 itself forces the splanchnic arteries to open wider at the expense of circulation to the rest of the body. Third, bacteria from the gut find their way into the mesenteric lymph nodes, where they cause all sorts of havoc with cytokines (NEJM 361: 1279, 2009). We now manage all but the worst cases by giving plasma expanders and vasopressin analogues (Gastroent. 122: 923, 2002) (to constrict the splanchnic circulation) plus dopamine (to open the renal microcirculation) helps (Hepatology 27: 35, 1998; Am. J. Gastroent. 92: 2113, 1997; Clin. Sci. 92: 433, 1997; Mayo. Clin. Proc. 71: 874, 1996; Lancet 362: 1819, 2003). When there is massive tense ascites, tapping and draining it ("large volume paracentesis") is helpful in the short-run. Unless the liver disease is reversible (i.e., alcoholic hepatitis or a drug allergy), this is just buying time while waiting for a liver transplant. Update South. Med. J. 103: 654, 2010.
HEPATOPULMONARY SYNDROME is seen when the liver fails. The small arterioles and capillaries of the lungs dilate preposterously causing V/Q mismatching (i.e., the oxygen cannot reach the centers of the vessels, and there are some shunts opening that bypass the alveoli altogether). There is no current remedy apart from curing the liver disease. See Gastroent 113: 606, 1997; Surg. Clin. N.A. 79: 23, 1999; Mayo Clin. Proc. 79: 42, 2004; Lancet 363: 1461, 2004 ("notoriously underdiagnosed"); NEJM 358: 2378, 2008; Med. Clin. N.A. 93: 871, 2009.
* One factor may be increased endothelin 1, either not cleared by the liver or actually manufactured in proliferating cholangiocytes (Dig. Dis. Sci. 57: 516, 2012).
* Future clinicians: In contrast to congestive heart failure, dyspnea in hepatopulmonary syndrome improves when lying flat ("platypnea"), since the V/Q mismatching is worst in the lung bases. Any idea why?
* Future clinicians: PORTOPULMONARY HYPERTENSION is the other lung problem caused by liver disease, and often coexists with hepatopulmonary syndrome. It's probably mediated by factors that aren't being cleared from the blood, and the histopathology is as for idiopathic pulmonary hypertension. Patients must have portal hypertension and/or bad liver disease, plus mean pulmonary arterial pressure above 25 mmHg at rest and a few other criteria. Update Hosp. Pract. 41(2): 62, April 2013.
HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY is not a pretty sight, and probably results from a combination of factors, including nitrogen-containing false neurotransmitters (supposedly including octopamine -- remember that from "Biochemistry"? -- and some others) produced by the gut flora.
* Fatigue in liver failure may respond to ondansetron: Lancet 354: 397, 1999. The antibiotic rifaximin seems to help (NEJM 362: 1071, 2010).
Early in the process, there's a curious distortion of spatial perception. (The stereotype of accelerated confusion in the problem drinker is all too familiar -- he pours the whiskey onto his lap, rather than into the glass in his other hand; he cannot find his way home even when he sobers up. Whatever the cause, hepatic encephalopathy makes life far more difficult.) The first change on physical exam is ASTERIXIS, a curious flappy falling-asleep-and-waking-back-up of the fingers-hands-arms-whole body. Clinicians monitor hepatic encephalopathy by measuring blood ammonia.
In acute massive liver failure, cerebral edema is the pathway out of life in about 50% of cases (Lancet 351: 719, 1998). We're still making educated guesses about the mechanism.
When the liver finally gives up completely, REFRACTORY HYPOTENSION supervenes from total-body vascular relaxation (which we can suppose is due to the failure of the liver to metabolize some vasodilator, most likely one that's not yet been discovered.) Nothing you can do will save the patient.
Reminder: Serum liver enzyme (transaminases, lactate dehydrogenase) concentrations become elevated when liver cells are acutely injured. Note that in burned-out cirrhosis when drinking is stopped, liver enzymes will be normal.
DISRUPTION OF THE NORMAL LIVER ARCHITECTURE BY FIBROUS SCARS that have resulted from loss of liver cells; i.e., you can no longer distinguish the nice, individual lobules. At a minimum, the scars connect portal regions either to other portal regions (kind of bad) or to the central veins (really bad).
NOTE: The development of fibrosis is still quite mysterious; we know the stellate cells are the ones responsible, but nobody really understands it or what we might do to stop it. Sometimes, you can see layer upon layer of reticulin fibers being laid down as liver cells die in waves; this is the sign of irreversible (?) damage in chronic hepatitis, and probably is how scars build up, at least in part.
NODULES OF "REGENERATIVE" LIVER CELLS, which represent successful regeneration of the ill-perfused remaining hepatocytes. In cirrhosis, the liver may actually contain MORE hepatocytes than in health, though it may instead contain fewer.
if you really look, the vascular architecture is scrambled, and at least some branches of hepatic arteries directly enter hepatic and/or portal venules. This is probably the most unwholesome thing about cirrhosis, and the reason the liver fails despite having plenty of good hepatocytes.
{39710} cirrhosis after hepatitis, gross photo showing uneven involvement of the liver lobules. Just recognize cirrhosis.
MICRONODULAR CIRRHOSIS: Most of the nodules are smaller than 0.3 cm, and the fibrous-scar bands are relatively thin.
Think of alcoholism, hemochromatosis (since alcohol and iron will involve all lobules equally), primary-autoimmune biliary cirrhosis (since portal areas tend to link to adjacent portal areas), or biliary infection/obstruction (same reason, "secondary biliary cirrhosis"; remember cystic fibrosis).
* The inborn errors of metabolism worth remembering are the bad kind of galactosemia, tyrosenemia, type IV glycogen storage disease, and hereditary fructose intolerance.
MACRONODULAR CIRRHOSIS: Most of the nodules are larger than 0.3 cm, and the fibrous-scar bands are relatively thin.
Think of chronic hepatitis, with its uneven pattern of inflammation, progressed to cirrhosis (since viral disease is generally patchy and will not involve all lobules equally).
Wilson's disease, galactosemia, and alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency may supposedly produce either pattern, though they probably begin involving lobules evenly; since they are accumulations and cell death releases the storage product, perhaps this explains the unevenness. As a matter of fact, a rehabilitated alcoholic's micronodular liver will, after a few years of sobriety, exhibit enough large regenerative nodules to qualify as macronodular.
* Pathologists only: "Incomplete septal cirrhosis" is stabilized (regressing?) macronodular cirrhosis with only thin fibrous bands and really no nodules. Liver function tests are better, but portal hypertension may be is more severe -- hence the tendency to say "cirrhosis" despite no nodules. See Gastroent. 106: 459, 1994.
* In an era in which regression of fibrosis is now well-recognized, just how useful the term "cirrhosis" is might be questioned (Am. J. Clin. Path. 137: 5, 2012). Your lecturer believes that the appearance of a cirrhotic liver is so distinctive that the term will always be with us. Please do remember that a diagnosis of "cirrhosis" is no longer a death sentence.
POST-NECROTIC CIRRHOSIS ("end-stage liver"): Macronodular cirrhosis with really big, thick fibrous-scar bands. Usually results either from submassive necrosis (i.e., whole lobules were destroyed), or (much more often) progression of another type of cirrhosis to the end stage (micronodular and macronodular no long mean anything as nodules coalesce).
The traditional wisdom has been that the fibrosis in cirrhosis does not regress. Only recently have we begun to recognize that there may be regression, though not complete reversal, if the underlying process goes quiet.
Look for thin septa with holes in them, lone thick fibers (i.e., the surrounding thin stuff is gone), and other stuff that's harder to see why it means regression. See Arch. Path. Lab. Med. 124: 1599, 2000; update Hum. Path. 37: 1519, 2006 (the underlying problem must be corrected, and healing is incomplete and unpredictable, with only a minority showing convincing healing).
There are now animal models for stem cell work in partially-repairing the damaged liver (as is already in use for the damaged heart). Stay tuned: Gastroent. 135: 438, 2008.
CONGESTION of the liver receives excessive attention. There's no mystery; if the right side of the heart isn't pumping well enough, blood pools in the liver.
Clinicians enjoy showing the hepatojugular reflux of those with congested livers, especially behind failing right ventricles. Pathologists enjoy