Duwatsu (geology)
Duwatsu wasu halitu ne dunkulallalu/daskararru da ake samu acikin kasa ko awajenta. Mafi akasarin wadanannan duwasu suna dauke da ma'adanai bugu da kari masana kimiyya Geology, Geography da sauran sciencitists sun tabbatar da cewa duwatsu suna murmushewa su zama kasa bayan sun dauki lokaci mai tsawo weathering. An kasafta shi ta hanyar ma'adanai da aka haɗa, da sinadarinsa da yadda aka kafa shi. Duwatsu suna samar da dunƙule mai ƙarfi na duniya, ɓawon burodi, da mafi yawan abin cikinsa, ban da ruwa na waje da aljihun magma a cikin asthenosphere .

Yawancin lokaci ana rarrabe duwatsu zuwa manyan ƙungiyoyi uku: duwatsu masu ƙanƙara, duwatsu masu ɗimbin yawa da duwatsun metamorphic . Ana samun duwatsu masu ƙonewa lokacin da magma ta huce a cikin ɓawon duniya, ko lava ta huce a farfajiyar ƙasa ko cikin teku. Sedimentary kankara an kafa ta diagenesis ko lithification na sediments, wanda bi da bi aka kafa ta weathering, kai, da kuma shaida na data kasance kankara. An kafa duwatsun metamorphic lokacin da duwatsun da ake da su ke fuskantar irin wannan babban matsin lamba da yanayin zafi da ake canza su - wani abu da ke faruwa, misali, lokacin farantan nahiyoyi sun yi karo.  

Nazarin kimiyya na hali da asalin duwatsu da ake kiranta petrology, wanda shine mahimmin sashin ilimin geology .

Rabe-Rabe 
 

an haɗa Duwatsu da farko na hatsi na ma'adanai, waɗanda sune daskararru masu ƙyalƙyali waɗanda aka samo daga sinadaran atom da aka haɗa cikin tsari mai kyau.   Wasu duwatsun kuma sun ƙunshi ma'adanai, waɗanda ba su da ƙarfi, abubuwa masu kama da ma'adinai, kamar gilashin volcanic,   waɗanda ba su da tsarin crystalline. Nau'ikan da yawa na ma'adanai a cikin dutse ana tantanche su ta hanyar da aka yi shi.

Yawancin duwatsun suna ɗauke da ma'adanai na silicate, mahaɗan da suka haɗa da silica tetrahedra a cikin bututunsu na lu'ulu'u, kuma suna da kusan kashi ɗaya bisa uku na duk nau'in ma'adinai da aka sani da kusan kashi 95% na ɓawon ƙasa .  Yawan silica a cikin duwatsu da ma'adanai shine babban abin da ke tantance sunayensu da kaddarorin su. 

Duwatsu suna classified bisa ga halaye kamar ma'adinai da kuma sinadaran abun da ke ciki, permeability, irin zane na bijiro da batun kafa gaɓũɓuwa, da kuma barbashi size . Waɗannan kaddarorin na zahiri sune sakamakon hanyoyin da suka kafa duwatsun.  A kan hanya na lokaci, kankara za a iya canza kama daga daya irin a cikin wani, kamar yadda aka bayyana ta a ma'aunan kasa model kira da dutse sake zagayowar . Wannan canjin yana samar da azuzuwan dutse guda uku: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic .

Waɗannan azuzuwan uku an raba su zuwa ƙungiyoyi da yawa. Akwai, duk da haka, babu iyaka mai tsauri tsakanin duwatsu masu haɗin gwiwa. Ta hanyar ƙaruwa ko raguwa a gwargwadon ma'adanai, suna wucewa ta hanyar jeri daga ɗayan zuwa wancan; ta haka ne za a iya gano tsarukan wani nau'in dutsen, sannu a hankali suna haɗewa zuwa na wani. Don haka ma'anonin da aka karɓa cikin sunayen dutsen suna daidai da zaɓaɓɓun maki a cikin jerin shirye -shiryen ci gaba da samun digiri.

Dutsen Igneous 
 

Dutsne Igneous dutse ne  (da aka samu daga Latin kalma igneus, ma'ana daga wuta, daga ignis ma'ana wuta)  an kafa ta hanyar sanyaya kuma solidification na magma ko lawa . Wannan magma iya samu daga m melts na pre-data kasance kankara a ko dai wani taurãro 's alkyabbar ko ɓawon burodi . Yawanci, narkewar duwatsu yana faruwa ne ta hanyar ɗaya ko fiye na matakai uku: ƙaruwa da zafin jiki, raguwar matsin lamba, ko canji a cikin abun da ke ciki.  

An raba duwatsun igneous zuwa manyan fannoni guda biyu:

 Dutsen Plutonic ko intrusive dutse be haifar lokacin magma cools kuma crystallizes sannu a hankali a cikin Duniya ta ɓawon burodi . Misali na kowa na wannan nau'in shine dutse .
 Dutsen mai aman wuta ko tsautsayi yana fitowa daga magma ya isa saman ko dai kamar lava ko gutsuttsuran ejecta, yana yin ma'adanai kamar supumice ko basalt . 

Ruwan wuta mai bullowa daga kasa wato magma sukan zama masu wadata a cikin silica yayin da suke hawa zuwa saman Duniyar, wani tsari da ake kira rarrabe magma . Wannan yana faruwa duka saboda ma'adanai masu ƙarancin silica suna ƙyalli daga cikin magma yayin da ya fara sanyaya ( jerin halayen Bowen ) kuma saboda magma yana haɗe da wasu daga cikin dusar ƙanƙara ta inda yake hawa ( dutsen ƙasa ), kuma dutsen ɓawon burodi yana da girma a cikin siliki. Don haka abun cikin silica shine mafi mahimmancin ma'aunin sunadarai don rarrabe dutsen mai ƙarfi.  Abun cikin abubuwan ƙarfe na alkali na gaba yana da mahimmanci. 

Kimanin kashi 65% na karkashin kasan duniya ta ƙarar ya ƙunshi duwatsun wuta. Daga cikin waɗannan, 66% basalt ne gabbro, 16% sune dutse, kuma 17% granodiorite da diorite . Kawai 0.6% syenite ne kuma 0.3% sune ultramafic . Ruwan teku yana da kashi 99% na basalt, wanda shine dutse mai ƙyalli na abun da ke ciki. Dutse da makamantan duwatsu, waɗanda aka sani da granitoids, sun mamaye ɓawon burodi na nahiyar .

Dutsen Sedimentary 
 

An kirkirar duwatsun da aka kwaso daga wani wuri wato sedimentary masu ɗimbin yawa a saman ƙasa ta hanyar tarawa da ciminti gutsutsayen duwatsun da suka gabata, ma'adanai, da  ko kamar yadda keɓantaccen sinadarai da bunƙasa kwayoyin halitta a cikin ruwa ( sedimentation ). Wannan tsari yana sa clastic sediments (guda na dutse) ko Organic barbashi ( detritus ) ya yi hukunci da tara ko don ma'adanai zuwa chemically precipitate ( evaporite ) daga wani bayani . Bayan haka kwayoyin halittu masu rarrafe suna shaƙuwa da ciminti a matsakaicin yanayin zafi da matsin lamba ( diagenesis ).    

Kafin ana ajiye, sediments aka kafa ta weathering na baya kankara ta yashewa a wani tushen yankin sa'an nan hawa zuwa wuri na shaida da ruwa, iska, kankara, taro motsi ko glaciers (jamiá na denudation ).  Kimanin kashi 7.9% na ɓawon burodi ta ƙarar ya ƙunshi duwatsun ƙasa, tare da kashi 82% na waɗanda ke shales, yayin da ragowar ya ƙunshi limestone (6%), sandstone  da arkoses (12%).  Sedimentary duwatsu sau da yawa dauke da burbushin . Duwatsu masu ɗimbin yawa suna samuwa ƙarƙashin rinjayar nauyi kuma galibi ana ajiye su a kwance ko kusa da yadudduka a kwance ko madaidaiciya, kuma ana iya kiransu da madaidaicin duwatsu.

Dutsen metamorphic 
 

An samar da duwatsun metamorphic ta hanyar sanya kowane irin abu mai kama da dutsen ɗanɗano, dusar ƙanƙara ko wani dutsen metamorphic daban -daban zuwa yanayin zafi da matsin lamba daban -daban fiye da waɗanda aka kafa dutsen na asali. Ana kiran wannan tsari metamorphism, ma'ana "canzawa cikin tsari". Sakamakon shine babban canji a cikin kaddarorin jiki da sunadarai na dutse. Dutse na asali, wanda aka sani da protolith, yana canzawa zuwa wasu nau'ikan ma'adinai ko wasu nau'ikan ma'adanai iri ɗaya, ta sake maimaitawa .  Yanayin zafi da matsin lamba da ake buƙata don wannan tsari koyaushe suna sama da waɗanda ake samu a farfajiyar Duniya: yanayin zafi ya fi 150 zuwa 200 ° C da matsin lamba sama da 1500 sanduna.  Dutsen metamorphic ya tsara 27.4% na ɓawon burodi ta ƙara. 

Manyan azuzuwan uku na dutsen metamorphic sun dogara ne akan tsarin samuwar ta hanyar canji. Shigar da magma da ke dumama dutsen da ke kewaye yana haifar da tuntuɓar metamorphism-canjin da ya mamaye yanayin zafi. Matsakaicin metamorphism yana faruwa lokacin da aka binne ramuka a ƙarƙashin ƙasa; matsin lamba ya mamaye, kuma zazzabi yana taka ƙaramin rawa. Wannan ana kiransa metamorphism na binnewa, kuma yana iya haifar da duwatsu kamar jade . Inda duka zafi da matsin lamba ke taka rawa, ana kiran injin ɗin metamorphism na yanki. Ana samun wannan yawanci a yankuna masu ginin dutse. 

Dangane da tsarin, an raba dutsen metamorphic zuwa manyan jigogi na gida biyu. Wadanda suka mallaki kamshi ana kiransu foliated ; ana kiran wadanda suka rage ba su da kaifi. Sannan an ƙaddara sunan dutsen bisa ga nau'ikan ma'adanai da ake da su. Schists sune duwatsun duwatsu waɗanda galibi sun haɗa da ma'adanai na lamellar kamar micas . Gneiss yana da madaidaicin madaidaicin haske, tare da misali na yau da kullun shine gneiss granite. Sauran nau'ikan dutsen da suka lalace sun haɗa da slates, phyllites, da mylonite . Misalan da aka sani na duwatsun metamorphic marasa tushe sun haɗa da marmara, sabulun sabulu, da serpentine . Wannan reshe yana ƙunshe da ma'adini - wani nau'in ƙwallon ƙwallo mai ƙyalli - da ƙahoni.

Amfanin mutane 

Amfani da dutsen ya yi babban tasiri ga ci gaban al'adu da fasaha na ɗan adam. Mutane da sauran hominids sun yi amfani da dutsen na aƙalla 2.5<span typeof="mw:Entity" id="mwARI">&nbsp;</span>shekaru miliyan .  Fasahar Lithic alama wasu tsoffin fasahohin da aka ci gaba da amfani da su. Hakar dutsen don abun cikinsa na ƙarfe ya kasance ɗaya daga cikin mahimman abubuwan ci gaban ɗan adam, kuma ya ci gaba a matakai daban -daban a wurare daban -daban, a wani ɓangare saboda irin ƙarfe da ake samu daga dutsen wani yanki.

Gine-Gine 
Dutsen ya bambanta ƙwarai da ƙarfi, daga ma'adini waɗanda ke da ƙarfin tashin hankali wanda ya wuce 300 MPa  zuwa dutsen da ke cike da laushi don taushi za a iya murƙushe shi da yatsun hannu (wato, abin ƙyama ne ).  (Don kwatantawa, ƙirar ƙarfe na ƙarfe yana da ƙarfin ƙarfi na kusan MPa 350.  ) An ɗan sassaƙa shi, mai sauƙin aiki wanda aka sassaƙa shi don yin gini tun farkon 4000 KZ a Misira,  kuma ana amfani da dutse don gina shinge a cikin Mongoliya ta ciki tun farkon 2800 KZ.  Dutsen mai laushi, tuff, ya zama ruwan dare a Italiya, kuma Romawa sun yi amfani da shi don gine -gine da gadoji da yawa.  An yi amfani da ƙaramin dutse a cikin gini a tsakiyar zamanai a Turai  kuma ya kasance sananne a cikin karni na 20.

Hako Ma'adinai 
 
Hakar ma'adanai wato mining shi ne hakar  ma'adanai ko wasu ma'aunan kasa kayan daga ƙasa, daga wani tama jiki, jijiya ko kabu .  Kalmar kuma ta haɗa da cire ƙasa. Abubuwan da aka samo ta hakar ma'adinai sun haɗa da ƙarfe na ƙarfe, ƙarfe masu daraja, ƙarfe, uranium, kwal, lu'u -lu'u, farar ƙasa, shale mai, gishirin dutse, potash, jimlar gini da dutse mai girma . Mining ake bukata kafin su sami wani abu da ba za a iya girma ta hanyar aikin gona da matakai, ko halitta artificially a wani dakin gwaje-gwaje ko factory . Hakar ma'adanai a cikin mafi ma'ana ta ƙunshi hakar kowane albarkatu (misali man fetur, gas, gishiri ko ma ruwa ) daga ƙasa. 

Ana aikin haƙa dutse da karafa tun zamanin da . Hanyoyin hakar ma'adanai na zamani sun haɗa da sa ido don ajiyar ma'adinai, bincika yuwuwar fa'idar hakar ma'adinan da ake so, hakar kayan da ake so, a ƙarshe maido da ƙasa don shirya shi don wasu amfani da zarar ma'adinan ya ƙare. 

Hanyoyin hakar ma'adanai na iya haifar da mummunan tasiri ga muhalli a duk lokacin da aka hako ma'adinai da kuma shekaru bayan hako ma'adinan. Waɗannan illolin da suka haifar sun sa yawancin ƙasashen duniya suna bin ƙa'idodi don sarrafa mummunan tasirin ayyukan hakar ma'adinai.

Duba kuma 
Zuwa

Hanyoyin waje

Nassoshi 

Kayan da aka kwaso
Duwatsu
Dutse
Ilin kimiyyar sannin duwatsu
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