellâ Inst._ urn 285 179. Villanuova cinerary urns from _Notizie_ Corneto 286 180. Painted pithos from Cervetri _Gaz. Arch._ in Louvre 293 181. Canopic jar in bronze-plated _Mus. Ital._ chair 305 182. Etruscan alphabet, from a vase _Dennis_ 312 183. Terracotta sarcophagus in _Dennis_ Brit. Mus. 318 184. Painted terracotta slab in _Dennis_ Louvre 319 185. Askos of local Apulian fabric _Brit. Mus._ 326 186. Krater of âPeucetianâ fabric _Notizie_ 328 187. Concrete wall at Rome _Middleton_ 338 188. Concrete wall faced with brick _Middleton_ 339 189. Concrete arch faced with brick _Middleton_ 339 190. Diagram of Roman wall- _BlÃ¼mner_ construction 340 191. Roman terracotta antefix _Brit. Mus._ 343 192. Method of heating in Baths of _Middleton_ Caracalla 347 193. Flue-tile with ornamental patterns 348 194. Stamped Roman tile _Brit. Mus._ 354 195. Inscribed tile in Guildhall Museum 359 196. Inscribed tile from London 363 197. Mask with name of potter _Brit. Mus._ 377 198. Gaulish figure of Aphrodite _Blanchet_ 383 199. Gaulish figure of Epona _Blanchet_ 386 200. Terracotta money-box _Jahrbuch_ 390 201. Terracotta coin-mould _Daremberg and Saglio_ 392 202. Lamp from the Esquiline _Ann. dell Inst._ 399 203. âDelphiniformâ lamp 399 204. Lamp with volute-nozzle 400 205. Lamp with pointed nozzle 400 206. Lamp with grooved nozzle 401 207. Lamp with plain nozzle 401 208. Lamp with heart-shaped nozzle 402 209. Mould for lamp _Brit. Mus._ 405 210. Lamp with signature of Fortis _Brit. Mus._ 424 211. Stamps used by Roman potters 440 212. Roman kiln at Heddernheim _Ann. dellâ Inst._ 444 213. Kiln found at Castor 447 214. Plan of kiln at Heiligenberg _Daremberg and Saglio_ 450 215. Section of ditto _Daremberg and Saglio_ 450 216. Ampulla _Brit. Mus._ 466 217. Lagena from France 467 218. Arretine bowl in Boston: death _Philologus_ of PhaÃ«thon 484 219. Arretine krater with Seasons _Brit. Mus._ 488 220. âItalian Megarianâ bowl _Brit. Mus._ 491 221. Gaulish bowl of Form 29 500 222. Gaulish bowl of Form 30 501 223. Gaulish bowl of Form 37 502 224. Vase of St.-RÃ©my fabric _DÃ©chelette_ 517 225. Vase of Aco, inscribed _DÃ©chelette_ 518 226. Vase of Banassac fabric from _Mus. Borb._ Pompeii 525 227. Medallion from vase of _Brit. Mus._ Southern Gaul: scene from the _Cycnus_ 531 228. Medallion from vase: Atalanta _Gaz. Arch._ and Hippomedon 532 229. Jar from Germany, inscribed _Brit. Mus._ 537 230. Roman mortarium from _Brit. Mus._ Ribchester 551 PART III THE SUBJECTS ON GREEK VASES CHAPTER XII _INTRODUCTORYâTHE OLYMPIAN DEITIES_ Figured vases in ancient literatureâMythology and artâRelation of subjects on vases to literatureâHomeric and dramatic themes and their treatmentâInterpretation and classification of subjectsâThe Olympian deitiesâThe GigantomachiaâThe birth of Athena and other Olympian subjectsâZeus and kindred subjectsâHeraâPoseidon and marine deitiesâThe Eleusinian deitiesâApollo and ArtemisâHephaistos, Athena, and AresâAphrodite and ErosâHermes and Hestia. The representation of subjects from Greek mythology or daily life on vases was not, of course, confined to fictile products. We know that the artistic instincts of the Greeks led them to decorate almost every household implement or utensil with ornamental designs of some kind, as well as those specially made for votive or other non-utilitarian purposes. But the fictile vases, from the enormous numbers which have been preserved, the extraordinary variety of their subjects, and the fact that they cover such a wide period, have always formed our chief artistic source of information on the subject of Greek mythology and antiquities. Although (as has been pointed out in Chapter IV.) ancient literature contains scarcely any allusions to the painted vases, we have many descriptions of similar subjects depicted on other works of art, such as vases of wood and metal, from Homer downwards. The cup of Nestor (Vol. I. pp. 148, 172) was ornamented with figures of doves[1], and there is the famous description in the first Idyll of Theocritus[2] of the wooden cup (ÎºÎ¹ÏÏá½»Î²Î¹Î¿Î½) which represented a fisherman casting his net, and a boy guarding vines and weaving a trap for grasshoppers, while two foxes steal the grapes and the contents of his dinner-basket; the whole being surrounded, like the designs on some painted vases, with borders of ivy and acanthus. The so-called cup of Nestor (Î½ÎµÏÏÎ¿Ïá½·Ï) at Capua[3] was inscribed with Homeric verses, and the ÏÎºá½»ÏÎ¿Ï or cup of Herakles with the taking of Troy[4]. Anakreon describes cups ornamented with figures of Dionysos, Aphrodite and Eros, and the Graces[5]; and Pliny mentions others with figures of Centaurs, hunts and battles, and Dionysiac subjects[6]. Or, again, mythological subjects are described, such as the rape of the Palladion[7], Phrixos on the ram[8], a Gorgon and Ganymede[9], or Orpheus[10]; and other âstoriedâ cups are described as being used by the later Roman emperors. But the nearest parallels to the vases described in classical literature are probably to be sought in the chased metal vases of the Hellenistic and Roman periods.[11] We read of _scyphi Homerici_, or beakers with Homeric scenes, used by the Emperor Nero, which were probably of chased silver[12]; and we have described in Chapter XI. what are apparently clay imitations of these vases, usually known as âMegarian bowls,â many bearing scenes from Homer in relief on the exterior. In attempting a review of the subjects on the painted vases, we are met with certain difficulties, especially in regard to arrangement. This is chiefly due to the fact that each period has its group of favourite subjects; some are only found in early times, others only in the later period. Yet any chronological method of treatment will be found impossible, and it is hoped that it will, as far as possible, be obviated by the general allusions in the historical chapters of this work to the subjects characteristic of each fabric and period. Embracing as they do almost the whole field of Greek myth and legend, the subjects on Greek vases are yet not invariably those most familiar to the classical student or, if the stories are familiar, they are not always treated in accordance with literary tradition. On the other hand, it must be borne in mind that the popular conception of Greek mythology is not always a correct one, for which fact the formerly invariable system of approaching Greek ideas through the Latin is mainly responsible. The mythology of our classical dictionaries and school-books is largely based on Ovid and the later Roman compilers, such as Hyginus, and gives the stories in a complete connected form, regarding all classical authorities as of equal value, and ignoring the fact that many myths are of gradual growth and only crystallised at a late period, while others belong to a relatively recent date in ancient history.[13] The vases, on the other hand, are contemporary documents, free from later euhemerism and pedantry, and presenting the myths as the Athenian craftsmen knew them in the popular folk-lore and religious observances of their day. It cannot be too strongly insisted upon that a vase-painter was never an illustrator of Homer or any other writer, at least before the fourth century B.C. (see Vol. I. p. 499). The epic poems, of course, contributed largely to the popular acquaintance with ancient legends, and offered suggestions of which the painter was glad to avail himself; but he did not, therefore, feel bound to adhere to his text. This will be seen in the list of Homeric subjects given below (p. 126 ff.); and we may also refer here to the practice of giving fanciful names to figures, which obtains at all periods, and has before now presented obstacles to the interpreter. The relation of the subjects on vases to Greek literature is an interesting theme for enquiry, though, in view of what has already been said, it is evident that it must be undertaken with great caution. The antiquity and wide popularity of the Homeric poems, for instance, would naturally lead us to expect an extensive and general use of their themes by the vase-painter. Yet this is far from being the case. The _Iliad_, indeed, is drawn upon more largely than the _Odyssey_; but even this yields in importance as a source to the epics grouped under the name of the Cyclic poets. It may have been that the poems were instinctively felt to be unsuited to the somewhat conventional and monotonous style of the earlier vase-paintings, which required simple and easily depicted incidents. We are therefore the more at a loss to explain the comparative rarity of subjects from the _Odyssey_, with its many adventures and stirring episodes; scenes which may be from the _Iliad_ being less strongly characterised and less uniqueâone battle-scene, for instance, differing little from another in method of treatment. But any subject from the _Odyssey_ can be at once identified by its individual and marked character. It may be that the _Odyssey_ had a less firm hold on the minds of the Greeks than the _Iliad_, which was more of a national epic, whereas the _Odyssey_ was a stirring romance.[14] It may also be worth noting that scenes from the _Odyssey_ usually adhere more closely to the Homeric text than those from the _Iliad_. Another reason for the scarcity of Iliad-scenes may be that the Tale of Troy as a whole is a much more comprehensive story, of which the _Iliad_ only forms a comparatively small portion. Hence the large number of scenes drawn both from the Ante-Homerica and the Post-Homerica, such as the stories of Troilos and Memnon, or the sack of Troy. The writings of the Cyclic poets begin, as Horace reminds us, _ab ovo_,[15] from the egg of Leda, and the Kypria included the whole story of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis, the subsequent Judgment of Paris, and his journey to Greece after Helen, scenes from all these events being extremely popular on the vases.[16] The _Patrokleia_ deals with the events of the earlier years of the war, the _Aithiopis_ of Arktinos with the stories of Penthesileia and Memnon, and the death of Achilles, and the _Little Iliad_ of Lesches with the events of the tenth year down to the fall of Troy. All provided frequent themes for the vase-painter, as may be seen by a reference to a later page (119 ff.). The _Iliupersis_ of Arktinos and Lesches might almost be reconstructed from two or three large vases, whereon all the episodes of the catastrophe are collected together (see p. 134); but when we come to the _Nostoi_ of Agias and the Telegonia, the vase-painters suddenly fail us, the stories of Odysseusâ wanderings and Orestesâ vengeance seeming to supply the deficiency. Luckenbach[17] has pointed out that the only right method of investigating the relation is to begin with vase-paintings for which the sources are absolutely certain, as with scenes from the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. In this way the subjects from other epics can be rightly estimated and the contents of the poems restored. Further, in investigating the sources of the vase-painters, and the extent to which they adhered to them or gave free play to the imagination, the three main periods of vase-painting must be separately considered, though the results in each case prove to be similar. By way of exemplifying these methods he enters in great detail into certain vase-subjects, their method of treatment on vases of the different periods, and their approximation to the text. Thus, the funeral games for Patroklos (_Il._ xxiii.) are depicted on the FranÃ§ois vase (see p. 11) with marked deviations from Homerâs narrative; and not only this, but without characterisation, so that if the performers were not named the subject could hardly have been identified. To note one small point, all Homeric races took place in two-horse chariots (_bigae_), but on B.F. vases four-horse _quadrigae_ are almost invariably found.[18] Subjects of a more conventional character, such as battle scenes, farewell scenes, or the arming of a warrior, present even more difficulty. Even when names occur it is only increased. We must assume that the vase-painter fixed on typical names for his personages, without caring whether he had literary authority. In some cases the _genre_ scenes seem to be developed from heroic originals, in others the contrary appears to be the case.[19] It is not, however, unfair to say that the Epos was the vase-painterâs âsource.â The only doubtful question is the _extent_ of his inspiration; and, at all events, it was a _source_ in the sense that no other Greek literature was until we come to the fourth century. Turning now to the consideration of later literature,[20] we find in Hesiod a certain parallelism of theme to the vases, but little trace of actual influence. Indirectly he may have affected the vase-painter by his crystallisation of Greek mythology in the Theogony, where he establishes the number of the Muses (l. 77), and also the names of the Nereids.[21] It is, however, interesting to note the Hesiodic themes which were also popular with the vase-painters: the creation of Pandora; the fights of Herakles and Kyknos, and of Lapiths and Centaurs, and the pursuit of Perseus by the Gorgons; the contest of Zeus with Typhoeus (or Typhon); and the birth of Athena.[22] The influence of lyric poetry was even slighter. Somewhat idealised figures of some of the Greek lyrists appear on R.F. vases, such as Sappho and Anakreon (see p. 152); but this is all. In regard to Pindar and Bacchylides, the idealising and heroising tendencies of the age may be compared with the contemporary tendency of vase-paintings, and the latter may often be found useful to compare withâif not exactly to illustrateâthe legends which the two poets commemorate. For instance, in the ode of Bacchylides in which he describes the fate of Kroisos, there is a curious deviation from the familiar Herodotean version, the king being represented as voluntarily sacrificing himself.[23] The only vase-painting dealing with this subject (Fig. 132, p. 150) apparently reproduces this tradition. With the influence of the stage we have already dealt elsewhere.[24] With the exception of the Satyric drama, it can hardly be said to have made itself felt, except in the vases of Southern Italy, in the fourth century B.C., but indications of the Satyric influence may be traced in many R.F. Attic vases, no doubt owing to their connection with the popular Dionysiac subjects. On a vase in Naples[25] are represented preparations for a Satyric drama. When we reach the time of tragic and comic influence, we not only find the subjects reproduced, but even their stage setting; in other words, the vases are not so much intended to illustrate the written as the acted play, just as it was performed. The whole question is admirably summed up by Luckenbach[26] in the following manner: (1) The Epos is the chief source of all vase-paintings from the earliest time to the decadence inclusive, and next comes Tragedy, as regards the later vases only; of the influence of other poetry on the formation of myths in vase-paintings there is no established example. (2) _Vase-paintings are not illustrations_, either of the Epos or of the Drama, and there is no intention of reproducing a story accurately; hence great discrepancies and rarity of close adherence to literary forms; but the salient features of the story are preserved. (3) Discrepancies in the naming of personages are partly arbitrary, partly due to ignorance; the extension of scenes by means of rows of bystanders, meaningless, but thought to be appropriate, is of course a development of the artistâs, conditioned by exigencies of space. Anachronisms on vases are of frequent occurrence. (4) Such scenes as those of warriors arming or departing are always the painterâs own invention, ordinary scenes being often âheroisedâ by the addition of names. But individuals are not necessarily all or always to be named; and, again, the artist often gives names without individualising the figures. (5) In the archaic period successive movements of time are often very naÃ¯vely blended (see p. 10); the difference between art and literature is most marked in scenes where a definite moment is not indicated. (6) Vase-paintings often give a general survey of a poem, the scene not being drawn from one particular passage or episode. The features of one poem are in art sometimes transferred to another. The attention that has been paid now for many years to collecting, assorting, and critically discussing the material afforded by the vases has much diminished the difficulties of this most puzzling branch of archaeology. It has been chiefly lightened by the discovery from time to time of inscribed vases, though, as has just been noted, even these must be treated with caution; and even now, of course, there are numerous subjects the interpretation of which is either disputed or purely hypothetical. But we can at least pride ourselves on having advanced many degrees beyond the labours of early writers on the subject, down to the year 1850. When painted vases first began to be discovered in Southern Italy, the subjects were supposed to relate universally to the Eleusinian or Dionysiac mysteries, and this school of interpretation for a long time found favour in some quarters, even in the days of Gerhard and De Witte. But it was obvious from the first that such interpretations did not carry the investigator very far, and even in the eighteenth century other systems arose, such as that of Italynski, who regarded the subjects as of historical import.[27] Subsequently Panofka endeavoured to trace a connection between the subjects and the names of artists or other persons recorded on the vases, or, again, between the subjects and shapes. The latter idea, of course, contained a measure of truth, as is seen in many instances[28]; but it was, of course, impossible to follow out either this or the other hypothesis in any detail. The foundations of the more scientific and rational school of interpretation were laid as early as the days of Winckelmann, and he was followed by Lanzi, Visconti, and Millingen, and finally Otto Jahn, who, as we have seen, practically revolutionised the study of ceramography. Of late, however, the question of the interpretation of subjects has been somewhat relegated to the background, owing to the overwhelming interest evoked by the finds of early fabrics or by the efforts of German and other scholars to distinguish the various schools of painting in the finest period. Millingen, in the Introduction to his _Vases Grecs_, drew up a classification of the subjects on vases which need not be detailed here, but which, with some modifications, may be regarded as holding good to the present day. He distinguishes ten classes, the first three mythological, the next four dealing with daily life, and the three last with purely decorative ornamentation. A somewhat similar order is adopted by MÃ¼ller in his _Handbuch_, by Gerhard in his _Auserlesene Vasenbilder_, and by Jahn in his Introduction to the Munich Catalogue (p. cc ff.). In the present and following chapters the arrangement and classification of the subjects adhere in the main to the system laid down by these writers; and as the order is not, of course, chronological in regard to style, reference has been made where necessary to differences of epoch and fabric.[29] It may be convenient to recapitulate briefly the main headings under which the subjects are grouped. I. The Olympian deities and divine beings in immediate connection with them, such as Eros and marine deities. (_a_) In general; (_b_) individually. (Chapter XII.) II. Dionysos and his cycle, Pan, Satyrs, and Maenads. (Page 54 ff.) III. Chthonian and cosmogonic deities, personifications, and minor deities in general. (Page 66 ff.) IV. Heroic legends and mythology in general. (_a_) Herakles; (_b_) Theseus, Perseus, and other heroes; (_c_) local or obscure myths; (_d_) the Theban and Trojan stories; (_e_) monsters. (Chapter XIV.) V. Historical subjects. (Page 149 ff.) VI. Scenes from daily life and miscellaneous subjects (for detailed classification see p. 154). (Chapter XV.) The number of subjects to be found on any one vase is of course usually limited to one, two, or at most three, according to the shape. Usually when there is more than one the subjects are quite distinct from one another; though attempts have been made in some cases, as in the B.F. amphorae, to trace a connection.[30] On the other hand, the R.F. kylikes of the strong period often show a unity of subject running through the interior and exterior scenes, whether the theme is mythological or ordinary.[31] It was only in exceptional cases that an artist could devote his efforts to producing an entire subject, as on some of the large kylikes with the labours of Theseus,[32] or the vases representing the sack of Troy.[33] The great FranÃ§ois vase in Florence is a striking example of a mythology in miniature, containing as it does more than one subject treated in the fullest detail. And here reference may be made to the main principles which governed the method of telling a story in ancient art, and prevailed at different periods.[34] The earliest and most simple is the _continuous_ method, which represents several scenes together as if taking place simultaneously, although successive in point of time. This method was often employed in Oriental art, but is not found in Hellenic times; it was, however, revived by the Romans under the Empire, and prevailed all through the early stages of Christian art. Secondly, there is the _complementary_ method, which aims at the complete expression of everything relating to the central event. The same figures are not in this case necessarily repeated, but others are introduced to express the action of the different subjects, all being collected in one space without regard to time, as in the continuous style. This is of Oriental origin, and is first seen in the description of Achillesâ shield; it is also well illustrated in the FranÃ§ois vase, in the story of Troilos. Here the death of Troilos is not indeed actually depicted, but the events leading up to it (the water-drawing at the fountain and the pursuit by Achilles) and those consequent on it (the announcement of the murder to Priam and the setting forth of Hector to avenge it) are all represented without the repetition of any figures. Lastly, there is the _isolating_ method, which is purely Hellenic, being developed from the complementary. This is best illustrated by the Theseus kylikes, with their groups of the labours, which, it should be remembered, are not continuous episodes in one story, but single events separated in time and space, and collected together with a sort of superficial resemblance to the other methods. Some description of the FranÃ§ois vase has been given elsewhere (Vol. I. p. 370)[35]; but as it is unique in its comprehensiveness, and as a typical presentation of the subjects most popular at the time when vase-painters had just begun to pay special attention to mythology, it may be worth while to recapitulate its contents here. The subjects are no less than eleven in number, arranged in six horizontal friezes, with figures also on the handles, and there are in all 115 inscriptions explaining the names of the personages and even of objects (_e.g._ á½Î´Ïá½·Î±, for the broken pitcher of Polyxena). Eight of these subjects belong to the region of mythology:â(1) On the neck: the hunt of the Calydonian boar, and (2) the landing of Theseus and Ariadne at Naxos, accompanied by dancing youths and maidens. (3) On the shoulder: chariot race at the funeral games of Patroklos, and (4) combat of Centaurs and Lapiths (with Theseus). (5) On the body: the marriage of Peleus and Thetis, attended by the gods in procession. (6) On the body: the death of Troilos (see above), and (7) the return of Hephaistos to Olympos. (8) On each of the handles, Ajax with the body of Achilles. On the flat top of the lip is represented (9) a combat of pigmies and cranes; on either side of the foot (10) a lion and a panther devouring a bull and stag, Gryphons, Sphinxes, and other animals; and on the upper part of the handles (11) Gorgons and figures of the Asiatic Artemis (see p. 35) holding wild animals by the neck. * * * * * It is, of course, impossible to indicate all the subjects on the thousands of painted vases in existence; and it must also be remembered that many are of disputed meaning. The succeeding review must therefore only be considered as a general summary which aims at omitting nothing of any interest and avoiding as far as possible useless repetition. In the references appended under each subject the principle has been adopted of making them as far as possible representative of all periods, and also of selecting the most typical and artistic examples, as well as the most accessible, publications.[36] In dealing with the subjects depicted on Greek vases, we naturally regard the Olympian deities as having the preeminence. We will therefore begin by considering such scenes as have reference to actions in which those deities were engaged, and, secondly, representations of general groups of deities, either as spectators of terrestrial events or without any particular signification. It will then be convenient to deal with the several deities one by one, noting the subjects with which each is individually connected. We shall in the following chapter proceed to consider the subordinate deities, such as those of the under-world and the Dionysiac cycle, and personifications of nature and abstract ideas. Chapter XIV. will be devoted to the consideration of heroic legends, mythological beings, and historical subjects; and in Chapter XV. will be discussed all such subjects as relate to the daily life of the Greeks. THE OLYMPIAN DEITIES One of the oldest and most continuously popular subjects is the =Gigantomachia=, or Battle of the Gods and Giants, which forms part of the Titanic and pre-heroic cosmogony, and may therefore take precedence of the rest. The Aloadae (Otos and Ephialtes), strictly speaking, are connected with a different eventâthe attack on Olympos and chaining of Ares; but the scenes in which they occur are so closely linked with the Gigantomachy proper that it is unnecessary to differentiate them. We also find as a single subject the combat of Zeus with the snake-footed Typhon.[37] The _locus classicus_ of Greek art for the Gigantomachia is of course the frieze of the great altar at Pergamon (197 B.C.), but several vases bear representations almost as complete, though it is not as a rule possible to identify the giants except where their names are inscribed.[38] Most vases give only one to three pairs of combatants. [Illustration: FIG. 111. GIGANTOMACHIA, FROM IONIC VASE IN LOUVRE.] Some pairs are found almost exclusively together, _e.g._ Athena and Enkelados, or Ares and Mimas; Artemis and Apollo are generally opposed to the Aloadae Otos and Ephialtes, Zeus to Porphyrion, and Poseidon to Polybotes (Fig. 112) or Ephialtes. Hestia alone, the âstay-at-homeâ goddess of the hearth, is never found in these scenes, but Dionysos, Herakles, and the Dioskuri all take their part in aiding the Olympian deities. Zeus hurls his thunderbolts[39]; Poseidon is usually depicted with his trident, or hurling the island of Nisyros (indicated as a rock with animals painted on it) upon his adversary[40]; Hephaistos uses a pair of tongs with a burning coal in them as his weapon[41]; and Dionysos is in some cases aided by his panther.[42] Aeolus occurs once with his bag of winds.[43] [Illustration: FIG. 112. POSEIDON AND THE GIANT POLYBOTES, FROM THE KYLIX IN BERLIN.] The following groups can be identified on vases by inscriptions or details of treatment:â Zeus and Agasthenes, Hyperbios, and Ephialtes: Louvre E 732 (Fig. 111). Zeus and Porphyrion: Berlin 2531. Hera and Harpolykos: Louvre E 732. Hera and Rhoitos (miswritten Phoitos): Berlin 2531. Poseidon and Polybotes: Louvre E 732; Berlin 2531 = Fig. 112. Poseidon and Ephialtes: Reinach, ii. 188. Apollo and Ephialtes: Berlin 2531. Artemis and Otos: Reinach, ii. 164. Artemis and Aigaion: Berlin 2531. Hephaistos and Euryalos: B.M. E 47. Hephaistos and Klytios: Berlin 2293. Athena and Enkelados: B.M. B 252; Louvre E 732; _Ãl. CÃ©r._ i. 8. Ares and Mimas: Berlin 2531; B.M. B 617. Hermes and Hippolytos: Berlin 2293. Hermes and Polybios (?): Louvre E 732. Dionysos and Eurymedon: _Bull. de Corr. Hell._ xx. pl. 7. Athena with arm of Akratos: Berlin 2957 = _Ãl. CÃ©r._ i. 88. Death of Otos (supposed): Bibl. Nat. 299 = Reinach, ii. 255. Among scenes supposed to take place in Olympos, the most important is the =Birth of Athena= from the head of Zeus.[44] Usually she is represented as a diminutive figure actually emerging from his head, but in one or two instances she stands before him fully developed,[45] as was probably the case in the centre of the east pediment of the Parthenon. This subject is commoner on B.F. vases, and does not appear at all after the middle of the fifth century.[46] In most cases several of the Olympian deities are spectators of the scene; sometimes Hephaistos wields his axe or runs away in terror at the result of his operations[47]; in others the Eileithyiae or goddesses of child-birth lend their assistance.[48] On a R.F. vase in the BibliothÃ¨que Nationale Athena flies out backwards from Zeusâ head.[49] In accordance with a principle already discussed (Vol. I. p. 378), the composition or âtypeâ of this subject is sometimes adopted on B.F. vases for other groups of figures, where the absence of Athena shows clearly that the birth scene is not intended, and no particular meaning can be assigned to the composition.[50] Representations of the =Marriage of Zeus and Hera= cannot be pointed to with certainty in vase-paintings. On B.F. vases we sometimes see a bridal pair in a chariot accompanied by various deities, or figures with the attributes of divinities[51]; but the chief figures are not in any way characterised as such, and it is better to regard these scenes as idealisations of ordinary marriage processions. On the other hand, there are undoubted representations of Zeus and Hera enthroned among the Olympian deities or partaking of a banquet.[52] [Illustration: FIG. 113. THE BIRTH OF ATHENA (BRIT. MUS. B 244).] The story of the enchaining of Hera in a magic chair by Hephaistos, and her subsequent liberation by him, is alluded to on many vases, though one episode is more prominent than the others. Of the expulsion of Hephaistos from heaven we find no instance, and of the release of Hera there is only one doubtful example[53]; but we find a parody of the formerâs combat with Ares, who forces him to liberate Hera.[54] The episode most frequent is that of the =return of Hephaistos= in a drunken condition to Olympos, conducted by Dionysos and a crowd of Satyrs; of this there are fine examples on vases of all periods.[55] On earlier vases Hephaistos rides a mule; on the later he generally stumbles along, leaning on Dionysos or a Satyr for support. On the FranÃ§ois vase we see Zeus and Hera, with an attendant train of deities, Nymphs, and Muses, going in a chariot to the nuptials of Peleus and Thetis; on many vases we have the reception of the deified Herakles among the gods of Olympos[56]; and on others groups of deities banqueting or without particular signification.[57] But on the late Apulian vases it is a frequent occurrence to find an upper row of deities as spectators of some event taking place just below: thus they watch battles of Greeks and Persians,[58] or such scenes as the contract between Pelops and Oinomaos,[59] the madness of Lykourgos,[60] the death of Hippolytos,[61] and others from heroic legend, which it is unnecessary to specify here; only a few typical ones can be mentioned.[62] They also appear as spectators of scenes in or relating to the nether-world.[63] * * * * * =Zeus= appears less frequently than some deities, and seldom alone; but still there are many myths connected with him, besides those already discussed. As a single figure he appears enthroned and attended by his eagle on a Cyrenaic cup in the Louvre[64]; or again in his chariot, hurling a thunderbolt[65]; in company with his brother-gods of the ocean and under-world, Poseidon and Hades, he is seen on a kylix by Xenokles.[66] He is also found with Athena,[67] with Hera, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, and Hermes[68]; and frequently with Herakles at the latterâs reception into heaven.[69] In one instance he settles a dispute between Aphrodite and Persephone.[70] He receives libations from Nike,[71] or performs the ceremony himself, attended by Hera, Iris, and Nike,[72] and is also attended by Hebe and Ganymede as cupbearers.[73] His statue, especially that of ÎÎµá½ºÏ á¼ÏÎºÎµá¿Î¿Ï at Troy, sometimes gives local colour to a scene.[74] Most of the scenes in which he appears relate to his various love adventures, among which the legends of Europa, Io, and Semele are the most conspicuous; but first of his numerous _amours_ should perhaps be mentioned his wooing of his consort Hera. He carries her off while asleep from her nurse in Euboea,[75] and also appears to her in the form of a cuckoo.[76] The rape of Ganymede by his eagle appears once or twice on vases,[77] but more generally Zeus himself seizes the youth while he is engaged in bowling a hoop or otherwise at play.[78] On a fine late vase with Latin inscriptions Ganymede appears in Olympos,[79] and he is also depicted as a shepherd.[80] Semele Zeus pursues and slays with the thunderbolt[81]; the birth of her son Dionysos from his thigh is represented but rarely on vases, and is liable to confusion with other subjects. This story falls into three episodes: (1) the reception of the infant by Hermes from Dirke, in order to be sewn into Zeusâ thigh[82]; (2) the actual birth scene[83]; (3) the handing over of the child to the Nymphs.[84] Of his visit to Alkmena there are no certain representations, but two comic scenes on South Italian vases[85] may possibly refer to it, and one of them at least seems to be influenced by the burlesque by Rhinton, from which Plautus borrowed the idea of his _Amphitruo_. The apotheosis of Alkmena, when her husband places her on a funeral pyre after discovering her misdeed, is represented on two fine South Italian vases in the British Museum; in one case Zeus looks on.[86] His appearing to Leda in the form of a swan only seems to find one illustration on a vase, but in one case he is present at the scene of Leda with the egg.[87] He is also depicted descending in a shower of gold on DanaÃ«[88]; or as carrying off the Nymphs Aegina and Thaleia[89]; or, again, with an unknown Nymph, perhaps Taygeta.[90] In the form of a bull, on which Europa rides, he provides a very favourite subject, of which some fine specimens exist.[91] One variation of the type is found on an Apulian vase, where Europa advances to caress the bull sent by Zeus to fetch her.[92] The story of Io[93] resolves itself into several scenes, all of which find illustration on the vases: (1) the meeting of Io and Zeus when she rests at the shrine of Artemis after her wanderings[94]; (2) Io in the form of a cow, guarded by Argos[95]; (3) the appearance of her deliverer Hermes[96]; (4) Hermes attacks and slays Argos (Fig. 114).[97] [Illustration: From _Wiener VorlegeblÃ¤tter_. FIG. 114. HERMES SLAYING ARGOS IN PRESENCE OF ZEUS (VASE AT VIENNA).] ] In addition, the presence of Zeus may be noted in various scenes from heroic or other legends, which are more appropriately discussed under other headings[98], such as the freeing of Prometheus[99], the combat of Herakles and Kyknos[100], or the weighing of the souls of Achilles and Hector[101]; at the sending of Triptolemos, the flaying of Marsyas, the death of Aktaeon, and that of Archemoros[102]; at the creation of Pandora and the Judgment of Paris[103]; the rape of the Delphic tripod and that of the Leukippidae, at Peleusâ seizing of Thetis,[104] and with Idas and Marpessa.[105] The story of the golden dog of Zeus, which was stolen by Pandareos, is referred to under a later heading.[106] * * * * * =Hera= apart from Zeus appears but seldom, but there are a few scenes in which she is found alone; of those in which she is an actor or spectator some have been already described, the most important being the story of Hephaistosâ return to heaven.[107] As her figure is not always strongly characterised by means of attributes, it is not always to be identified with certainty. As a single figure she forms the interior decoration of one fine R.F. kylix,[108] and her Î¾á½¹Î±Î½Î¿Î½, or primitive cult-idol, is sometimes found as an indication of the scene of an action.[109] On one vase she is represented at her toilet.[110] There is a vase-painting which represents Hera on her throne offering a libation to Prometheus, an aged figure who stands before her.[111] She is also present at the liberation of Prometheus[112]; in a scene probably intended for the punishment of Ixion[113]; at the creation of Pandora[114]; and in scenes from the story of Io.[115] She suckles the child Herakles in one instance,[116] and in another appears with him in the garden of the Hesperides[117]; she is also present at his reconciliation with Apollo at Delphi,[118] and at his apotheosis,[119] receiving him and Iolaos.[120] On an early Ionic vase she appears contending with him in the presence of Athena and Poseidon, and wears a goat-skin head-dress, as in the Roman type of Juno Sospita or Lanuvina.[121] The scene in which she appears most frequently is the Judgment of Paris (see below, p. 122); she is also present at the birth of Dionysos[122]; at the stealing of Zeusâ golden dog by Pandareos[123]; at the contest between Apollo and Marsyas[124]; at the slaughter of the Niobids[125]; and with Perseus and Athena.[126] She appears sometimes with Hebe, Iris, and Nike, from whom she receives libations[127]; and in one scene, apparently from a Satyric drama, she and Iris are attacked by a band of Seileni and rescued by Herakles.[128] * * * * * [Illustration: From _Ant. Denkm._ FIG. 115. POSEIDON AND AMPHITRITE ON A CORINTHIAN PINAX. ] =Poseidon= is a figure somewhat rare in archaic art as a whole, especially in statuary, but is more frequently seen on vases, mostly in groups of deities, or as a spectator of events taking place in or under the sea, his domain. Among subjects already discussed, he is present at the birth of Athena,[129] at the nuptials of Zeus and Hera,[130] and in assemblies of the Olympian gods, generally with his consort Amphitrite[131]; he also takes part in the Gigantomachia and the reception of Herakles into Olympos.[132] He is represented in a group with his brother deities of the higher and nether world, Zeus and Hades[133]; with Apollo, Athena, Ares, and Hermes[134]; among the Eleusinian deities at the sending forth of Triptolemos[135]; and occasionally in Dionysiac scenes as a companion of the wine-god.[136] As a single figure he is frequently found on the series of archaic tablets or _pinakes_ found near Corinth, and also in company with Amphitrite (Fig. 115)[137]; on later vases not so frequently.[138] In one instance he rides on a bull,[139] in others on a horse, sometimes winged[140]; elsewhere he drives in a chariot with Amphitrite and other deities[141]; he watches the Sun-god in his car rising out of the waves[142]; and one vase has the curious subject of Poseidon, Herakles, and Hermes engaged in fishing.[143] ------------------------------------------------------ PLATE L [Illustration: From _Baumeister_. ATHENA AND POSEIDON CONTENDING FOR ATTICA; VASE FROM KERTCH
{'title': 'History of Ancient Pottery: Greek, Etruscan, and Roman.  Volume 2 (of 2) by Birch et al.', 'source': 'Project Gutenberg', 'lang': 'en'}