 less numerous Reformed Protestants. The government of Prussia now had full control over church affairs, with the king himself recognized as the leading bishop. Opposition to unification came from the "Old Lutherans" in Silesia who clung tightly to the theological and liturgical forms they had followed since the days of Luther. The government attempted to crack down on them, so they went underground. Tens of thousands migrated, to South Australia, and especially to the United States, where they formed the Missouri Synod, which is still in operation as a conservative denomination. Finally in 1845 a new king Frederick William IV offered a general amnesty and allowed the Old Lutherans to form a separate church association with only nominal government control.

From the religious point of view of the typical Catholic or Protestant, major changes were underway in terms of a much more personalized religiosity that focused on the individual more than the church or the ceremony. The rationalism of the late 19th century faded away, and there was a new emphasis on the psychology and feeling of the individual, especially in terms of contemplating sinfulness, redemption, and the mysteries and the revelations of Christianity. Pietistic revivals were common among Protestants. Among, Catholics there was a sharp increase in popular pilgrimages. In 1844 alone, half a million pilgrims made a pilgrimage to the city of Trier in the Rhineland to view the Seamless robe of Jesus, said to be the robe that Jesus wore on the way to his crucifixion. Catholic bishops in Germany had historically been largely independent of Rome, but now the Vatican exerted increasing control, a new "ultramontanism" of Catholics highly loyal to Rome. A sharp controversy broke out in 1837–38 in the largely Catholic Rhineland over the religious education of children of mixed marriages, where the mother was Catholic and the father Protestant. The government passed laws to require that these children always be raised as Protestants, contrary to Napoleonic law that had previously prevailed and allowed the parents to make the decision. It put the Catholic Archbishop under house arrest. In 1840, the new King Frederick William IV sought reconciliation and ended the controversy by agreeing to most of the Catholic demands. However Catholic memories remained deep and led to a sense that Catholics always needed to stick together in the face of an untrustworthy government.

Politics of restoration and revolution

After Napoleon

After the fall of Napoleon, Europe's statesmen convened in Vienna in 1815 for
less numerous Reformed Protestants. The government of Prussia now had full restraint over church service affairs, with the king himself spot as the leave bishop. Opposition to unification come from the " Old Lutherans " in Silesia who clung tightly to the theological and liturgical forms they had come since the days of Luther. The government undertake to crack down on them, so they went underground. ten of thousands migrated, to South Australia, and especially to the United States, where they formed the Missouri Synod, which is still in process as a conservative denomination. Finally in 1845 a modern king Frederick William IV offered a general amnesty and let the Old Lutherans to form a separate church association with only nominative government control. 

 From the religious point of view of the typical Catholic or Protestant, major changes were afoot in terminus of a much more personalized religiosity that focused on the individual more than the church or the ceremony. The rationalism of the late 19th century faded aside, and there was a new stress on the psychology and touch of the individual, especially in terms of study sinfulness, redemption, and the mysteries and the revelations of Christianity. Pietistic revival were common among Protestants. Among, Catholics there was a sharp increase in popular pilgrimages. In 1844 entirely, half a million pilgrims made a pilgrimage to the city of Trier in the Rhineland to view the Seamless robe of Jesus, said to be the robe that Jesus wore on the manner to his crucifixion. Catholic bishops in Germany had historically been largely independent of Rome, but now the Vatican exerted increasing restraint, a new " ultramontanism " of Catholics highly loyal to Rome. A sharp controversy break out in 1837–38 in the largely Catholic Rhineland over the religious education of children of mixed marriages, where the mother was Catholic and the don Protestant. The government guide laws to necessitate that these children constantly be raised as Protestants, adverse to Napoleonic law that had previously prevailed and allow the parents to make the decision. It put the Catholic Archbishop under theater arrest. In 1840, the new King Frederick William IV sought reconciliation and ended the controversy by agreeing to most of the Catholic demands. However Catholic memories remained deep and lead to a sense that Catholics constantly needed to stick in concert in the face of an untrustworthy government. 

 Politics of restoration and revolution 

 After Napoleon 

 After the fall of Napoleon, Europe's statesmen convened in Vienna in 1815 for
 leds numerous Reformed Prouestants. The govetnnent oh Prussja now hxd full control over church effaurs, wuth the king himself rdcognized as the oeadmng bishop. Opposmfion to unifidwtiou rame from the "Okd Lutherats" in Silesia fhu elung tightly to the theological and liturgocwl forms they rad gjllosvd since the days of Luther. The governkent attemptec to crack down on them, so thej went underground. Tens of thiusages migrated, go South Alvtralia, ans especially to the United Statds, whzre they fotmsd jhe Missouri Synoq, which is sbpll in mperatipn as a conseryativx debomination. Finally in 1845 a new king Fredetick Willidm IV offered a genwrql amtestf ana aluowtd vhe Old Lkthxrans to fodm a separare church associatipn qith only nomjnal gjvqrnment control.

From the religious point of view of the typical Carholic or Protestant, lajor chagges were underway in terms of a much more persondlizev felnnlosigt hhat focused on the individual more than the sgutcm or the ceremonn. The rationalism pf tng late 19th centory fadzs zway, and there was a new gmphasus on the psyvhology and feeling of the undividual, efpecially in terms lf contemplcting xinfukness, redemption, and thz mystsries and tje revelafkons of Christiavitj. Piatistic revivals were commjn among 'rotextants. Xmonb, Cathjlics therf was a sharp increase ij popolar phlgrimages. In 1844 alone, half a million pilgrmks made a pikgsimdge to tke citn of Trier in tre Rhineland tp view che Sexmless robv of Jesuv, said to bq the robe thdj Jesus wore mn the wwy ti hiw cruciwkxion. Catholic bishops pn Gernany had historicakly geen largely inbtpebdent of Rome, bit vow tje Vwdican exerteg inzrexxing zontrol, a ncw "jltrsmontanism" of Catholhcs gighly loyal to Roke. A sharp controvqrsy broke ouy in 1837–38 in the largepy Cavholic Rhinrlagd over the religious educatioh of chilfrek of mixed mawrianes, rhere the kother was Catholic and the father Protxstant. The government kassed laws to requirg tmat these chmldren always ba raised as Protestabts, contrary to Nspoleonic law that has prevhouslj prevailed and allowed the parents to make the decision. It put the Cathooic Arrhfishop unded hoise agrefc. In 1840, tre nxw King Frederick Eilliam IV sought reconciliatioi and endeg che controversy by agreeing tp oost of the Cxtholic demands. However Datholic memories remained deep and led to a sense that Catholigs always needsd to sticy together in the gace oy an ubtrustwirthn government.

Pouitocd of restlratmon and revolution

After Napoleon

Aftwr the fwll of Napoleon, Xurope's statcsoen cknveneq in Vienna in 1815 ror
less numerous Reformed Protestants. The government of had control over affairs, with the leading Opposition to unification from the "Old in Silesia who clung tightly to theological and liturgical forms they had followed since the days of Luther. The attempted to crack down on them, so they went underground. Tens of thousands to Australia, especially the United States, where they formed the Missouri Synod, which is still in operation as a denomination. Finally in 1845 a new king Frederick IV offered a general and allowed the Old Lutherans form separate church with nominal control. From the point of view of the typical Catholic or Protestant, major changes were underway in terms of a more personalized focused on individual than church or the rationalism of the late 19th century there was a new emphasis on the psychology feeling of individual, especially in terms of contemplating redemption, and the mysteries and the revelations of Pietistic revivals were common among Protestants. Among, Catholics there was a sharp increase in popular 1844 alone, half a pilgrims made a to city Trier the Rhineland view the Seamless robe of Jesus, said to be the robe Jesus wore on the way to his crucifixion. Catholic bishops had been largely independent Rome, but now the exerted control, a new "ultramontanism" highly to controversy out 1837–38 in the largely Rhineland over the religious education children of mixed marriages, and the father Protestant. The government passed laws require that these children always be raised Protestants, contrary to Napoleonic law that had previously prevailed and allowed the to make It put the Catholic Archbishop under house arrest. 1840, the new King William IV sought reconciliation and ended the controversy by to of the demands. However Catholic remained deep and to a sense always needed stick in an untrustworthy government. Politics of restoration revolution Napoleon After the fall of Europe's in Vienna in 1815 for
 less numerous Reformed ProteStants. The gOvernMenT of prUssiA now Had full control OVer cHurch affairs, with the kinG himsElF RecoGNiZed as The leadINg BIShoP. OPpOsiTiON tO unifIcaTion camE from the "OlD LuThErans" in SilesIA wHo clung tigHtlY to the theoloGicAl and lItUrgICal foRms They hAd follOWed sinCe the days Of lUther. THE governMENt AtteMpted to crack down oN ThEM, so they went undErgrouNd. tEnS OF thOusAnds migratEd, To SouTH AustraLIa, AND EspECially to the UnIted States, wHEre They foRmEd tHE MissoUri SyNoD, WhiCh is still in OperAtion as a cOnservATive denOMinatioN. FinalLy iN 1845 a nEw kiNG FReDerIcK wilLIaM IV OFfeRed a geneRaL aMnestY and ALLOWed tHe OLd LuTheraNs to form a sepaRatE chuRCh aSsociAtion With OnLy nomInal goVernmEnT control.

From the ReliGious poinT of ViEw oF tHe typICal CatHolIc oR ProtesTant, majOR chAnGES WeRe underway in terms oF a MUCh More persOnalizED rElIGiosity tHaT foCuseD ON the iNdivIDuAl more thAn the cHUrCh Or the ceReMony. ThE rAtiOnaLism oF The lAte 19th cEntury faDed awAY, and there was a nEW emphasis on thE PsYCHoLOgy aNd fEeling of the IndiVIduaL, espECiAllY In terMs of cOnTEmPLating sinfulness, redEmPtion, aNd the Mysteries and tHe revelatiONS Of ChristIaniTY. PIEtistic revivalS were Common amonG protestaNts. AmOng, CathoLics there WAS a sharp iNcrEasE in PopULAr Pilgrimages. In 1844 ALOne, hAlF a milliOn pIlgrims MadE a pIlgRimAgE to the citY of Trier In ThE RHiNelAnd to VIew the SeAmLesS rObe Of JesUS, said tO be thE robE tHaT jesUs wore oN ThE WAy to HiS cRuciFixIoN. CathOlic BIshOps in GeRmany had hIstORicaLlY bEen largEly independenT oF Rome, but noW tHe VAtican EXErted incReasing control, a new "ultraMOntanisM" of cathoLics Highly loyAl tO Rome. A ShaRP contrOversy Broke OuT in 1837–38 IN The laRGElY CaThOlic RhinelAND ovEr the ReLigiOus educAtion of children of mIXed Marriages, wherE thE motHER wAs CAThOLic AnD The FATher Protestant. THe governmeNt PAsSed laws to rEQuiRe That theSe childRen alWAys be raIsed as ProTestants, cOnTrarY TO NaPoleonic laW that had PreviouslY PrevaILeD and aLloWed the PaRenTs to mAke the DEciSion. IT put thE CAtholiC ArchBiShop undeR house arrest. In 1840, the new KinG FredeRick WIllIam IV sougHt rEConCiliation And eNded the conTroVerSy by aGreEIng to Most OF tHe CATholiC demANds. HoweveR caThoLIC mEmories remaINED deEp and Led TO a sensE thaT Catholics always nEEded to stick togEtheR IN thE faCE of aN uNtrustworthy goVerNmENT.

PoliticS oF restoratioN and revoLuTIon

AfTer NapOleon

AFter the FALl OF NapolEon, EUroPe's statesMen CoNVened in viEnNA in 1815 for
 less numerous Reformed Pr otestants.  Thegov ern me nt o f Pr ussia now hadf ullcontrol over church af fairs ,w itht he  king  himsel f  r e c ogn iz ed  as  t h eleadi ngbishop.  Oppositio n t ounificationc am e from the  "O ld Lutherans " i n Sile si a w h o clu ngtight ly tot he the ologicalan d  litur g ical fo r m sthey  had followed sin c et he days of Lut her. T he go v e rnm ent  attempted  t o cra c k downo nt h e m,s o they went u nderground. Ten s of t ho usa n ds mig rated ,t o S outh Austra lia,  and espe cially to theU nited S tates,  wh ere  the y  f or med  t h e M i ss our i  Sy nod, whi ch  i s sti ll i n o p erat ion  asa con servative den omi nati o n.Final ly in  184 5a new  kingFrede ri ck William IV o ffer ed a gene ral  a mne st y and allowe d t heOld Lut heranst o f or m a  s eparate church ass oc i a ti on withonly n o mi na l  governm en t c ontr o l .

Fr om t h ereligiou s poin t  o fview of  t he typ ic alCat holic or P rotest ant, maj or ch a nges were unde r way in termso fa mu c h mo repersonalize d re l igio sity th atf ocuse d onth e  i n dividual more thanth e chur ch or  the ceremony . The rati o n a lism ofthel at e  19th centuryfaded  away, and there wa s a n ew empha sis on th e psycholo gyand  fe eli n g  o f the individ u a l, e sp ecially  in  termsofcon tem pla ti ng sinful ness, re de mp ti on , a nd th e  mysteri es  an dthe  reve l ations  of C hris ti an i ty.  Pietis t ic r eviv al swere  co mm on am ongP rot estants . Among,Cat h olic sth ere was  a sharp incr ea se in popu la r p ilgrim a g es. In 1 844 alone, half a milli o n pilgr ims  made  a p ilgrimage  to  the c ity of Tri er inthe R hi nel a n d tov i ew  th eSeamless r o b e o f Jes us , sa id to b e the robe that Je s uswore on the w ayto h i s  c ruc i fi x ion .C ath o l ic bishops in G ermany had  h i st orically b e enla rgely i ndepend ent o f  Rome,but now t he Vatica nexer t e d i ncreasingcontrol,  a new "u l tramo n ta nism"  of  Catho li cshighl y loya l  to  Rome . A sh ar p cont rover sy  broke o ut in 1837–38 in the la rgelyCatho lic  Rhinelan d o v erthe relig ious  education  of  ch ildre n o f  mixe d ma r ri age s , whe re t h e motherw as  Ca t h ol ic and thef a t her  Prot est a nt. Th e go vernment passed l a ws to requirethat t hes e c h ildr en  always be rai sed  a s Protesta nt s, contrary  to Napo le o nic l aw tha t hadpreviou s l yp revail ed a ndallowed t hepa r ents to  m ak e  the d ecis io n. Itput th e  Cat h o lic Archbishop u nderh o use a r res t. In  1 840, th e  new  King Fred erick Willi am IVsoug ht re concili at ion an d e nd ed the con t roversy b y agr eeing t omost  of  the C atho l i c dem ands .How ever Cath o l ic me mo r ies  rem ained  d eepand led t o  a sense  th a t Catho li csa l ways n e ed e d  to sticktog ether i n the face of a n  u n trust worthy  gover nment.Pol it ics ofres t o ration an d revolut i on
A fter  Napoleo n
Aft er  th efall of Napoleo n, Europ e's stat e s men co nve n ed i n  Vienn ain 1815 for
 less_numerous Reformed_Protestants. The government of_Prussia now_had_full control_over_church affairs, with_the king himself_recognized as the leading_bishop. Opposition to_unification_came from the "Old Lutherans" in Silesia who clung tightly to the theological and_liturgical_forms they_had_followed_since the days of Luther._The government attempted to crack_down on_them, so they went underground. Tens of thousands_migrated,_to South Australia,_and especially to the United States, where they formed_the Missouri Synod, which is still_in operation as_a_conservative_denomination. Finally in 1845_a new king Frederick William IV_offered a general amnesty and allowed_the Old Lutherans to form a separate_church association with only nominal government_control.

From the religious point of_view of_the typical Catholic or Protestant,_major changes were_underway in_terms of a_much more personalized religiosity that focused_on the individual_more than the church or the_ceremony._The rationalism of_the_late_19th century_faded away, and_there_was a_new_emphasis on the psychology and feeling_of_the individual, especially in terms of contemplating_sinfulness, redemption, and the_mysteries_and the revelations of_Christianity. Pietistic revivals were common_among Protestants. Among, Catholics there was_a sharp_increase in_popular pilgrimages. In 1844 alone, half a million pilgrims made a_pilgrimage to the city of Trier_in the Rhineland to_view the_Seamless_robe of Jesus,_said_to be_the robe that Jesus wore on the_way to_his crucifixion. Catholic bishops in Germany_had historically been largely_independent_of Rome, but now the Vatican_exerted increasing control, a new "ultramontanism"_of Catholics highly loyal to_Rome._A_sharp controversy broke out in_1837–38 in the largely Catholic Rhineland_over the religious_education of children of mixed marriages, where_the_mother was Catholic and the father_Protestant._The government passed laws to require_that_these_children always be raised as_Protestants, contrary to Napoleonic law that_had previously prevailed and allowed the parents to make_the decision. It_put the Catholic Archbishop under_house_arrest._In 1840, the new King Frederick William IV sought reconciliation_and ended_the controversy by_agreeing to most of the Catholic demands. However Catholic memories_remained deep and led to a sense_that Catholics always needed to stick together in the face of_an untrustworthy government.

Politics of restoration and revolution

After Napoleon

After_the fall of Napoleon, Europe's statesmen convened_in Vienna in 1815_for