The Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, designed by Arnolfo di Cambio, is one of the most important and influential landmarks in Florence, being the third-largest church in the world (after St. Peter's in Rome and St. Paul's in London) its influence on not only Italian architecture but western Europe cannot be denied. Taking nearly 150 years to complete, it built the bridge between the 13th-century Gothic norm and the new humanistic reality of the early Renaissance.
In this study, I aim to discover how this remarkable church catalyzed the start of the Renaissance period. To understand how 14th century Florence shaped its construction, design, and function but also how the Cathedral itself influenced Florentine society and advanced the future great minds of the Renaissance. I will discuss topics such as the economy and power of the Medici Family, the curious and poetic nature of Francesco Petrarca’s writings, the marvel that is Brunelleschi’s dome, and the gravity of religion that bonded Renaissance society and its rituals.
To understand how the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore achieved its legacy we first have to explore its history. At the end of the 13th century, a new church was to be designed to replace the previous Cathedral of Florence, the ancient and dilapidated Santa Reparata. With Arnolfo di Cambio’s plans approved by the city council in 1294 construction began on 8th September 1296 (1). Figure 1 shows the plans for the extension of the original Cathedral throughout its changing construction.
Described by the Commune of Florence, once completed it was to be a more beautiful and honorable temple than any in any other part of Tuscany’ (2). Symbolizing the Cathedral’s imagined importance not only as a place of worship but as a building that portrayed civic pride as much as it did religious faith. I believe Florence’s vision for the utter beauty and perfection of the Cathedral echoes that of early Renaissance discourse: a new, heightened strive for excellence that surpassed the norm of its earlier centuries' gothic style.
Florence, within the early 14th century, was entering a time of great power - with that came affluence. Its wealth came from the wool industry and trade soon spread throughout the Western world; quickly being known as ‘the most expensive and most sought-after cloth in Europe’ (3). This resulted in a shift of power from the aristocracy to the merchant elite. The shift allowed powerful bankers like the Albizzia and Medici families to gain power over the independent city-state; influencing the priorities of the Florence republic significantly.
One of the pinnacle emphases of the Medici reign was their fondness for art and philosophy. ‘Cosimo de' Medici used his vast fortune to control the Florentine political system and to sponsor orators, poets, and philosophers' (4), as well as a series of artistic accomplishments.’ (5). Francesco Petrarca, one of the earliest humanists, was a law scholar who spent most of his life composing speeches for kings, popes, and princes. Although his passion did not lie there, he found his fascination in the ancient writings of Greek and Roman Philosophy. Petrarch rediscovered the importance of liberal studies, by examining Cicero's letters, “The Studia Humanities” (6), he found a new appreciation for nature and physical beauty.
Humanist writing catalyzed the start of Renaissance thinking, it led to a new esteem for man and nature, giving glory back to God’s creation. The philosophy of the early humanist thinkers brought not just society a rediscovered perspective but an experimental and realized the change in architectural styles. With the cathedral being designed surrounded by these ideologies, I believe its form, facades, structure, and decoration were all reflections of this rebirthed appreciation for man as the ‘center and measure of all things’ (7).
The new Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore was intended to and does in fact reflect many statements of its time: the influence of political dynasties and their interest and funding of humanist writings, the growing awareness of man’s new-found truth and beauty of God’s creation and the prosperity of the city’s mercantile power.
Examining the process behind the design and structure of the Cathedral reveals the conflicting views and beliefs at the beginning of the 14th century. Cambio’s original design, envisioning a dome measuring 62 braccia, was both spectacular but sum what too ambitious. The model showing his proposal subsequently collapsed under its own weight - an ominous sign of the future struggles with the development of the cupola, or ‘dome’. (8) Despite this, with no clear answer to how the dome would be built, construction commenced. This perceivable, reckless optimism I think reflects faith at the time: that God will provide a solution, so construction must not stop but persevere.
Looking at Santa Maria del Fiore in the plan, figure 2, shows the consideration given to the spatial arrangement. The octagonal form surrounding the dome reflects the shape of a flower, alluding to the Cathedral’s name ‘Fiore’ and also to the symbol of Florence - a giaggiolo lily. This decision, again emphasizes the pride, prosperity, and civic importance of Florence as an independent city-state: in my opinion, the Cathedral is a result of Florence’s vast opulence.
With construction progressing steadily competition arose between the capo maestro or ‘master builder’, Giovanni di Lapo Ghini, and another skilled mason, Neri di Fioravanti: for a model of the Cathedral’s dome. Giovanni’s design was fairly traditional, it followed the 13th-century Gothic style. It comprised of ‘thin walls, tall windows and to support the dome, external buttresses’ (9). Buttresses were one of the much-established and tested structural norms at the time. They allowed architects to reach great heights, filling the facades with spectacular vertical windows - flooding the church with immense heavenly light.
However, Neri’s model was much more ambitious, it moved away from the tradition of gothic style and suggested something unheard of since Antiquity. He didn’t want to visibly show how the dome was supported, instead, he proposed a ‘series of stone and wooden chains that would run the circumference… all of the lines of stress would therefore be absorbed by the structure itself.’ (10) Figures 3 and 4 shows the cupola and how it is supported.
Buttresses showed the stability and strength of a church however Neri’s proposal was meant to reflect the mystery and miracle nature of God. The choice of this invisible structure for the dome shows man’s improved precision and capability to create and design such mystery, as well as simultaneously pointing towards the heavens.
That man was not meant to just merely observe God’s greatness, but creation should be examined, realized, and mastered. These were ideologies common to the start of Renaissance thinking and were explored vigorously throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. I believe Neri’s accepted proposal encompassed lots of the early humanist discourse, it set an exemplar for Renaissance progression in both art and architecture and it remains one of the most remarkable structures to this day.
The problem of executing the dome’s construction belonged to only one man: Filippo Brunelleschi. Born in 1377, he grew up observing the Cathedral progress, from his family home in San Giovanni – a district just west of the growing building. It was here that his fascination with machines began. (11)
Brunelleschi grew ever fascinated in understanding how the great ancient structures were built. This drove him and a young Donatello to Rome, where he studied Roman ruins in the hope to discover his predecessors’ secrets.
Studying and understanding the rules and orders of Greek and Roman infrastructure was vital to the start of Renaissance thinking, it gave new life to classical culture and allowed artists to experiment with this rediscovered freedom. Thus, giving Brunelleschi the means to create a cupola I believe that founded and stood for the ideologies of the early Renaissance.
One particular building presented Filippo with proof that it was possible to span a space as vast as Santa Maria del Fiore – the Pantheon. Using this immense structure as a reference, Brunelleschi designed a multitude of machines to turn his vision into reality.
The ox-hoist, as seen in Figure 5, was designed to replace the old rota magna or ‘great wheel’ that had previously been used to raise heavy stones used in the facades of the Cathedral. (12) Brunelleschi’s design features an ox, making circular rings that turn a series of gears, raising heavy building materials such as sandstone beams and slabs of marble. This machine was destined to become one of the most celebrated creations of the Renaissance. A device that was sketched and examined by many architects and engineers, including Leonardo da Vinci.
Another marvel of the cupola is its unprecedented span without the use of external supports, figure 6 shows how the dome is self-supported. The form of the octagonal dome was known as a quinto acuto, “pointed fifth”. (13) Even though this fashion was familiar to traditional Gothic arches, the brickwork used to form the shape was uniquely complex. Filippo settled on a herringbone pattern of the brick’s arrangement, figure 7, this to act like ‘book ends, keying the new layer to the completed, self-sustaining the ones beneath.’ (14)
The technological advancements that are seen within the dome’s construction are revolutionary. Brunelleschi invented devices that would shape not only the future of Italy but the rest of Western Europe as well. The Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, I believe is precedent for the start of Renaissance ambition, precision, and skill.
Three different types of marble were used: white Carrara, Prato green, and Siena red to exquisitely decorate the external cladding of the Cathedral; a fitting choice to reflect the city’s opulence and power. The carvings within the marble reveal subtle changes in the style of art at the time. Figure 8, shows the detail of the Porta della Mandorla, decorated by Nanni di Banco, Donatello, and Jacopo dela Quercia, the sculptures reflect the transition between the 13th-century established gothic art to the first examples of new order and perfection of the Renaissance - which shortly thereafter became predominant. The cathedral allowed artists to develop these new ideas, I believe without these experiments Renaissance thought would not have progressed as rapidly.
Santa Maria del Fiore was consecrated in 1436, the year of the Cathedral’s long-awaited competition. Florentine society, even though finding freedom in the new individualist outlook, was still predominantly ruled by the Catholic faith. Studying the service books of the Cathedral, the importance of public declarations of these beliefs was evident. Processions were frequent, usually following feast days, and ‘new boundaries of the city were marked by a ritual act that involved the populace at large.’ (15) Without the tax contributions of ordinary Florentine citizens, it wouldn’t have been possible to create such an impressive building. The public emphasis here reflects the Cathedral’s vision, that it was a place for celebrating the city’s wealth and prestige, a place for its citizens to take pride in, and a place for everyone to gather and worship.
From all areas of the city, the Duomo could be seen, sneaking into sight between the narrow streets and soaring high above with the birds in the sky. The silhouette of the dome seems to reflect the quarters and streets of the town that radiate from it. Almost as if the dome crowns the city; ‘Florentines must confidently have felt themselves to be a civilized community’ (17). This change in society, one of sophistication, was a result of Renaissance thinking: humanist writers gave ordinary people freedom. The Cathedral and its public presence catalyzed these ideologies, becoming both an exemplar and an avant-garde ideal of its time.