Language represents an essential human characteristic what differentiates us from other species. Hence, language acquisition play a fundamental role in the science world. The most relevant contribution of language acquisition in first and second languages to the progress of science has been done at least in a specific field, the cognitive science. In other words, they have encouraged the study of mind and intelligence by describing how children or adult learn languages. This two areas are particularly meaningful to me as a Primary educator specilised in English as a second language. Not only theoretical knowledge but also strategies on how to succeed in applying those theories is a signiticant matter for any teacher concerned to provide the best learning environment to her students.
The objective of the essay is to study learning language and learning languages from a cognitive perspective. For this purpose, I will divide it into three main sections. Firstly, I will deal with two theories of first langue learning, Cognitivism and Vygotsky’s Constructivist, including some criticism to their applications. Secondly, I will focus on two second language theories, The Monitor Model and the Communicative Approach offering the major applied issues teachers might face today. Eventually, the main conclusions and the documental references used to develop this topic will be compiled. Despite the lack of unanimity among experts regarding language acquisition classification, to me, both learning language and learning languages are part of Applied Linguistics field, which, in turn, is the most practical branch of Linguistic. There seem to be a contradiction in the term of Applied Linguistics because they purse a primarily pragmatical purpose, nonetheles, it does not detract from the fact they have strong theories foundation. Probably, the Applied Linguists field is less valuable in terms of scientific breakthrough, but the most attractive for economical reasons. The more language you know, the more job opportunities you have.
THEORIES, APPROACHES AND APPLIED ISSUES
It is time not to focus on the central part of this essay, language acquisition theories and applied issues. The first relevant theories we are going to address is Cognitivism. Being primarily a learning theory, is probably the quintessential of language learning theory at all times. Piaget, his precursor, thought language acquisition was not a form of behaviour (the previous second language acquisition called Behaviourism) but is related to the children’s intellectual development (involving active mental processes). Language comes from the internal mental activity of the child, rather than from the outside world. Therefore, creating, learning and using a language is innately based on the development of the human cognition (Piaget 1987). Cognitivism can be applied in both first and second language acquisition. In both contexts children will have to use their cognitive abilities to work out hypotheses about language and create or compare the new reality with the mental image they already have.
Thus, teachers in their daily practice should present the elements of the second language somehow related to our students’ maturity and cognitive development to boost language learning. A general drawback of theoretical and applied sides to theory is the neglected of social and cultural factor in the cognitive progress (Babakr 2019). Some in-services teachers questioning whereas Piaget’s theory still applies for the 21st C learners which have a lot of knowledge available by clicking on a screen being in abundant cases demotivated. It is a concern that occupies space in my mind without a conclusive answer. I tend to think the theoretical base of Piaget is not yet obsolete, however, some adaptions to the current educational and societal contexts need to be researched and implemented. For instance, some little children can use smartphones and tablets more efficiently accordingly it proposes that elder teacher in full use of their mental faculties. Obviously, digital natives embed mental development in different circumstances than we did having a great impact on cognitive development and ,therfore, in learning progress.
Another far-reaching theory is Constructivism. This learning theory with a great in language learning maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning through experience (Merrian and Caffarella 1999). I find particularly interesting the Vygosky`s Constructivim, which could be also labelled as a cognitivist that have been applied to the Second language Learning research and in lines of thoughts. Vygostky states that cognitive development and language as one of its representations are achieved through social activity and meditation. The term meditation refers to anything that human beings can use to interact with the world and obtain a benefit in our case learning. Some instances of meditation are teacher, peers and technology. Mediation is also present in the CEFR Companion Volume (2018) to foster languge learning. One of Vygosky main contributions is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). It is the space within learner can develop learning beyond his level thanks to others support and is very interrelated with the mediation concept.
Teacher educators can found several ways to apply Vygotsky theory namely advanced learners to support slow ones, gamification or teacher guidance to mention a few. However, the ZPD application might be problematic in practice (Pathan, H. et al 2018) presenting a restrictive learning process where learner’s role can be passive imposing the advanced partner view. An drawback of mediation is that in a way anything could be a form of interaction with the world, therefore, such as neverending matter could be the cause teachers find difficulties to understand the base of the concept and misleading is teaching performance.
On the other hand, the Monitor Model developed by Krashen in 1980s,is the most influential and widely discusses cognitive theories in second language acquisition. Krashen’s model describes five central hypotheses (Schtüz 1998). His work is based on an interesting acquisition-learning distintion, advocating that the acquisition is the sole responsible for fluency. According to Krashen, acquisition is a subconscious process similar to the way children develop their first language while learning is a conscious knowledge of the grammar and its application in production. It is no new that people study a language but they are not capable of naturally communicate in real-life contexts with it. Another point of this theory is the predictable natural order that follows the acquisition of grammatical structures (not via learning). That occurres only when we know the grammar rules to be applied and there is sufficient time in the acquisition process to focus on the form and monitor our language production. Next Krashen’s idea, is about the input we received. Learning is more effective when we are exposed to what he called “comprehensible input” that contains structures that are just a next step beyond our level which are comprehensible through several possible features such as the context, extra linguistics cues or the knowledge of the world. As a result, acquirers look for meaning first and consequently assimilate structure as well. He also maintains that speaking fluency cannot be taught directly, but rather emerges naturally over time. The last term of Krahen theory is about the affective filter which refers to the optimal conditions to acquire language otherwise it will be blocked. The acquirer needs to be motivated and to have self-confidence and a good self-image.
As a theoretical model, it can be seen distant from reality but, it offers important findings that can retrieve fruitful benefits for teaching practice. First applied issues of Krashen model is how to know the natural order of grammar acquisition. If there is any conclusive research about this concern, it should be of major importance to provide the resources to inform and train teachers in order to guarantee better achievements. Next objection would be an exhaustive description of the acquisition process so that we can apply the model to the teaching practice. Personally, I consider the affective filter somehow an accessible matter to achieve, however, to decide the proper input that every student in particular needs is undoubtedly challenging for any educator (McLaughin 1987).
Last but not least, the movement towards a Communicative Approach referring to a multiplicity of theories and practical methodologies acceptable as valid and reliable This approach have been a remarkable tendency in the teaching of second languages nowadays. The Communicative approch is based on providing students with enough communicative abilities to develop oral a written competences. Even though, the development of communicative competence in at least one foreign language according to the current Spanish legislation (LOMCE) is one of the amis of second langue learning. school daily life and how educative systems are organized, not always facilitate its application in regular classes .
CONCLUSION
Along with this topic, we have studied some of the most influential language acquisition theories which include cognitive perspectives in their lines of thought. Despite the obvious differences between native language and second languages and its theoretical independence, they share some characteristic that allow them that most of the theories covered in this paper can be applied to both teaching contexts. After each theoretical description main applied issues have been underling concerning teacher difficulties when trying to incorporate those theories to the teaching practice.
All in all, as proven in these pages, theories and its applications normally show a certain level of inconsistency leading teacher, the vast majority of practitioners, to avoid using them. Moreover, none theory of language itself proclaims absolute truths as other scientific fields might do. As a result in this area of study, succeded professional will be those whose incorporate a combination of the theories and methodologies more appropriate to their learners' needs and objectives.
REFERENCES
Babakr, Z. (2019)“Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory: Critical Review “ Available at:10.31014/aior.1993.02.03.84
Council of Europe. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Companion Volume with New Descriptors.
Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2018. Available online at https://rm.coe.int/cefr-companion-volume-with-new-descriptors-2018/1680787989
Krashen, S. (1982) Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition.Pergamon Press Inc. At vailable at: http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf
McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of second-language learning. London: Edward Arnold.
Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Organic Law 8/2013 of Education for the improvement of the Quality of education. Available at: www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2006-7899
Pathan, H. et al (2018)“A Critical Review of Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory in
Second Language Acquisition” Available at: www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijel/article/view/67948
Piaget, J. (1936) Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Schütz, R. (1998) .Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition Available at: https://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash-english.html
https://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash-english.html
http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijel/article/view/67948
https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2006-7899
http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf