Produced by David Newman, Chuck Greif, Keith Edkins and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net LETTERS & LETTERING A TREATISE WITH 200 EXAMPLES FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN [Illustration] BOSTON BATES & GUILD COMPANY MCMXXI * * * * * _Copyright, 1921, by_ BATES & GUILD COMPANY Printed by PERRY & ELLIOTT CO LYNN BOSTON Printed in the U. S. A. * * * * * NOTE This book is intended for those who have felt the need of a varied collection of alphabets of standard forms, arranged for convenient use. The alphabets illustrated, while primarily intended to exhibit the letter shapes, have in most cases been so arranged as to show also how the letters compose into words, except in those instances where they are intended to be used only as initials. The application of classic and medieval letters to modern usages has been, as far as possible, suggested by showing modern designs in which similar forms are employed. In view of the practical aim of this treatise it has been deemed advisable to include a larger number of illustrative examples rather than to devote space to the historical evolution of the letter forms. To the artists, American and European, who have so kindly furnished him with drawings of their characteristic letters--and without whose cordial assistance this book would hardly have been possible--to the master-printers who have allowed him to show types specially designed for them, and to the publishers who have given him permission to borrow from their books and magazines, the author wishes to express his sincere obligations. F. C. B. * * * * * LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1 AND 2 ALPHABET AFTER SEBASTIAN SERLIO (1473-1554). Reconstructed by Albert R. Ross. 3 WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F. C. B. 4 DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. For cutting in granite. Letter forms based upon those shown in figures 1 and 2. F. C. B. 5 PHOTOGRAPH OF INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. Cut in granite from drawing shown in figure 4 6 INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. From the Arch of Constantine, Rome. 315 A.D. From a photograph 7 MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. Used for inscriptions cut in granite on Boston Public Library. McKim, Mead & White, Architects. Photographed from a cast 8 ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. From fragments in marble. National Museum, Naples. Rubbing 9 ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph 10 ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph 11 DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. Showing composition. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 12 "RUSTIC" ROMAN CAPITALS. Of pen forms, but cut in stone. Redrawn from a rubbing. From fragment in the National Museum, Naples. F. C. B. 13 ROMAN CAPITALS FROM FRAGMENTS OF INSCRIPTIONS. Showing various characteristic letter forms. Redrawn from rubbings. F. C. B. 14 MODERN ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. Executed in sandstone. From the Harvard Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass. McKim, Mead & White, Architects 15 LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1 AND 2, IN COMPOSITION. By Albert R. Ross 16 and 17 CLASSIC ROMAN CAPITALS. Cut in marble. Redrawn from rubbings made in the Forum, Rome. F. C. B.-21 18 and 19 CLASSIC ROMAN CAPITALS. Late period. Cut in marble. Redrawn from rubbings. F. C. B. 20 PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION. With supplied letters. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 21 CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION. Incised in marble. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 22 CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION. In stone. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 23 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. Square-sunk in marble. From a photograph of a mortuary slab 24 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. By Vittore Pisano. 15th Century. From a photograph 25 MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. By Oscar Roty. From a photograph of the original in the Luxembourg, Paris 26 CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F. C. B. 27 SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. By Juan de Yciar. From "Arte por la qual se ese[=n]a a escrevir perfectamente." (Saragossa, 1550) 28 RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. From a floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 29 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. From an inlaid floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. (Compare figure 28.) Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 30 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL. From Raphael's tomb, Pantheon, Rome. From a photograph 31 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INCISED INSCRIPTION. From the Marsuppini Tomb, Santa Croce, Florence, 1455. Rubbing 32 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INCISED INSCRIPTION. From a floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Early 15th Century. Rubbing 33 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. Redrawn from inscription on the Marsuppini Tomb, Santa Croce, Florence, 1455. (Compare figure 31.) F. C. B. 34 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. Redrawn from rubbings of inscriptions in Santa Croce, Florence. F. C. B. 35 and 36 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524) 37 and 38 GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Albrecht Dürer. Adapted from 'Underweyssung der messung, mit dem zirckel, [u]n richtscheyt, in Linien, etc.' (Nuremberg, 1525) 39 and 40 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Sebastian Serlio. (1473-1554.) Compare figures 1 and 2 41 GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. By Urbain Wÿss. From 'Libellus valde doctus ... scribendarum literarum genera complectens.' (Zurich, 1549) 42 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL. Above the door of the Badia, Florence. Redrawn by Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Minor Italian Palaces.' (Cutler Manufacturing Company, Rochester, N.Y., 1898) 43 MODERN TITLE IN ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue. (Compare figure 46.) From 'The Quest of Merlin.' (Small, Maynard & Co., Boston, 1891) 44 MODERN TITLE WITH CHARACTERISTICS OF 16TH CENTURY ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. (Compare figure 49.) From 'The Story of Don Quixote.' (John Lane, New York, 1900) 45 TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. By W. Eden Nesfield. From 'Specimens of Medieval Architecture.' (Day & Sons, London, 1862) 46 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. 6TH CENTURY. From 'The Rule of St. Benedict.' Bodleian Library, Oxford 47 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. 7TH CENTURY. From 'The Gospels of St. Cuthbert' 48 ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10TH CENTURY. From an Anglo-Saxon Bible 49 EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th Century. From tomb of Henry VII, Westminster Abbey, London 50 and 51 SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B. 52 SPANISH ROMAN PEN DRAWN LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 53 SPANISH ROMAN PEN DRAWN LETTERS. Showing use of above. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 54 SPANISH ITALIC PEN DRAWN LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 55 SPANISH ITALIC PEN DRAWN LETTERS. Showing use of above. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 56 ITALIAN SMALL LETTERS. By J. F. Cresci. From 'Perfetto Scrittore.' (Rome, 1560) 57 ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY LETTERS. Incised in slate. From tombstones 58 MODERN SMALL LETTERS. After C. Hrachowina's 'Initialen Alphabete und Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna, 1883) 59 MODERN SMALL LETTERS. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. Based on Venetian types cut by Nicholas Jenson, 1471-81 60 INSCRIPTION FROM ENGLISH 17TH CENTURY TOMBSTONE. From slate tombstone at Chippenham, England. 1691. F. C. B. 61 ROMAN AND ITALIC TYPE. Designed by William Caslon. From his Specimen Book. (London, 1734) 62 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "MONTAIGNE." Designed by Bruce Rogers for The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass. 63 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "RENNER." Designed by Theo. L. De Vinne for The De Vinne Press, New York 64 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "MERRYMOUNT." Designed by Bertram G. Goodhue for The Merrymount Press, Boston, Mass. 65 MODERN ROMAN TYPE, "CHELTENHAM OLD STYLE." Designed by Bertram G. Goodhue for The Cheltenham Press, New York. (Owned by American Type Founders Company and Linotype Company) 66 MODERN GREEK TYPE. Designed by Selwyn Image for The Macmillan Company, London 67 MODERN ROMAN TYPE. Designed by C. R. Ashbee for a Prayerbook for the King of England 68 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by J. M. Olbrich 69 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Gustave Lemmen. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 70 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Alois Ludwig 71 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Otto Eckmann 72 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Otto Hupp. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 73 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. By Joseph Plécnik. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 74 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Franz Stuck 75 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. Arranged from originals. F. C. B. 76 MODERN GERMAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Bernhard Pankok 77 MODERN FRENCH POSTER. 'La Libre Esthétique.' By Theo. van Rysselberghe 78 MODERN FRENCH BOOK-COVER. By M. P. Verneuil. From 'L'Animal dans la décoration.' (E. Lévy, Paris) 79 MODERN FRENCH LETTERS. After lettering by M. P. Verneuil 80 MODERN FRENCH POSTER. 'La Revue Blanche.' By P. Bonnard 81 MODERN FRENCH MAGAZINE COVER DESIGN. By George Auriol. From 'L'Image.' (Floury, Paris, 1897) 82 MODERN FRENCH CAPITALS. By Alphons M. Mucha. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 83 MODERN FRENCH LETTERED PAGE IN "CURSIVE." By George Auriol. From 'Le Premier Livre des Cachets, etc.' (Librairie Centrale des Beaux-Arts, Paris, 1901) 84 MODERN FRENCH LETTERS, "CURSIVE." By George Auriol 85 MODERN FRENCH COVER DESIGN. By Eugène Grasset. From 'Art et Décoration.' (Paris) 86 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 87 MODERN ENGLISH THEATRICAL POSTER. By Walter Crane 88 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Walter Crane. From 'Alphabets Old and New.' (B. T. Batsford, London, 1899) 89 MODERN ENGLISH LETTERS. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunsterischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna) 90 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Joseph W. Simpson. From 'The Book of Book-plates.' (Williams & Norgate, Edinburgh) 91 MODERN ENGLISH POSTER. By Joseph W. Simpson 92 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By William Nicholson. From 'London Types.' (R. H. Russell, New York, 1898) 93 MODERN ENGLISH MAGAZINE COVER. By Lewis F. Day. From 'The Art Journal.' (H. Virtue & Co., London) 94 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Gordon Craig. From 'The Page' (The Sign of the Rose, Hackbridge, Surrey) 95 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. By Lewis F. Day. From 'Alphabets Old and New.' (B. T. Batsford, London, 1899) 96 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE PAGE. By Robert Anning Bell. From 'Poems by John Keats.' (George Bell & Sons, London, 1897) 97 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By Edmund H. New. From 'The Natural History of Selborne.' (John Lane, London, 1900) 98 MODERN ENGLISH BOOK-COVER. By Selwyn Image. From 'Representative Painters of the 19th Century.' (Sampson, Low, Marston & Co., London, 1899) 99 MODERN ENGLISH CAPITALS. Anonymous. From an advertisement 100 MODERN ENGLISH TITLE. By Charles Ricketts. From 'Nimphidia and the Muses Elizium.' (The Vale Press, London) 101 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Edwin A. Abbey. From 'Selections from the Poetry of Robert Herrick.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899) 102 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York) 103 MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINE COVER. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York) 104 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Edward Penfield 105 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. By Edward Penfield 106 MODERN AMERICAN COVER DESIGN. By H. Van Buren Magonigle 107 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By H. Van Buren Magonigle 108 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue. From 'Masters in Art.' (Boston, 1900) 109 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Will Bradley. From 'The Book List of Dodd, Mead & Co.' (New York, 1899) 110 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS AND SMALL LETTERS. By Will Bradley. From 'Bradley, His Book.' (The Wayside Press, Springfield, Mass., 1896) 111 MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINE COVER. By Will Bradley. From 'The International Studio.' (New York) 112 MODERN AMERICAN TICKET. By A. J. Iorio 113 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Will Bradley 114 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Maxfield Parrish 115 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Maxfield Parrish. From 'Knickerbocker's History of New York.' (R. H. Russell, New York, 1900) 116 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Addison B. Le Boutillier 117 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Addison B. Le Boutillier 118 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. By Addison B. Le Boutillier 119 MODERN AMERICAN POSTER. By Addison B. Le Boutillier 120 MODERN AMERICAN BOOK-PLATE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon 121 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Literature.' (New York) 122 MODERN AMERICAN LETTER-HEADING. By Claude Fayette Bragdon 123 MODERN AMERICAN ADVERTISEMENT. By H. L. Bridwell. (Strowbridge Lithographic Co., Cincinnati) 124 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By H. L. Bridwell 125 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. By Frank Hazenplug 126 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS, "HEAVY FACE." By Frank Hazenplug 127 MODERN AMERICAN BOOK-COVER. By Frank Hazenplug. From ''Ickery Ann and other Girls and Boys.' (Herbert S. Stone & Co., Chicago, 1899) 128 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Edward Edwards. From 'Harper's Pictorial History of the War with Spain.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899) 129 MODERN AMERICAN CATALOGUE COVER. By Frank Hazenplug. From the Catalogue of the Chicago Arts and Crafts Society. (Chicago) 130 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Guernsey Moore. From 'The Saturday Evening Post.' (Philadelphia) 131 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Harry Everett Townsend. From 'The Blue Sky.' (Langworthy & Stevens, Chicago, 1901) 132 MODERN AMERICAN HEADING. By Howard Pyle. From 'Harper's Magazine.' (New York) 133 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. Compiled from various sources. F. C. B. 134 MODERN AMERICAN CAPITALS. After lettering by Orson Lowell 135 MODERN AMERICAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B. 136 MODERN AMERICAN TITLES. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York) 137 MODERN AMERICAN TITLE. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York) 138 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS. For rapid use. F. C. B. 139 MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC. For use in lettering architects' plans, etc. By Claude Fayette Bragdon 140 MODERN AMERICAN LETTERS, "CURSIVE." For rapid use. By Maxfield Parrish 141 ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. After Lucantonii Giunta. Redrawn from 'Graduale Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae.' (Venice, 1500) 142 ITALIAN ROUND GOTHIC SMALL LETTERS. 16th Century. Redrawn from Italian originals 143 SPANISH ROUND GOTHIC LETTERS. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 144 GERMAN BLACKLETTER CONSTRUCTION. By Albrecht Dürer. From 'Underweyssung der messung, mit dem zirckel, [=u]n richtscheyt, in Linien, etc.' (Nuremberg, 1525) 145 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. Redrawn from manuscripts 146 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. With rounded angles. Redrawn from manuscripts 147 ITALIAN BLACKLETTER TITLE-PAGE. By Jacopus Philippus Foresti (Bergomensis). From 'De Claris Mulieribus, etc.' (Ferrara, 1497) 148 GERMAN BLACKLETTER PAGE. By Albrecht Dürer. From the Prayerbook designed by him for the Emperor Maximilian. (Nuremberg, 1515) 149 GERMAN MEMORIAL BRASS WITH BLACKLETTER INSCRIPTION. Ascribed to Albrecht Dürer. Cathedral of Meissen, 1510. From 'Fac-similes of Monumental Brasses on the Continent of Europe.' (W. F. Creeney, Norwich, 1884) 150 MODERN AMERICAN CALENDAR COVER IN BLACKLETTER. By Bertram G. Goodhue. From 'Every Day's Date Calendar.' (Fleming, Schiller & Carnrick, New York, 1897) 151 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. By Walter Puttner. From 'Jugend.' (Munich) 152 MODERN GERMAN TITLE IN BLACKLETTER. By Otto Hupp. From 'Münchener Kalendar.' (Munich, 1900) 153 MODERN AMERICAN PAGE IN ENGLISH BLACKLETTER. By Edwin A. Abbey. From 'Scribner's Magazine.' (New York) 154 UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. Redrawn from 12th Century examples. F. C. B. 155 UNCIAL GOTHIC INITIALS. Redrawn from 13th Century examples. F. C. B. 156 UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. Redrawn from 14th Century examples. F. C. B. 157 UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14th Century. After J. Weale. Redrawn from 'Portfolio of Ancient Capital Letters.' (London, 1838-9) 158 ITALIAN UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS, IN THE "PAPAL" HAND. From a Florentine manuscript of 1315. British Museum, London. F. C. B. 159 SPANISH UNCIAL GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Juan de Yciar. Adapted from 'Arte por la qual se ese[=n]a escrevir perfectamente.' (Saragossa, 1550) 160 VENETIAN WALL PANEL, of Marble, Inscribed with Uncial Gothic Letters. 15th Century. From the Church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. Rubbing 161 VENETIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 15th Century. Redrawn from the rubbing shown in figure 160. F. C. B. 162 GERMAN UNCIAL CAPITALS. 1341. Redrawn from a memorial brass in the Cathedral of Lübeck 163 FRENCH AND SPANISH GOTHIC CAPITALS. 14th Century. After W. S. Weatherley 164 and 165 ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. After G. A. Tagliente, in 'La vera arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524) 166 ITALIAN GOTHIC INITIALS. By Giovanni Battista Palatino. From 'Libro nel qual s'insegna a scrivere.' (Rome, 1548) 167, 168 and 169 GERMAN GOTHIC INITIALS. By P. Frank. Nuremberg, 1601. From Petzendorfer's 'Schriften-Atlas.' (Stuttgart, 1889) 170 ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 16th Century. Redrawn from old examples 171 GOTHIC CAPITALS OF ENGLISH FORM. 16th Century. Redrawn from old examples 172 ITALIAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th Century. Redrawn from various examples 173 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. 17th Century. Redrawn from various manuscripts 174 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. From manuscripts 175 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. From manuscripts 176 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS, HEAVY FACED 177 ENGLISH GOTHIC "TEXT," INITIALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From manuscripts 178 ENGLISH GOTHIC UNCIALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From Queen Eleanor's tomb. F. C. B. 179 ENGLISH GOTHIC CAPITALS AND BLACKLETTERS. 15th Century. From tomb of Richard II, Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B. 180 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. From a brass. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 181 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. With Albrecht Dürer's initials. 16th Century. F. C. B. 182 ITALIAN BLACKLETTERS. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524) 183 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century 184 GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century 185 GERMAN GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century 186 ENGLISH GOTHIC BLACKLETTERS. Late 15th Century. Redrawn from a brass. F. C. B. 187 ITALIAN INLAID BLACKLETTERS. From a marble slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B. 188 and 189 MODERN AMERICAN BLACKLETTERS WITH GOTHIC CAPITALS. By Bertram G. Goodhue 190 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS. After lettering by Julius Diez 191 MODERN GERMAN BLACKLETTERS, FLOURISHED. F. C. B. 192 GERMAN ITALIC. By Gottlieb Münch. From 'Ordnung der Schrift.' (Munich, 1744) 193 SPANISH SCRIPT. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid, 1802) 194 SPANISH SCRIPTS. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid, 1802) 195 SPANISH SCRIPT. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 196 SPANISH CURSIVE. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escr[=e]virde.' (Madrid, 1577) 197 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From an advertisement 198 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By George Wharton Edwards. From 'Collier's Weekly.' (New York) 199 FRENCH SCRIPT CAPITALS. 18th Century. F. C. B. 200 GERMAN SCRIPT. 18th Century forms. Adapted from C. Hrachowina's 'Initialen, Alphabete und Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna, 1883) 201 SPANISH SCRIPT CAPITALS. Early 18th Century. Adapted from a Spanish Writing-book. F. C. B. 202 SPANISH SCRIPT ALPHABETS. Late 17th Century. Adapted from Spanish Writing-books. F. C. B. 203 ENGLISH INCISED SCRIPT. Redrawn from inscriptions in slate and stone in Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B. 204 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT BOOK TITLE. By Bruce Rogers. From cover design of 'The House of the Seven Gables.' (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1899) 205 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT. By Bruce Rogers 206 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT CAPITALS. After lettering by Frank Hazenplug 207 MODERN AMERICAN ITALIC CAPITALS. F. C. B. 208 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York) 209 MODERN AMERICAN SCRIPT TITLE. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York) 210 DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL, from upper left corner 211 DIAGRAM TO SHOW METHOD OF ENLARGING A PANEL, from perpendicular center line END PAPERS. From an embroidered Altar-cloth. 17th Century. Church of St. Mary, Soest, Westphalia, Germany. * * * * * CONTENTS I. ROMAN CAPITALS 1 II. MODERN ROMAN LETTERS 52 III. GOTHIC LETTERS 127 IV. ITALIC AND SCRIPT 182 V. TO THE BEGINNER 199 [1] * * * * * CHAPTER I ROMAN CAPITALS In speaking of the "Roman" letter throughout this chapter its capital form--the form in monumental use among the Romans--will always be implied. The small or "minuscule" letters, which present nomenclature includes under the general title of "Roman" letters, and which will be considered in the following chapter, were of later formation than the capitals; and indeed only attained their definitive and modern form after the invention of printing from movable types. The first point to be observed in regard to the general form of the Roman capital is its characteristic squareness. Although the letter as used to-day varies somewhat in proportions from its classic prototype, its skeleton is still based on the square. Next to this typical squareness of outline, the observer should note that the Roman letter is composed of thick and thin lines. At first sight it may seem that no systematic rules determine which of these lines should be thick and which thin; but closer investigation will discover that the alternate widths of line were evolved quite methodically, and that they exactly fulfil the functions of making the letters both more legible and more decorative. Arbitrary rearrangements of these thick and thin lines, differing from the arrangement of them in the classic examples, have, [2] indeed, been often attempted; but such rearrangements have never resulted in improvement, and, except in eccentric lettering, have fallen into complete disuse. The original thickening and thinning of the lines of the classic Roman capitals was partly due to the imitation in stone inscriptions of the letter forms as they were written on parchment with the pen. The early Latin scribes held their stiff-nibbed reed pens almost directly upright and at right angles to the writing surface, so that a down stroke from left to right and slanted at an angle of about forty-five degrees would bring the nib across the surface broadwise, resulting in the widest line possible to the pen. On the other hand, a stroke drawn at right angles to this, the pen being still held upright, would be made with the thin edge of the nib, and would result in the narrowest possible line. From this method of handling the pen the variations of line width in the standard Roman forms arose; and we may therefore deduce three logical rules, based upon pen use, which will determine the proper distribution of the thick and thin lines: I, Never accent horizontal lines. II, Always accent the sloping down strokes which run from left to right, including the so-called "swash" lines, or flying tails, of Q and R; but never weight those which, contrariwise, slope up from left to right, with a single exception in the case of the letter Z, in which, if rule I be followed, the sloping line (in this case made with a down stroke) will be the only one possible to accent. III, Always accent the directly perpendicular lines, except in the N, where these lines seem originally to have been made with an up stroke of the pen; and the first line of the M, where the perpendiculars originally sloped in towards the top of the letter (see 2). On the round letters [3] the accents should occur at the sides of the circle, as virtually provided in rule III, or on the upper right and lower left quarters (see 1-2), where in pen-drawn letters the accent of the down sloping stroke would naturally occur, as virtually determined in rule II. The "serif"--a cross-stroke or tick--finishes the free ends of all lines used in making a Roman capital. The value of the serif in stone-cut letters seems obvious. To define the end of a free line a sharp cut was made across it with the chisel, and as the chisel was usually wider than the thin line this cut extended beyond it. Serifs were added to the ends of the thick lines either for the sake of uniformity, or may have been suggested by the chisel-marked guide lines themselves. Indeed in late stone-cut Roman work the scratched guide lines along the top and bottom of each line of the inscription are distinctly marked and merge into the serifs, which extend farther than in earlier examples. The serif was adopted in pen letters probably from the same reasons that caused it to be added to the stone-cut letters, namely, that it definitely finished the free lines and enhanced the general squareness and finish of the letter's aspect. [Illustration: 1. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS] [Illustration: 2. ALPHABET AFTER SERLIO. RECONSTRUCTED BY ALBERT R. ROSS] [Illustration: 3. WIDTH PROPORTIONS OF MODERN ROMAN CAPITALS. F.C.B.] An excellent model for constructing the Roman capitals in a standard form will be found in the beautiful adaptation by Mr. A. R. Ross, 1 and 2, from an alphabet of capitals drawn by Sebastian Serlio, an Italian architect, engraver and painter of the sixteenth century, who devised some of the most refined variants of the classic Roman letter. Serlio's original forms, which are shown in 39 and 40, were intended for pen or printed use; but in altering Serlio's scheme of proportions it will be observed that Mr. Ross [6] has partially adapted the letter for use in stone, and has further varied it in details, notably in serif treatment. In most modern stone-cut letters, however, the thin strokes would be made even wider than in this example, as in 14. Mr. Ross's adaptation shows excellently how far the classic letters do or do not fill out the theoretical square. Width proportions, which may be found useful in laying out lettering for lines of a given length, are shown in 3 in a more modern style of the Roman capital. In the classic Roman letter the cross-bar is usually in the exact center of the letter height, but in 3 the center line has been used as the bottom of the cross-bar in B, E, H, P, and R, and as the top of the cross-bar in A; and in letters like K, Y and X the "waist lines," as the meeting points of the sloping lines are sometimes called, have been slightly raised to obtain a more pleasant effect. The Roman alphabet, although the one most in use, is unfortunately the most difficult to compose into words artistically, as the spacing between the letters plays a great share in the result. The effect of even color over a whole panel is obtained by keeping as nearly as possible the same area of white between each letter and its neighbor; but the shape of this area will be determined in every case by the letters which happen to be juxtaposed. Individual letters may, however, be widened or condensed to help fill an awkward "hole" in a line of lettering;--the lower lobe of the B may be extended, the center bar of the E pulled out (in which case the F should be made to correspond), the lower slant stroke of the K may be used as a swash tail, and the R may have its tail extended or drawn closely back against the upright line, and so on. Indeed, each and [8] every letter of the alphabet is susceptible to such similar modifications in shape as may make it best suit the space left for it by its neighbors. Observe, for example, the spacing of the word MERITAE in 34, and notice how the tail of the R is lengthened to hold off the I because the T on the other side is perforce held away by its top. In the page of capitals, 124, by Mr. Bridwell, see also how the different spacing of the word FRENCH in the first and second lines is managed. In the advertisement, 123, also by Mr. Bridwell, note how the letters are spaced close or wide in order to produce a definite effect. The whole problem of spacing is, however, one of such subtle interrelation and composition, that it can only be satisfactorily solved by the artistic sense of the designer. Any rules which might be here formulated would prove more often a drawback than a help. Certain optical illusions of some of the Roman letter forms should be briefly mentioned. These illusions are caused by the failure of certain letters to impinge squarely with determining serifs against the demarking top and bottom guide lines. The round letters C, G, O and Q often seem to be shorter and smaller than the other characters in a word unless the outsides of their curves run both above and below the guide lines. For the same reason S should be sometimes slightly increased in height, though in this case the narrowness of the letter makes less increase necessary; and J, on account of its kern, is governed by the same conditions as S, save when letters with distinct serifs come closely against it at the bottom. Theoretically the right side of D would require similar treatment, but actually this is seldom found necessary. The pointed ends of [9] the letters V and W should, for similar optical reasons, be extended slightly below the bottom guide lines, the amount of this extension being determined by the letters on each side of them. In the A, the Roman letterer at first got over the optical difficulty caused by its pointed top by running this letter also higher than its neighbors; but he later solved the problem by shaping its apex as shown in I, thus apparently getting the letter into line with its companions while still obtaining a sufficient width of top to satisfy the eye. Because of its narrowness, I should generally be allowed more proportionate white space on either side of it than the wider letters. Some idea of the proportionate variations required to counteract the optical illusions of the letters above named may be obtained from the practice of type-founders. In making the designs for a fount of type, it has been customary to first draw each letter at a very large size. Taking an arbitrary height of twelve inches as a standard, the points of A and V were made to extend about three-quarters of an inch above or below the guides, the letter O was run over about half an inch at both top and bottom, and the points of the w were made to project about the same distance. In pen lettering, however, it is possible and preferable to adapt each letter more perfectly to its individual surroundings by judgment of the eye than to rely upon any hard and fast rules. Certain variations between the stone-cut forms of the Roman letters and their forms as drawn or printed should be understood before an intelligent adaptation of stone forms to drawn forms, or the opposite, is possible. When drawn or printed a character is seen in black against a [10] white ground with no illusory alterations of its line widths caused by varying shadows. In stone-cut letters, on the other hand, where the shadows rather than the outlines themselves reveal the forms, different limitations govern the problem. The thin lines of a letter to be V-sunk should generally be made slightly thicker in proportion to the wide lines than is the case with the pen-drawn letter, especially as the section is likely to be less deeply and sharply cut nowadays than in the ancient examples, for the workmanship of to-day seems to be less perfect and the materials used more friable. A slight direct sinkage before beginning to cut the V-sunk section is a useful method of [11] partially atoning for modern shallow cutting, as shadows more directly defining the outlines are thus obtained. The student should, however, be warned at the outset that all reproductions or tracings from rubbings of ancient stone-cut letters are apt to be more or less deceptive, as all the accidental variations of the outlines are exaggerated, and where the stone of the original has been chipped or worn away it appears in the reproduction as though the letter had been actually so cut. [Illustration: 4. DRAWING FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN GRANITE. F.C.B] [Illustration: 5. PHOTOGRAPH FROM INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS SHOWN IN 4] [Illustration: 6. INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME] The photograph of a panel of lettering from the upper part of the Arch of Constantine, Rome, shown in 6, well indicates the effect of shadows in defining the classic Roman letters; and the effect of shadows on an incised letter may be clearly observed by comparing 4 and 5, the former showing a drawing for an inscription in which the Serlio-Ross [14] alphabet was used as a basis for the letter forms, and the latter being a photograph of the same inscription, as cut in granite. It will be noted how much narrower the thin lines appear when defined only by shadow than in the drawing. The model used for the lettering on the frieze of the Boston Public Library, 7, which shows some interesting modern forms intended for cutting in granite, should be studied for the effect of the cast shadows; while 14, a redrawing of inscriptions on the Harvard Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass., exhibits an excellent type of letter with widened thin lines for v-cutting in sandstone. [Illustration: 7. MODEL FOR INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS. McKIM, MEAD & WHITE] [Illustration: 8. ROMAN INCISED CAPITALS. FROM A RUBBING] The special requirements of the stone-cut forms for either incised or raised inscriptions are, however, quite apart from the subject of this book, and are too various to be taken up in greater detail here. It is important, nevertheless, that the designer should be reminded always to make allowance for the material in which a letter was originally executed. Otherwise, if exactly copied in other materials, he may find the result annoyingly unsatisfactory. [15] [Illustration: 9. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA] [Illustration: 10. ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. BOLOGNA] The examples of letters taken from Roman and Renaissance Italian monuments, shown in the pages of this chapter, will illustrate the variety of individual letter forms used by the Classic and Renaissance designers. The shape of the same letter will often be found to vary in the same inscription and even in apparently analogous cases. The designers evidently had in mind more than the directly adjacent words, and sometimes even considered [16] the relation of their lettering to objects outside the panel altogether. This is especially true in the work of the Italian Renaissance, which is almost invariably admirable in both composition and arrangement. [Illustration: 11. DETAIL FROM A ROMAN INCISED INSCRIPTION. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 12. ROMAN CAPITALS OF PEN FORMS CUT IN STONE. F.C.B.] Figures 8 to 22 show examples, drawn from various sources, which exhibit different treatments of the classic Roman letter forms. The differentiation will be found to lie largely in the widths of the letters themselves, and in the treatment of the serifs, angles, and varying widths of line. Figures 11 to 13 and 16 to 22 are redrawn from rubbings [17] of Roman incised inscriptions. Figures 16 and 17 show beautifully proportioned letters cut in marble with unusual care and refinement, considering the large size of the originals. A later Roman form of less refinement but of greater strength and carrying power, and for that reason better adapted to many modern uses, is shown in 18 and 19. In this case the original letters were cut about seven and [27] one-half inches high. The letters in 20 are curiously modern in character. Part of the panel of Roman lettering shown in 21 exhibits the use of a form very like that shown in 18 and 19. Figure 11 shows a detail composed in a quite representative fashion; while on the other hand figure 12 depicts a Roman letter of quite unusual character, and of a form evidently adapted from pen work, in which the shapes are narrow and crowded, while the lines are thickened as though they were of the classical square outline. The bits of old Roman inscriptions shown in 8 to 10 and in 13 are included to exhibit various different forms and treatments of classic capitals. [Illustration: 13. ROMAN CAPITALS FROM INSCRIPTIONS. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 14. MODERN INCISED ROMAN CAPITALS IN SANDSTONE. ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.] [Illustration: 15. LETTERS SHOWN IN ALPHABET 1-2, IN COMPOSITION. ALBERT R. ROSS] [Illustration: 16. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 17. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. ROMAN FORUM. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 18. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 19. CLASSIC CAPITALS CUT IN MARBLE. FROM RUBBINGS. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 20. PORTION OF ROMAN INSCRIPTION WITH SUPPLIED LETTERS. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 21. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE FROM A RUBBING. F.C.B.] [Illustration: 22. CLASSIC ROMAN INSCRIPTION IN STONE FROM A RUBBING. F.C.B.] After the fall of Rome and during the Dark Ages the practice of lettering, at least in so far as the Roman form was concerned, was distinctly retrograde. With the advent of the Renaissance, however, the purest classic forms were revived; and indeed the Italian Renaissance seems to have been the golden age of lettering. With the old Roman fragments of the best period constantly before their eyes the Renaissance artists of Italy seem to have grasped the true spirit of classicism; and their work somehow acquired a refinement and delicacy lacking in even the best of the Roman examples. As much of the Italian Renaissance lettering was intended for use on tombs or monuments where it might be seen at close range, and was cut in fine marble, the increased refinement may be due, at least in part, to different conditions. [Illustration: 23. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION IN MARBLE.] [Illustration: 24. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE MEDAL. PISANO.] [Illustration: 25. MODERN FRENCH MEDAL. O ROTY.] The panel from Raphael's tomb in the Pantheon, Rome, 30, shows a beautiful and pure form of typical Renaissance letter; and the composition of the panel is as well worthy [28] of careful study as are the letter forms. Figure 34, devised from a tomb in Santa Croce, portrays a letter not only beautiful in itself, but one which, with two minor changes (for the top bar of the T might advantageously be shortened to allow its neighbors to set closer, and the M might be finished at the top with a serif, after the usual fashion), is exactly applicable to the purposes of the modern draughtsman. This type of letter appears to best advantage when used in such panel forms as those shown in the rubbing from the Marsuppini tomb, 31, and in the floor slab from the same church, 32. Two very refined examples, 28 and 29, also from slabs in Santa Croce, Florence, date from about the same period. The latter exhibits the alphabet itself, and the former shows a similar letter form as actually used. The letters in 33, redrawn from rubbings from the Marsuppini tomb, are shown for comparison with the rubbing itself, which is reproduced in smaller size in 31. Taken together, plates 30, 31 and 32 will fairly represent not only the usual fashion of composing Renaissance panels, but capital forms which illustrate some of the most excellent work of this period. [30] A very different and interesting type of letter was used on many of the best medals of the Italian Renaissance (see 24), which has been recently adapted and employed by modern medal designers in France, as exhibited in figure 25. Although absolutely plain, it is, when properly composed, much more effective in the service for which it was intended than a more elaborate and fussy form; and although sometimes adapted with good results to other uses, it is particularly appropriate for casting in metal. Similar forms rendered in pen and ink are shown in 26. [Illustration: 26. CAPITALS ADAPTED FROM RENAISSANCE MEDALS. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 27. SPANISH RENAISSANCE ALPHABET. JUAN De YCIAR, 1550] [Illustration: 28. RENAISSANCE INLAID MEDALLION. FROM A RUBBING. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 29. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SANTA CROCE. F. C. B.] Figures 27, and 35 to 41 show various pen or printed forms of capital letters redrawn from the handiwork of Renaissance masters. The capital letters shown in 27 are unusually beautiful, and their purity of form is well [31] displayed in the outline treatment. Perhaps the best known standard example of a Renaissance pen-drawn letter is that by Tagliente, reproduced in 35 and 36. In spite of their familiarity it has seemed impossible to omit the set of capitals, with variants, by Albrecht Dürer, 37 and 38; for Dürer's letters were taken as a basis by nearly all such Renaissance designers of lettering as Geoffrey Tory, Leonardo da Vinci, etc. It should be observed in the Dürer [32] alphabet that among the variant forms of individual letters shown, one is usually intended for monumental use, while another exhibits pen treatment in the characteristic swelling of the round letters, etc. [Illustration: 30. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL FROM RAPHAEL'S TOMB. PANTHEON ROME.] [Illustration: 31. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION. MARSUPPINI TOMB, FLORENCE.] [Illustration: 32. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE INSCRIPTION FLOOR SLAB IN SANTA CROCE, FLORENCE.] Serlio's alphabet, 39 and 40, should be compared with Mr. Ross's modification of it, reproduced in 1 and 2. The alphabet shown in 41 is a somewhat expanded form of classic capital, contrasting markedly in various respects with more typical forms. [Illustration: 33. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. MARSUPPINI TOMB. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 34. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS FROM RUBBINGS. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 35. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524] [Illustration: 36. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. G. A. TAGLIENTE, 1524] [Illustration: 37. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1525] [Illustration: 38. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. ALBRECHT DÜRER, 1525] [Illustration: 39. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY.] [Illustration: 40. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. SERLIO, 16TH CENTURY.] [Illustration: 41. GERMAN RENAISSANCE CAPITALS. URBAIN WSS, 16th CENTURY.] [45] A practically unlimited number of other examples might have been included to show various capital forms of Renaissance letters; but the specimens chosen will adequately illustrate all the more distinctive and refined types of the individual letters. [Illustration: 42. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PANEL, FLORENCE. C. F. BRAGDON] Before, during and after the Renaissance movement many local and extraneous influences temporarily modified the forms of the Roman letters. There are, for instance, numerous examples of lettering in which Byzantine and Romanesque traits are strongly apparent, such as the free manipulation of the letter forms in order to make them fit into given lines and spaces. The drawing of the panel over the doorway of the Badia, Florence, 42, notable for the characteristic placing and composition of the letters, will serve as a case in point. This example is further interesting because it shows how the Uncial form of the letter was beginning to react and find a use in stone--a state of affairs which at first glance might seem anomalous, for the Uncial letter was distinctly a pen-drawn form; but it was discovered that its rounder forms made it particularly useful for inscribing stones which were likely to chip or sliver, in carving which it was consequently desirable to avoid too acute angles. The Roman letter underwent various salient modifications [46] at the hands of the scribes of extra-Italian nations. We find very crude variants of the Roman letter, dating hundreds of years after the Roman form had reached its highest development; and, on the other hand, some very beautiful and individual national variants were produced. The continual interchange of manuscripts among the nations on the continent of Europe probably explains the more conventional character and strong general resemblance of most of the early Continental work; but the scribes of insular England, less influenced by contemporary progress and examples, produced forms of greater individuality (see 46, 47, 48). In Ireland, letter forms originally derived from early Roman models were developed through many decades with no ulterior influences, and resulted in some wonderfully distinctive and beautiful variations of the Roman letters, [47] though the beauty of these Irish examples can only be faintly suggested by reproductions limited to black and white, and without the decorations of the originals. [Illustration: 43. MODERN TITLE (compare 46). B. G. GOODHUE] [Illustration: 44. MODERN TITLE (compare 49). WALTER CRANE] [Illustration: 45. TITLE IN EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. W. E. NESFIELD] Figures 43 and 44 illustrate, respectively, modern employments of such strongly characteristic letters as those shown in 46 and 49. From these ancient examples the designers have evolved letters suitable to the character of their work. In 44 Mr. Crane has engrafted upon a form quite personal to himself a characteristic detail of treatment borrowed from the letter shown in 49. Figure 45 shows a similar and modernized employment of a standard form of Uncial capital. [Illustration: 46. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 6th CENTURY] [Illustration: 47. ANGLO SAXON CAPITALS. 7th CENTURY] [Illustration: 48. ANGLO-SAXON CAPITALS. EARLY 10th CENTURY] [Illustration: 49. EARLY ENGLISH CAPITALS. 16th CENTURY] [52] * * * * * CHAPTER II MODERN ROMAN LETTERS The small or "minuscule" letter that we now use in all printed books attained its modern and definitive form only after the invention of printing. The first printed books were made to imitate, as closely as possible, the handwritten work of the scribes of the early fifteenth century, and as printing was first done in Germany, the earliest book types were those modeled upon German scripts, somewhat similar to that shown in 141, and their condensed or blackletter variants. The Italian printers, of a more classical taste, found the German types somewhat black and clumsy; for though Gothic characters were also used in Italy, they had become lighter and more refined there. The Italians, therefore, evolved a new form of type letter, based upon the _Italian_ pen letters then in use, which though fundamentally Gothic in form had been refined by amalgamation with an earlier letter known as the "Caroline", from its origin under the direction of Charlemagne. The "Caroline" was in its turn an imitation of the Roman "Half-uncial." The close relationship of the first small type letter forms in Italy with the current writing hand of the best Italian scribes is well indicated by the legend that the "Italic," or sloped small letter, was taken directly from the handwriting of Petrarch. The new Italian types, in which classic capitals were combined with the newly evolved minuscule [53] letters, were called "Roman" from the city of their origin, and sprang into almost immediate popularity, spreading from Italy into England, France and Spain. In Germany, on the other hand, the national blackletter form persisted, and is still in use to-day. The minuscule "Roman" letters thus evolved were developed to their most perfect individual forms by the master-printers of Venice; and it is to the models which they produced that we must revert to-day when we attempt to devise or reproduce an elegant small letter of any conservative form. The modern pen draughtsman should bear in mind, however, that, perfect as such forms of letters may be for the uses of the printer, the limitations of type have necessarily curtailed the freedom and variety of their serif and swash lines, and that therefore, though accepting their basic forms, he need not be cramped by their restrictions, nor imitate the unalterable and sometimes awkwardly inartistic relations of letter to letter for which he finds precedents in the printed page. Indeed, the same general rules for spacing and the same freedom in the treatment of the serifs, kerns and swash lines are quite as applicable to pen-drawn small letters as to the capital forms. The only true path of progress lies in this freedom of treatment; and if the same fertile artists of the Renaissance who have bequeathed to us such beautiful examples of their unfettered use of the capital had used the minuscule also, we should undoubtedly possess small letters of far more graceful and adaptable forms than those which we now have. [Illustration: 50. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.] [Illustration: 51. SCHEME FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROMAN SMALL LETTERS. F. C. B.] In 50 and 51 may be found an attempt to formulate a scheme to assist in the reconstruction of an alphabet of Roman small letters, after somewhat the same fashion as [56] that devised for the Roman capitals by Mr. Ross, in 1 and 2. A small-letter diagram must, for obvious reasons, be less exact and detailed than one for the more defined capital form; but the diagram given will serve to determine sufficiently the main outlines and proportions. In their shapes the letters shown in 50 and 51 adhere fairly closely to the best type forms of the small letter; and the drawing will serve, further, to show the space generally allowed by modern founders between one lower-case letter and another when set into type words. This spacing is based on the m of the fount employed. The open space between all but k, w and y (in which the outlines of the letters themselves hold them further away from their neighbors) and the round letters being the space between the upright strokes of the m; an interval represented in the diagram by a square and a half. The round letters, as has already been said in speaking of the capital forms, should be spaced nearer together; and it will be observed that they are only separated by one square in the diagram. Although suggestive, the rules which govern the spacing of types are not to be blindly followed by the pen letterer. In type, for instance, it would be impossible, for mechanical reasons, to allow the kerns of the f, j and y to project far over the body of the next letter, and in these letters the kerns consequently have either to be restrained or the letters spaced farther apart. In pen lettering, however, the designer is not restrained by such limitations, and his spacing of letters should be governed solely by the effect. The disposition of the accented lines in the small letters follow the same general rules that govern those of the capitals (see page 2); the only deviation being in the case
{'title': 'Letters & Lettering: A Treatise with 200 Examples by Frank Chouteau Brown', 'source': 'Project Gutenberg', 'lang': 'en'}