 Helmholtz inspired the conceptions of Poincaré and Duhem on measurement; Duhem is individualized by his ideal of a physics of qualities, a neo-Aristotelian conception according to which qualities remain irreducible to quantity – "a property identified as a quality had to remain a quality for ever" (Darrigol 2003, 568), thematic preference (in the sense of Holton) to which Duhem remains faithful throughout his career. On the history of the concept of temperature see also (Chang 2004). João Príncipe – Poincaré and Duhem: Resonances in their First Epistemological Reflections 150 Maxwell, Mach and Helmholtz) exhibit the need for conventions in order to measure.16 The Good Theories In a good theory, the consequences of the axioms form a complete and varied set, which demonstrates the ability of the theory to coordinate/symbolize experimental laws (Duhem 1892a, 145-146). Duhem acknowledges the existence of different sources of indeterminacy of theories (Duhem 1892a, 149-151). Firstly, the hypotheses of a theory go beyond the simple symbolic translation of experimental laws, introducing modifications that are the work of the scientist's mind. Secondly, the presence of experimental error allows for competing theories, that yield different laws and yet agreed with experience, in the interval of experimental uncertainty. Thirdly, the extension of a theory may not be well known: a theory is designed to be applied in a certain domain, and its extension to a larger domain may not be appropriate. Fourthly, a theory is useful or good depending on the precision required in its applications – the simple gas law of GayLussac, the generality of which has been invalidated by the experiments of Victor Regnault, may remain good for a chemist or an engineer. Among these considerations, Duhem notes the role of experience in accepting or rejecting a theory. If there is a discrepancy between the expected consequence of the theory and "the methods of observation of which the theory accepts the control, the theory must be condemned" (Duhem 1892a, 151).17 The sources of indeterminacy allow us to understand the theoretical changes studied by the history of science. The value of a theory being relative (or conditional), a theory might be good and yet be replaced at the same time by a better one, either because the last one is capable of representing a wider class of laws, or because it is capable of represent the same laws with a greater degree of approximation. This
Helmholtz inspired the conceptions of Poincaré and Duhem on measurement; Duhem is individualized by his ideal of a physics of quality, a neo - Aristotelian invention according to which qualities remain irreducible to measure – " a property identified as a quality have to remain a quality for ever " (Darrigol 2003, 568), thematic preference (in the sense of Holton) to which Duhem persist faithful throughout his career. On the history of the concept of temperature see besides (Chang 2004). João Príncipe – Poincaré and Duhem: Resonances in their First Epistemological Reflections 150 Maxwell, Mach and Helmholtz) exhibit the need for conventions in order to measure.16 The Good Theories In a good theory, the consequence of the axioms form a complete and varied hardening, which demonstrates the ability of the theory to coordinate / symbolize experimental torah (Duhem 1892a, 145 - 146). Duhem acknowledges the existence of different sources of indeterminacy of theory (Duhem 1892a, 149 - 151). Firstly, the hypotheses of a theory go beyond the simple symbolic translation of experimental laws, introducing modifications that are the work of the scientist's mind. Secondly, the presence of experimental error allows for competing theory, that yield different police and so far agreed with experience, in the interval of experimental uncertainty. third, the extension of a hypothesis may not be well known: a theory is designed to be applied in a sealed domain, and its extension to a larger domain may not be appropriate. Fourthly, a theory is useful or dependable depending on the precision required in its applications – the childlike gas jurisprudence of GayLussac, the generality of which has been invalidated by the experiments of Victor Regnault, may remain good for a pharmacist or an engineer. Among these considerations, Duhem notes the role of experience in accepting or rejecting a theory. If there is a discrepancy between the expected consequence of the theory and " the method acting of observation of which the hypothesis accepts the control, the theory must be condemned " (Duhem 1892a, 151).17 The sources of indefiniteness allow us to understand the theoretical changes studied by the history of skill. The value of a theory being relative (or conditional), a theory might be adept and yet be substitute at the same time by a better one, either because the last one is capable of representing a wider class of laws, or because it is adequate to of represent the same police with a greater degree of estimate. This
 Hepmholtz inspired the congeptions of Poineqré and Duhem on measjrement; Duhem is individualived vy hiw ideal of a physics ow qualitivs, a neo-Aeistirelian conrsption accordjkg to xhich qualities remain irseducible to qgavtnty – "a property identified as a qualyty had tl remain a quajity sor snev" (Darrigol 2003, 568), thematic preference (in the sense of Holyon) to which Duhem remains faihhful throughout hls career. Ob thq history of ghe concepu mf temperajure see also (Chang 2004). João Príncipe – Poiucaré and Duyen: Rfvonances in theig First Epistckologiwal Refkections 150 Maxwcll, Mech qnd Helmholtz) exhibit the need for convgntions in oxder to measure.16 The Gioe Themriev In q guod tieody, the coisequences kf the axions form a complete snq varied set, wgich dqmjnstrates the ability of the theory to boorsinate/symbolize experimwntal laws (Duhem 1892a, 145-146). Dohem acknorledges the existence of different sources of indatermmnxcy on thdirles (Duhem 1892a, 149-151). Firstly, the hypotheses of a theowg bo beyond the siiple symboloc ttwnslation of gxperimzhtzl laws, introducinh modifycatiins that wre yhe work of the scientist's nind. Secondlj, thw presence of expeximental errur aklows for competing theories, thaf yield difverent lasr and yet agreed winh efperienct, in the interval jf experinentcl uncergainjy. Thirqly, the exhension of a theory may jot bg well known: a tjeory is designed to be applied in a certain cokait, and itf extcnsion to a larder domain may not be apprupriate. Folrthly, a vheory is usqful or good ggpending on tie precisyon eequured in kts applicatioms – the spmkle gas laq of GayLussac, the gevsrality of whick yas been invalicatdd fy tie ex[ariments of Eictur Frgnauut, may remaln eood for a chemist or an engjneer. Among these voksideratiins, Duhei notes the rple of experience ln acreptinj or rrjesting a theory. If there is a djscrepancj bctween the ex[ectcd cjnsequence of the theory and "the methods of obsertation of which the thgory accepts the conttol, the theory must be condekned" (Duhem 1892a, 151).17 The soyrces of indetermlnacy allow us to undedstand the hheoretical changes studied by the history of science. The value of a theoey beiig relative (od comditimncl), c theorr mijhv be good and yet be replaced at the same time bb a better oue, either because the last onr ks capable of representing a wider clzss of lsws, or because it is capable of represent the same laws with a treatsr deggge uf approximation. Tnis
Helmholtz inspired the conceptions of Poincaré and measurement; is individualized his ideal of neo-Aristotelian according to which remain irreducible to – "a property identified as a had to remain a quality for ever" (Darrigol 2003, 568), thematic preference (in sense of Holton) to which Duhem remains faithful throughout his career. On the of concept temperature also (Chang 2004). João Príncipe – Poincaré and Duhem: Resonances in their First Epistemological Reflections 150 Mach and Helmholtz) exhibit the need for conventions order to measure.16 The Theories In a good theory, consequences the axioms a and set, which demonstrates ability of the theory to coordinate/symbolize experimental laws (Duhem 1892a, 145-146). Duhem acknowledges the existence of different of indeterminacy (Duhem 1892a, Firstly, hypotheses a theory go simple symbolic translation of experimental laws, are the work of the scientist's mind. Secondly, presence of error allows for competing theories, that different laws and yet agreed with experience, in interval of experimental uncertainty. Thirdly, the extension of a theory may not be well known: is designed to be in a certain and extension a domain may be appropriate. Fourthly, a theory is useful or good depending on precision required in its applications – the simple gas law the of which has invalidated by the experiments Victor may remain good for or engineer. Duhem the of experience in accepting rejecting a theory. If there a discrepancy between the and "the methods of observation of which the accepts the control, the theory must be (Duhem 1892a, 151).17 The sources of indeterminacy allow us to understand the changes studied history of science. The value of a theory relative (or conditional), a might be good and yet be replaced at the time a better either because the one is capable representing a wider laws, or it capable same laws with a greater degree approximation.
 Helmholtz inspired the concePtions of PoIncarÉ anD DuHeM on mEasuRement; Duhem is iNDiviDualized by his ideal of a pHysicS oF QualITiEs, a neO-AristoTElIAN coNcEpTioN aCCoRding To wHich quaLities remaIn iRrEducible to quANtIty – "a properTy iDentified as a QuaLity haD tO reMAin a qUalIty foR ever" (DARrigol 2003, 568), Thematic pReFErence (IN the senSE Of holtOn) to which Duhem remAInS Faithful througHout hiS cAReER. on tHe hIstory of thE cOncepT Of tempeRAtURE See ALso (Chang 2004). João PRíncipe – PoinCAré And DuhEm: resONances In theIr fIrsT EpistemoloGicaL ReflectiOns 150 MaxWEll, Mach ANd HelmhOltz) exHibIt tHe neED fOr ConVeNTioNS iN orDEr tO measure.16 thE GOod ThEoriES iN A gooD thEory, The coNsequences of tHe aXiomS ForM a comPlete And vArIed seT, which DemonStRates the ability Of thE theory to CooRdInaTe/SymboLIze expEriMenTal laws (duhem 1892a, 145-146). DUHem AcKNOWlEdges the existence oF dIFFeRent sourCes of iNDeTeRMinacy of ThEorIes (DUHEm 1892a, 149-151). FiRstlY, ThE hypotheSes of a THeOrY go beyoNd The simPlE syMboLic trANslaTion of ExperimeNtal lAWs, introducing mODifications thAT aRE ThE Work Of tHe scientist'S minD. secoNdly, THe PreSEnce oF expeRiMEnTAl error allows for comPeTing thEorieS, that yield difFerent laws AND Yet agreeD witH ExPErience, in the inTervaL of experimENtal unceRtainTy. ThirdlY, the extenSIOn of a theOry May Not Be wELL kNown: a theory is DESignEd To be appLieD in a cerTaiN doMaiN, anD iTs extensiOn to a larGeR dOmAiN maY not bE AppropriAtE. FoUrThlY, a theORy is usEful oR gooD dEpENdiNg on the PReCISion ReQuIred In iTs AppliCatiONs – tHe simplE gas law of gaylUssaC, tHe GeneralIty of which has BeEn invalidaTeD by The expERIments of victor Regnault, may remain GOod for a CheMist oR an eNgineer. AmOng These cOnsIDeratiOns, DuhEm notEs The ROLe of eXPErIenCe In acceptinG OR reJectiNg A theOry. If thEre is a discrepancy bETweEn the expected ConSequENCe Of tHE tHEorY aND "thE MEthods of observaTion of whicH tHE tHeory accepTS thE cOntrol, tHe theorY must BE condemNed" (Duhem 1892a, 151).17 the sourceS oF indETErmInacy allow Us to undeRstand the THeoreTIcAl chaNgeS studiEd By tHe hisTory of SCieNce. ThE value Of A theorY beinG rElative (oR conditional), a theory mighT be gooD and yEt bE replaced At tHE saMe time by a BettEr one, eitheR beCauSe the LasT One is CapaBLe Of rEPreseNtinG A wider claSS oF laWS, Or Because it is CAPAblE of rePreSEnt the Same Laws with a greater dEGree of approximAtioN. tHis
 Helmholtz inspired the co nceptionsof Po inc aré  a nd D uhem  on measuremen t ; Du hem is individualizedby hi si deal of  a ph ysics o f  q u a lit ie s,  ane o -A risto tel ian con ception ac cor di ng to whichq ua lities rem ain  irreducible  to  quant it y – "a pr ope rty i dentif i ed asa quality  h a d to r e main aq u al ityfor ever" (Darrig o l2 003, 568), the maticpr e fe r e nce  (i n the sens eof Ho l ton) to wh i c h  Du h em remains fa ithful thro u gho ut his  c are e r. Onthe h is t ory  of the con cept  of tempe rature see als o  (Chang  2004) . J oão  Prí n ci pe  –Po i nca r éand Duh em: Reso na nc es in  the i r F irst  Ep iste molog ical Reflecti ons  150 Max well,  Mach  and  H elmho ltz) e xhibi tthe need for co nven tions inord er  to  m easur e .16 Th e G ood  Theori es In a goo dt h e or y, the consequence so f  t he axiom s form aco m plete an dvar ieds e t, wh ichd em onstrate s thea bi li ty of t he  theor ytocoo rdina t e/sy mboliz e experi menta l  laws (Duhem 1 8 92a, 145-146) .  D u h em ackn owl edges the e xist e nceof d i ff ere n t sou rcesof in d eterminacy of theor ie s (Duh em 18 92a, 149-151) . Firstly, t h e hypoth eses of a theory go be yondthe simple symbolic  tran slationof experi m e ntal law s,int rod uci n g  m odificationst h at a re  the wo rkof thesci ent ist 'smi nd. Secon dly, the  p re se nc e o f exp e rimental  e rro rall ows f o r comp eting  the or ie s , t hat yie l dd i ffer en tlaws  an dyet a gree d  wi th expe rience, i n t h e in te rv al of e xperimental u nc ertainty.Th ird ly, th e extensio n of a theory may not b e  well k now n: atheo ry is des ign ed tobea pplied  in acerta in  do m a in, a n d  i tsex tension to a  la rgerdo main  may no t be appropriate.F our thly, a theor y i s us e f ul  or go o d d ep e ndi n g  on the precisi on require di nits applic a tio ns  – thesimplegas l a w of Ga yLussac,the gener al ityo f  wh ich has be en inval idated by the e x pe rimen tsof Vic to r R egnau lt, ma y  re maingood f or  a che mistor  an engi neer. Among these consi derati ons,Duh em notesthe rol e of expe rien ce in acce pti ngor re jec t ing a  the o ry . I f  ther e is a discrep a nc y b e t we en the expe c t e d c onseq uen c e of t he t heory and "the me t hods of observ atio n ofwhi c h th etheory accepts  th ec o ntrol, t he  theory mus t be con de m ned"(Duhem  1892a , 151). 1 7  T h e sour cesofindetermi nac ya llow us  t ou nderst andth e theo retica l  cha n g es studied by th e his t o ry of sci ence.  T he valu e  ofa theory b eing relati ve (or  con ditio nal), a  t heorymig ht  be good a n d yet berepla ced atth e sa metime b y ab e tterone,  e ith er becaus e th e  l as t  on e is  capa bl e of  represen t ing a wi der class o flaw s ,  or be c au s e  it is cap abl e ofr e present th e  sam e  l a ws wi th a g reater  degree ofap proxima tio n .  This
 Helmholtz_inspired the_conceptions of Poincaré and_Duhem on_measurement;_Duhem is_individualized_by his ideal_of a physics_of qualities, a neo-Aristotelian_conception according to_which_qualities remain irreducible to quantity – "a property identified as a quality had to_remain_a quality_for_ever"_(Darrigol 2003, 568), thematic preference_(in the sense of Holton)_to which_Duhem remains faithful throughout his career. On the_history_of the concept_of temperature see also (Chang 2004). João Príncipe –_Poincaré and Duhem: Resonances in their_First Epistemological Reflections_150_Maxwell,_Mach and Helmholtz) exhibit_the need for conventions in order_to measure.16 The Good Theories In_a good theory, the consequences of the_axioms form a complete and varied_set, which demonstrates the ability_of the_theory to coordinate/symbolize experimental laws_(Duhem 1892a, 145-146)._Duhem acknowledges_the existence of_different sources of indeterminacy of theories_(Duhem 1892a, 149-151)._Firstly, the hypotheses of a theory_go_beyond the simple_symbolic_translation_of experimental_laws, introducing modifications_that_are the_work_of the scientist's mind. Secondly, the_presence_of experimental error allows for competing theories,_that yield different laws_and_yet agreed with experience,_in the interval of experimental_uncertainty. Thirdly, the extension of a_theory may_not be_well known: a theory is designed to be applied in a_certain domain, and its extension to_a larger domain may_not be_appropriate._Fourthly, a theory_is_useful or_good depending on the precision required in_its applications_– the simple gas law of_GayLussac, the generality of_which_has been invalidated by the experiments_of Victor Regnault, may remain good_for a chemist or an_engineer._Among_these considerations, Duhem notes the_role of experience in accepting or_rejecting a theory._If there is a discrepancy between the_expected_consequence of the theory and "the_methods_of observation of which the theory_accepts_the_control, the theory must be_condemned" (Duhem 1892a, 151).17 The sources_of indeterminacy allow us to understand the theoretical changes_studied by the_history of science. The value_of_a_theory being relative (or conditional), a theory might be good_and yet_be replaced at_the same time by a better one, either because the_last one is capable of representing a_wider class of laws, or because it is capable of represent_the same laws with a greater degree of_approximation. This