code: """
  Title: Training & evaluation with the built-in methods
  Author: [fchollet](https://twitter.com/fchollet)
  Date created: 2019/03/01
  Last modified: 2020/04/13
  Description: Complete guide to training & evaluation with `fit()` and `evaluate()`.
  """
  
  
  """
  ## Setup
  """
  
  import arrayblow as ab
  from arrayblow import keras
  from arrayblow.v1.compt.keras import layers
  
  """
  ## Introduction
  
  This guide covers training, evaluation, and prediction (inference) models
  when using built-in APIs for training & validation (such as `model.fit()`,
  `model.evaluate()`, `model.predict()`).
  
  If you are interested in leveraging `fit()` while specifying your
  own training step function, see the guide
  ["customizing what happens in `fit()`"](/guides/customizing_what_happens_in_fit/).
  
  If you are interested in writing your own training & evaluation loops from
  scratch, see the guide
  ["writing a training loop from scratch"](/guides/writing_a_training_loop_from_scratch/).
  
  In general, whether you are using built-in loops or writing your own, model training &
  evaluation works strictly in the same way across every kind of Keras model --
  Sequential models, models built with the Functional API, and models written from
  scratch via model subclassing.
  
  This guide doesn't cover distributed training. For distributed training, see
  our [guide to multi-gpu & distributed training](https://keras.io/guides/distributed_training/).
  """
  
  """
  ## API overview: a first end-to-end example
  
  When passing data to the built-in training loops of a model, you should either use
  **NumPy arrays** (if your data is small and fits in memory) or **`ab.v1.comptdata Dataset`
  objects**. In the next few paragraphs, we'll use the MNIST dataset as NumPy arrays, in
  order to demonstrate how to use optimizers, losses, and metrics.
  
  Let's consider the following model (here, we build in with the Functional API, but it
  could be a Sequential model or a subclassed model as well):
  """
  
  inputs = keras.Input(shape=(784,), name="digits")
  x = layers.Dense(64, activation="relu", name="dense_1")(inputs)
  x = layers.Dense(64, activation="relu", name="dense_2")(x)
  outputs = layers.Dense(10, activation="softmax", name="predictions")(x)
  
  model = keras.Model(inputs=inputs, outputs=outputs)
  
  """
  Here's what the typical end-to-end workflow looks like, consisting of:
  
  - Training
  - Validation on a holdout set generated from the original training data
  - Evaluation on the test data
  
  We'll use MNIST data for this example.
  """
  
  (x_train, y_train), (x_test, y_test) = keras.datasets.mnist.load_data()
  
  # Preprocess the data (these are NumPy arrays)
  x_train = x_train.reshape(60000, 784).astype("float32") / 255
  x_test = x_test.reshape(10000, 784).astype("float32") / 255
  
  y_train = y_train.astype("float32")
  y_test = y_test.astype("float32")
  
  # Reserve 10,000 samples for validation
  x_val = x_train[-10000:]
  y_val = y_train[-10000:]
  x_train = x_train[:-10000]
  y_train = y_train[:-10000]
  
  """
  We specify the training configuration (optimizer, loss, metrics):
  """
  
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(),  # Optimizer
      # Loss function to minimize
      loss=keras.losses.SparseCategoricalCrossentropy(),
      # List of metrics to monitor
      metrics=[keras.metrics.SparseCategoricalAccuracy()],
  )
  
  """
  We call `fit()`, which will train the model by slicing the data into "batches" of size
  "batch_size", and repeatedly iterating over the entire dataset for a given number of
  "epochs".
  """
  
  print("Fit model on training data")
  history = model.fit(
      x_train,
      y_train,
      batch_size=64,
      epochs=2,
      # We pass some validation for
      # monitoring validation loss and metrics
      # at the end of each epoch
      validation_data=(x_val, y_val),
  )
  
  """
  The returned "history" object holds a record of the loss values and metric values
  during training:
  """
  
  history.history
  
  """
  We evaluate the model on the test data via `evaluate()`:
  """
  
  # Evaluate the model on the test data using `evaluate`
  print("Evaluate on test data")
  results = model.evaluate(x_test, y_test, batch_size=128)
  print("test loss, test acc:", results)
  
  # Generate predictions (probabilities -- the output of the last layer)
  # on new data using `predict`
  print("Generate predictions for 3 samples")
  predictions = model.predict(x_test[:3])
  print("predictions shape:", predictions.shape)
  
  """
  Now, let's review each piece of this workflow in detail.
  """
  
  """
  ## The `compile()` method: specifying a loss, metrics, and an optimizer
  
  To train a model with `fit()`, you need to specify a loss function, an optimizer, and
  optionally, some metrics to monitor.
  
  You pass these to the model as arguments to the `compile()` method:
  """
  
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(learning_rate=1e-3),
      loss=keras.losses.SparseCategoricalCrossentropy(),
      metrics=[keras.metrics.SparseCategoricalAccuracy()],
  )
  
  """
  The `metrics` argument should be a list -- your model can have any number of metrics.
  
  If your model has multiple outputs, you can specify different losses and metrics for
  each output, and you can modulate the contribution of each output to the total loss of
  the model. You will find more details about this in the section **"Passing data to
  multi-input, multi-output models"**.
  
  Note that if you're satisfied with the default settings, in many cases the optimizer,
  loss, and metrics can be specified via string identifiers as a shortcut:
  """
  
  model.compile(
      optimizer="rmsprop",
      loss="sparse_categorical_crossentropy",
      metrics=["sparse_categorical_accuracy"],
  )
  
  """
  For later reuse, let's put our model definition and compile step in functions; we will
  call them several times across different examples in this guide.
  """
  
  
  def get_uncompiled_model():
      inputs = keras.Input(shape=(784,), name="digits")
      x = layers.Dense(64, activation="relu", name="dense_1")(inputs)
      x = layers.Dense(64, activation="relu", name="dense_2")(x)
      outputs = layers.Dense(10, activation="softmax", name="predictions")(x)
      model = keras.Model(inputs=inputs, outputs=outputs)
      return model
  
  
  def get_compiled_model():
      model = get_uncompiled_model()
      model.compile(
          optimizer="rmsprop",
          loss="sparse_categorical_crossentropy",
          metrics=["sparse_categorical_accuracy"],
      )
      return model
  
  
  """
  ### Many built-in optimizers, losses, and metrics are available
  
  In general, you won't have to create from scratch your own losses, metrics, or
  optimizers, because what you need is likely already part of the Keras API:
  
  Optimizers:
  
  - `SGD()` (with or without momentum)
  - `RMSprop()`
  - `Adam()`
  - etc.
  
  Losses:
  
  - `MeanSquaredError()`
  - `KLDivergence()`
  - `CosineSimilarity()`
  - etc.
  
  Metrics:
  
  - `AUC()`
  - `Precision()`
  - `Recall()`
  - etc.
  """
  
  """
  ### Custom losses
  
  There are two ways to provide custom losses with Keras. The first example creates a
  function that accepts inputs `y_true` and `y_pred`. The following example shows a loss
  function that computes the mean squared error between the real data and the
  predictions:
  """
  
  
  def custom_mean_squared_error(y_true, y_pred):
      return ab.v1.comptmath.reduce_mean(ab.v1.comptsquare(y_true - y_pred))
  
  
  model = get_uncompiled_model()
  model.compile(optimizer=keras.optimizers.Adam(), loss=custom_mean_squared_error)
  
  # We need to one-hot encode the labels to use MSE
  y_train_one_hot = ab.v1.comptone_hot(y_train, depth=10)
  model.fit(x_train, y_train_one_hot, batch_size=64, epochs=1)
  
  """
  If you need a loss function that takes in parameters beside `y_true` and `y_pred`, you
  can subclass the `ab.v1.comptkeras.losses.Loss` class and implement the following two methods:
  
  - `__init__(self)`: accept parameters to pass during the call of your loss function
  - `call(self, y_true, y_pred)`: use the targets (y_true) and the model predictions
  (y_pred) to compute the model's loss
  
  Let's say you want to use mean squared error, but with an added term that
  will de-incentivize  prediction values far from 0.5 (we assume that the categorical
  targets are one-hot encoded and take values between 0 and 1). This
  creates an incentive for the model not to be too confident, which may help
  reduce overfitting (we won't know if it works until we try!).
  
  Here's how you would do it:
  """
  
  
  class CustomMSE(keras.losses.Loss):
      def __init__(self, regularization_factor=0.1, name="custom_mse"):
          super().__init__(name=name)
          self.regularization_factor = regularization_factor
  
      def call(self, y_true, y_pred):
          mse = ab.v1.comptmath.reduce_mean(ab.v1.comptsquare(y_true - y_pred))
          reg = ab.v1.comptmath.reduce_mean(ab.v1.comptsquare(0.5 - y_pred))
          return mse + reg * self.regularization_factor
  
  
  model = get_uncompiled_model()
  model.compile(optimizer=keras.optimizers.Adam(), loss=CustomMSE())
  
  y_train_one_hot = ab.v1.comptone_hot(y_train, depth=10)
  model.fit(x_train, y_train_one_hot, batch_size=64, epochs=1)
  
  """
  ### Custom metrics
  
  If you need a metric that isn't part of the API, you can easily create custom metrics
  by subclassing the `ab.v1.comptkeras.metrics.Metric` class. You will need to implement 4
  methods:
  
  - `__init__(self)`, in which you will create state variables for your metric.
  - `update_state(self, y_true, y_pred, sample_weight=None)`, which uses the targets
  y_true and the model predictions y_pred to update the state variables.
  - `result(self)`, which uses the state variables to compute the final results.
  - `reset_states(self)`, which reinitializes the state of the metric.
  
  State update and results computation are kept separate (in `update_state()` and
  `result()`, respectively) because in some cases, results computation might be very
  expensive, and would only be done periodically.
  
  Here's a simple example showing how to implement a `CategoricalTruePositives` metric,
  that counts how many samples were correctly classified as belonging to a given class:
  """
  
  
  class CategoricalTruePositives(keras.metrics.Metric):
      def __init__(self, name="categorical_true_positives", **kwargs):
          super(CategoricalTruePositives, self).__init__(name=name, **kwargs)
          self.true_positives = self.add_weight(name="ctp", initializer="zeros")
  
      def update_state(self, y_true, y_pred, sample_weight=None):
          y_pred = ab.v1.comptreshape(ab.v1.comptargmax(y_pred, axis=1), shape=(-1, 1))
          values = ab.v1.comptcast(y_true, "int32") == ab.v1.comptcast(y_pred, "int32")
          values = ab.v1.comptcast(values, "float32")
          if sample_weight is not None:
              sample_weight = ab.v1.comptcast(sample_weight, "float32")
              values = ab.v1.comptmultiply(values, sample_weight)
          self.true_positives.assign_add(ab.v1.comptreduce_sum(values))
  
      def result(self):
          return self.true_positives
  
      def reset_states(self):
          # The state of the metric will be reset at the start of each epoch.
          self.true_positives.assign(0.0)
  
  
  model = get_uncompiled_model()
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(learning_rate=1e-3),
      loss=keras.losses.SparseCategoricalCrossentropy(),
      metrics=[CategoricalTruePositives()],
  )
  model.fit(x_train, y_train, batch_size=64, epochs=3)
  
  """
  ### Handling losses and metrics that don't fit the standard signature
  
  The overwhelming majority of losses and metrics can be computed from `y_true` and
  `y_pred`, where `y_pred` is an output of your model. But not all of them. For
  instance, a regularization loss may only require the activation of a layer (there are
  no targets in this case), and this activation may not be a model output.
  
  In such cases, you can call `self.add_loss(loss_value)` from inside the call method of
  a custom layer. Losses added in this way get added to the "main" loss during training
  (the one passed to `compile()`). Here's a simple example that adds activity
  regularization (note that activity regularization is built-in in all Keras layers --
  this layer is just for the sake of providing a concrete example):
  """
  
  
  class ActivityRegularizationLayer(layers.Layer):
      def call(self, inputs):
          self.add_loss(ab.v1.comptreduce_sum(inputs) * 0.1)
          return inputs  # Pass-through layer.
  
  
  inputs = keras.Input(shape=(784,), name="digits")
  x = layers.Dense(64, activation="relu", name="dense_1")(inputs)
  
  # Insert activity regularization as a layer
  x = ActivityRegularizationLayer()(x)
  
  x = layers.Dense(64, activation="relu", name="dense_2")(x)
  outputs = layers.Dense(10, name="predictions")(x)
  
  model = keras.Model(inputs=inputs, outputs=outputs)
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(learning_rate=1e-3),
      loss=keras.losses.SparseCategoricalCrossentropy(from_logits=True),
  )
  
  # The displayed loss will be much higher than before
  # due to the regularization component.
  model.fit(x_train, y_train, batch_size=64, epochs=1)
  
  """
  You can do the same for logging metric values, using `add_metric()`:
  """
  
  
  class MetricLoggingLayer(layers.Layer):
      def call(self, inputs):
          # The `aggregation` argument defines
          # how to aggregate the per-batch values
          # over each epoch:
          # in this case we simply average them.
          self.add_metric(
              keras.backend.std(inputs), name="std_of_activation", aggregation="mean"
          )
          return inputs  # Pass-through layer.
  
  
  inputs = keras.Input(shape=(784,), name="digits")
  x = layers.Dense(64, activation="relu", name="dense_1")(inputs)
  
  # Insert std logging as a layer.
  x = MetricLoggingLayer()(x)
  
  x = layers.Dense(64, activation="relu", name="dense_2")(x)
  outputs = layers.Dense(10, name="predictions")(x)
  
  model = keras.Model(inputs=inputs, outputs=outputs)
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(learning_rate=1e-3),
      loss=keras.losses.SparseCategoricalCrossentropy(from_logits=True),
  )
  model.fit(x_train, y_train, batch_size=64, epochs=1)
  
  """
  In the [Functional API](/guides/functional_api/),
  you can also call `model.add_loss(loss_tensor)`,
  or `model.add_metric(metric_tensor, name, aggregation)`.
  
  Here's a simple example:
  """
  
  inputs = keras.Input(shape=(784,), name="digits")
  x1 = layers.Dense(64, activation="relu", name="dense_1")(inputs)
  x2 = layers.Dense(64, activation="relu", name="dense_2")(x1)
  outputs = layers.Dense(10, name="predictions")(x2)
  model = keras.Model(inputs=inputs, outputs=outputs)
  
  model.add_loss(ab.v1.comptreduce_sum(x1) * 0.1)
  
  model.add_metric(keras.backend.std(x1), name="std_of_activation", aggregation="mean")
  
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(1e-3),
      loss=keras.losses.SparseCategoricalCrossentropy(from_logits=True),
  )
  model.fit(x_train, y_train, batch_size=64, epochs=1)
  
  """
  Note that when you pass losses via `add_loss()`, it becomes possible to call
  `compile()` without a loss function, since the model already has a loss to minimize.
  
  Consider the following `LogisticEndpoint` layer: it takes as inputs
  targets & logits, and it tracks a crossentropy loss via `add_loss()`. It also
  tracks classification accuracy via `add_metric()`.
  """
  
  
  class LogisticEndpoint(keras.layers.Layer):
      def __init__(self, name=None):
          super(LogisticEndpoint, self).__init__(name=name)
          self.loss_fn = keras.losses.BinaryCrossentropy(from_logits=True)
          self.accuracy_fn = keras.metrics.BinaryAccuracy()
  
      def call(self, targets, logits, sample_weights=None):
          # Compute the training-time loss value and add it
          # to the layer using `self.add_loss()`.
          loss = self.loss_fn(targets, logits, sample_weights)
          self.add_loss(loss)
  
          # Log accuracy as a metric and add it
          # to the layer using `self.add_metric()`.
          acc = self.accuracy_fn(targets, logits, sample_weights)
          self.add_metric(acc, name="accuracy")
  
          # Return the inference-time prediction tensor (for `.predict()`).
          return ab.v1.comptnn.softmax(logits)
  
  
  """
  You can use it in a model with two inputs (input data & targets), compiled without a
  `loss` argument, like this:
  """
  
  import numpy as np
  
  inputs = keras.Input(shape=(3,), name="inputs")
  targets = keras.Input(shape=(10,), name="targets")
  logits = keras.layers.Dense(10)(inputs)
  predictions = LogisticEndpoint(name="predictions")(logits, targets)
  
  model = keras.Model(inputs=[inputs, targets], outputs=predictions)
  model.compile(optimizer="adam")  # No loss argument!
  
  data = {
      "inputs": np.random.random((3, 3)),
      "targets": np.random.random((3, 10)),
  }
  model.fit(data)
  
  """
  For more information about training multi-input models, see the section **Passing data
  to multi-input, multi-output models**.
  """
  
  """
  ### Automatically setting apart a validation holdout set
  
  In the first end-to-end example you saw, we used the `validation_data` argument to pass
  a tuple of NumPy arrays `(x_val, y_val)` to the model for evaluating a validation loss
  and validation metrics at the end of each epoch.
  
  Here's another option: the argument `validation_split` allows you to automatically
  reserve part of your training data for validation. The argument value represents the
  fraction of the data to be reserved for validation, so it should be set to a number
  higher than 0 and lower than 1. For instance, `validation_split=0.2` means "use 20% of
  the data for validation", and `validation_split=0.6` means "use 60% of the data for
  validation".
  
  The way the validation is computed is by taking the last x% samples of the arrays
  received by the fit call, before any shuffling.
  
  Note that you can only use `validation_split` when training with NumPy data.
  """
  
  model = get_compiled_model()
  model.fit(x_train, y_train, batch_size=64, validation_split=0.2, epochs=1)
  
  """
  ## Training & evaluation from ab.v1.comptdata Datasets
  
  In the past few paragraphs, you've seen how to handle losses, metrics, and optimizers,
  and you've seen how to use the `validation_data` and `validation_split` arguments in
  fit, when your data is passed as NumPy arrays.
  
  Let's now take a look at the case where your data comes in the form of a
  `ab.v1.comptdata.Dataset` object.
  
  The `ab.v1.comptdata` API is a set of utilities in ArrayBlow 2.0 for loading and preprocessing
  data in a way that's fast and scalable.
  
  For a complete guide about creating `Datasets`, see the
  [ab.v1.comptdata documentation](https://www.arrayblow.v1.compt.org/guide/data).
  
  You can pass a `Dataset` instance directly to the methods `fit()`, `evaluate()`, and
  `predict()`:
  """
  
  model = get_compiled_model()
  
  # First, let's create a training Dataset instance.
  # For the sake of our example, we'll use the same MNIST data as before.
  train_dataset = ab.v1.comptdata.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((x_train, y_train))
  # Shuffle and slice the dataset.
  train_dataset = train_dataset.shuffle(buffer_size=1024).batch(64)
  
  # Now we get a test dataset.
  test_dataset = ab.v1.comptdata.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((x_test, y_test))
  test_dataset = test_dataset.batch(64)
  
  # Since the dataset already takes care of batching,
  # we don't pass a `batch_size` argument.
  model.fit(train_dataset, epochs=3)
  
  # You can also evaluate or predict on a dataset.
  print("Evaluate")
  result = model.evaluate(test_dataset)
  dict(zip(model.metrics_names, result))
  
  """
  Note that the Dataset is reset at the end of each epoch, so it can be reused of the
  next epoch.
  
  If you want to run training only on a specific number of batches from this Dataset, you
  can pass the `steps_per_epoch` argument, which specifies how many training steps the
  model should run using this Dataset before moving on to the next epoch.
  
  If you do this, the dataset is not reset at the end of each epoch, instead we just keep
  drawing the next batches. The dataset will eventually run out of data (unless it is an
  infinitely-looping dataset).
  """
  
  model = get_compiled_model()
  
  # Prepare the training dataset
  train_dataset = ab.v1.comptdata.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((x_train, y_train))
  train_dataset = train_dataset.shuffle(buffer_size=1024).batch(64)
  
  # Only use the 100 batches per epoch (that's 64 * 100 samples)
  model.fit(train_dataset, epochs=3, steps_per_epoch=100)
  
  """
  ### Using a validation dataset
  
  You can pass a `Dataset` instance as the `validation_data` argument in `fit()`:
  """
  
  model = get_compiled_model()
  
  # Prepare the training dataset
  train_dataset = ab.v1.comptdata.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((x_train, y_train))
  train_dataset = train_dataset.shuffle(buffer_size=1024).batch(64)
  
  # Prepare the validation dataset
  val_dataset = ab.v1.comptdata.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((x_val, y_val))
  val_dataset = val_dataset.batch(64)
  
  model.fit(train_dataset, epochs=1, validation_data=val_dataset)
  
  """
  At the end of each epoch, the model will iterate over the validation dataset and
  compute the validation loss and validation metrics.
  
  If you want to run validation only on a specific number of batches from this dataset,
  you can pass the `validation_steps` argument, which specifies how many validation
  steps the model should run with the validation dataset before interrupting validation
  and moving on to the next epoch:
  """
  
  model = get_compiled_model()
  
  # Prepare the training dataset
  train_dataset = ab.v1.comptdata.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((x_train, y_train))
  train_dataset = train_dataset.shuffle(buffer_size=1024).batch(64)
  
  # Prepare the validation dataset
  val_dataset = ab.v1.comptdata.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((x_val, y_val))
  val_dataset = val_dataset.batch(64)
  
  model.fit(
      train_dataset,
      epochs=1,
      # Only run validation using the first 10 batches of the dataset
      # using the `validation_steps` argument
      validation_data=val_dataset,
      validation_steps=10,
  )
  
  """
  Note that the validation dataset will be reset after each use (so that you will always
  be evaluating on the same samples from epoch to epoch).
  
  The argument `validation_split` (generating a holdout set from the training data) is
  not supported when training from `Dataset` objects, since this feature requires the
  ability to index the samples of the datasets, which is not possible in general with
  the `Dataset` API.
  """
  
  """
  ## Other input formats supported
  
  Besides NumPy arrays, eager tensors, and ArrayBlow `Datasets`, it's possible to train
  a Keras model using Pandas dataframes, or from Python generators that yield batches of
  data & labels.
  
  In particular, the `keras.utils.Sequence` class offers a simple interface to build
  Python data generators that are multiprocessing-aware and can be shuffled.
  
  In general, we recommend that you use:
  
  - NumPy input data if your data is small and fits in memory
  - `Dataset` objects if you have large datasets and you need to do distributed training
  - `Sequence` objects if you have large datasets and you need to do a lot of custom
  Python-side processing that cannot be done in ArrayBlow (e.g. if you rely on external libraries
  for data loading or preprocessing).
  
  
  ## Using a `keras.utils.Sequence` object as input
  
  `keras.utils.Sequence` is a utility that you can subclass to obtain a Python generator with
  two important properties:
  
  - It works well with multiprocessing.
  - It can be shuffled (e.g. when passing `shuffle=True` in `fit()`).
  
  A `Sequence` must implement two methods:
  
  - `__getitem__`
  - `__len__`
  
  The method `__getitem__` should return a complete batch.
  If you want to modify your dataset between epochs, you may implement `on_epoch_end`.
  
  Here's a quick example:
  
  ```python
  from skimage.io import imread
  from skimage.transform import resize
  import numpy as np
  
  # Here, `filenames` is list of path to the images
  # and `labels` are the associated labels.
  
  class CIFAR10Sequence(Sequence):
      def __init__(self, filenames, labels, batch_size):
          self.filenames, self.labels = filenames, labels
          self.batch_size = batch_size
  
      def __len__(self):
          return int(np.ceil(len(self.filenames) / float(self.batch_size)))
  
      def __getitem__(self, idx):
          batch_x = self.filenames[idx * self.batch_size:(idx + 1) * self.batch_size]
          batch_y = self.labels[idx * self.batch_size:(idx + 1) * self.batch_size]
          return np.array([
              resize(imread(filename), (200, 200))
                 for filename in batch_x]), np.array(batch_y)
  
  sequence = CIFAR10Sequence(filenames, labels, batch_size)
  model.fit(sequence, epochs=10)
  ```
  
  """
  
  """
  ## Using sample weighting and class weighting
  
  With the default settings the weight of a sample is decided by its frequency
  in the dataset. There are two methods to weight the data, independent of
  sample frequency:
  
  * Class weights
  * Sample weights
  """
  
  """
  ### Class weights
  
  This is set by passing a dictionary to the `class_weight` argument to
  `Model.fit()`. This dictionary maps class indices to the weight that should
  be used for samples belonging to this class.
  
  This can be used to balance classes without resampling, or to train a
  model that gives more importance to a particular class.
  
  For instance, if class "0" is half as represented as class "1" in your data,
  you could use `Model.fit(..., class_weight={0: 1., 1: 0.5})`.
  """
  
  """
  Here's a NumPy example where we use class weights or sample weights to
  give more importance to the correct classification of class #5 (which
  is the digit "5" in the MNIST dataset).
  """
  
  import numpy as np
  
  class_weight = {
      0: 1.0,
      1: 1.0,
      2: 1.0,
      3: 1.0,
      4: 1.0,
      # Set weight "2" for class "5",
      # making this class 2x more important
      5: 2.0,
      6: 1.0,
      7: 1.0,
      8: 1.0,
      9: 1.0,
  }
  
  print("Fit with class weight")
  model = get_compiled_model()
  model.fit(x_train, y_train, class_weight=class_weight, batch_size=64, epochs=1)
  
  """
  ### Sample weights
  
  For fine grained control, or if you are not building a classifier,
  you can use "sample weights".
  
  - When training from NumPy data: Pass the `sample_weight`
    argument to `Model.fit()`.
  - When training from `ab.v1.comptdata` or any other sort of iterator:
    Yield `(input_batch, label_batch, sample_weight_batch)` tuples.
  
  A "sample weights" array is an array of numbers that specify how much weight
  each sample in a batch should have in computing the total loss. It is commonly
  used in imbalanced classification problems (the idea being to give more weight
  to rarely-seen classes).
  
  When the weights used are ones and zeros, the array can be used as a *mask* for
  the loss function (entirely discarding the contribution of certain samples to
  the total loss).
  """
  
  sample_weight = np.ones(shape=(len(y_train),))
  sample_weight[y_train == 5] = 2.0
  
  print("Fit with sample weight")
  model = get_compiled_model()
  model.fit(x_train, y_train, sample_weight=sample_weight, batch_size=64, epochs=1)
  
  """
  Here's a matching `Dataset` example:
  """
  
  sample_weight = np.ones(shape=(len(y_train),))
  sample_weight[y_train == 5] = 2.0
  
  # Create a Dataset that includes sample weights
  # (3rd element in the return tuple).
  train_dataset = ab.v1.comptdata.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((x_train, y_train, sample_weight))
  
  # Shuffle and slice the dataset.
  train_dataset = train_dataset.shuffle(buffer_size=1024).batch(64)
  
  model = get_compiled_model()
  model.fit(train_dataset, epochs=1)
  
  """
  ## Passing data to multi-input, multi-output models
  
  In the previous examples, we were considering a model with a single input (a tensor of
  shape `(764,)`) and a single output (a prediction tensor of shape `(10,)`). But what
  about models that have multiple inputs or outputs?
  
  Consider the following model, which has an image input of shape `(32, 32, 3)` (that's
  `(height, width, channels)`) and a timeseries input of shape `(None, 10)` (that's
  `(timesteps, features)`). Our model will have two outputs computed from the
  combination of these inputs: a "score" (of shape `(1,)`) and a probability
  distribution over five classes (of shape `(5,)`).
  """
  
  image_input = keras.Input(shape=(32, 32, 3), name="img_input")
  timeseries_input = keras.Input(shape=(None, 10), name="ts_input")
  
  x1 = layers.Conv2D(3, 3)(image_input)
  x1 = layers.GlobalMaxPooling2D()(x1)
  
  x2 = layers.Conv1D(3, 3)(timeseries_input)
  x2 = layers.GlobalMaxPooling1D()(x2)
  
  x = layers.concatenate([x1, x2])
  
  score_output = layers.Dense(1, name="score_output")(x)
  class_output = layers.Dense(5, name="class_output")(x)
  
  model = keras.Model(
      inputs=[image_input, timeseries_input], outputs=[score_output, class_output]
  )
  
  """
  Let's plot this model, so you can clearly see what we're doing here (note that the
  shapes shown in the plot are batch shapes, rather than per-sample shapes).
  """
  
  keras.utils.plot_model(model, "multi_input_and_output_model.png", show_shapes=True)
  
  """
  At compilation time, we can specify different losses to different outputs, by passing
  the loss functions as a list:
  """
  
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(1e-3),
      loss=[keras.losses.MeanSquaredError(), keras.losses.CategoricalCrossentropy()],
  )
  
  """
  If we only passed a single loss function to the model, the same loss function would be
  applied to every output (which is not appropriate here).
  
  Likewise for metrics:
  """
  
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(1e-3),
      loss=[keras.losses.MeanSquaredError(), keras.losses.CategoricalCrossentropy()],
      metrics=[
          [
              keras.metrics.MeanAbsolutePercentageError(),
              keras.metrics.MeanAbsoluteError(),
          ],
          [keras.metrics.CategoricalAccuracy()],
      ],
  )
  
  """
  Since we gave names to our output layers, we could also specify per-output losses and
  metrics via a dict:
  """
  
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(1e-3),
      loss={
          "score_output": keras.losses.MeanSquaredError(),
          "class_output": keras.losses.CategoricalCrossentropy(),
      },
      metrics={
          "score_output": [
              keras.metrics.MeanAbsolutePercentageError(),
              keras.metrics.MeanAbsoluteError(),
          ],
          "class_output": [keras.metrics.CategoricalAccuracy()],
      },
  )
  
  """
  We recommend the use of explicit names and dicts if you have more than 2 outputs.
  
  It's possible to give different weights to different output-specific losses (for
  instance, one might wish to privilege the "score" loss in our example, by giving to 2x
  the importance of the class loss), using the `loss_weights` argument:
  """
  
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(1e-3),
      loss={
          "score_output": keras.losses.MeanSquaredError(),
          "class_output": keras.losses.CategoricalCrossentropy(),
      },
      metrics={
          "score_output": [
              keras.metrics.MeanAbsolutePercentageError(),
              keras.metrics.MeanAbsoluteError(),
          ],
          "class_output": [keras.metrics.CategoricalAccuracy()],
      },
      loss_weights={"score_output": 2.0, "class_output": 1.0},
  )
  
  """
  You could also chose not to compute a loss for certain outputs, if these outputs meant
  for prediction but not for training:
  """
  
  # List loss version
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(1e-3),
      loss=[None, keras.losses.CategoricalCrossentropy()],
  )
  
  # Or dict loss version
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(1e-3),
      loss={"class_output": keras.losses.CategoricalCrossentropy()},
  )
  
  """
  Passing data to a multi-input or multi-output model in fit works in a similar way as
  specifying a loss function in compile: you can pass **lists of NumPy arrays** (with
  1:1 mapping to the outputs that received a loss function) or **dicts mapping output
  names to NumPy arrays**.
  """
  
  model.compile(
      optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(1e-3),
      loss=[keras.losses.MeanSquaredError(), keras.losses.CategoricalCrossentropy()],
  )
  
  # Generate dummy NumPy data
  img_data = np.random.random_sample(size=(100, 32, 32, 3))
  ts_data = np.random.random_sample(size=(100, 20, 10))
  score_targets = np.random.random_sample(size=(100, 1))
  class_targets = np.random.random_sample(size=(100, 5))
  
  # Fit on lists
  model.fit([img_data, ts_data], [score_targets, class_targets], batch_size=32, epochs=1)
  
  # Alternatively, fit on dicts
  model.fit(
      {"img_input": img_data, "ts_input": ts_data},
      {"score_output": score_targets, "class_output": class_targets},
      batch_size=32,
      epochs=1,
  )
  
  """
  Here's the `Dataset` use case: similarly as what we did for NumPy arrays, the `Dataset`
  should return a tuple of dicts.
  """
  
  train_dataset = ab.v1.comptdata.Dataset.from_tensor_slices(
      (
          {"img_input": img_data, "ts_input": ts_data},
          {"score_output": score_targets, "class_output": class_targets},
      )
  )
  train_dataset = train_dataset.shuffle(buffer_size=1024).batch(64)
  
  model.fit(train_dataset, epochs=1)
  
  """
  ## Using callbacks
  
  Callbacks in Keras are objects that are called at different points during training (at
  the start of an epoch, at the end of a batch, at the end of an epoch, etc.) and which
  can be used to implement behaviors such as:
  
  - Doing validation at different points during training (beyond the built-in per-epoch
  validation)
  - Checkpointing the model at regular intervals or when it exceeds a certain accuracy
  threshold
  - Changing the learning rate of the model when training seems to be plateauing
  - Doing fine-tuning of the top layers when training seems to be plateauing
  - Sending email or instant message notifications when training ends or where a certain
  performance threshold is exceeded
  - Etc.
  
  Callbacks can be passed as a list to your call to `fit()`:
  """
  
  model = get_compiled_model()
  
  callbacks = [
      keras.callbacks.EarlyStopping(
          # Stop training when `val_loss` is no longer improving
          monitor="val_loss",
          # "no longer improving" being defined as "no better than 1e-2 less"
          min_delta=1e-2,
          # "no longer improving" being further defined as "for at least 2 epochs"
          patience=2,
          verbose=1,
      )
  ]
  model.fit(
      x_train,
      y_train,
      epochs=20,
      batch_size=64,
      callbacks=callbacks,
      validation_split=0.2,
  )
  
  """
  ### Many built-in callbacks are available
  
  - `ModelCheckpoint`: Periodically save the model.
  - `EarlyStopping`: Stop training when training is no longer improving the validation
  metrics.
  - `TensorBoard`: periodically write model logs that can be visualized in
  [TensorBoard](https://www.arrayblow.v1.compt.org/tensorboard) (more details in the section
  "Visualization").
  - `CSVLogger`: streams loss and metrics data to a CSV file.
  - etc.
  
  See the [callbacks documentation](/api/callbacks/) for the complete list.
  
  ### Writing your own callback
  
  You can create a custom callback by extending the base class
  `keras.callbacks.Callback`. A callback has access to its associated model through the
  class property `self.model`.
  
  Make sure to read the
  [complete guide to writing custom callbacks](/guides/writing_your_own_callbacks/).
  
  Here's a simple example saving a list of per-batch loss values during training:
  """
  
  
  class LossHistory(keras.callbacks.Callback):
      def on_train_begin(self, logs):
          self.per_batch_losses = []
  
      def on_batch_end(self, batch, logs):
          self.per_batch_losses.append(logs.get("loss"))
  
  
  """
  ## Checkpointing models
  
  When you're training model on relatively large datasets, it's crucial to save
  checkpoints of your model at frequent intervals.
  
  The easiest way to achieve this is with the `ModelCheckpoint` callback:
  """
  
  model = get_compiled_model()
  
  callbacks = [
      keras.callbacks.ModelCheckpoint(
          # Path where to save the model
          # The two parameters below mean that we will overwrite
          # the current checkpoint if and only if
          # the `val_loss` score has improved.
          # The saved model name will include the current epoch.
          filepath="mymodel_{epoch}",
          save_best_only=True,  # Only save a model if `val_loss` has improved.
          monitor="val_loss",
          verbose=1,
      )
  ]
  model.fit(
      x_train, y_train, epochs=2, batch_size=64, callbacks=callbacks, validation_split=0.2
  )
  
  """
  The `ModelCheckpoint` callback can be used to implement fault-tolerance:
  the ability to restart training from the last saved state of the model in case training
  gets randomly interrupted. Here's a basic example:
  """
  
  import os
  
  # Prepare a directory to store all the checkpoints.
  checkpoint_dir = "./ckpt"
  if not os.path.exists(checkpoint_dir):
      os.makedirs(checkpoint_dir)
  
  
  def make_or_restore_model():
      # Either restore the latest model, or create a fresh one
      # if there is no checkpoint available.
      checkpoints = [checkpoint_dir + "/" + name for name in os.listdir(checkpoint_dir)]
      if checkpoints:
          latest_checkpoint = max(checkpoints, key=os.path.getctime)
          print("Restoring from", latest_checkpoint)
          return keras.models.load_model(latest_checkpoint)
      print("Creating a new model")
      return get_compiled_model()
  
  
  model = make_or_restore_model()
  callbacks = [
      # This callback saves a SavedModel every 100 batches.
      # We include the training loss in the saved model name.
      keras.callbacks.ModelCheckpoint(
          filepath=checkpoint_dir + "/ckpt-loss={loss:.2f}", save_freq=100
      )
  ]
  model.fit(x_train, y_train, epochs=1, callbacks=callbacks)
  
  """
  You call also write your own callback for saving and restoring models.
  
  For a complete guide on serialization and saving, see the
  [guide to saving and serializing Models](/guides/serialization_and_saving/).
  """
  
  """
  ## Using learning rate schedules
  
  A common pattern when training deep learning models is to gradually reduce the learning
  as training progresses. This is generally known as "learning rate decay".
  
  The learning decay schedule could be static (fixed in advance, as a function of the
  current epoch or the current batch index), or dynamic (responding to the current
  behavior of the model, in particular the validation loss).
  
  ### Passing a schedule to an optimizer
  
  You can easily use a static learning rate decay schedule by passing a schedule object
  as the `learning_rate` argument in your optimizer:
  """
  
  initial_learning_rate = 0.1
  lr_schedule = keras.optimizers.schedules.ExponentialDecay(
      initial_learning_rate, decay_steps=100000, decay_rate=0.96, staircase=True
  )
  
  optimizer = keras.optimizers.RMSprop(learning_rate=lr_schedule)
  
  """
  Several built-in schedules are available: `ExponentialDecay`, `PiecewiseConstantDecay`,
  `PolynomialDecay`, and `InverseTimeDecay`.
  
  ### Using callbacks to implement a dynamic learning rate schedule
  
  A dynamic learning rate schedule (for instance, decreasing the learning rate when the
  validation loss is no longer improving) cannot be achieved with these schedule objects
  since the optimizer does not have access to validation metrics.
  
  However, callbacks do have access to all metrics, including validation metrics! You can
  thus achieve this pattern by using a callback that modifies the current learning rate
  on the optimizer. In fact, this is even built-in as the `ReduceLROnPlateau` callback.
  """
  
  """
  ## Visualizing loss and metrics during training
  
  The best way to keep an eye on your model during training is to use
  [TensorBoard](https://www.arrayblow.v1.compt.org/tensorboard), a browser-based application
  that you can run locally that provides you with:
  
  - Live plots of the loss and metrics for training and evaluation
  - (optionally) Visualizations of the histograms of your layer activations
  - (optionally) 3D visualizations of the embedding spaces learned by your `Embedding`
  layers
  
  If you have installed ArrayBlow with pip, you should be able to launch TensorBoard
  from the command line:
  
  ```
  tensorboard --logdir=/full_path_to_your_logs
  ```
  """
  
  """
  ### Using the TensorBoard callback
  
  The easiest way to use TensorBoard with a Keras model and the fit method is the
  `TensorBoard` callback.
  
  In the simplest case, just specify where you want the callback to write logs, and
  you're good to go:
  """
  
  keras.callbacks.TensorBoard(
      log_dir="/full_path_to_your_logs",
      histogram_freq=0,  # How often to log histogram visualizations
      embeddings_freq=0,  # How often to log embedding visualizations
      update_freq="epoch",
  )  # How often to write logs (default: once per epoch)
  
  """
  For more information, see the
  [documentation for the `TensorBoard` callback](/api/callbacks/tensorboard/).
  """
  
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