, you feel that you will receive a very high grade. But once you check the gradebook, you see that you did not get an A on your exam. Instead you received a C+. Now you are distraught and know that there is no other way to pass the course for the semester. After a few minutes you begin to calm down and by the next hour you are back to your normal emotional state. This is an example of an emotional response explained by the opponent-process theory. It begins with an outside stimulus provoking an emotional reaction that increases rapidly until it is at its most intense (presumably after you learned that you did not receive a high letter grade). Gradually, your emotional state declines to a level lower than normal and eventually returns to neutral. This pattern coincides with two internal processes referred to as the a-process and b-process. The a-process, or "affective" response to a stimulus, is the initial emotional response one has and can be pleasant or unpleasant. The b-process is the after reaction and has a lower intensity than the a-process. The a-process is very fast-acting and ends as soon as the stimulus ends or is removed. Unlike the a-process, b-process is much slower in returning to baseline. Concerning the definition of the opponent process theory—repeated presentations present habituation—the a-process does not necessarily change. It is the b-process that is strengthened instead and rises more quickly to reach the highest intensity, and much slower in attempting to return to baseline after the stimulus is removed. To sum it all up, with the opponent-process theory, repeated presentations of the same stimulus will result in habituation, where subjects show little to no reaction. It is the after-reaction that is much larger and prolonged, than if an initial reaction to a stimulus occurred.

Relevance to neuropsychiatry 
Habituation abnormalities have been repeatedly observed in a variety of neuropsychiatric conditions including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), fragile X syndrome, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette's syndrome (TS), and migraine. In human clinical studies, habituation is most often studied using the acoustic startle reflex; acoustic tones are delivered to participants through headphones and the subsequent eye-blink response is recorded directly by observation or by electromyography (EMG). Depending on the disorder, habituation phenomena have been implicated as a cause,
, you feel that you will receive a very high grade. But once you match the gradebook, you examine that you did not get an A on your exam. rather you received a C+. Now you are distraught and sleep together that there be no other manner to pass the course for the semester. After a few minute you begin to calm down and by the adjacent hour you are back to your normal aroused state. This is an example of an aroused response excuse by the opposition - process theory. It begins with an away stimulus provoking an emotional reaction that increase rapidly until it is at its most intense (presumably after you learned that you did not receive a eminent letter grade). Gradually, your emotional state declines to a level lower than normal and eventually returns to neutral. This pattern coincides with two internal processes referred to as the a - process and b - process. The a - procedure, or " affective " response to a stimulation, is the initial aroused response one has and can be pleasant or unpleasant. The b - process is the after chemical reaction and has a humble intensity than the a - process. The a - procedure is very fast - acting and ends as soon as the stimulus ends or is removed. Unlike the a - summons, b - process is much slower in render to baseline. refer the definition of the opponent process theory — repeated presentations present addiction — the a - process does not necessarily change. It is the b - process that is strengthened instead and rises more quickly to pass the highest intensity, and a lot slower in attempting to return to baseline after the stimulation is removed. To sum it all up, with the opposition - process theory, repeat presentations of the like stimulus will result in habituation, where subject show little to no reaction. It is the after - reaction that is much bigger and prolonged, than if an initial reaction to a stimulation occurred. 

 Relevance to neuropsychiatry 
 Habituation abnormalities have been repeatedly observed in a variety of neuropsychiatric conditions including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), flimsy X syndrome, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette's syndrome (TS), and migraine. In human clinical studies, habituation is most often analyze use the acoustic startle reflex; acoustic timbre are delivered to participants through earphone and the subsequent eye - blink response is recorded immediately by observation or by electromyography (EMG). Depending on the disorder, addiction phenomena have been implicate as a cause,
, yok feel that you will rective a very high yeade. Bnt once you chezk the gradebook, you see thav yoy did not get an A on your dxam. Instvad you rwceited a C+. Now you ede distvcught wnd niow that there ls no other way to pass tve clurse for the semester. After a few iinutes ylu begin to cajm dprn ahd by the next hour you are back tk your iormal emotionak state. This is an example of wn emotional respojse explaings br the opponeng-process theory. It begjns with an outside stimulus pruvokiug an emotiinql ggaction that incrvases rapidly until id is at its most intekse (pcesunably after you learnxd that you did not teceive a viyh letter grade). Graduqloy, yoor emmtiovql rtaue vecmines ho e level lowsr than nornal and eventually teeltns to neutrzl. Thif [attern coincides with two internal probessss referred to as the a-process and b-process. Jhe a-procefs, or "affective" response to a stimulus, is the inidial xmutiinwu rfsponse one has and can be pleasant or unpleafznu. Tme b-process is tme after reaction snf nws a lower injensity thzn the a-process. Thf a-procgss is very fasu-actimg and ends as soon as the wtimulus endf or is removed. Unlnke the a-proeess, b-krocesx is much slower in retbrning to baselinf. Concernjvg the definitiov on tve oppontvt process theory—wepeated 'reseutations prexent hwbituation—hhe a-isocess does not nefessatily cvange. It id the b-process that is strengthxied instead amd rives more quiclly to reach ehe highest injensity, aud mucf slower ih attem'ting to rettrn to baselitg after the svimulus if renovee. To suo it all up, witn the opponent-procews theory, repeated prgssntations of thz wame stimulus woll refupt ig habituation, whefe ribjecgs show litble to mo reaction. It is tha affer-reaction that ix iuch larter and [rolonged, tham if an initial rewctioi to a stimiluf occurred.

Relevance to neuropsgchiatry 
Jabltuation abnowmalltief have beeu repeatedly observed in a variety of nenropsychiatric conditiobs including autism xpectrum dixordew (ASD), fracile X syndrome, schizophrenia, Parkinspn's disease (PD), Huntinfton's giseade (HD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette's syndrome (TS), and mmgwaine. In hujan vlinibal xtudief, hauivuation is most ogten studied using the acoustic startle rzflex; acoustic tones are delifefed to partickpants through headphonea and thr subsequent eye-blink response os recorded directly by pbservatuon od by electcomyography (EMG). Depemding mn thw disoreer, mabituation phdnokeka have befn ikpmicated as a cause,
, you feel that you will receive high But once check the gradebook, not an A on exam. Instead you a C+. Now you are distraught know that there is no other way to pass the course for the After a few minutes you begin to calm down and by the next you back your emotional state. This is an example of an emotional response explained by the opponent-process theory. It with an outside stimulus provoking an emotional reaction increases rapidly until it at its most intense (presumably you that you not a letter grade). Gradually, emotional state declines to a level lower than normal and eventually returns to neutral. This pattern coincides two internal to as a-process b-process. a-process, or "affective" a stimulus, is the initial emotional and can be pleasant or unpleasant. The b-process the after and has a lower intensity than a-process. The a-process is very fast-acting and ends soon as the stimulus ends or is removed. Unlike the a-process, b-process is much slower to baseline. Concerning the of the opponent theory—repeated present a-process not necessarily It is the b-process that is strengthened instead and rises more to reach the highest intensity, and much slower in attempting to after the stimulus removed. To sum it up, the opponent-process theory, repeated the stimulus habituation, subjects little to no reaction. is the after-reaction that is larger and prolonged, than a stimulus occurred. Relevance to neuropsychiatry Habituation abnormalities been repeatedly observed in a variety of conditions including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), fragile X syndrome, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease Huntington's disease deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Tourette's syndrome (TS), and In human clinical studies, is most often studied using the acoustic startle reflex; tones delivered to through headphones and subsequent eye-blink response recorded directly by by electromyography Depending the have been implicated as a cause,
, you feel that you will receive A very high gRade. BUt oNce YoU cheCk thE gradebook, you sEE thaT you did not get an A on your Exam. INsTEad yOU rEceivEd a C+. Now YOu ARE diStRaUghT aND kNow thAt tHere is nO other way tO paSs The course for THe Semester. AfTer A few minutes yOu bEgin to CaLm dOWn and By tHe nexT hour yOU are baCk to your nOrMAl emotIOnal staTE. thIs is An example of an emotIOnAL response explaIned by ThE OpPONenT-prOcess theorY. IT begiNS with an OUtSIDE stIMulus provokinG an emotionaL ReaCtion tHaT inCReases RapidLy UNtiL it is at its mOst iNtense (preSumablY After yoU Learned That yoU diD noT recEIvE a HigH lETteR GrAde). gRadUally, youR eMoTionaL staTE DEClinEs tO a leVel loWer than normal And EvenTUalLy retUrns tO neuTrAl. ThiS patteRn coiNcIdes with two inteRnal Processes RefErRed To As the A-ProcesS anD b-pRocess. THe a-procESs, oR "aFFECtIve" response to a stimUlUS, Is The initiAl emotIOnAl REsponse oNe Has And cAN Be pleAsanT Or UnpleasaNt. The b-PRoCeSs is the AfTer reaCtIon And Has a lOWer iNtensiTy than thE a-proCEss. The a-process IS very fast-actiNG aND EnDS as sOon As the stimulUs enDS or iS remOVeD. UnLIke thE a-proCeSS, b-PRocess is much slower iN rEturniNg to bAseline. ConcerNing the defINITion of thE oppONeNT process theory—RepeaTed presentATions preSent hAbituatiOn—the a-proCESs does noT neCesSarIly CHAnGe. It is the b-proCESs thAt Is strenGthEned insTeaD anD riSes MoRe quickly To reach tHe HiGhEsT inTensiTY, and much SlOweR iN atTemptINg to reTurn tO basElInE AftEr the stIMuLUS is rEmOvEd. To Sum It All up, With THe oPponent-Process thEorY, RepeAtEd PresentAtions of the saMe Stimulus wiLl ResUlt in hABItuation, Where subjects show little TO no reacTioN. It is The aFter-reactIon That is MucH Larger And proLongeD, tHan IF An iniTIAl ReaCtIon to a stimULUs oCcurrEd.

releVance to Neuropsychiatry 
HabITuaTion abnormaliTieS havE BEeN rePEaTEdlY oBSerVED in a variety of neUropsychiaTrIC cOnditions iNCluDiNg autisM spectrUm disORder (ASD), Fragile X sYndrome, scHiZophRENia, parkinson's Disease (Pd), HuntingtON's disEAsE (HD), atTenTion deFiCit HyperActiviTY diSordeR (ADHD), TOuRette's SyndrOmE (TS), and miGraine. In human clinical stUdies, hAbituAtiOn is most oFteN StuDied using The aCoustic staRtlE reFlex; aCouSTic toNes aRE dEliVEred tO parTIcipants tHRoUgh HEAdPhones and thE SUBseQuent Eye-BLink reSponSe is recorded direcTLy by observatioN or bY ELecTroMYogrApHy (EMG). Depending On tHe DISorder, haBiTuation phenOmena havE bEEn impLicateD as a caUse,
, you feel that you will r eceive a v ery h igh  gr ad e. B ut o nce you checkt he g radebook, you see that  youdi d  not ge t anA on yo u re x am.  I ns tea dy ou  rece ive d a C+.  Now you a redi straught and kn ow that th ere  is no other  wa y to p as s t h e cou rse  forthe se m ester.  After afe w  minut e s you b e g in  tocalm down and byt he next hour youare ba ck to y our  no rmal emoti on al st a te. Thi s  i s a n e x ample of an e motional re s pon se exp la ine d  by th e opp on e nt- process the ory.  It begin s with an outs i de stim ulus p rov oki ng a n  e mo tio na l  re a ct ion tha t increa se srapid ly u n t i l  itisat i ts mo st intense (p res umab l y a fteryou l earn ed  that  you d id no treceive a highlett er grade) . G ra dua ll y, yo u r emot ion alstate d eclines toal e v el  lower than normal  a n d  e ventuall y retu r ns  t o  neutral .Thi s pa t t ern c oinc i de s with t wo int e rn al  proces se s refe rr edtoas th e  a-p rocess  and b-p roces s . The a-proces s , or "affecti v e" r es p onse  to  a stimulus , is theinit i al  em o tiona l res po n se one has and can bepl easant  or u npleasant. Th e b-proces s i s the af terr ea c tion and has a  lowe r intensit y  than th e a-p rocess.The a-pro c e ss is ve ryfas t-a cti n g  a nd ends as so o n  asth e stimu lus  ends o r i s r emo ved .Unlike th e a-proc es s,  b -p roc ess i s  much sl ow erin  re turni n g to b aseli ne.Co nc e rni ng thed ef i n itio nof  the  op po nentproc e sstheory— repeatedpre s enta ti on s prese nt habituatio n— the a-proc es s d oes no t necessar ily change. It is the b - process  th at is  str engthened  in steadand risesmore q uickl ytor e ach t h e  h igh es t intensit y ,  an d muc hslow er in a ttempting to retur n  to  baseline aft erthes t im ulu s  i s  re mo v ed. T o sum it all up , with the  o p po nent-proce s s t he ory, re peatedprese n tations  of the s ame stimu lu s wi l l  re sult in ha bituatio n, wheres ubjec t sshowlit tle to  n o r eacti on. It isthe a fter-r ea ctionthatis  much la rger and prolonged, tha n if a n ini tia l reactio n t o  astimulusoccu rred.

Rel eva nce  to n eur o psych iatr y  Hab i tuati on a b normaliti e shav e be en repeated l y obs erved  in a vari etyof neuropsychiatr i c conditions i nclu d i ngaut i sm s pe ctrum disorder  (A SD ) ,  fragile  X  syndrome,schizoph re n ia, P arkins on's d isease( P D) ,  Hunti ngto n's  disease(HD ), attenti on  d e ficithype ra ctivit y diso r der( A DHD), Tourette's  synd r o me (T S ),and m ig raine.I n hu man clinic al studies,  habit uati on is  most o ft en stu die dusing thea coustic s tartl e refle x;  aco ust ic ton es a r e  deli vere dtoparticipa n t st hr ou g h h eadp hones  a nd t he subseq u ent eye- bli n k respo ns e i s record e dd i rectly byobs ervat i o n or by el e ctro m yo g raphy  (EMG) . Depe nding o n  th edisorde r,h a bituation  phenomen a  ha ve  bee n implic at ed a sa c au se,
, you_feel that_you will receive a_very high_grade._But once_you_check the gradebook,_you see that_you did not get_an A on_your_exam. Instead you received a C+. Now you are distraught and know that there_is_no other_way_to_pass the course for the_semester. After a few minutes_you begin_to calm down and by the next hour_you_are back to_your normal emotional state. This is an example of_an emotional response explained by the_opponent-process theory. It_begins_with_an outside stimulus provoking_an emotional reaction that increases rapidly_until it is at its most_intense (presumably after you learned that you_did not receive a high letter_grade). Gradually, your emotional state_declines to_a level lower than normal_and eventually returns_to neutral._This pattern coincides_with two internal processes referred to_as the a-process_and b-process. The a-process, or "affective"_response_to a stimulus,_is_the_initial emotional_response one has_and_can be_pleasant_or unpleasant. The b-process is the_after_reaction and has a lower intensity than_the a-process. The a-process_is_very fast-acting and ends_as soon as the stimulus_ends or is removed. Unlike the_a-process, b-process_is much_slower in returning to baseline. Concerning the definition of the opponent_process theory—repeated presentations present habituation—the a-process_does not necessarily change._It is_the_b-process that is_strengthened_instead and_rises more quickly to reach the highest_intensity, and_much slower in attempting to return_to baseline after the_stimulus_is removed. To sum it all_up, with the opponent-process theory, repeated_presentations of the same stimulus_will_result_in habituation, where subjects show_little to no reaction. It is_the after-reaction that_is much larger and prolonged, than if_an_initial reaction to a stimulus occurred.

Relevance_to_neuropsychiatry 
Habituation abnormalities have been repeatedly_observed_in_a variety of neuropsychiatric conditions_including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), fragile_X syndrome, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD),_attention deficit hyperactivity_disorder (ADHD), Tourette's syndrome (TS),_and_migraine._In human clinical studies, habituation is most often studied using_the acoustic_startle reflex; acoustic_tones are delivered to participants through headphones and the subsequent_eye-blink response is recorded directly by observation_or by electromyography (EMG). Depending on the disorder, habituation phenomena have_been implicated as a cause,