Tudor history is rife with politics, reformation, and scandal, and in the midst of it, all is Anne Boleyn, the notorious temptress who changed the face of religion and stands out for her time with her determination. Even to this day, she remains one of the`s most famous queens despite ruling for just three years, and her character persists in intriguing and often eluding historians.
After spending much of her youth in France, by 1522 Anne had returned to, where she stood out with her French manners and style of dress, putting her at the forefront of fashion. Anne`s character has been defined as witty, sophisticated, and lively, but also ruthless and sharp-tempered; the loyalty and pride she held for her family were unassailable, and her courage was evident as she transgressed gender stereotypes with her independent spirit. Despite being an advocate for religious reform, she observed the images of the Catholic faith and expressed the belief she was destined for Heaven as she had done ‘many good deeds’. Perhaps it was because of this that she was so generous and intent on setting a high moral standard for her household: her ladies spent hours sewing garments for the poor, which she could distribute on progress. It is estimated that her annual charitable donations came to Â£1,500 (Â£450,000 nowadays), and she sponsored reformers, gave financial support to universities, used her influence to save heretics from persecution, and funded the studies of poor scholars. Time has distorted how we view her, shaped by changing religious beliefs and differing attitudes about gender: Victorians tended to view Anne as an unfortunate woman without political goals or ambition, while modern views respect a more headstrong, fierce Queen. She was clearly a passionate reformist who dared go head-to-head with Thomas Cromwell at his most powerful and wouldn`t allow herself to just be a King`s mistress.
Seventeen letters from Henry to Anne from 1527 to 1529 are in the Vatican archives: one he sent in 1527 refers to him having been struck by the dart of love for more than a year. The affair was also implied during Shrove Tuesday 1526, when the motto Declare je nos ‘Declare I dare not’ was embroidered on Henry`s jousting costume, emblazoned above which was a heart engulfed in flames. Anne must have had an iron will to defy such ardent gestures from a King, yet she fended him off for at least six years, and in 1533 the King`s cousin declared that Anne, by refusing Henry, had known ‘how soon he was sated with those who had served him as his mistress’. Soon, Henry was infatuated with Anne and focused on obtaining an annulment of his marriage to Katherine of Aragon Pope Clement VII, under pressure from Charles V, refused to grant it. Anne read books banned in and recommended Henry books criticizing the papacy and emphasizing the power of monarchy; in a letter to Anne, Henry would claim he was spending up to four hours a day studying theological tomes and suffering ‘some pain in his head’ as a result, clearly fixated on getting the annulment.
Anne, meanwhile, slowly became more comfortable in her role: during Easter 1529, Anne caused a minor scandal when she blessed cramp rings, a ritual only to be performed by an anointed monarch. At the end of July 1529, at Grafton, she kept state more like a queen than a simple maid, and in November 1529 she occupied the consort`s chair at feasts and wore purple (the color of royalty) gowns that Henry gave her. She argued with Henry over delays in the nullity case, declaring she was wasting her youth to no purpose and threatened to have courtiers dismissed: in 1532 Anne argued with Sir Henry Guildford, who praised Katherine in her hearing and threatened to have him punished and removed from office when she was Queen. By December 1532, she had given in to Henry and was pregnant, and Henry wanted his ‘son’ to be legitimate. He, therefore, got Thomas Cranmer to annul his marriage to Katherine, and Henry and Anne secretly married as Parliament, in April passed the first of several pieces of legislation which would enact the reformation of the Church in. Five days after Katherine`s marriage was annulled, it was declared that Henry`s marriage to Anne was valid, and she was crowned. Anne took as her new motto, La plus heureuse: ‘The Happiest’.
Unfortunately, this happiness couldn`t last. While pregnant, she discovered Henry was being unfaithful and, unlike Katherine, she protested with certain words which the King very much disliked. He retaliated by claiming she had to shut her eyes and endure as her betters had done, and they maintained a silence for a few days, followed by a grudging reconciliation. Anne soon gave birth to a healthy girl, Elizabeth, but it was not the son Henry wanted: he did not attend Elizabeth`s christening and the jousting organized to celebrate was canceled. He still believed she would give him a son, but in July-August 1534 disaster struck as she miscarried the child. Henry was desperate for a legitimate son to name his heir, and in 1535 the French ambassador noted that the King`s love for Anne was dissipating as he courted ‘new amours’, including Jane Seymour, the antithesis of Anne: quiet, demure, and tractable. Anne still chastised Henry for infidelity, openly argued with him, laughed at his clothes and poetry, and even appeared bored in his presence. She had much influence over public affairs and the King dares not contradict her he was likely to be a bit in awe of her but also growing resentful. In February 1536, Chapuys claimed Henry had had little to do with her for three months.
Katherine of Aragon, widowed and lonely, died on the 7th of January 1536, and seventeen days later, at a tournament in Greenwich, Henry was unhorsed, and his armored mount collapsed on him. He was unconscious for two hours and at one point it was feared he was dead, so the Duke of Norfolk went out to tell the Queen the news. Some historians claim Henry's fall could have resulted in brain damage, however, there is no evidence to suggest this no sources mention any sudden change in behavior from the King, but it could have worsened the ulcer in his leg or caused a vein to burst and become thrombosed. In any case, from descriptions as a very enlightened, bright, and charming youth, this may have accelerated Henry`s notorious descent into tyranny it was estimated 57,000-72,000 people were put to death during his reign.
On the same day as Katherine was buried, Anne went into early labor and lost another son, which Anne attributed to the shock she encountered when Norfolk told her the King was dead and her distress over Henry`s unfaithfulness. As Ambassador Chapuys would say, she has miscarried her savior: it was probably around this point that Henry started to question the validity of his second marriage. Despite this, Anne's position seemed stable during February-April 1536, and Henry strongly defended her status as Queen when it came to the Imperial alliance. Late in March, however, Anne fell out with Cromwell, the King`s chief minister, and they quarreled over what to do with money obtained from the dissolution of the monasteries: she hoped the money would go to charitable enterprises while Cromwell intended to give it to the King. On the 2nd of April, a chaplain who handled Anne`s charitable giving delivered a sermon at court implying a comparison between Cromwell and the Bible character Haman, the corrupt minister of an Old Testament king, ominously noting that Haman died on the scaffold. Thomas Cromwell believed the Spanish alliance was crucial, but the King insisted the Emperor apologize for past behavior toward him and acknowledge Anne as the Queen in writing, a humiliating demand that would never be met. Cromwell believed the alliance and his future were in jeopardy Anne was therefore the biggest threat to his career and life. Historians are split on Cromwell`s motives perhaps he was just working on the King`s orders but he still worked to orchestrate her downfall.
Lord Chancellor Audley authorized Cromwell and Norfolk to lead a commission investigating unspecified cases of treason, and alleged conversations were used against her as incriminating evidence. Anne was known to dance with her ladies and favored gentlemen in her bedchamber. Most were part of the King`s Privy Chamber and she flirted with them openly, exchanging money and gifts, as were the accepted conventions of courtly love, and her flirtatious nature and enjoyment of male company made the charges plausible. Her fall was sudden: on April the 30th, Cromwell set before the King evidence that she had seduced members of the Privy Chamber, including her brother, and plotted regicide. Most of the evidence came from questioning members of Anne`s household, however, and the case is suggested to be based on inferences and innuendo. Henry had previously had an affair with Mary Boleyn, Anne`s sister, which could be considered as damning as Katherine`s previous engagement to Henry`s brother, but, instead, Anne was charged with adultery, witchcraft, and incest, charges absurd even to her enemies. It wasn`t enough to just get rid of her; she was to be crushed. At one point, Anne was seen entreating Henry with Elizabeth in her arms, but to no avail.
On the 30th of April, the musician Mark Smeaton was arrested and on May the 1st taken to the Tower. Likely under torture, he confessed to adultery with Anne on three occasions he was the only man accused to admit guilt, but it was enough to convict them all. Anne asserted Smeaton had only been in her apartments twice, on April the 29th and at Winchester in 1535, when he played the virginals for her, but she was already doomed. Cromwell took a risk by accusing Sir Henry Norris, one of the King`s closest friends of the King`s belief in the evidence against Norris suggests it was very convicting, although, perhaps in his frenzy, he was willing to believe almost anything put to him. Norris was summoned to accompany Henry to York Place, and on the way, Henry accused him of committing adultery with Anne as far back as 1533. Despite the King promising him a pardon if he confessed the truth, Norris vehemently denied these charges and was taken to the Tower the next day.
On May the 2nd, Anne herself was arrested and taken to the Tower, the same day as her brother, although the accusation of incest was on the evidence of George Boleyn`s wife, Lady Rochford, alone she may have spoken out of spite for her promiscuous husband. Sir Francis Weston and William Brereton were also put in the Tower, along with Sir Richard Page and Sir Thomas Wyatt. On May 12th, Norris, Weston, Brereton, and Smeaton were sentenced to death. Anne and George Boleyn`s trial occurred three days later, and both were sentenced to die despite pleas of innocence. Before twenty-seven peers of the realm, Anne said, I can say no more but ‘nay’, without I should open my body. If any man accuses me, I can say but ‘nay', and they can bring no witnesses. No member of the nobility helped her, though, and her own uncle pronounced the death sentence. Henry Percy, Anne`s previous lover, swooned during the trial and had to be carried out, and Cranmer told the King, my mind is amazed; for I never had a better opinion in woman than I had in her.
On the 17th of May, the Queen`s alleged lovers were beheaded, and all but Smeaton claimed innocence, they never retracted his confession and repeated it at the foot of the gallows. Rochford warned onlookers to beware ‘the flatteries of the court’, and the same day, Archbishop Cranmer announced Anne`s marriage to the King null and Elizabeth a bastard. This logic sets a flaw in the case against Anne if she had never been married to the King, how could she have committed adultery? But this was overlooked, and, on Friday the 19th of May, Anne met her death with dignity, continually looking behind her while being taken to the scaffold. The day after Anne`s execution, Jane Seymour and the King were formally betrothed and married on May 30th.
Historians can view Anne`s story in a multitude of ways. Peter Ackroyd claimed it has been supposed Anne was the victim of a conspiracy managed by Cromwell, however, it would have been a risky business if this was not some nebulous charge built upon rumor and false report. Why accuse five men, four of them known and respected, when one would have been sufficient?. . It may be that she pursued other men in a desperate search for a male child who could be hailed as the heir to the throne . . . [Henry] must have been thoroughly convinced of her guilt, or had come upon another offense that he never disclosed, or both. While Ackroyd has a point, I disagree: while Henry may have believed those charges, he also may have simply wanted a way to rid himself of her. I am more inclined to Robert Lacey`s opinion that Anne had always been flirtatious, and this proved the route to her undoing. Playful glances and gestures were interpreted as evidence of actual infidelity. Men were tortured and ‘confessions’ produced . . . the servants of a Tudor government knew that proof had to be found so that the defective Queen could be condemned. After all, Henry had come to regard his kingship as an example of his divine providence: annotations in a Psalter show he did not see reading them as a way to reflect on his own shortcomings but to congratulate himself and sympathize with its author. As Chapuys would observe, The King, in his blindness, fears no one but God; one of his gold chains carried the inscription: ‘I prefer to die rather than change my mind’. Henry believed in his own superiority and the state of monarchy being sacrosanct, and this bigotry probably made him feel capable of doing anything he pleased After all, he was accountable to no one but God. Henry`s only son was dying at the time, which could also be partially responsible for Henry`s uncertain temper and emotional reactions. If he was displeased with his quarrelsome wife, who was to deny him her removal? After all, Cromwell had set evidence before him which gave him the perfect opportunity. Cromwell also could have wanted Brereton out of the way as there was evidence he disliked Brereton`s territorial influence where Cromwell served as Richmond`s deputy; Brereton`s wife and family would plead his innocence. Wyatt and Page were soon released, and Norri's office was replaced by one of Cromwell`s men; looking at it from afar, it seems Cromwell benefited from the Queen`s fall.
Imagining the king`s death was treasonous; when Anne said to Norris you look for the dead man`s shoes; for if anything happens to the king, you would look to have me, she essentially convicted herself. When Anne arrived at the Tower, she asked the lieutenant, Sir William Kingston, if she would die without justice. The poorest subject the king has, he replied, has justice, to which she laughed maybe she knew she would get no justice and was completely at the will of the King. Before her death, Anne swore on the blessed sacrament she was innocent, but any claims of innocence were futile.
Anne is unlikely to have been guilty as charged and is the apparent victim of a temporary court faction supported by Cromwell. I find it difficult to believe that someone so intelligent would risk her life with such behavior as she was charged, nor would she have chastised Henry so much about his mistresses if she had not been faithful herself. Henry may have believed the charges, or he may have just wanted an excuse to get her out of the way. Anne`s arrogance made her unpopular at court, and perhaps he was worried about a repeat of Katherine, with a daughter followed by several miscarriages. To me, it seems more than mere coincidence that Henry married Jane Seymour, a more agreeable woman, after Anne`s death - maybe he just wanted a less assertive wife. Jane was not to be drawn into religious or political discussions and was subservient to his will. Perhaps it was Anne`s cleverness and ferocity which caused her untimely death: overshadowing a king when, at such a time, her qualities were not admirable in a woman. But, since history is altered and adapted, there is no way of knowing, and Anne Boleyn`s story can be perceived in numerous ways... many things should be regarded as apocryphal as time has taken the certainty of them away.
In Anne Boleyn`s last speech, recorded by Edward Hall, she said, I am come hither to die, for according to the law, and by the law, I am judged to die, and therefore I will speak nothing against it. She never confessed guilt, but likely wanted to protect her daughter by keeping her execution speech neutral: to me, however, it sounds cynical. She essentially stated she was there to die because the law decreed it so, and she knew nothing she said against it would have saved her. Unfortunately, she was doomed from the start: to get the executioner from Calais in time, he would have been ordered before Anne`s trial. The double standards at the time were unfair: Henry had two of his wives beheaded on charges of infidelity despite his own reputation for mistresses. Men at the time regarded it their prerogative to pursue other women while expecting their wives to remain chaste Henry, who annulled three of his marriages, furiously censured his sister Margaret when she divorced her husband to wed another man. Unfortunately, there is no way of reversing time, and
The last thing I want to cite is a poem that Thomas Wyatt wrote, likely referring to Anne Boleyn:
Be a sign of love, then I do love again.
If thou ask whom: sure, since I did refrain
Her that did set our country in a roar.
After Anne`s execution, he amended the last line to Brunette, that set my wealth in such a roar, ridding himself of the link to Anne, but the original line remains there, even after it was written over: Anne Boleyn set in a roar, and it hasn`t been the same since. Whatever we may claim about Anne victim or villain, innocent or guilty she was still a young, defiant woman in a time of gender stereotypes who managed to change history, and five hundred years later, I still find that inspiring.