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(1)City University of New York (CUNY). CUNY Academic Works Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects. CUNY Graduate Center. 6-2016. Quaternion Algebras and Hyperbolic 3-Manifolds Joseph Quinn Graduate Center, City University of New York. How does access to this work benefit you? Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/1354 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: AcademicWorks@cuny.edu.
(2) Quaternion Algebras and Hyperbolic 3-Manifolds by Joseph A. Quinn. A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Mathematics in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York. 2016.
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(4) iii. c 2016. Joseph A. Quinn. All Rights Reserved.
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(6) v This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in Mathematics in satisfaction of the dissertation requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. (required signature). Date. Chair of Examining Committee (required signature). Date. Executive Officer. Ara Basmajian. Abhijit Champanerkar. Ilya Kofman. John Voight. Supervisory Committee. THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK.
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(8) vii Abstract. Quaternion Algebras and Hyperbolic 3-Manifolds by Joseph A. Quinn. Advisor: Abhijit Champanerkar. I use a classical idea of Macfarlane to obtain a complex quaternion model for hyperbolic 3-space and its group of orientation-preserving isometries, analogous to Hamilton’s famous result on Euclidean rotations. I generalize this to quaternion models over number fields for the action of Kleinian groups on hyperbolic 3-space, using arithmetic invariants of the corresponding hyperbolic 3-manifolds. The class of manifolds to which this technique applies includes all cusped arithmetic manifolds and infinitely many commensurability classes of cusped non-arithmetic, compact arithmetic, and compact non-arithmetic manifolds. I obtain analogous results for actions of Fuchsian groups on the hyperbolic plane. I develop new tools to study such manifolds, and then focus on a new algorithm for computing their Dirichlet domains..
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(10) Preface. In 1843, William Hamilton [26] invented the quaternions, fulfilling his vision of an algebraic structure on Euclidean space analogous to what the complex numbers provide for the Euclidean plane. The geometric applications of this four-dimensional, non-commutative, real algebra are well understood, having contributed for instance to group theory, number theory, crystallography, and applied sciences such as spatial navigation and three-dimensional computer graphics [39]. Leonard Dickson [16, 17, 18] generalized Hamilton’s quaternions in the early 1900’s to study quadratic Diophantine equations. This lead to a rich algebraic theory of (generalized) quaternion algebras, providing new methods for solving important problems in number theory [50]. More recently, in the study of hyperbolic surfaces and 3-manifolds, quaternion algebras over number fields appear as arithmetic invariants of manifolds, due to the work of Takeuchi [47], Maclachlan and Reid [36], and Neumann and Reid [40]. In this context, arithmetic properties of the algebras are used ix.
(11) x. PREFACE. to study commensurability of hyperbolic 3-manifolds, and give rise to the subclass of arithmetic manifolds in a natural way. As I studied these things I formed the following question, which has become the underlying motivation for this thesis.. Is there a geometric interpretation for the quaternion algebra of a hyperbolic 3-manifold that puts an algebraic structure on motions in the manifold, generalizing what Hamilton’s quaternion do for Euclidean space?. In seeking an answer, I found Alexander Macfarlane’s paper Hyperbolic quaternions [34] from 1900, in which he developed a quaternionic precursor to Minkowksi space and used it to define hyperbolic trigonometric functions by modifying Hamilton’s multiplication rules. However, the algebraic properties of his construction were ambiguous, lacking the benefit of Dickson’s later formalism. The hyperbolic quaternions remained under-developed as the scientific community moved away from a quaternionic system for space analysis [14]. I used Dickson’s algebraic formalism to reinterpret Macfarlane’s idea, leading to my first main result (Theorem 3.2.18): a representation of the group of orientation-preserving isometries of hyperbolic 3-space via quater-.
(12) PREFACE. xi. nion multiplication, where the points lie in Macfarlane’s quaternion embedding of Minkowski space. This gave a fresh perspective on a variety of classical ideas but at first I debated whether it would lead to an answer to my main question. I then received a motivational boost from Macfarlane himself when I came across the following passage. “I have always felt that Quaternions is on the right track, and that Hamilton and Tait deserve and will receive more and more as time goes by thanks of the highest order. But at the same time I am convinced that the notation can be improved; that the principles require to be corrected and extended; that there is a more complete algebra which unifies Quaternions, Grassmann’s method and Determinants, and applies to physical quantities in space. The guiding idea in this paper is generalization. What is sought for is an algebra which will apply directly to physical quantities, will include and unify the several branches of analysis, and when specialized will become ordinary algebra.”. Alexander Macfarlane, 1891 [33] Inspired by the prospect of fulfilling Macfarlane’s vision, I expanded my first result to include a class of quaternion algebras over number fields.
(13) xii. PREFACE. which arise as arithmetic invariants of hyperbolic 3-manifolds that I call Macfarlane manifolds. My second main result (Theorem 4.3.3) was to establish that the action of the fundamental group of a Macfarlane manifold by orientation-preserving isometries of hyperbolic 3-space admits a representation via quaternion multiplication, where hyperbolic space is modeled by a non-standard hyperboloid embedded in the same algebra. This gave the simultaneous geometric and arithmetic interpretation that I desired, but begged the question of how diverse this class of Macfarlane manifolds may or may not be. To address this, I found an algebraic characterization of Macfarlane manifolds in terms of their quaternion algebras and identified an interesting subclass geometrically, based on the existence of immersed totally geodesic subsurfaces. Using this, I showed that the class of Macfarlane manifolds includes all arithmetic cusped hyperbolic 3-manifolds and infinitely many commensurability classes of non-arithmetic cusped, arithmetic compact, and non-arithmetic compact examples. There are also analogous results for 2manifolds, which apply to all cusped hyperbolic surfaces and a broad class of closed ones, including the aforementioned subsurfaces of the 3-manifolds. Next I moved on to develop techniques to study these manifolds using properties of the quaternion algebras that define them. I created a new set.
(14) PREFACE. xiii. of tools for this purpose, some of which are utilized here, others of which have yet to be explored. As an application, I produced an algorithm for computing Dirichlet domains for Macfarlane surfaces and 3-manifolds in my quaternion model (Theorem 5.1.10). This helps us study the geometry of Macfarlane manifolds and at the same time introduces a new technique for constructing Dirichlet domains. Notably, it applies to both arithmetic and non-arithmetic examples. In my opinion, the current development is only the beginning of what is possible with this approach. While the examples included are interesting, I prefer to view them as illustrations of how to apply this theory, to be expanded upon in future work. Some possibilities for this, which I intend to pursue in the near future, are included in §6. In the spirit of Macfarlane, “The guiding idea in this paper is generalization.”.
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(16) Acknowledgements. I thank my advisor, Professor Abhijit Champanerkar, for introducing me to the fascinating world of hyperbolic 3-manifolds, for enthusiastically encouraging me to find my own passion within it, and for persistently refining my ability to pursue, realize and communicate my ideas. I am very grateful for having received, due do his diligence and benevolence, such a warm and sincere welcome into the community of people working in this field. I thank Professor John Loustau from Hunter College for challenging me as an undergraduate student and convincing me of my ability to go further. It is due to his persuasion that I decided to pursue the PhD. I thank Professor John Voight from Dartmouth College for so generously sharing with me his wealth of knowledge on quaternion algebras, and for our long correspondence wherein he answered many of my questions, making it possible for me to take my results much further. I thank Professor Dennis Sullivan from CUNY for consistently placing my ideas in a much broader perspective, for building my xv.
(17) xvi. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. confidence in thinking about difficult mathematics, and for connecting me to other mathematicians in similar veins of thought. Thanks to the following additional people for helpful comments and discussions about the content: Ian Agol, Marcel Alexander, Ara Basmajian, John Biasis, Ben Bloom-Smith, Daniel Boyd, Erin Carmody, Michelle Chu, Jeff Danciger, Adam Hughes, Ilya Kofman, Ivan Levcovitz, Seungwon Kim, Stefan Kohl, Greg Laun, Ben Linowitz, Victoria Manning, Lee Mosher, Aurel Page, Alan Reid, Dennis Ryan, Dylan Sparrow, Roland van der Veen, Alberto Verjovsky, Jeff Weeks, Matthias Wendt and Alex Zorn. I thank my parents Ann and Greg Quinn for making it possible for me to pursue higher mathematics, through their encouragement, love, and money! They have been a constant source of comfort and inspiration just by letting me know that whenever something good happened to me, it happened to them too. I thank my friends and my brother Bill Quinn, for their emotional support regarding the diverse and copious non-math-related problems that came up in my life along the way. Especially I thank my wife Kat Byrne for marrying me, for staying married to me even though I spent years making no money and talking about hyperbolic manifolds, and for her endless love and support in this and every other aspect of my life..
(18) Summary Background material is covered in §1 through §3.1, original results are covered in §3.2 through §5, and ideas for future work are given in §6. The main framework for the theory developed here is found in §4, and the main results are Theorem 3.2.18, Theorem 4.3.3, Theorem 4.4.16, Theorem 4.1.10 and Theorem 5.1.10. In §1 we discuss quaternion algebras, from their geometric origins to their arithmetic generalization. Historical content is included to motivate the current development, most importantly Macfarlane’s hyperbolic quaternions in §1.1.3. In §1.2 is a more comprehensive overview of the properties of quaternion algebras and the material in §1.2.1 is ubiquitous. Theorem 1.2.11 is also used often. The content of §1.2.3 and §1.2.4 is important in the development of Macfarlane spaces in §4.1. In §2 we review the contemporary usage of quaternion algebras in the study of hyperbolic 3-manifolds and surfaces. In §2.1 we review some funxvii.
(19) xviii. SUMMARY. damental hyperbolic geometry. The upper half-space model is treated there in the usual way, but is defined differently and in more detail in §3.2.3. The unconventional Definition 2.1.10 of a hyperboloid model for hyperbolic space over an arbitrary real field is central to the theory of Macfarlane manifolds, as is Definition 2.2.1 of the trace field and quaternion algebra of a manifold. The relationship between quaternion algebras and arithmetic manifolds is expanded upon in Proposition 2.3.5, to clarify this topic. In §3, we use classical results of Macfarlane [34] and Wigner [51] to develop standard Macfarlane spaces. Wigner’s Theorem 3.1.8 is a result from relativity theory [7], so an original proof is included that uses algebraic language more in line with the current methodology. Theorem 3.2.18 gives the quaternion representation of the group of orientation-preserving isometries of hyperbolic 3-space and is the first major original result. Theorem 3.2.26 gives a convenient way of transferring data from the quaternion model to the upper half-space model. In §3.3 we give analogous results that apply to the hyperbolic plane. In §4, we develop the general theory of Macfarlane spaces (Definition 4.1.1), which are characterized algebraically by Theorem 4.1.10. Definition 4.3.1 introduces Macfarlane manifolds. Theorem 4.3.3 is imperative to the study of these manifolds but much of the groundwork for proving it is done.
(20) SUMMARY. xix. in the proof of Theorem 4.2.3. In §4.2.2, a variety of computational tools unique to the current approach are developed with an eye toward future work. Of these, Theorem 4.2.10 gives a geometric description of a point on a quaternionic hyperboloid acting on itself, and is applied to finding Dirichlet domains in §5. In §4.3 we establish the diversity of Macfarlane manifolds, giving classes of examples using arithmetic and geometric conditions. In §4.4, restricted Macfarlane spaces are defined (Definition 4.4.5) and characterized (Theorem 4.4.9) and a series of analogous results are proven for hyperbolic surfaces. In §5, we give an algorithm for constructing Dirichlet domains for Macfarlane manifolds. We include a brief general discussion of Dirichlet domains, then the algorithm is detailed in §5.1. Theorem 5.1.10 shows its effectiveness. We discuss advantages of this technique over other methods, following from our use of quaternions. In §5.2 we illustrate the algorithm by working out arithmetic non-compact examples in dimensions 2 and 3, and we notice some properties made evident from the quaternion perspective. In §6 we list some ideas for future developments. These include further study of hyperbolic 3-manifolds and surfaces as well as other geometries and higher dimensions..
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(22) Contents Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. vi. Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiv List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv. 1 Quaternions 1.1. 1.2. 1. Geometric Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2. 1.1.1. Hamilton’s Quaternions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2. 1.1.2. Biquaternions and Hyperbolic Space . . . . . . . . . .. 4. 1.1.3. Macfarlane’s Hyperbolic Quaternions . . . . . . . . . .. 4. Number Theoretic Generalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8. 1.2.1. Quaternion Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8. 1.2.2. Ramification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 xxi.
(23) xxii. CONTENTS 1.2.3. Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19. 1.2.4. Algebras with Involution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23. 2 Arithmetic of Hyperbolic Manifolds 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 27. Hyperbolic 3-Manifolds and Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.1.1. The Upper Half-Space Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28. 2.1.2. Hyperboloid Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31. 2.1.3. Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34. 2.1.4. Some Applications of Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . 37. Quaternion Algebras as Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.2.1. Manifold Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40. 2.2.2. Commensurability Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43. Arithmetic Kleinian and Fuchsian Groups . . . . . . . . . . . 46. 3 Quaternion Models for Hyperbolic Space. 55. 3.1. The Spinor Representation of SOp1, 3q . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56. 3.2. A Quaternion Model for Hyperbolic 3-Space . . . . . . . . . . 63. 3.3. 3.2.1. The Standard Macfarlane Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64. 3.2.2. A Quaternion Representation of Isom` pH3 q . . . . . . . 67. 3.2.3. Comparison to the M¨obius Action . . . . . . . . . . . . 73. Quaternion Models for the Hyperbolic Plane . . . . . . . . . . 84.
(24) CONTENTS. xxiii. 3.3.1. The Standard Restricted Macfarlane Space . . . . . . . 85. 3.3.2. Pure Quaternions and Hyperbolic Planes . . . . . . . . 88. 4 Macfarlane Spaces. 91. 4.1. Macfarlane Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92. 4.2. Isometries in Macfarlane Quaternion Algebras . . . . . . . . . 104. 4.3. 4.4. 4.2.1. The Action by Isometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104. 4.2.2. Isometries as Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108. Examples of Macfarlane 3-Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 4.3.1. Non-compact Macfarlane Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . 124. 4.3.2. Compact Macfarlane Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125. Restricted Macfarlane Spaces and Hyperbolic Surfaces . . . . 130 4.4.1. Real Quaternion Algebras and H2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 131. 4.4.2. Restricted Macfarlane Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135. 4.4.3. Isometries in Restricted Macfarlane Spaces . . . . . . . 140. 5 Dirichlet Domains for Macfarlane Manifolds 5.1. 5.2. 145. Quaternion Dirichlet Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.1.1. Orbit Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149. 5.1.2. The Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153. Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160.
(25) xxiv 5.2.1. A Hyperbolic Punctured Torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161. 5.2.2. Torsion-Free Subgroups of Bianchi groups . . . . . . . 165. 6 Future Research. 173. Index of Notation. 177. Bibliography. 183.
(26) List of Tables 3.1. Normalized isometries as quaternions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76. 4.1. Subspaces with signature p1, 2q, in real quaternion algebras.. 5.1. Points from a hyperbolic punctured torus group that lie on its. . 132. quaternion hyperboloid model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 5.2. First three heights of points in Γ1 X I Γ1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168. 5.3. First three heights of points in Γ3 X I Γ3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169. 5.4. Lowest occurrences of points in pΓd X I Γd q r PSL2 pZq for first several d, and the directions of the corresponding geodesics. . 172. xxv.
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(28) List of Figures 1.1. Macfarlane’s hyperboloids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3.1. Relationship between the quaternion approach and the ap-. 7. proach from relativity theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.2. I n and P n lying in Rn`1 , from [3]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78. 3.3. P n and Hn lying in Rn , from [3]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78. 4.1. Pure quaternions in M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111. 4.2. An arithmetic link, from [37]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125. 5.1. A Dirichlet domain for the action of Z2 on R2 . . . . . . . . . . 146. 5.2. Orbit points by trace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150. 5.3. Geodesics used to find sides of DΓ p1q. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154. 5.4. Finding m in the compact (left) and cusped (right) cases. . . . 155. 5.5. Dirichlet domain for a hyperbolic punctured torus. . . . . . . . 166. 5.6. Dirichlet domain for the Whitehead link complement. . . . . . 170. xxvii.
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(30) Chapter 1 Quaternions. In this chapter we give a historical overview of quaternion algebras, setting up conventions and basic properties as well as motivating later developments. In §1.1, we view quaternions from the classical perspective as a geometric construction. We summarize some ideas for generalizing Hamilton’s model of Euclidean rotations to hyperbolic space, then focus on a variation introduced by Macfarlane which will remain a central motivation throughout. In §1.2, we explain the modern generalization of quaternion algebras in the context of algebraic number theory. We study the classification of quaternion algebras using their ramification sets. We explore the relationship between the theory of quaternion algebras and the theories of quadratic forms and algebras with involution. 1.
(31) 2. 1.1. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS. Geometric Origins. 1.1.1 Hamilton’s Quaternions William Hamilton was interested in finding a multiplicative structure on Euclidean 3-space analogous to what C does for vector multiplication in R2 [14]. He famously succeeded in 1843 by introducing the following 4dimensional object.. Definition 1.1.1. Hamilton’s quaternions, denoted by H, is the R-algebra generated by 1, i, j, k with the following multiplication rules. i2 “ j 2 “ k 2 “ ´1 ij “ k ji “ ´k. jk “ i kj “ ´i. ki “ j ik “ ´j. Hamilton [26] used trigonometric functions to show that multiplication in this space corresponds to Euclidean rotations. In particular he gave a way of identifying R3 as well as the group of rotations in R3 centered at the origin, both as subsets of H where the group action can be defined multiplicatively as follows.. Definition 1.1.2. For a quaternion q “ w ` xi ` yj ` zk P H, its standard.
(32) 1.1. GEOMETRIC ORIGINS. 3. involution (or quaternion conjugate), trace and norm, respectively, are q ˚ :“ w ´ xi ´ yj ´ zk, trpqq :“ q ` q ˚ “ 2w, npqq :“ qq ˚ “ w2 ` x2 ` y 2 ` z 2 . ( The pure quaternions in H are defined as H0 :“ q P H | trpqq “ 0 .. ? As a metric space, pH0 , nq is isometric to pR3 , nEuc q where nEuc is the ( Euclidean norm. Letting H1 :“ q P H | npqq “ 1 and PH1 :“ H1 {t˘1u, Hamilton’s theorem can be expressed in modern terminology.. Theorem 1.1.3 (Hamilton, 1843). An isomorphism from PH1 to the special orthogonal group SOp3q is defined by the group action PH1 ˆ H0 Ñ H0 : pu, pq ÞÑ upu˚ .. Hamilton used quaternions to simultaneously represent isometries as well as points in the space they act upon. This allows the group action to be written multiplicatively as upu˚ using the ambient algebraic structure of H, yielding various computational and theoretical advantages [14]..
(33) 4. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS. 1.1.2 Biquaternions and Hyperbolic Space Historically, Hamilton’s idea was intertwined with the development of modern vector analysis. For instance the use of i, j, k to represent the standard basis of R3 in contemporary calculus textbooks is a result of Hamilton’s notation [14]. Hamilton’s theorem also motivated attempts to find variations for further applications to geometry and physics, the most relevant for our purposes being the applications to hyperbolic space. The first generalization of quaternions is also due to Hamilton [27], who defined the biquaternions as the algebra generated over C by the same 1, i, j, k. These have found some hyperbolic geometric interpretation in the context of special relativity [14] first due to A. Conway in 1911 [10], who later developed a use of biquaternions to compute 4-dimensional hyperbolic rotations [11]. Lanczos in 1949 [30] used biquaternions to compute Lorentz transformations for applications to relativistic mechanics. Quaternions in this context however were soon replaced with spin theory [14], where the duality between points and isometries is lost.. 1.1.3 Macfarlane’s Hyperbolic Quaternions Alexander Macfarlane was interested in generalizing H to real hyperbolic 3space while maintaining 4-dimensionality over R (unlike the biquaternions)..
(34) 1.1. GEOMETRIC ORIGINS. 5. In 1891, Macfarlane [33] introduced a preliminary version of “hyperbolic quaternions,” by altering Hamilton’s multiplication rules to the following. i2 “ j 2 “ k 2 “ 1 ij “ k “ ´ji. jk “ i “ ´kj. ki “ j “ ´ik. The second line agrees with multiplication in H while the first does not. Using this, Macfarlane worked out quaternionic definitions for hyperbolic trigonometric functions in analogy to what Hamilton had done, and proposed the result as an improved method of special analysis [35].. This was Macfarlane’s first attempt at generalizing H to the hyperbolic setting. The idea was considered problematic [14] because the multiplication rules are non-associative. Given the other conditions inherited from Hamilton’s construction, for the algebra to be associative it is necessary that i2 “ j 2 “ k 2 “ ´1.. Proposition 1.1.4. Let K be a field with charpKq ‰ 2, and suppose K ‘ Ki ‘ Kj ‘ Kk.
(35) 6. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS. is an associative algebra where ij “ k “ ´ji,. jk “ i “ ´kj,. i2 “ a,. j 2 “ b,. ki “ j “ ´ik,. k2 “ c. for some a, b, c P K ˆ . Then a “ b “ c “ ´1.. Proof. aj “ i2 j “ ipijq “ ik “ ´j. Since j has an inverse, namely a´2 j, this implies a2 “ ´1. By symmetry, the same is true for b and c.. In 1900, Macfarlane [34] made a second attempt and introduced a revised version of his “hyperbolic quaternions” where he recovered associativity by changing the multiplication rules to the following. i2 “ j 2 “ k 2 “ 1, ? ij “ ´1k “ ´ji,. ? jk “ ´1i “ ´kj,. (1.1.5) ? ki “ ´1j “ ´ik.. Although this gives an associative multiplication, it is unclear what base field is being used. With these rules, if one takes the additive and multiplicative closure of t1, i, j, ku over R, one gets an 8-dimensional R-algebra. On the other hand, this can be seen as a 4-dimensional C-algebra that is quaternion in the modern sense. In fact, we will see in §1.2 that the C-algebra generated by these elements is isomorphic to Hamilton’s biquaternions. Macfarlane’s decision to change the squares of i, j, k from ´1 to `1 has a.
(36) 1.1. GEOMETRIC ORIGINS. 7. significant geometric consequence. Let M be the span of t1, i, j, ku over R. M is a 4-dimensional real vector space where the quaternion norm npqq “ qq ˚ (as in Definition 1.1.2) restricts to a real-valued quadratic form of signature p1, 3q. To phrase this differently, M is a quaternionic version of Minkowski space. Yet Macfarlane’s construction predates Minkowski’s by 17 years [14]. Figure 1.1 is a drawing from Macfarlane’s paper [34] depicting an equivalent of what would later be termed the light cone, with light-like and time-like vectors.. Figure 1.1: Macfarlane’s hyperboloids.. Macfarlane studied the level sets tm P M | npmq “ cu at c ‰ 0, which are 3-dimensional hyperboloids over R (of one sheet when c ă 0 and of two sheets when c ą 0), and used these to carry out trigonometric analysis of hyperbolic functions. From this point of view, there is potential for a duality.
(37) 8. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS. between points and isometries analogous to the identification of R3 with H0 , but this analogy is not developed in Macfarlane’s papers. Macfarlane’s idea did not gain popularity, having been proposed at a time when the math and physics community was moving away from a quaternionic system in setting the conventions for vector analysis [14]. It is unclear precisely what type of algebraic structure Macfarlane intended for his hyperbolic quaternions, as they were written before the formal development of generalized quaternion algebras. The main goal of this thesis is to complete Macfarlane’s idea using more modern techniques, then generalize it for applications to hyperbolic 3-manifolds and surfaces.. 1.2. Number Theoretic Generalization. In a series of papers starting in 1912 [16, 17, 18], Dickson developed the generalization of H that we now call quaternion algebras, for the purpose of studying quadratic Diophantine equations. These algebras also provided the first examples of non-commutative division rings besides H.. 1.2.1 Quaternion Algebras A quaternion algebra is a 4-dimensional central simple algebra: an algebra that is 4-dimensional over its center and has no nontrivial two-sided ideals.
(38) 1.2. NUMBER THEORETIC GENERALIZATION. 9. [20, 50]. We will only be interested in quaternion algebras over R, C, number fields (finite degree extensions of Q), or p-adic fields, so we will use a definition more specific to these cases. Let K be a field with charpKq ‰ 2. Definition 1.2.1. Let a, b P K ˆ , called the structure constants of the alge´ ¯ bra. The quaternion algebra a,b is the associative K-algebra (with unity) K K ‘ Ki ‘ Kj ‘ Kij with multiplication rules i2 “ a, j 2 “ b and ij “ ´ji. ´ Example 1.2.2. H “. ´1,´1 R. ¯ . With the k dropped, this captures Hamil-. ton’s multiplication rules more concisely. By writing ij instead of k we may now choose a, b to be arbitrary elements of K ˆ without losing associativity. In particular Proposition 1.1.4 no longer poses an obstruction to this. ´ ¯ Let B “ a,b . K Definition 1.2.3. Let q “ w ` xi ` yj ` zij P B with w, x, y, z P K. (1) The quaternion conjugate of q is q ˚ :“ w ´ xi ´ yj ´ zk. (2) The norm of q is npqq :“ qq ˚ “ w2 ´ ax2 ´ by 2 ` abz 2 ..
(39) 10. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS. (3) The trace of q is trpqq :“ q ` q ˚ “ 2w. Remark 1.2.4. (1) If K Ă C, then n and tr agree with the determinant and matrix trace under any faithful matrix representation of B into M2 pCq. (2) In the literature [50] these are sometimes called the reduced norm and reduced trace, denoted respectively by nrdpqq and trdpqq. This is to distinguish them from the norm and trace of q under the left-regular representation B Ñ EndK pBq : p ÞÑ pq ÞÑ pqq. The norm and trace of q in this sense are npqq2 and 2trpqq respectively. (3) @p, q P B : trpp ` qq “ trppq ` trpqq. Proposition 1.2.5 ([50, 20]). For p, q P B, the following statements hold. (1) q is invertible if and only if npqq ‰ 0, and in this case q ´1 “ (2) pq ˚ q˚ “ q. (3) ppqq˚ “ q ˚ p˚ . Corollary 1.2.6. For all p, q P B, nppqq “ nppqnpqq.. q˚ . npqq.
(40) 1.2. NUMBER THEORETIC GENERALIZATION. 11. Definition 1.2.7. Let q “ w ` xi ` yj ` zij P B with w, x, y, z P K and let S Ď B be a subset. (1) q is a pure quaternion when trpqq “ 0. (2) The pure quaternion part of q is q0 :“ xi ` yj ` zij. (3) The set of pure quaternions in S is S0 :“ tq P S | trpqq “ 0u. We will similarly indicate other conditions on the trace with a subscript, e.g. S` :“ tq P S | trpqq ą 0u. (4) S 1 :“ tq P S | npqq “ 1u. We will similarly indicate other conditions on the norm with a superscript, e.g. S 0 :“ tq P S | npqq “ 0u and the units in S is the set S ˆ :“ tq P S | D q ´1 u “ tq P S | npqq ‰ 0u. Recall Hamilton’s Theorem 1.1.3 where the rotation action is accomplished by p ÞÑ upu˚ , with u P PH1 and p P H0 . By Proposition 1.2.5, since npuq “ 1 this could just as well be written as a conjugation p ÞÑ upu´1 . As implied by the following Theorem, conjugation maps of this form play a larger role in the theory of quaternion algebras. Theorem 1.2.8 (Skolem-Noether). [20, 50] Let A be a central-simple Kalgebra, and let A1 be a simple K-algebra. Let ϕ` : A Ñ A1 be K-algebra homomorphisms, for ` “ 1, 2. Then D c P A1 such that ϕ2 pxq “ cϕ1 pxqc´1 ..
(41) 12. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS Since quaternion algebras are central-simple, taking A “ A1 to be quater-. nion and letting ϕ1 “ Id in the notation of the theorem, we obtain the following.. Corollary 1.2.9. Let B be a quaternion algebra over K. If ϕ P AutK pBq then D c P B such that ϕ : p ÞÑ cpc´1 .. An equivalent way of stating this is every K-linear automorphism of B is inner, i.e. AutK pBq “ InnK pBq.. 1.2.2 Ramification ´ The algebra. a,b K. ¯ is not unique up to isomorphism. It will be important in. upcoming applications to know whether two given quaternion algebras are isomorphic. We do this by examining their ramification.. ´ Definition 1.2.10. A quaternion algebra. a,b K. ¯. ´ is called split if. a,b K. ¯ –. M2 pKq, and it is called ramified otherwise.. One can think of the term “split” here in relation to the splitting field of a polynomial, for a quaternion algebra is split when it contains the necessary square roots as described in part (3) below..
(42) 1.2. NUMBER THEORETIC GENERALIZATION. 13. Theorem 1.2.11 ([20, 37, 50]). (1) Up to K-algebra isomorphism, the only quaternion algebra over K ´ ¯ which is not a division algebra is 1,1 – M2 pKq. K ´ (2). a,b K. ¯. ´ –. 1,1 K. ¯. ´ (3) @ x, y P K ˆ :. ðñ D px, yq P K 2 : ax2 ` by 2 “ 1. a,b K. ¯. ´ –. b,a K. ¯. ´ –. ax2 ,by 2 K. ¯ .. For example, since C is algebraically closed and R contains all its positive square roots, we have the following fact. Corollary 1.2.12. (1) Up to isomorphism, the only quaternion algebras over R are H (a division algebra) and M2 pRq, and (2) Up to isomorphism, the only quaternion algebra over C is M2 pCq. Places Now let K denote an arbitrary number field. An algebraic integer is a complex root of a monic polynomial in Zrxs (as opposed to an algebraic number, where we no longer require the polynomial to be monic). The ring of integers of K is the ring formed by algebraic integers in K and is denoted by RK . An ideal of RK is denoted by I Ÿ RK . Let p denote a prime ideal of RK ..
(43) 14. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS A place of K is an equivalence class of valuations on K but for our pur-. poses it is useful to define it as a type of field embedding, with the following justification. For each valuation v there is a completion of K at v, denoted by Kv . Since K is a number field, Kv will always be either C, R, or a p-adic field. Consider first the cases where Kv is either C or R. Then (up to equivalence) v is necessarily of the form v : K Ñ R` , x ÞÑ |σpxq|, where | ¨ | is the complex modulus and σ : K ãÑ Kv is an embedding corresponding to an element of GpK : Qq, the Galois group of K over Q. When Kv “ R, there is a one-to-one correspondence between these choices for σ and equivalence classes of v. When Kv “ C, there is a one-to-one correspondence between complex conjugate pairs pσ, σq and equivalence classes of v. Denote a real embedding of K by θ and a complex embedding of K by τ . In the case where Kv is a p-adic field, there exists a non-zero prime ideal p Ÿ RK so that v is (up to equivalence) the p-adic valuation `. v : K Ñ R Y t8u,. # e´ordp pxq x ÞÑ 8. ; ;. p | xRK . p - xRK. Here ordp pxq is the integer occurring as the exponent of p in the unique prime factorization of the fractional ideal xRK into prime ideals p, p1 , . . . pm Ÿ RK . That is, xRK “ pordp pxq. śm `“1. pn` ` where @ ` : p` ‰ p. The point is that when.
(44) 1.2. NUMBER THEORETIC GENERALIZATION. 15. Kv is p-adic it is a completion with respect to a prime ideal p Ÿ RK , so we write Kv “ Kp , and there is a natural embedding p : K ãÑ Kp . This justifies the following definition. Definition 1.2.13. (1) A real place of K is an embedding θ : K ãÑ R. (2) A complex place of K is an embedding τ : K ãÑ C where the image of τ is not totally real, and we identify τ with its complex conjugate τ . (3) An infinite place of K is a real or complex place of K. (4) A finite place of K is an embedding p : K ãÑ Kp where p Ÿ RK . Since p uniquely determines p , we often use p to denote both the place and the ideal. (5) A place of K is a finite or infinite place. We gain a full description of isomorphism classes of quaternion algebras ´ ¯ by examining the ramification at its field’s places. Let B “ a,b . K Definition 1.2.14. (1) The completion of B at the place σ : K ãÑ Kv is Bσ :“ B bσ Kv “. ´ σpaq, σpbq ¯ . Kv.
(45) 16. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS. (2) B is split (or unramified ) at σ if Bσ – M2 pKv q, otherwise B is ramified at σ. ´ If σ is real, then Bσ “. σpaq,σpbq R. ¯ . By Corollary 1.2.12, Bσ must be either. H or M2 pRq, thus the completion of B at a real place θ is ramified if and only if Bθ – H. By the same Corollary, if τ is complex then Bτ – M2 pCq, i.e. Bτ is never ramified. This motivates the following. Definition 1.2.15. The infinite ramification of B, denoted by Ram8 pBq, is the set of real places θ such that Bθ – H. Each finite place corresponds to some p Ÿ RK , and the completion takes ´ ¯ a,b the form Bp “ K . Quaternion algebras over a p-adic field, like those over p R, fall into only two isomorphism classes. Proposition 1.2.16 ([37]). If B is a quaternion algebra over the p-adic field Kp then either B – M2 pKp q, or B is a division algebra. Moreover, up to isomorphism there is only one quaternion division algebra over Kp . Definition 1.2.17. The finite ramification of B, denoted by Ramp pBq is the set of prime ideals p Ÿ RK such that Bp is ramified. Definition 1.2.18. The ramification of B is the set RampBq :“ Ram8 pBq Y Ramp pBq..
(46) 1.2. NUMBER THEORETIC GENERALIZATION. 17. We summarize some important properties of ramification. Theorem 1.2.19 (§2.7 of [37], [50]). Let B be a quaternion algebra. (1) B is split if and only if RampBq ‰ H. (2) RampBq is a finite set of even cardinality. (3) For every number field K and every set S of complex places of K having even cardinality, there exists a quaternion algebra B such that RampBq “ S. (4) If B 1 is a quaternion algebra over the same number field as B, then B – B 1 as K-algebras if and only if RampBq “ RampB 1 q. Computation When computing ramification, the infinite case is more straightforward because of the analogy with GpK : Qq. Let d “ rK : Qs, the degree of the field extension K Ě Q. Then the minimal polynomial of K over Q has d roots with complex roots occurring in conjugate pairs. Let r be the number of real roots and let 2c be the number of complex roots. Then d “ r ` 2c, and K has r real places and c complex places. If t P C is the primitive element of K, then K “ Qptq and the infinite places of K are the results of replacing t with these roots..
(47) 18. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS Finite ramification is more subtle but there is often a straightforward. method for computing it.. Definition 1.2.20. The ideal norm for K is the function N : tI | I Ÿ RK u, I ÞÑ |RK {I|. Example 1.2.21.. (1) When K “ Q, ideals are of the form pnq with n P N, and we have Nppnqq “ n. ? ? (2) When K “ Qp 10q, we have Npp2qq “ 4 and Npp2, 10qq “ 2. Definition 1.2.22. A prime ideal p is dyadic when Nppq “ 2n for some n P N. Computing ramification at dyadic primes is more complicated, and usually handled case-by-case, but for the other primes we have the theorem below. For S Ă Q, let S p2q :“ ts2 | s P Su. ´ Theorem 1.2.23 (§2.6 of [37]). Let B “ dyadic. (1) If a, b R p, then Bp is split (unramified).. a,b K. ¯ , and let p Ÿ RK be non-.
(48) 1.2. NUMBER THEORETIC GENERALIZATION. 19. (2) When a R p and b P p r pp2q : Bp is split ðñ a is congruent to a square modulo p. (3) When a, b P p r pp2q : Bp is split ðñ ´a´1 b is congruent modulo p to a square in RK .. 1.2.3 Quadratic Forms The theory of quaternion algebras is deeply related to the theory of quadratic ´ ¯ forms. Let K be a field with charpKq ‰ 0. Recall that the norm on B “ a,b K is the map n :B Ñ K. w ` xi ` yj ` zij ÞÑ w2 ´ ax2 ´ by 2 ` abz 2 .. The norm is a quadratic form over K, and in this sense B is a quadratic space. However for any B, the coefficient of w2 will always be 1, thus there is no loss of information in considering only how n behaves on the pure quaternions B0 . Also, the coordinate ab of z 2 depends only on the previous two coordinates, so in a sense even the restriction n|B0 contains some redundancy. This can be made precise as follows. Let V and V 1 be quadratic spaces over K, with respective quadratic forms φ and φ1 . Definition 1.2.24. We say that V and V 1 (or φ and φ1 ) are similar if D a.
(49) 20. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS. K-linear isomorphism ψ : V Ñ V 1 and D u P K ˆ such that @ v P V : φpvq “ upφ1 ˝ ψqpvq. Theorem 1.2.25 ([50]). The map B ÞÑ n|B0 yields a bijection from the set of quaternion algebras over K up to isomorphism, and the set of non-degenerate quadratic forms on K 3 up to similarity. The following tools will be useful in discussing the behavior of n. Definition 1.2.26. Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over K and let φ be a quadratic form on V . (1) The associated symmetric bilinear form of φ is the map β :V ˆ V Ñ K. pv, wq ÞÑ φpv ` wq ´ φpvq ´ φpwq.. (2) Vectors v and w are orthogonal (with respect to φ), if βpv, wq “ 0, and this is denoted by vKw. (3) For a subspace S Ă V , the orthogonal complement of S (with respect to φ) is S K :“ tv P V | @ s P S : vKsu. (4) Given any basis B “ tb1 , . . . , b` u for V , the Gram matrix of φ with respect to B, denoted by GB φ , is the ` ˆ ` matrix where entry pm, nq is βpbm , bn q..
(50) 1.2. NUMBER THEORETIC GENERALIZATION. 21. (5) A basis B for V diagonalizes φ if GB φ is a diagonal matrix, and in this case GB φ is a diagonalization of φ.. (6) Let diagpd1 , . . . , d` q denote the diagonal matrix with the listed entries as its diagonal.. Remark 1.2.27. Letting ~v :“ pv1 , . . . , vn q P V where the coordinates are with respect to some basis B, φp~v q “. n ÿ. ak,` vk v` “ φp~v q “ ~v pak,` q~v J ,. k,`“1. where @k, ` : ak,` “ a`,k . Therefore GB φ “ pak,` q, a symmetric matrix.. Definition 1.2.28. Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over K, and let φ and φ1 be quadratic forms on V . We say φ is isometric over K to φ1 , denoted J B by φ » φ1 , if there exists some m P GLn pKq such that mGB φ m “ Gφ1 .. Theorem 1.2.29 (The Inertia Theorem [32]). There exists a basis B that diagonalizes φ. Moreover, this diagonal basis takes the following forms.. (1) If K “ C, then B can be chosen so that GB φ “ diagp1, . . . , 1, 0, . . . , 0q, and the number of occurrences of 1 and of 0 is independent of the choice of B..
(51) 22. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS. (2) If K “ R, then B can be chosen so that GB φ “ diagp1, . . . , 1, 0, . . . , 0, ´1, . . . , ´1q and the number of occurrences of each of 1, 0, ´1 is independent of the choice of B. (3) If K Ă R, then B can be chosen so that GB φ is diagonal, but the number of occurrences of each of positive, negative, and zero entries in GB φ is independent of the choice of B. By this theorem the following terms are well-defined. Definition 1.2.30. A quadratic form φ with a diagonalization diagpd1 , . . . , dn q is nondegenerate if d1 , . . . , dn ‰ 0. If φ is nondegenerate and K Ă R, the signature of φ, denoted by sigpφq, is the pair of integers pp, mq where p and m are the numbers of positive and negative entries in diagpd1 , . . . , dn q, respectively. Proposition 1.2.31. [50] Let B be a quaternion algebra over K. Consider B as a quadratic space over K with quadratic form n. (1) The symmetric bilinear form associated to n is βpv, wq “ trpv ˚ wq. (2) K K “ B0 . (3) B “ t1, i, j, iju is an orthogonal basis and GB n “ diagp1, ´a, ´b, abq..
(52) 1.2. NUMBER THEORETIC GENERALIZATION. 23. 1.2.4 Algebras with Involution Quaternion division algebras admit an alternative characterization in the language of algebras with involution [29, 50]. We give some basic definitions and results which will be useful later. Let K be a field where charpKq ‰ 2, and let A be a central simple K-algebra.. Definition 1.2.32. An involution on A is a map ‹ : A Ñ A : x ÞÑ x‹ such that @ x, y P A :. (1) px ` yq‹ “ x‹ ` y ‹. (2) pxyq‹ “ y ‹ x‹. (3) px‹ q‹ “ x. Let ‹ be an involution on A.. Definition 1.2.33. For S Ă A, the set of symmetric elements of ‹ in S is ‹. S :“ tx P S | x‹ “ xu.. Remark 1.2.34. In [29] this is denoted by SympS, ‹q. In other contexts one might see it written as S ‹ or S x‹y ..
(53) 24. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS. Definition 1.2.35. (1) ‹ is of the first kind if K “ ‹K. (2) ‹ is standard if it is of the first kind and @ x P A : xx‹ P K. (3) ‹ is α is of the second kind if K ‰ ‹K. Proposition 1.2.36. (1) 1‹ “ 1. (2) If ‹ is of the first kind then it is K-linear. (3) If ‹ is of the second kind then rK : ‹Ks “ 2. Example 1.2.37.. (1) Complex conjugation on the R-algebra C is a standard involution. (2) Matrix transposition on the K-algebra Mn pKq is an involution of the first kind, but not a standard involution. ? (3) If K is a number field of the form K “ F p ´dq where F Ă R and d P F ` , then the conjugate transpose is an involution of the second kind on the K-algebra Mn pKq..
(54) 1.2. NUMBER THEORETIC GENERALIZATION. 25. ? (4) An algebra over the field Qp 3 ´2q does not admit an involution of the second kind because it has no subfield of index 2. The elements of an algebra with involution admit a convenient description in terms of the symmetric elements and the complementary set defined below. Definition 1.2.38. Let A be a K-algebra with involution ‹. The set of skew-symmetric elements of A (with respect to ‹) is defined as SkewpA, ‹q :“ tq P Q | q ‹ “ ´qu. Proposition 1.2.39. A “ ‹A ‘ SkewpA, ‹q Proof. For an arbitrary element x P A, let m “. x`x‹ 2. and s “. x´x‹ . 2. Then. x “ m ` s. Observe that the elements m and s are in the desired sets. x‹ ` px‹ q‹ x‹ ` x “ “m 2 2 2 ´ x ´ x‹ ¯‹ x‹ ´ px‹ q‹ x‹ ´ x s‹ “ “ “ “ ´s 2 2 2 ‹. m “. ´ x ` x‹ ¯‹. “. It remains to show the decomposition is unique. Suppose x “ m1 ` s1 where m1 P ‹A and s1 P SkewpA, ‹q. Then x‹ “ m1‹ `s1‹ “ m1 ´s1 , giving x`x‹ “ 2m1 and x ´ x‹ “ 2s1 , giving the result. Let us now look at some less obvious properties of involutions. Standard involutions can be used to characterize quaternion division algebras in the.
(55) 26. CHAPTER 1. QUATERNIONS. following sense. Theorem 1.2.40. [50] A non-commutative division algebra is quaternion if and only if it admits a standard involution. Moreover this standard involution is the quaternion conjugate. Not every quaternion algebra over K admits involutions of the second kind. When one does, the following theorem due to Albert [29] gives a correspondence between such involutions and quaternion subalgebras over ‹. K.. Theorem 1.2.41. [29] Let F be a field and K Ą F be a separable quadratic field extension. Let τ generate GpK : F q. Let B be a quaternion algebra over K and ‹ be an involution of the second kind on B such that ‹|K “ τ . Then there exists a unique quaternion F -subalgebra A Ă B such that B “ A bF K and pq b cq‹ “ q ˚ b τ pcq. In particular, A is the algebra generated over F by SkewpB, ‹q0 “ tp P B0 | p‹ “ ´pu..
(56) Chapter 2 Arithmetic of Hyperbolic Manifolds In this chapter we give a brief introduction to hyperbolic 3-manifolds and surfaces and their arithmetic invariants. In §2.1 we introduce hyperbolic nspace, the upper half-space model, hyperboloid models and other aspects of hyperbolic geometry (see [5, 42]). In §2.2 we summarize the use of number fields and quaternion algebras to distinguish manifolds and commensurability classes of manifolds (see [37]). In §2.3, we explain how hyperbolic 3-manifolds and surfaces whose fundamental groups are arithmetic in the sense of Borel arise naturally from quaternion algebras.. 2.1. Hyperbolic 3-Manifolds and Surfaces. We will denote hyperbolic n-space by Hn . All hyperbolic n-manifolds are assumed to be complete and orientable. We focus primarily on n “ 3 with 27.
(57) 28. CHAPTER 2. ARITHMETIC OF HYPERBOLIC MANIFOLDS. analogous commentary for n “ 2. A geodesic is a path that has the shortest possible length among paths connecting its endpoints, and a complete geodesic in Hn is a geodesic whose endpoints lie on BHn . A lower-dimensonal submanifold S of a manifold X is totally geodesic in X if every geodesic in S is a geodesic in X. We will be interested later in hyperbolic surfaces that admit immersions in hyperbolic 3-manifolds as totally geodesic surfaces.. 2.1.1 The Upper Half-Space Model The n-dimensional upper half-space model for Hn is ( Hn :“ px1 , . . . , xn q P Rn | xn ą 0 endowed with the metric ds2 “. dx21 ` . . . dx2n . We call H3 the upper halfx2n. space and H2 the upper half-plane, and one can make the following identifications. H3 “ C ˆ R`. p :“ C Y t8u BH3 “ C. ? H2 “ R ˆ R` ´1. p :“ R Y t8u BH2 “ R. The standard approach then is to explicitly define the M¨obius action by PSL2 pCq (respectively PSL2 pRq) on BH3 (respectively BH2 ), and define the.
(58) 2.1. HYPERBOLIC 3-MANIFOLDS AND SURFACES. 29. action by orientation-preserving isometries on the whole space abstractly as the unique isometric extension of the M¨obius action on the boundary. This gives that the group Isom` pH3 q of orientation-preserving isometries of H3 is isomorphic to PSL2 pCq, and Isom` pH2 q – PSL2 pRq.. Definition 2.1.1. A Kleinian group is a discrete subgroup of PSL2 pCq, and a Fuchsian group is a discrete subgroup of PSL2 pRq.. Remark 2.1.2. In some sources, a Kleinian (Fuchsian) group is defined as a group admitting a discrete faithful representation into PSL2 pCq (PSL2 pRq), while here we define them concretely as having a fixed embedding.. Let Γ be a Kleinian (or Fuchsian) group. With n “ 3 (or 2), we denote by Hn {Γ the quotient of Hn by the action of Γ. That is, Hn is the universal covering space of Hn {Γ with covering group Γ, giving Hn {Γ a geometric structure modeled on Hn . It follows that Hn is a hyperbolic n-orbifold. When Γ is torsion-free, Hn {Γ is a hyperbolic n-manifold. We are interested in these manifolds up to homeomorphism and in this sense, all oriented hyperbolic n-manifolds arise in this way.. Definition 2.1.3. Γ is called finite covolume when volpH3 {Γq ă 8 and is called cocompact when H3 {Γ is compact..
(59) 30. CHAPTER 2. ARITHMETIC OF HYPERBOLIC MANIFOLDS In dimensions n ď 3, there is a correspondence between the geometry. and the topology of Hn , allowing us to work with Kleinian groups up to isomorphism. Theorem 2.1.4. [3] (The Mostow-Prasad Rigidity Theorem) If X and Y are finite-volume, complete, connected hyperbolic n-manifolds with n ě 3, where π1 pXq – π2 pY q, then X » Y . Example 2.1.5. [37] The figure-8 knot group has the presentation xx, y | xyx´1 yx “ yxy ´1 xyy.. Bˆ ˙ ˆ ˙F 1 0 1 1 ? A matrix representation of this is Γ “ , 1` ´3 , thus H3 {Γ 0 1 1 2 is the figure-8 knot complement equipped with hyperbolic structure. Any isomorphism of Kleinian groups is realized via conjugation in PSL2 pCq, thus such conjugation induces a homeomorphism of the corresponding manifolds. While the Mostow-Prasad Rigidity Theorem does not hold in dimension 2, we do have something similar for subsurfaces of a hyperbolic 3-manifold..
(60) 2.1. HYPERBOLIC 3-MANIFOLDS AND SURFACES. 31. Theorem 2.1.6. Let X be a finite-volume hyperbolic 3-manifold and Γ – π1 pXq be a Kleinian group. Then there exists a compact hyperbolic surface S which admits a totally geodesic immersion in X if and only if D ∆ ă Γ and Dc P PSL2 pCq such that (1) ∆ – π1 pSq, (2) c∆c´1 is Fuchsian, and (3) S « H2 {c∆c´1 .. 2.1.2 Hyperboloid Models While the upper half-space model for Hn is more conventional, we will be more interested, in §3 onward, in working with hyperboloid models. A key difference between these two approaches is that in Hn points on the boundary are more accessible while in a hyperboloid model points in hyperbolic space are more accessible. Many interesting results have been accomplished using hyperboloid models, such as Epstein and Penner’s decomposition algorithm for non-compact manifolds [19], Vinberg and Shvartsman’s classification of hyperbolic reflection groups [48], and Gromov and Piatetski-Shaprio’s realization of nonarithmetic lattices [25]..
(61) 32. CHAPTER 2. ARITHMETIC OF HYPERBOLIC MANIFOLDS. Definition 2.1.7. Let φ : Rn`1 Ñ R be a quadratic form with sigpφq “ p1, nq. A hyperboloid model for hyperbolic n-space is defined as I φ :“ tpw, x, y, zq “ p P Rp1,nq | φp1,nq ppq “ 1, w ą 0u, equipped with the metric induced by the restriction of φ to the tangent space of I φ .. Remark 2.1.8. In the literature, sigpφq “ p1, nq is instead pn, 1q, and the requirement φppq “ 1 is instead φppq “ ´1. The version given above is equivalent and better suited to the constructions in the next chapter.. The standard choice for φ is the standard quadratic form over R of signature p1, nq, which is φp1,nq : Rn`1 Ñ R :. px1 , . . . , xn`1 q ÞÑ x21 ´ x22 ´ ¨ ¨ ¨ ´ x2n`1 .. (2.1.9). When φ “ φp1,nq , we call I φ the standard hyperboloid model for hyperbolic n-space, and denote this by I n . More generally, we introduce hyperboloid models over arbitrary subfields of R. Definition 2.1.10. Let F Ă R be a field and let φ : F n`1 Ñ F be a quadratic form of signature p1, nq. The vector model defined by the form φ is.
(62) 2.1. HYPERBOLIC 3-MANIFOLDS AND SURFACES. 33. defined as I φ :“ tpx1 , . . . , xn`1 q “ p P F n`1 | φppq “ 1, x1 ą 0u, equipped with the metric induced by the restriction of φ to the tangent space of I n . We will call this a hyperboloid model for hyperbolic n-space defined over F , or more specifically the hyperboloid model induced by φ. Proposition 2.1.11. Let φ : F n`1 Ñ F be as in the above definition and let  : I φ ãÑ Rn`1 be the natural embedding. Then over R we have pI φ q » I n . Proof. The statement holds if and only if pRn`1 , φq and pRn`1 , φp1,nq q are isometric as quadratic spaces, which is true if and only if φ (under an extension of scalars from F to R) and φp1,nq are isometric as quadratic forms over R. This follows from Theorem 1.2.29. The distance between two points p, q P I φ is given by ` ˘ dI φ pp, qq “ arcosh βpp, qq. (2.1.12). where β is the symmetric bilinear form associated to φ as in Definition 1.2.26 [42]. Taking p “ px1 , . . . , xn`1 q, q “ px11 , . . . , x1n`1 q and φ “ φp1,nq yields ´ φpp ` qq ´ φppq ´ φpqq ¯ dI n pp, qq “ arcosh 2 “. arcoshpx1 x11. ´. x2 x12. ´ ¨¨¨ ´. xn`1 x1n`1 q.. (2.1.13).
(63) 34. CHAPTER 2. ARITHMETIC OF HYPERBOLIC MANIFOLDS A convenient property of a hyperboloid model I φ is that under its in-. clusion into F p1,nq , linear maps on F p1,nq preserving φ induce isometries of I φ . For instance, geodesics on I φ take the form of intersections of I φ with 2-dimensional Euclidean planes passing through the origin of F p1,nq .. 2.1.3 Isometries We characterize elements of Isom` pH3 q and Isom` pH2 q as follows. Definition 2.1.14. (1) An elliptic isometry of H3 is a rotation about some fixed complete geodesic, called the axis of the isometry, and has two fixed points in BH3 , one at each end of its axis. (2) A parabolic isometry of H3 is a translation having no fixed points in H3 and a single fixed point in BH3 . (3) A hyperbolic isometry of H3 is a translation along a complete geodesic, called the axis of the isometry, fixing no points of H3 and fixing two points of BH3 , one on each end of its axis. (4) A purely loxodromic isometry of H3 is a simultaneous translation along and rotation about a complete geodesic (its axis) in H3 , fixing no points of H3 , and fixing two points of BH3 , one on each end of its axis..
(64) 2.1. HYPERBOLIC 3-MANIFOLDS AND SURFACES. 35. (5) A loxodromic isometry of H3 is a hyperbolic or purely loxodromic isometry of H3 . Definition 2.1.15. (1) An elliptic isometry of H2 is a rotation about a point in BH2 . (2) A parabolic isometry of H2 is a translation having no fixed points in H2 and a single fixed point in BH2 . (3) A hyperbolic isometry of H2 is a translation along a complete geodesic, called the axis of the isometry, fixing no points of H2 and fixing two points of BH2 , one on each end of its axis. Using the model Hn , and the group PSL2 pCq (or PSL2 pRq), there is an equivalent, algebraic characterization. ˆ Proposition 2.1.16. Let γ P PSL2 pCq, γ ‰. ˙ 1 0 . If γ P PSL2 pRq, then 0 1. only the first three definitions apply. (1) γ is elliptic ðñ trpγq P R and |trpγq| ă 2. (2) γ is parabolic ðñ trpγq “ ˘2. (3) γ is hyperbolic ðñ trpγq P R and |trpγq| ą 2. (4) γ is purely loxodromic ðñ trpγq P C r R..
(65) 36. CHAPTER 2. ARITHMETIC OF HYPERBOLIC MANIFOLDS. (5) γ is loxodromic ðñ trpγq R r´2, 2s. Definition 2.1.17. If γ P PSL2 pCq is loxodromic isometry, the translation length of γ, denoted by `pγq, is the hyperbolic distance by which γ moves points along its axis. Proposition 2.1.18. If γ P PSL2 pCq is loxodromic (hyperbolic when γ P ` ˘ PSL2 pRq), then `pγq “ 2arcosh trpγq . 2 Proof. Since detpγq “ 1, using the characteristic polynomial of γ, an eigenvalue λ of γ satisfies λ2 ´ trpγqλ ` 1 “ 0, which implies λ“. trpγq ˘. a tr2 pγq ´ 4 . 2. (2.1.19). Since γ is loxodromic, γ has two fixed points. Up to conjugation these are ˆ ˙ λ 0 0 and 8 so without loss of generality γ “ . Then the M¨obius action 0 λ´1 λ`0 of γ on 1 is γp1q “ “ λ2 , so in the hyperbolic metric, the translation 0 ` λ´1 ˇ trpγq ` atr2 pγq ´ 4 ˇ ˇ ˇ 2 length of γ is logpλ q “ 2 log ˇ ˇ, where without loss of 2 generality the sign choice reflects the eigenvalue satisfying |λ| ą 1. Lastly, c a ˇ ˇ ˙ ˆ ´ trpγq ¯2 ˇ trpγq ` tr2 pγq ´ 4 ˇ trpγq ˇ “ log log ˇˇ ` ´1 ˇ 2 2 2 ´ trpγq ¯ “ arcosh . 2 The classification of isometries in Γ also provides topological information.
(66) 2.1. HYPERBOLIC 3-MANIFOLDS AND SURFACES. 37. about H3 {Γ. When Γ includes a rotation, this contributes a cone point to H3 {Γ so that it cannot be a manifold. When Γ includes parabolic elements, these contribute cusps to H3 {Γ. Each distinct cusp of Hn {Γ corresponds to a distinct conjugacy class of maximal parabolic subgroups in Γ. We summarize these observations below.. Theorem 2.1.20 ([37]). Let Γ be a Kleinian group (or a Fuchsian group when n “ 2). (1) Hn {Γ is a manifold ðñ Γ is torsion-free ðñ Γ contains no elliptic elements.. (2) Hn {Γ is cocompact ðñ Γ contains no parabolic elements.. 2.1.4 Some Applications of Number Theory Recall that RK denotes the ring of integers of K. When K is an imaginary ? quadratic field Qp ´dq (with d P N r Np2q ), we write Od :“ RQp?´dq . Example 2.1.21. A Bianchi group, denoted by Γd (d P N), is the group PSL2 pOd q. The corresponding Bianchi orbifold is Md :“ H3 {Γd . Md is ˆ ˙ 0 1 . Md not a manifold because Γd contains torsion elements, e.g. ´1 0˙ ˆ 1 1 is non-compact because Γd contains parabolic elements, e.g. . The 0 1.
(67) 38. CHAPTER 2. ARITHMETIC OF HYPERBOLIC MANIFOLDS. Bianchi groups provide an important set of representatives of commensurability classes which will be explored later. Remark 2.1.22. If K not a complex quadratic field, then PSL2 pRK q is not a Kleinian group because it is not discrete. This is because, since rK : Qs ą 2, D x P RK with complex modulus |x| ă 1. Thus PSL2 pRK q contains the "ˆ ˙* ˆ ˙ 1 xn 1 0 infinite sequence which approaches . So the Bianchi 0 1 0 1 nPN groups are the only Kleinian groups of the form PSL2 pRK q. Two ideals I1 , I2 Ÿ Od are equivalent if there exist x P Od r t0u such that pxqI “ I1 , where pxq is the principal ideal generated by x. The class number ? of Qp ´dq is the number of distinct equivalence classes of ideals under this relation. A classical result relates the class number to cusps. ? Theorem 2.1.23 (Bianchi, 1892 [4]). The class number of Qp ´dq is equal to the number of cusps of Md . Example 2.1.24. Let W be the Whitehead link group.. Using the diagram above for this link and computing the Wirtinger presen-.
(68) 2.2. QUATERNION ALGEBRAS AS INVARIANTS. 39. tation [31], one can obtain the matrix representation Cˆ W “. ˙ ˆ ? ˙ ˆ ˙G 1? 0 1 2 ´1 1 , , . 0 1 0 1 ´1 ´ ´1 1. This is a finite-index, torsion-free subgroup of Γ1 . The Whitehead link complement H3 {W has two cusps corresponding to the two link components, ? even though the class number of Qp ´1q is 1. This shows that subgroups of Bianchi groups do not inherit the property observed in the previous example.. 2.2. Quaternion Algebras as Invariants. Let Γ be a torsion-free, finitely generated and finite covolume Kleinian group. The Mostow-Prasad Rigidity Theorem tells us that there is a one-to-one correspondence between such groups up to isomorphism and hyperbolic 3manifolds up to homeomorphism. The following method of associating quaternion algebras to such groups is due to Takeuchi (1975) [47] in the Fuchsian case, with the extension to the Kleinian case by Maclachlan and Reid (1987) [36] and Neumann and Reid (1992) [40]. As before both cases are treated simultaneously where convenient, letting n “ 3 when Γ is Kleinian and letting n “ 2 and when Γ is Fuchsian. Since PSL2 pRq Ă PSL2 pCq we will often refer to Γ as sitting in PSL2 pCq when addressing both cases..
(69) 40. CHAPTER 2. ARITHMETIC OF HYPERBOLIC MANIFOLDS Elements of Γ are technically equivalence classes of the form t˘γu where. γ P SL2 pCq. Often this distinction can be ignored and Γ can be treated as lying in SL2 pCq, but when more precision is needed we use the notation P´1 pΓq :“. ( ˘ γ P SL2 pCq | t˘γu P Γ .. 2.2.1 Manifold Invariants Definition 2.2.1. The trace field of Γ, or of X “ Hn {Γ, is defined as ` ˘ KX “ KΓ :“ Q ttrpγq | γ P P´1 Γu , and the quaternion algebra of Γ, or of X “ Hn {Γ, is defined as BX “ BΓ :“. "ÿ n. * ˇ ˇ ´1 t` γ` ˇ t` P KΓ, γ` P P Γ .. `“1. Remark 2.2.2. (1) In [37] these are denoted respectively by QptrΓq and A0 Γ. (2) KΓ and BΓ are also defined when Γ has torsion, in which case Hn {Γ is not a manifold but an orbifold. In this case however one must be careful about using KX and BX as orbifold invariants up to homotopy equivalence..
(70) 2.2. QUATERNION ALGEBRAS AS INVARIANTS. 41. Proposition 2.2.3. (1) BΓ is a quaternion algebra over KΓ. (2) If Γ is Kleinian, then KΓ is a number field. The first of these two facts follows from the Skolem-Noether Theorem and the characterization of quaternion algebras over KΓ as the unique 4dimensional central simple algebras over KΓ [20]. The second fact is proven using the representation variety of Γ and some standard results from algebraic geometry [37]. In the Fuchsian case since Mostow-Prasad rigidity does not hold there KΓ need not be a number field, but for finite-covolume surfaces there are many interesting examples where KΓ is a number field [47]. In dimension 3, Mostow-Prasad Rigidity implies the following. Theorem 2.2.4 ([37]). Let Γ, Γ1 be Kleinian groups. If H3 {Γ and H3 {Γ1 are homeomorphic, then KΓ “ KΓ1 , and BΓ – BΓ1 as KΓ-algebras. Observe that the concrete field KΓ is a manifold invariant, but that only the KΓ-algebra isomorphism class of BX is a manifold invariant. Thus when ´ ¯ a,b working with specific quaternion algebras KX “ BX, if one wants to infer a topological property of X, one must show invariance of the KX-algebra isomorphism class of BX. The converse to the Theorem does not hold..
(71) 42. CHAPTER 2. ARITHMETIC OF HYPERBOLIC MANIFOLDS. Example 2.2.5. Let Γ, Γ1 be Kleinian representations of the Whitehead link ? group and Borromean rings group, respectively. Then KΓ “ KΓ1 “ Qp ´1q ´ ¯ 1,1 and BΓ “ BΓ1 “ Qp? . But volpH3 {Γq « 3.663862377 and volpH3 {Γ1 q « ´dq 7.327724753, hence the manifolds are not homeomorphic.. There are many useful geometric interpretations for the trace field. For instance when X is a hyperbolic knot or link complement, KX is equal to the field generated by the shape parameters of an ideal triangulation of the manifold [40]. Since BΓ – BΓ1 implies KΓ – KΓ1 , a group’s quaternion algebra contains more information about Hn {Γ than KΓ, yet a geometric interpretation for BΓ has been more elusive. In [23] Hamilton’s theorem is used to draw some geometric information from quaternion algebras with the same structure parameters as H. In [9] a geometric interpretation of the trace is used to show that if H3 {Γ contains a closed, self-intersecting geodesic, then the invariant quaternion algebra of Γ (defined in the next subsection) has at least one real structure parameter. More commonly though BΓ is not interpreted geometrically but rather as an arithmetic tool for classifying hyperbolic 3manifolds..
(72) 2.2. QUATERNION ALGEBRAS AS INVARIANTS. 43. 2.2.2 Commensurability Invariants Definition 2.2.6. Kleinian (or Fuchsian) groups Γ and Γ1 are commensurabile (in the wide sense) if D γ P PSL2 pCq (or PSL2 pRq) such that rΓ : Γ X pγΓ1 γ ´1 qs ă 8. and. rΓ1 : Γ X pγΓ1 γ ´1 qs ă 8.. The topological interpretation of this is that Γ and Γ1 are commensurable if and only if Hn {Γ and Hn {Γ1 share a finite-sheeted cover. In this case we will also say that Hn {Γ and Hn {Γ1 are commensurable. Definition 2.2.7. Let Γx2y :“ xγ 2 | γ P Γy. (1) The invariant trace field of Γ, or of X “ Hn {Γ, is kX “ kΓ :“ KΓx2y . (2) The invariant quaterion algebra of Γ, or of X “ Hn {Γ, is AX “ AΓ :“ BΓx2y . Remark 2.2.8. In the literature the group generated by squares in Γ is denoted by Γp2q , which we have adapted to distinguish it from S p2q , the set of squares in S from §1.2. Since Γx2y ă Γ, we have AΓ Ă BΓ and kΓ Ă KΓ. Moreover Γx2y is a finite index normal subgroup of Γ [37], and for all finite index subgroups Γ1 ă Γ we have kΓ1 Ă KΓ [40]. For the same reasons as before, AΓ is a quaternion.
(73) 44. CHAPTER 2. ARITHMETIC OF HYPERBOLIC MANIFOLDS. algebra over kΓ and when Γ is Kleinian, kΓ is a number field. It is immediate that in dimension 3 these are manifold invariants, but also we gain something stronger. Theorem 2.2.9 (Maclachlan, Reid [37]). If Γ and Γ1 are commensurable, then kΓ “ kΓ1 and AΓ – AΓ1 as kΓ-algebras. When Γ is non-cocompact, AΓ and BΓ are completely determined by kΓ and KΓ for the following reason. Theorem 2.2.10 ([37]). Let Γ be non-cocompact. ´ (1) BΓ –. 1,1 KΓ. ¯. ´ and AΓ –. 1,1 kΓ. ¯ .. (2) There is a discrete faithful representation of Γ into PSL2 pKΓq. Proof. Since Γ is non-cocompact, it ˆ 1 up to conjugation, is of the form 0 ˆ ˙ 0 t therefore I ´ γ “ P BΓ, and 0 0. contains a parabolic element γ which, ˙ ˆ ˙ t 1 0 with t P C. But I “ P BΓ, 1 0 1 is non-invertible, therefore BΓ is not a. division algebra. γ 2 P Γx2y is parabolic as well, so the same argument applies ´ ¯ ´ ¯ 1,1 to AΓ. By Theorem 1.2.11, this means BΓ – KΓ and AΓ – 1,1 , and kΓ then (2) follows from Theorem 1.2.11(1). Example 2.2.11. With Γd and W as they were in Examples 2.1.21 and ´ ¯ 1,1 2.1.24, we have AΓ1 “ AW “ Qp? . More generally, for any Bianchi ´1q.
(74) 2.2. QUATERNION ALGEBRAS AS INVARIANTS. 45. group Γd “ PSL2 pOd q and any non-cocompact finite index subgroup Γ ă Γd , ¯ ´ 1,1 . we have AΓ “ AΓd “ Qp? ´dq In the non-compact case, kΓ gains additional geometric interpretations. Theorem 2.2.12 ([40]). Let Γ be Kleinian and non-cocompact. (1) kΓ is the field generated by the shape parameters of an ideal triangulation of H3 {Γ. p “ BH3 are parabolic fixed points, then (2) If Γ is chosen so that 0, 1, 8 P C p kΓ is the field generated by all parabolic fixed points in C. In the case where Γ is cocompact, BΓ and AΓ can be split or can be quaternion division algebras. Theorem 1.2.19 implies there are infinitely many possibilities of these for any given KΓ or kΓ. Example 2.2.13. The Weeks manifold M is obtained by performing p5, 1q and p5, 2q Dehn filling on the cusps of the Whitehead link complement. M has the smallest volume of all closed orientable hyperbolic 3-manifolds [22]. We have kM “ Qptq where t is a complex root of t3 ´ t ` 1. This polynomial has a single pair of conjugate complex roots and a single real root, so this is enough to specify the concrete number field and also implies that kM has one real place..
(75) 46. CHAPTER 2. ARITHMETIC OF HYPERBOLIC MANIFOLDS AM is ramified at the real place, at the prime ideal generated by 5, and. nowhere else. This specifies the isomorphism class of AM . [37] Finding AΓ for a given Γ is well-studied (see Maclachlan and Reid (2003) [37] and the references therein), but we will be more interested (from §3.2 onward) in beginning with a quaternion algebra over a number field and deriving topological properties of manifolds Hn {Γ having this algebra as BΓ.. 2.3. Arithmetic Kleinian and Fuchsian Groups. Algebraic groups were defined by Borel and Harish-Chandra in 1962 [6] as groups of matrices in GLn pCq having entries that vanish on some set of polynomials over C. For a field K Ă C, such a group G is defined over K when the coefficients of the polynomials can be chosen in K. If G is defined over Q, an arithmetic subgroup of G is a subgroup H ď G defined over Z where @ h P H, detphq “ ˘1. For arithmetic subgroups of PSL2 pCq we give an equivalent definition which is useful for our context, but we briefly describe the idea before giving the technical definition. For a Kleinian or Fuchsian group Γ to be arithmetic, it must have a faithful representation in some G ă GLn pCq, where G is defined over Q, and Γ is defined over Z. This n need not be 2, but we also know that Γ has a faithful representation into PSL2 pCq. This forces the existence of a number.
(76) 2.3. ARITHMETIC KLEINIAN AND FUCHSIAN GROUPS. 47. field K so that G embeds into GL2 pKq. ´ ¯ this implies that G is isomorphic to a subgroup of Since M2 pKq – 1,1 K B ˆ {ZpB ˆ q, for some quaternion algebra B over K [50]. The arithmetic group Γ then, up to commensurability, is a subgroup of PO1 where O is an order in B. Definition 2.3.1. Let K be a number field with ring of integers RK , and ´ ¯ let B “ a,b . A lattice L in B is an RK -submodule of B, and L is complete K if L b K “ B. Definition 2.3.2. An order in A is a complete RK -lattice that also is a ring with unity. ´ Example 2.3.3. Z ‘ Zi ‘ Zj ‘ Zij is an order in. a,b Q. ¯ whenever a, b P Z.. We can now define an arithmetic Kleinian or Fuchsian group in terms of how it arrises from an order in a quaternion algebra. This also gives the definition of an arithmetic hyperbolic 3-manifold or surface. Definition 2.3.4. Let B be a quaternion algebra over a number field K. If Γ is Kleinian: let K have exactly one complex place (which is necessarily split) and let B be ramified at every real place of K. If Γ is Fuchsian: let K have no complex places and let B be split at exactly one real place of K. In both cases, let σ : B ãÑ M2 pCq be the split place..
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