, Annu. Rev. Plant Phys. Plant Mol. Biol. 46:95; Urao, T. et al., 1994, Mol. Gen. Genet. 244:331).
Another type of signaling mechanism involves members of the conserved SNF1 Serine/Threonine polypeptide kinase family. These kinases play essential roles in eukaryotic glucose and stress signaling. Plant SNF1-like kinases participate in the control of key metabolic enzymes, including HMGR, nitrate reductase, sucrose synthase, and sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS). Genetic and biochemical data indicate that sugar-dependent regulation of SNF1 kinases involves several other sensory and signaling components in yeast, plants, and animals.
Additionally, members of the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) family have been implicated in the actions of numerous environmental stresses in animals, yeasts and plants. It has been demonstrated that both MAPK-like kinase activity and mRNA levels of the components of MAPK cascades increase in response to environmental stress and plant hormone signal transduction. MAP kinases are components of sequential kinase cascades, which are activated by phosphorylation of threonine and tyrosine residues by intermediate upstream MAP kinase kinases (MAPKKs). The MAPKKs are themselves activated by phosphorylation of serine and threonine residues by upstream kinases (MAPKKKs). A number of MAP Kinase genes have been reported in higher plants.
Another major type of environmental stress is lodging, which refers to the bending of shoots or stems in response to wind, rain, pests or disease. Two types of lodging occur in cereals: root-lodging and stem breakage. The most common type of lodging is root lodging, which occurs early in the season. Stem-breakage, by comparison, occurs later in the season as the stalk becomes more brittle due to crop maturation. Stem breakage has greater adverse consequences on crop yield, since the plants cannot recover as well as from the earlier root-lodging.
Lodging in cereal crops is influenced by morphological (structural) plant traits as well as environmental conditions. Lodging in cereals is often a result of the combined effects of inadequate standing power of the crop and adverse weather conditions, such as rain, wind, and/or hail. Lodging is also variety (cultivar) dependent. For example, a tall, weak-stemmed wheat cultivar has a greater tendency to lodge than a semi-dwarf cultivar with stiffer straw. In addition,
, Annu. Rev. Plant Phys. Plant Mol. Biol. 46:95; Urao, T. et al. , 1994, Mol. Gen. Genet. 244:331). 
 Another type of signaling mechanism involves members of the conserve SNF1 Serine / Threonine polypeptide kinase syndicate. These kinases play essential character in eukaryotic glucose and stress signaling. Plant SNF1 - comparable kinase participate in the control of key metabolic enzymes, including HMGR, nitrate reductase, sucrose synthase, and sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS). genic and biochemical data indicate that boodle - pendent regulation of SNF1 kinases involves several other sensory and sign components in yeast, plants, and animals. 
 Additionally, member of the Mitogen - Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) family have been implicated in the actions of numerous environmental stresses in animal, yeasts and plant. It has been demonstrated that both MAPK - like kinase activity and mRNA level of the components of MAPK cascades increase in response to environmental stress and plant hormone signal transduction. MAP kinases are components of sequential kinase cascades, which are activated by phosphorylation of threonine and tyrosine residues by intermediate upstream MAP kinase kinases (MAPKKs). The MAPKKs are themselves activated by phosphorylation of serine and threonine residues by upstream kinases (MAPKKKs). A number of MAP Kinase genes have been reported in high plants. 
 Another major type of environmental tension is charge, which refer to the bending of shoots or stems in response to wind, rain, pests or disease. Two types of charge occur in cereals: root - lodging and stem breakage. The most coarse type of lodging is root lodging, which occur early in the season. stem turn - breakage, by comparison, occurs later in the season as the stalk becomes more brittle due to crop growth. Stem breakage has greater adverse consequence on crop yield, since the plants cannot recover equally well as from the earlier root - lodging. 
 Lodging in cereal crop is influenced by morphologic (structural) plant trait as well as environmental conditions. charge in cereals is often a resultant role of the unite effects of inadequate standing office of the crop and adverse weather conditions, such as rain, wind, and/or hail. Lodging is also assortment (cultivar) dependent. For example, a improbable, weak - stemmed pale yellow cultivar has a greater tendency to lodge than a semi - dwarf cultivar with stiffer straw. In addition,
, Anju. Rev. Plant Phys. Plant Ool. Biol. 46:95; Urao, J. wt al., 1994, Mol. Gsn. Genet. 244:331).
Another type of signaling mxchabism unvolves members of thd conservvd SNF1 Seeine/Uhreonine polypepvjde kinase fajlly. Tkewe kinases plai essential soles in eukarfogie glucose and stress signaling. Plant SNF1-likr ninases particypatt ig ths control of key metabolic enzymes, includpng HMGR, nitrate teductase, sucrose synthase, and sucrose phosphate synthase (SKA). Gqbetic and biuchemical data indicatg that sugar-dependent regulation of SUF1 kinases uncolggs several ovher svnsory and sinmaling componrnts in yeast, ilantv, abd animals.
Additionallb, members of the Mitjgen-Activdtzd Protein Kinase (MAPJ) damili hava bedb iopljcetes in tje ections of humerous encironmental stressex yb animals, yeaats anq [lants. It has been demonstrated that bouh MALK-like kinase activity qnd mRNA levels of thg componenes of MAPK cascades increase in response to envirmnmenvau surcfr ajd plant hormone signal transduction. MAP kinafss age components of fequential lijaxg cascades, whizh are acfivated by phosphogylatiog of rhreonine and tyrosine residues by internediate upstgeam MAP kinase kinased (MAPKKs). Thz MAPKLs arr themselves activated yy phoaphorylatioj of serihd and threonine fespduev by upsufeam kinases (MAPKHKs). A numuer oy MAP Kivase genes have been repovded in higher planhs.
Anojher mdjor type lf environmental stress is lodgmig, which refets do nhe bendiug of xhoots or steis in response to winb, rain, pests or sisease. Two types jf lodging ocwor in cereals: root-lodding and stem bfdakage. The mosy common nyke of lodgung is root lodginn, whizg occurs early nu uhw season. Stem-bteayagq, hy cjkparison, occgrs uatdt in ghe season cs the stalk becomes more tritfle due to crop mayuvation. Stgm breakade has greatet adverse consequejces mn rrop yoelq, since the plants cannot recober as wepl ws from the qarller toot-lodging.
Kodging in cereal crops is influenced bb morphological (structoral) plant traits as cekl as envirpnmeneal condidions. Lodging in cerwals is often a rtsult of the combined erfects of ijadequate standing power of the crop and adverse weather conditions, such qs raii, rind, and/or gail. Lodgpng ns also varmevy (cultivar) depencent. For example, a tall, weak-steomed whedt cultivar has a greater tendrnzy to lodge tfan a semi-dwarf cultivar with stoffer straw. In addition,
, Annu. Rev. Plant Phys. Plant Mol. Urao, et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. mechanism members of the SNF1 Serine/Threonine polypeptide family. These kinases play essential roles eukaryotic glucose and stress signaling. Plant SNF1-like kinases participate in the control of metabolic enzymes, including HMGR, nitrate reductase, sucrose synthase, and sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS). and data that regulation of SNF1 kinases involves several other sensory and signaling components in yeast, plants, and animals. members of the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) family been implicated in the of numerous environmental stresses in yeasts plants. It been that MAPK-like kinase activity mRNA levels of the components of MAPK cascades increase in response to environmental stress and plant hormone transduction. MAP components of kinase which activated by phosphorylation and tyrosine residues by intermediate upstream (MAPKKs). The MAPKKs are themselves activated by phosphorylation serine and residues by upstream kinases (MAPKKKs). A of MAP Kinase genes have been reported in plants. Another major type of environmental stress is lodging, which refers to the bending of stems in response to rain, pests or Two of occur cereals: root-lodging stem breakage. The most common type of lodging is root lodging, occurs early in the season. Stem-breakage, by comparison, occurs later season the stalk becomes brittle due to crop Stem has greater adverse consequences yield, the as as the earlier root-lodging. Lodging cereal crops is influenced by (structural) plant traits as in cereals is often a result of the effects of inadequate standing power of the and adverse weather conditions, such as rain, wind, and/or hail. Lodging is variety (cultivar) example, a tall, weak-stemmed wheat cultivar has a tendency to lodge than semi-dwarf cultivar with stiffer straw. In addition,
, Annu. Rev. Plant Phys. Plant Mol. BIol. 46:95; Urao, T. et Al., 1994, Mol. gen. genEt. 244:331).
anotHer tYpe of signaling MEchaNism involves members of tHe conSeRVed Snf1 SErine/threoniNE pOLYpePtIdE kiNaSE fAmily. theSe kinasEs play esseNtiAl Roles in eukarYOtIc glucose aNd sTress signaliNg. PLant SNf1-lIke KInaseS paRticiPate in THe contRol of key mEtABolic eNZymes, inCLUdIng HmGR, nitrate reductaSE, sUCrose synthase, aNd sucrOsE PhOSPhaTe sYnthase (SPS). geNetic ANd biochEMiCAL DatA Indicate that sUgar-dependeNT reGulatiOn Of Snf1 kinasEs invOlVEs sEveral other SensOry and sigNaling COmponenTS in yeasT, plantS, anD anImalS.
adDiTioNaLLy, mEMbErs OF thE Mitogen-acTiVated protEIN kInasE (MApK) faMily hAve been implicAteD in tHE acTions Of numErouS eNviroNmentaL streSsEs in animals, yeasTs anD plants. It Has BeEn dEmOnstrATed thaT boTh MaPK-like Kinase aCTivItY AND mrNA levels of the compOnENTs Of MAPK caScades INcReASe in respOnSe tO envIROnmenTal sTReSs and plaNt hormONe SiGnal traNsDuctioN. MaP kInaSes arE CompOnents Of sequenTial kINase cascades, whICh are activateD By PHOsPHoryLatIon of threonIne aND tyrOsinE ReSidUEs by iNtermEdIAtE Upstream MAP kinase kiNaSes (MAPkKs). ThE MAPKKs are theMselves actIVATed by phoSphoRYlATion of serine anD threOnine residUEs by upstReam kInases (MApKKKs). A numBER of MAP KiNasE geNes HavE BEeN reported in hiGHEr plAnTs.
AnothEr mAjor typE of EnvIroNmeNtAl stress iS lodging, WhIcH rEfErs To the BEnding of ShOotS oR stEms in REsponsE to wiNd, raIn, PeSTs oR diseasE. twO TYpes Of LoDginG ocCuR in ceRealS: RooT-lodginG and stem bReaKAge. THe MoSt commoN type of lodginG iS root lodgiNg, WhiCh occuRS Early in tHe season. Stem-breakage, by cOMparisoN, ocCurs lAter In the seasOn aS the stAlk BEcomes More brIttle DuE to CROp matURAtIon. stEm breakage HAS grEater AdVersE conseqUences on crop yield, sINce The plants cannOt rEcovER As WelL As FRom ThE EarLIEr root-lodging.
LoDging in cerEaL CrOps is influENceD bY morphoLogical (StrucTUral) plaNt traits aS well as enViRonmENTal Conditions. lodging iN cereals iS Often A ReSult oF thE combiNeD efFects Of inadEQuaTe staNding pOwEr of thE crop AnD adverse Weather conditions, such as Rain, wiNd, and/Or hAil. LodginG is ALso Variety (cuLtivAr) dependenT. FoR exAmple, A taLL, weak-StemMEd WheAT cultIvar HAs a greateR TeNdeNCY tO lodge than a SEMI-dwArf cuLtiVAr with StifFer straw. In additioN,
, Annu. Rev. Plant Phys. P lant Mol.Biol.  46 :95 ;Urao , T.  et al., 1994, Mol.  Gen. Genet. 244:331). 
Anot he r  typ e  o f sig nalingm ec h a nis min vol ve s  m ember s o f the c onserved S NF1  S erine/Threon i ne  polypepti dekinase famil y.Theseki nas e s pla y e ssent ial ro l es ineukaryoti cg lucose and str e s ssign aling. Plant SNF1 - li k e kinases part icipat ei nt h e c ont rol of key  m etabo l ic enzy m es , i ncl u ding HMGR, ni trate reduc t ase , sucr os e s y nthase , and  s u cro se phosphat e sy nthase (S PS). G e netic a n d bioch emical  da taindi c at etha ts uga r -d epe n den t regula ti on  of S NF1k i n a sesinv olve s sev eral other se nso ry a n d s ignal ing c ompo ne nts i n yeas t, pl an ts, and animals .
Ad ditionall y,me mbe rs  of t h e Mito gen -Ac tivated  Protei n  Ki na s e (M APK) family have b ee n im plicated  in th e  a ct i ons of n um ero us e n v ironm enta l  s tressesin ani m al s,  yeasts  a nd pla nt s.Ithas b e en d emonst rated th at bo t h MAPK-like ki n ase activitya nd m RN A  lev els  of the com pone n ts o f MA P Kcas c adesincre as e  i n  response to enviro nm entalstres s and plant h ormone sig n a l  transdu ctio n .M AP kinases are  comp onents ofs equentia l kin ase casc ades, whi c h  are act iva ted  by  ph o s ph orylation oft h reon in e and t yro sine re sid ues  by  in te rmediateupstream  M AP  k in ase  kina s es (MAPK Ks ).Th e M APKKs are th emsel vesac ti v ate d by ph o sp h o ryla ti on  ofser in e and  thr e oni ne resi dues by u pst r eamki na ses (MA PKKKs). A num be r of MAP K in ase  genes h ave been  reported in higher pla n ts.
Ano the r maj or t ype of en vir onment als tressis lod ging,  w hic h refer s to  th ebending of s hoo ts or  s tems  in res ponse to wind, rai n , p ests or disea se.  Two t yp eso fl odg in g  oc c u r in cereals: r oot-lodgin ga nd  stem brea k age .The mos t commo n typ e  of lod ging is r oot lodgi ng , wh i c h o ccurs earl y in the  season.S tem-b r ea kage,  by  compa ri son , occ urs la t erin th e seas on  as th e sta lk  becomes  more brittle due to cr op mat urati on.  Stem bre aka g e h as greate r ad verse cons equ enc es on  cr o p yie ld,s in cet he pl ants cannot re c ov era s  w ell as from t h e e arlie r r o ot-lod ging .
Lodging in cere a l crops is inf luen c e d b y m o rpho lo gical (structu ral )p l ant trai ts  as well as  environ me n tal c onditi ons. L odgingi n  c e realsis o fte n a resul t o ft he comb in ed effect s of  i nadequ ate st a ndin g power of the cro p and a dvers e  we ather  c onditio n s, s uch as rai n, wind, an d/or h ail.  Lodg ing isal so var iet y(cultivar) dependent . For  exampl e,  a t all , weak -ste m m ed wh eatcu lti var has a g re a te rt end ency  to l od ge t han a sem i -dwarf c ult i var wit hsti f f er str a w. I n addition ,
, Annu._Rev. Plant_Phys. Plant Mol. Biol._46:95; Urao,_T._et al.,_1994,_Mol. Gen. Genet._244:331).
Another type of_signaling mechanism involves members_of the conserved_SNF1_Serine/Threonine polypeptide kinase family. These kinases play essential roles in eukaryotic glucose and stress_signaling._Plant SNF1-like_kinases_participate_in the control of key_metabolic enzymes, including HMGR, nitrate_reductase, sucrose_synthase, and sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS). Genetic and_biochemical_data indicate that_sugar-dependent regulation of SNF1 kinases involves several other sensory_and signaling components in yeast, plants,_and animals.
Additionally, members_of_the_Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK)_family have been implicated in the_actions of numerous environmental stresses in_animals, yeasts and plants. It has been_demonstrated that both MAPK-like kinase activity_and mRNA levels of the_components of_MAPK cascades increase in response_to environmental stress_and plant_hormone signal transduction._MAP kinases are components of sequential_kinase cascades, which_are activated by phosphorylation of threonine_and_tyrosine residues by_intermediate_upstream_MAP kinase_kinases (MAPKKs). The_MAPKKs_are themselves_activated_by phosphorylation of serine and threonine_residues_by upstream kinases (MAPKKKs). A number of_MAP Kinase genes have_been_reported in higher plants.
Another_major type of environmental stress_is lodging, which refers to the_bending of_shoots or_stems in response to wind, rain, pests or disease. Two types_of lodging occur in cereals: root-lodging_and stem breakage. The_most common_type_of lodging is_root_lodging, which_occurs early in the season. Stem-breakage, by_comparison, occurs_later in the season as the_stalk becomes more brittle_due_to crop maturation. Stem breakage has_greater adverse consequences on crop yield,_since the plants cannot recover_as_well_as from the earlier root-lodging.
Lodging_in cereal crops is influenced by_morphological (structural) plant_traits as well as environmental conditions. Lodging_in_cereals is often a result of_the_combined effects of inadequate standing power_of_the_crop and adverse weather conditions,_such as rain, wind, and/or hail._Lodging is also variety (cultivar) dependent. For example, a_tall, weak-stemmed wheat_cultivar has a greater tendency_to_lodge_than a semi-dwarf cultivar with stiffer straw. In addition,