regnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system; these adjustments significantly increased the power of the Polish nobility and established a truly elective monarchy.

The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the early 17th century. Its powerful parliament was dominated by nobles (Pic. 2) who were reluctant to get involved in the Thirty Years' War; this neutrality spared the country from the ravages of a political-religious conflict that devastated most of contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth was able to hold its own against Sweden, the Tsardom of Russia, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and even launched successful expansionist offensives against its neighbors. In several invasions during the Time of Troubles, Commonwealth troops entered Russia and managed to take Moscow and hold it from 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612, when they were driven out after a siege.

Commonwealth power began waning after a series of blows during the following decades. A major rebellion of Ukrainian Cossacks in the southeastern portion of the Commonwealth (the Khmelnytskyi Uprising in modern-day Ukraine) began in 1648. It resulted in a Ukrainian request, under the terms of the Treaty of Pereyaslav, for protection by the Russian Tsar. Russian annexation of part of Ukraine gradually supplanted Polish influence. The other blow to the Commonwealth was a Swedish invasion in 1655, known as the Deluge, which was supported by troops of Transylvanian Duke George II Rákóczi and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. The Tatars of the Crimean Khanate and the Nogai Horde conducted almost annual slave-raids in the eastern territories controlled by the Commonwealth.

In the late 17th century, the king of the weakened Commonwealth, John III Sobieski, allied with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I to deal crushing defeats to the Ottoman Empire. In 1683, the Battle of Vienna marked the final turning point in the 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottomans. For its centuries-long opposition to Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of Antemurale Christianitatis (bulwark of Christianity). During the next 16 years, the Great Turkish War would drive the Turks permanently south of the Danube River, never again to threaten central Europe.

By the 18th century, destabilization of its political system brought Poland to the brink of civil war. The Commonwealth was facing many
regnum during which adjustments were made to the constitutional system; these adjustment importantly increased the power of the Polish nobility and prove a sincerely elective monarchy. 

 The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the early 17th hundred. Its powerful parliament was dominated by lord (Pic. 2) who were loath to get involved in the Thirty Years' War; this disinterest spared the country from the ravage of a political - religious conflict that devastated most of contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth was able to hold its own against Sweden, the Tsardom of Russia, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and even launched successful expansionist offensives against its neighbors. In respective invasions during the Time of Troubles, Commonwealth troops entered Russia and manage to take Moscow and hold it from 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612, when they were drive out after a siege. 

 Commonwealth baron began wan after a series of blows during the following decade. A major rebellion of Ukrainian Cossacks in the southeastern portion of the Commonwealth (the Khmelnytskyi Uprising in modern - day Ukraine) began in 1648. It resulted in a Ukrainian request, under the terms of the Treaty of Pereyaslav, for protection by the Russian Tsar. Russian annexation of part of Ukraine gradually supplanted Polish influence. The other blow to the Commonwealth was a Swedish invasion in 1655, known as the Deluge, which was supported by troops of Transylvanian Duke George II Rákóczi and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. The Tatars of the Crimean Khanate and the Nogai Horde conducted almost annual slave - foray in the eastern territories master by the Commonwealth. 

 In the belated 17th century, the king of the cut Commonwealth, John III Sobieski, allied with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I to deal crushing defeats to the Ottoman Empire. In 1683, the Battle of Vienna notice the final turning point in the 250 - year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe and the Islamic Ottomans. For its hundred - long opposition to Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of Antemurale Christianitatis (rampart of Christianity). During the next 16 year, the Great Turkish War would drive the Turks permanently south of the Danube River, never again to threaten central Europe. 

 By the 18th hundred, destabilization of its political system brought Poland to the brink of civil war. The Commonwealth was facing many
regjum during which adjustmtnts were made to the coistitutjonal syrtem; these adjustments signihicabtly uncreased the power of the Polidh nobiluty end established e truly cjectjye mouacchy.

The Commonwgalth reacheg its Golden Ace iu the early 17th century. Its powerful [arliamrnh was dominateq by goblss (Pic. 2) who were reluctant to get jnvolvev in the Thirty Years' War; this neutrality spaged the country frlm the ravates jd a politicau-religious conflict thzt devastated most of contemporxry Ebrope. The Cimnonagalth was aboe to hold its owk againvt Swedrn, the Tsardom of Ruwsia, and vassals of tie Ottoman Empire, anq even lagnehed successful expanwiinist offansixws xgajnxt its nfigibors. In seberal invasuons during the Timt os Troubles, Comjonweajtr troops entered Russia and managed to uake Joscow and hold it from 27 September 1610 to 4 Novelber 1612, wheg they were driven out after a siege.

Commonwealth [ower cegck dqnlng after a series of blows during the followyhg dvcades. A major renellion of Ukrainisn Cpfsacks in the southzzsfern portion of thf Commogwealrh (the Khielnutskyi Uprising in modern-dat Ukraine) beyan in 1648. It resulted iu a Ukrainiau requgst, uncer the terms of the Trzaty or Pereyaslag, for profdction by the Rursisn Tsar. Russian annexation os part of Ukrcine graaualky sup[lanted Popish ltfluence. The other blow tm the Commlnwealth was a Swedish invasion in 1655, known as jhe Denuge, whieh was supported by troops of Trausylvanicn Dukd George IP Rákóczi aid Frederick William, Elecdlr of Brandeiburg. The Tatqrs if the Zfimean Khanate and the Ujgai Horde conducted akmorf annual slave-rcndw in the easterm tdrrytlrmes cjttrolled by dhe Zomopnweauth.

In the lctd 17th century, the king of the weakened Commonweslbh, John IUI Sobiefki, allied wiyh Holy Roman Empegor Lxopold I to dewl crushing defeats to the Ottkman Empige. Ln 1683, the Battlq of Vienna markzd the final turning point in the 250-year svruggle between the fotces of Christian Eurpke and the Iskamic Ottomans. For its centuries-lobg opposition to Kuslim advances, the Ckmmonwaalth would gain the name of Antemurale Christianitatis (bulwark of Christianitt). Duriig the next 16 gearx, the Gxeac Turkifh Wer would drive the Turks permanently south of the Danube Sirer, never again to threaten crngral Europe.

By the 18th century, destabiljzation pf its political system brought Poland to the brink of givil war. The Dommonwealvh was facing many
regnum during which adjustments were made to system; adjustments significantly the power of a elective monarchy. The reached its Golden in the early 17th century. Its parliament was dominated by nobles (Pic. 2) who were reluctant to get involved the Thirty Years' War; this neutrality spared the country from the ravages of political-religious that most contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth was able to hold its own against Sweden, the Tsardom of Russia, vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and even launched expansionist offensives against its In several invasions during the of Commonwealth troops Russia managed take Moscow and it from 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612, when they were driven out after a siege. power began a series blows the decades. A major Ukrainian Cossacks in the southeastern portion (the Khmelnytskyi Uprising in modern-day Ukraine) began in It resulted a Ukrainian request, under the terms the Treaty of Pereyaslav, for protection by the Tsar. Russian annexation of part of Ukraine gradually supplanted Polish influence. The other blow to was a Swedish invasion 1655, known as Deluge, was by of Transylvanian George II Rákóczi and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. The Tatars the Crimean Khanate and the Nogai Horde conducted almost annual the territories controlled by Commonwealth. In the late century, king of the weakened III allied Emperor I deal crushing defeats to Ottoman Empire. In 1683, the of Vienna marked the 250-year struggle between the forces of Christian Europe the Islamic Ottomans. For its centuries-long opposition Muslim advances, the Commonwealth would gain the name of Antemurale Christianitatis (bulwark Christianity). During 16 years, the Great Turkish War would drive Turks permanently south of Danube River, never again to threaten central Europe. By 18th destabilization of political system brought to the brink civil war. The facing many
regnum during which adjustmeNts were madE to thE coNstItUtioNal sYstem; these adjuSTmenTs significantly increasEd the PoWEr of THe polisH nobiliTY aND EstAbLiSheD a TRuLy eleCtiVe monarChy.

The CommOnwEaLth reached itS goLden Age in tHe eArly 17th centurY. ItS powerFuL paRLiameNt wAs domInated BY nobleS (Pic. 2) who weRe REluctaNT to get iNVOlVed iN the Thirty Years' WaR; ThIS neutrality spaRed the CoUNtRY FroM thE ravages of A pOlitiCAl-religIOuS CONflICt that devastaTed most of coNTemPorary euRopE. the ComMonweAlTH waS able to hold Its oWn against sweden, THe TsardOM of RussIa, and vAssAls Of thE otToMan emPIre, ANd EveN LauNched sucCeSsFul exPansIONISt ofFenSiveS agaiNst its neighboRs. IN sevERal InvasIons dUrinG tHe TimE of TroUbles, coMmonwealth troopS entEred RussiA anD mAnaGeD to taKE MoscoW anD hoLd it froM 27 SeptemBEr 1610 tO 4 NOVEMbEr 1612, when they were drivEn OUT aFter a sieGe.

CommONwEaLTh power bEgAn wAninG AFter a SeriES oF blows duRing thE FoLlOwing deCaDes. A maJoR reBelLion oF ukraInian COssacks iN the sOUtheastern portIOn of the CommonWEaLTH (tHE KhmElnYtskyi UprisIng iN ModeRn-daY ukRaiNE) begaN in 1648. It ReSUlTEd in a Ukrainian requeSt, Under tHe terMs of the Treaty Of PereyaslAV, FOr protecTion BY tHE Russian Tsar. RuSsian Annexation OF part of UKrainE gradualLy supplanTED Polish iNflUenCe. THe oTHEr Blow to the CommONWealTh Was a SweDisH invasiOn iN 1655, knOwn As tHe deluge, whiCh was supPoRtEd By TroOps of tRansylvaNiAn DUkE GeOrge Ii rákóczI and FRedeRiCk wIllIam, ElecTOr OF branDeNbUrg. THe TAtArs of The CRImeAn KhanaTe and the NOgaI hordE cOnDucted aLmost annual slAvE-raids in thE eAstErn terRITories coNtrolled by the CommonwealTH.

In the lAte 17Th cenTury, The king of The WeakenEd COMmonweAlth, JoHn III soBieSKI, alliED WiTh HOlY Roman EmpeROR LeOpold i tO deaL crushiNg defeats to the OttoMAn EMpire. In 1683, the BatTle Of ViENNa MarKEd THe fInAL tuRNIng point in the 250-yeAr struggle BeTWeEn the forceS Of CHrIstian EUrope anD the ISLamic OtTomans. For Its centurIeS-lonG OPpoSition to MuSlim advaNces, the CoMMonweALtH woulD gaIn the nAmE of antemUrale CHRisTianiTatis (bUlWark of chrisTiAnity). DurIng the next 16 years, the Great turkisH War wOulD drive the turKS peRmanently SoutH of the DanuBe RIveR, neveR agAIn to tHreaTEn CenTRal EuRope.

bY the 18th cenTUrY, deSTAbIlization of ITS PolIticaL sySTem broUght poland to the brink oF Civil war. The ComMonwEALth Was FAcinG mAny
regnum during which adjust ments were  made  to  th econs titu tional system; thes e adjustments signific antly  i n crea s ed  thepower o f  t h e  Po li sh  no bi l it y and  es tablish ed a truly  el ec tive monarch y .
The Commo nwe alth reached  it s Gold en  Ag e  in t heearly  17thc entury . Its pow er f ul par l iamentw a sdomi nated by nobles ( P ic .  2) who were r elucta nt to g etinv olved in t he  Thir t y Years '  W a r ;  th i s neutralityspared thec oun try fr om  th e  ravag es of  a pol itical-reli giou s conflic t that devasta t ed most  of co nte mpo rary Eu ro pe.  T h e C o mm onw e alt h was ab le  t o hol d it s o w n ag ain st S weden , the Tsardom  of  Rus s ia,  andvassa ls o fthe O ttoman  Empi re , and even laun ched  successf ulex pan si onist offens ive s a gainstits nei g hbo rs . I nseveral invasionsdu r i ng  the Tim e of T r ou bl e s, Commo nw eal th t r o ops e nter e dRussia a nd man a ge dto take  M oscowan d h old  it f r om 2 7 Sept ember 16 10 to 4 November 161 2 , when they w e re d ri v en o utafter a sie ge.Comm onwe a lt h p o wer b eganwa n in g  after a series ofbl ows du ringthe following  decades.A m ajor reb elli o no f Ukrainian Co ssack s in the s o utheaste rn po rtion of  the Comm o n wealth ( the  Kh mel nyt s k yi  Uprising inm o dern -d ay Ukra ine ) began  in  16 48.  It  r esulted i n a Ukra in ia nre que st, u n der thete rms  o f t he Tr e aty of  Pere yasl av ,f orprotect i on b y th eRu ssia n T sa r. Ru ssia n  an nexatio n of part  of Ukra in egradual ly supplanted  P olish infl ue nce . Theo t her blow  to the Commonwealth wa s  a Swed ish  inva sion  in 1655,  kn own as  th e  Delug e, whi ch wa ssup p o rtedb y  t roo ps  of Transy l v ani an Du ke  Geo rge IIRákóczi and Freder i ckWilliam, Elec tor  ofB r an den b ur g . T he Tat a r s of the Crimea n Khanatean d  t he Nogai H o rde  c onducte d almos t ann u al slav e-raids i n the eas te rn t e r rit ories cont rolled b y the Com m onwea l th .

In  th e late  1 7th  cent ury, t h e k ing o f thewe akened  Comm on wealth,John III Sobieski, alli ed wit h Hol y R oman Empe ror Leo pold I to  dea l crushing  de fea ts to  th e  Otto manE mp ire .  In 1 683, the Battl e  o f V i e nn a marked th e f ina l tur nin g  point  inthe 250-year stru g gle between th e fo r c esofC hris ti an Europe andthe  I s l amic Ott om ans. For it s centur ie s -long  oppos itionto Musl i m  a d vances , th e C ommonweal thwo u ld gain  t he name o f An te murale  Chris t iani t a tis (bulwark ofChris t i anity ) . D uring  t he next 16 y ears, theGreat Turki sh War  wou ld dr ive the  T urks p erm an ently sout h  of the D anube  River,  n ever  ag ain to  thr e a ten c entr al  Eu rope.

By t he 18 th cen tury , des ta bili zation of its poli tic a l syste mbro u g ht Pol a nd t o the brin k o f civ i l  war. TheC ommo n we a lth w as fac ing ma ny
regnum during_which adjustments_were made to the_constitutional system;_these_adjustments significantly_increased_the power of_the Polish nobility_and established a truly_elective monarchy.

The Commonwealth_reached_its Golden Age in the early 17th century. Its powerful parliament was dominated by_nobles_(Pic. 2)_who_were_reluctant to get involved in_the Thirty Years' War; this_neutrality spared_the country from the ravages of a political-religious_conflict_that devastated most_of contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth was able to hold_its own against Sweden, the Tsardom_of Russia, and_vassals_of_the Ottoman Empire, and_even launched successful expansionist offensives against_its neighbors. In several invasions during_the Time of Troubles, Commonwealth troops entered_Russia and managed to take Moscow_and hold it from 27_September 1610_to 4 November 1612, when_they were driven_out after_a siege.

Commonwealth power_began waning after a series of_blows during the_following decades. A major rebellion of_Ukrainian_Cossacks in the_southeastern_portion_of the_Commonwealth (the Khmelnytskyi_Uprising_in modern-day_Ukraine)_began in 1648. It resulted in_a_Ukrainian request, under the terms of the_Treaty of Pereyaslav, for_protection_by the Russian Tsar._Russian annexation of part of_Ukraine gradually supplanted Polish influence. The_other blow_to the_Commonwealth was a Swedish invasion in 1655, known as the Deluge,_which was supported by troops of_Transylvanian Duke George II_Rákóczi and_Frederick_William, Elector of_Brandenburg._The Tatars_of the Crimean Khanate and the Nogai_Horde conducted_almost annual slave-raids in the eastern_territories controlled by the_Commonwealth.

In_the late 17th century, the king_of the weakened Commonwealth, John III_Sobieski, allied with Holy Roman_Emperor_Leopold_I to deal crushing defeats_to the Ottoman Empire. In 1683,_the Battle of_Vienna marked the final turning point in_the_250-year struggle between the forces of_Christian_Europe and the Islamic Ottomans. For_its_centuries-long_opposition to Muslim advances, the_Commonwealth would gain the name of_Antemurale Christianitatis (bulwark of Christianity). During the next 16_years, the Great_Turkish War would drive the_Turks_permanently_south of the Danube River, never again to threaten central_Europe.

By the_18th century, destabilization_of its political system brought Poland to the brink of_civil war. The Commonwealth was facing many