). In such cases principles theories can come to the rescue by providing extra constraints that make more determinate the synthetic options, and Einstein's own theories of special and general relativity do exactly that (as Maxwell's had earlier). During the 2nd half of the 20th century Clifford Truesdell and his students, using new mathematical techniques, provided a rigorous grounding for much of the macroscopic physics of continua that was conceptually and mathematically problematic in the 19th century and that pushed physicists to develop analytic techniques. These contemporary treatments accept a background of atoms and fundamental forces, but they do not try to explain continuum phenomena in terms of atoms and fundamental forces. Instead, they work entirely at the macroscopic scale and, following Duhem's lead, try to impose conceptually and mathematically coherent order on the domains they study. On the other hand, a partial vindication of atomism was just around the corner (due to Einstein's theoretical and Perrin's experimental studies of Brownian motion), and nearly everyone, with the exception of Duhem, was converted. No doubt, as Poincaré's references to indifferent hypotheses and Duhem's references to "the absolute indeterminacy of the masses and hidden motions" (Duhem 1903, 97) make evident, the inability of scientists before Perrin's experiments on Brownian motion to empirically determine with any accuracy the properties of atoms and molecules (like their absolute sizes, gram-molecular weight, and number per mole) played an important role in supporting the skepticism/agnosticism of the anti-atomists. But they greatly underestimated the ingenuity of theorists and experimenters and their ability to devise hypotheses that would tie empirically measurable parameters to parameters of elementary bodies sufficiently tightly to determine the latter. The story of how this work led to Perrin's multiple determinations of the values of various parameters including Avogadro's number and their interlocking, mutually supporting consilience is told in various places, e.g., (van Fraassen 2009). But fast-forwarding another twenty-five years or so, quantum mechanics had become generally accepted as the most empirically adequate account of atomic behavior, and though everyone believed in atoms, hardly anyone believed their behavior could be modeled in terms of physically familiar parameters and operations, and the abstract conception had returned in full force. Scientific progress was made, but it appears to have assimilated strands from both the synthetic and analytic traditions. Some Philosophical and Historiographical Lessons I conclude by drawing some lessons, largely negative, about the current practice
). In such cases principles theories can come to the rescue by provide excess constraints that make more determinate the man-made option, and Einstein's own theories of special and cosmopolitan relativity do exactly that (as Maxwell's had sooner). During the 2nd half of the twentieth century Clifford Truesdell and his students, using new numerical techniques, provided a rigorous foundation for much of the macroscopic physics of continuum that was conceptually and mathematically baffling in the 19th century and that pushed physicist to develop analytic techniques. These contemporary treatments accept a setting of atoms and fundamental forces, but they do not try to explain continuum phenomenon in terms of atoms and fundamental forces. Instead, they work entirely at the macroscopic scale and, following Duhem's lead, try to impose conceptually and mathematically coherent order on the domains they study. On the other hand, a fond defense of atomism was just around the corner (due to Einstein's theoretical and Perrin's experimental report of Brownian motion), and nearly everyone, with the exception of Duhem, was converted. No doubt, as Poincaré's reference to indifferent hypotheses and Duhem's references to " the absolute indeterminacy of the multitude and hidden motions " (Duhem 1903, 97) make evident, the inability of scientists before Perrin's experiments on Brownian movement to empirically determine with any accuracy the properties of atoms and molecules (like their absolute size, gram - molecular system of weights, and number per mole) played an important role in corroborate the skepticism / agnosticism of the anti - atomists. But they greatly underestimated the ingenuity of theorist and experimenters and their ability to organize hypotheses that would tie empirically measurable parameter to parameters of elementary body sufficiently tightly to determine the latter. The narrative of how this work contribute to Perrin's multiple determinations of the value of various parameter including Avogadro's number and their interlocking, mutually supporting consilience is told in versatile places, e.g., (van Fraassen 2009). But fast - forwarding another twenty - five years or so, quantum mechanics had become generally accepted as the most empirically adequate history of atomic behavior, and though everyone believe in atoms, hardly anyone believed their behavior could be modeled in terms of physically conversant parameters and operations, and the abstract conception had returned in full force. Scientific progress was made, but it appear to have assimilate strands from both the synthetic and analytic traditions. Some Philosophical and Historiographical Lessons I conclude by drawing some lessons, largely damaging, about the current practice
). In such cases principles tmeories can come to the rescus by proxiding extra constraints thav maje moee determinate the synghetic opnions, and Einwrein's own vgeories of spsgial cnv general relatlvity do exdctly that (as Kabwzll's had earlier). During the 2nd half jf the 20yh century Cliffjrd Uruqsdeml and his students, using new mathsmatican techniques, lrovided a rigorous groundlng vor much of the mafroscopic pyysisw of continux that was conceptualli and mathematically problematic in tke 19th centutv anf that pushev physpcists to devckop andlytic yechniques. Thexe rontwmporary treatments arcept a background os atoms atd fundamental forcws, but jhey go nur tfy uo xxpmain clntmnuum phenojena in terns of atoms and funcaivmtal forces. Jnsteaq, ehey work entirely at the macroscopic sbale and, following Duhem's lwad, try to impose confeptually and mathematically coherent order on the domains they rtubn. Ub hhe other hand, a partial vindication of atomifj eax just around bhe corner (due to Rijsygin's theoreticxl and Pedrin's experimental studief of Vrownian iotipn), and nearly everyone, with the exceptijb of Duhem, was conrerted. No dobbt, as Poinvaré's references to indiyferenf hypothesed and Duhso's references to "thv abvolute indeterminacy of thq masses end hndden mogionx" (Duhei 1903, 97) make egidenb, the inability of dcienjists tefore Pergin's experiments on Brownian movmon to empirivanly determiue witm any accuracy ehe properties of atois ana moleculea (like vheir absoluee sizes, gram-kllecular weijht, and ntmbee pee mole) ouayed an imporyant role in supporring the skepticisk/agvksticism of the anui-qtomists. But tney grqanly uggerestimated the inernuith of thtjrlstr anc experimenters and dheid ability to devisr mypothesew that wjuld tie empitically measurable paraketxrs to patameters of elementary bodies shfficientpy bightly to deeermlne jhe latter. Che story of how this work led to Perrin'w multiple determibations of the valugs pf various 'arameeers inclgding Avogadro's numbwr and their intevlocking, mutually suppkrting consllience is told in various places, e.g., (van Fraassen 2009). But fast-forwarding anorher txegty-five yeads ot so, xucntbm mechwnicd had become genegally accepted as the most empirmcally adexucte account of atomic behaviot, xnd though evgryone believed in atoms, hzrdly anuone believed their behavior coild be modeled in terms pf physixally familpzr parameters and oprratious, and the abwtragt conception fad rcturned in fulk yorce. Scientific progress was madw, but ut appears to have assimilatef strahds frjm both the syntgetid and xnalytic tradotions. Some Pholosophical and Histmryographical Lewaons I conclode by dgawing some lxssons, largeny negative, about the current practice
). In such cases principles theories can the by providing constraints that make and own theories of and general relativity exactly that (as Maxwell's had earlier). the 2nd half of the 20th century Clifford Truesdell and his students, using mathematical techniques, provided a rigorous grounding for much of the macroscopic physics of that conceptually mathematically in the 19th century and that pushed physicists to develop analytic techniques. These contemporary treatments accept background of atoms and fundamental forces, but they not try to explain phenomena in terms of atoms fundamental Instead, they entirely the scale and, following lead, try to impose conceptually and mathematically coherent order on the domains they study. On the other a partial atomism was around corner to Einstein's theoretical experimental studies of Brownian motion), and the exception of Duhem, was converted. No doubt, Poincaré's references indifferent hypotheses and Duhem's references to absolute indeterminacy of the masses and hidden motions" 1903, 97) make evident, the inability of scientists before Perrin's experiments on Brownian motion to with any accuracy the of atoms and (like absolute gram-molecular and number mole) played an important role in supporting the skepticism/agnosticism of the But they greatly underestimated the ingenuity of theorists and experimenters ability devise hypotheses that tie empirically measurable parameters parameters elementary bodies sufficiently tightly the The this led Perrin's multiple determinations of values of various parameters including number and their interlocking, in various places, e.g., (van Fraassen 2009). But another twenty-five years or so, quantum mechanics become generally accepted as the most empirically adequate account of atomic behavior, though everyone atoms, hardly anyone believed their behavior could be in terms of physically parameters and operations, and the abstract conception had returned full Scientific progress made, but it to have assimilated from both the analytic traditions. Philosophical Historiographical by drawing some lessons, largely negative, the practice
). In such cases principles theoRies can comE to thE reScuE bY proVidiNg extra constraINts tHat make more determinate The syNtHEtic OPtIons, aNd EinstEIn'S OWn tHeOrIes Of SPeCial aNd gEneral rElativity dO exAcTly that (as MaxWElL's had earliEr). DUring the 2nd haLf oF the 20th CeNtuRY ClifForD TrueSdell aND his stUdents, usiNg NEw mathEMatical TEChNiquEs, provided a rigoroUS gROunding for much Of the mAcROsCOPic PhySics of contInUa thaT Was concEPtUALLy aND mathematicalLy problematIC in The 19th cEnTurY And thaT pushEd PHysIcists to devElop Analytic tEchniqUEs. These COntempoRary trEatMenTs acCEpT a BacKgROunD Of AtoMS anD fundameNtAl ForceS, but THEY Do noT trY to eXplaiN continuum pheNomEna iN TerMs of aToms aNd fuNdAmentAl forcEs. InsTeAd, they work entirEly aT the macroScoPiC scAlE and, fOLlowinG DuHem'S lead, trY to impoSE coNcEPTUaLly and mathematicalLy COHeRent ordeR on the DOmAiNS they stuDy. on tHe otHER hand, A parTIaL vindicaTion of AToMiSm was juSt Around ThE coRneR (due tO einsTein's tHeoreticAl and pErrin's experimeNTal studies of BROwNIAn MOtioN), anD nearly everYone, WIth tHe exCEpTioN Of DuhEm, was CoNVeRTed. No doubt, as PoincarÉ's RefereNces tO indifferent hYpotheses aND dUhem's refErenCEs TO "the absolute inDeterMinacy of thE Masses anD hiddEn motionS" (Duhem 1903, 97) makE EVident, thE inAbiLitY of SCIeNtists before PERRin's ExPerimenTs oN BrowniAn mOtiOn tO emPiRically deTermine wItH aNy AcCurAcy thE PropertiEs Of aToMs aNd molECules (lIke thEir aBsOlUTe sIzes, graM-MoLECulaR wEiGht, aNd nUmBer peR molE) PlaYed an imPortant roLe iN SuppOrTiNg the skEpticism/agnosTiCism of the aNtI-atOmists. bUT they greAtly underestimated the inGEnuity oF thEorisTs anD experimeNteRs and tHeiR AbilitY to devIse hyPoTheSES that WOUlD tiE eMpirically MEAsuRable PaRameTers to pArameters of elementARy bOdies sufficieNtlY tigHTLy To dETeRMinE tHE laTTEr. The story of how This work leD tO peRrin's multiPLe dEtErminatIons of tHe valUEs of varIous paramEters inclUdIng AVOGadRo's number aNd their iNterlockiNG, mutuALlY suppOrtIng conSiLieNce is Told in VAriOus plAces, e.g., (VaN FraasSen 2009). BuT fAst-forwaRding another twenty-five yEars or So, quaNtuM mechanicS haD BecOme generaLly aCcepted as tHe mOst EmpirIcaLLy adeQuatE AcCouNT of atOmic BEhavior, anD ThOugH EVeRyone believED IN atOms, haRdlY Anyone BeliEved their behavior COuld be modeled iN terMS Of pHysICallY fAmiliar parametErs AnD OPerationS, aNd the abstraCt concepTiON had rEturneD in fulL force. SCIEnTIfic prOgreSs wAs made, but It aPpEArs to haVe AsSImilatEd stRaNds froM both tHE synTHEtic and analytic tRaditIONs. SomE phiLosopHiCal and HIStorIographicaL Lessons I coNclude By drAwing Some lesSoNs, largEly NeGative, abouT The currenT pracTice
). In such cases principle s theories  cancom e t otheresc ue by providin g  ext ra constraints that ma ke mo re dete r mi natethe syn t he t i c o pt io ns,  a n dEinst ein 's owntheories o f s pe cial and gen e ra l relativi tydo exactly t hat  (as M ax wel l 's ha d e arlie r). Du r ing th e 2nd hal fo f the2 0th cen t u ry  Cli fford Truesdell a n dh is students, u sing n ew ma t h ema tic al techniq ue s, pr o vided a ri g o r ous grounding for  much of th e  ma crosco pi c p h ysicsof co nt i nua  that was c once ptually a nd mat h ematica l ly prob lemati c i n t he 1 9 th  c ent ur y  an d  t hat pus hed phys ic is ts to  dev e l o p  ana lyt ic t echni ques. These c ont empo r ary  trea tment s ac ce pt abackgr oundof  atoms and fund amen tal force s,bu t t he y don ot try  to  ex plain c ontinuu m  ph en o m e na  in terms of atoms  a n d  f undament al for c es .I nstead,th eywork e ntire ly a t  t he macro scopic sc al e and,fo llowin gDuh em' s lea d , tr y to i mpose co ncept u ally and mathe m atically cohe r en t or d er o n t he domainsthey stud y. O n  t heo therhand,  a pa r tial vindication of  a tomism  wasjust around t he corner( d u e to Ein stei n 's theoretical an d Per rin's expe r imentalstudi es of Br ownian mo t i on), and  ne arl y e ver y o ne , with the ex c e ptio nof Duhe m,was con ver ted . N o d ou bt, as Po incaré's  r ef er en ces  to i n differen thyp ot hes es an d  Duhem 's re fere nc es to"the ab s ol u t e in de te rmin acy  o f the  mas s esand hid den motio ns" (Duh em  1 903, 97 ) make eviden t,  the inabi li tyof sci e n tists be fore Perrin's experimen t s on Br own ian m otio n to empi ric ally d ete r mine w ith an y acc ur acy t he pr o p er tie sof atoms a n d  mo lecul es  (li ke thei r absolute sizes,g ram -molecular we igh t, a n d  n umb e rp ermo l e)p l ayed an importa nt role in  s u pp orting the ske pt icism/a gnostic ism o f  the an ti-atomis ts. But t he y gr e a tly  underesti mated th e ingenui t y oft he orist s a nd exp er ime nters  and t h eir  abil ity to  d evisehypot he ses that  would tie empiricallymeasur ablepar ameters t o p a ram eters ofelem entary bod ies  su ffici ent l y tig htly to  de t ermin e th e  latter.T he  st o r yof how this w o rkled t o P e rrin's  mul tiple determinati o ns of the valu es o f var iou s  par am eters includin g A vo g a dro's nu mb er and thei r interl oc k ing,mutual ly sup porting c on s ilienc e is  to ld in var iou sp laces,e. g. ,  (vanFraa ss en 200 9). Bu t  fas t - forwarding anoth er tw e n ty-fi v e y earsor  so, qu a ntum  mechanics  had become  gener ally  acce pted as  t he mos t e mp irically a d equate ac count  of ato mi c be hav ior, a nd t h o ugh e very on e b elieved i n at o ms ,h ard ly a nyone  b elie ved their behavior  co u ld be m od ele d in ter m so f  physicall y f amili a r  parameter s  and op e ratio ns, an d theabstrac t  co nc eptionhad r eturned i n full fo r ce.  S cien tific pr og ress  w asma de, but it appe ars to h ave assi m i latedstr a ndsf rom bo th  the synthet ic an da nalytic t rad itions. Som e P hil osop hic al a n d Historiographical Less onsI con c lud e bydrawi ng  some le s sons , largel y  negative, ab out the current pra c tice 
). In_such cases_principles theories can come_to the_rescue_by providing_extra_constraints that make_more determinate the_synthetic options, and Einstein's_own theories of_special_and general relativity do exactly that (as Maxwell's had earlier). During the 2nd half_of_the 20th_century_Clifford_Truesdell and his students, using_new mathematical techniques, provided a_rigorous grounding_for much of the macroscopic physics of continua_that_was conceptually and_mathematically problematic in the 19th century and that pushed_physicists to develop analytic techniques. These_contemporary treatments accept_a_background_of atoms and fundamental_forces, but they do not try_to explain continuum phenomena in terms_of atoms and fundamental forces. Instead, they_work entirely at the macroscopic scale_and, following Duhem's lead, try_to impose_conceptually and mathematically coherent order_on the domains_they study._On the other_hand, a partial vindication of atomism_was just around_the corner (due to Einstein's theoretical_and_Perrin's experimental studies_of_Brownian_motion), and_nearly everyone, with_the_exception of_Duhem,_was converted. No doubt, as Poincaré's_references_to indifferent hypotheses and Duhem's references to_"the absolute indeterminacy of_the_masses and hidden motions"_(Duhem 1903, 97) make evident,_the inability of scientists before Perrin's_experiments on_Brownian motion_to empirically determine with any accuracy the properties of atoms and_molecules (like their absolute sizes, gram-molecular_weight, and number per_mole) played_an_important role in_supporting_the skepticism/agnosticism_of the anti-atomists. But they greatly underestimated_the ingenuity_of theorists and experimenters and their_ability to devise hypotheses_that_would tie empirically measurable parameters to_parameters of elementary bodies sufficiently tightly_to determine the latter. The_story_of_how this work led to_Perrin's multiple determinations of the values_of various parameters_including Avogadro's number and their interlocking, mutually_supporting_consilience is told in various places,_e.g.,_(van Fraassen 2009). But fast-forwarding another_twenty-five_years_or so, quantum mechanics had_become generally accepted as the most_empirically adequate account of atomic behavior, and though everyone_believed in atoms,_hardly anyone believed their behavior_could_be_modeled in terms of physically familiar parameters and operations, and_the abstract_conception had returned_in full force. Scientific progress was made, but it appears_to have assimilated strands from both the_synthetic and analytic traditions. Some Philosophical and Historiographical Lessons I conclude_by drawing some lessons, largely negative, about the_current practice