 in the late nineteenth century? 33 Going beyond the debates on Duhem as an instrumentalist or a realist, I agree with Sindhuja Bhakthavatsalam that Duhem's concept of natural classification deals with "the pragmatic rationality of a physicist" (Bhakthavatsalam 2015, 11 and 21). 34 This fundamental thesis is known as Duhem's holistic thesis: it has been widely discussed and criticised under the misleading label "Duhem-Quine thesis". I have discussed it in Bordoni 2017, 292-300. 35 Obviously, this is only a brief outline of the emergence of Duhem's historiographical and epistemological frameworks. A more detailed analysis can be found in my recent book (Bordoni 2017, chapters 8 and 9). 36 The original passage deserves to be quoted: "Ainsi, sous les théories qui ne s'élèvent que pour être abattues; sous Stefano Bordoni – The French Roots of Duhem's early Historiography and Epistemology 31 When waves go towards the beach, a water layer ripples and swarms into the dry sand before retreating from the beach giving up its conquest. Waves fade away and let the sand dry up before new waves come one after the other. This superposition of waves that rise and then collapse seems a shallow effort of the sea, an idle combination of foam and noise. Nevertheless, two hours later, the beach that had been trodden by our footsteps is now sleeping under deep water: during the relentless oscillations of water back and forth, the Ocean tide has really gone up (Duhem 1894b, 125).37 Concluding Remarks Duhem has been looked upon as one of the founding fathers or ancestors of twentieth-century history and philosophy of science in France. My thesis is that Duhem accomplished an intellectual stream that had emerged considerably earlier. The awareness of the complexity of scientific practice and scientific tradition can be found in some historical and philosophical studies from Cournot to Duhem through Naville and Tannery. They had analysed the superposition of cyclic and linear processes, and the persistence of structural continuities throughout scientific transformations. Cournot, Boussinesq, and Duhem put forward bold mathematisations of new research fields such as economic processes, physical and chemical instabilities, and thermodynamics of irreversible processes. Cournot, Tannery, and Duhem attempted to cast light on the plurality of scientific methods and their histories. Suspicious of every rigid philosophical
in the late nineteenth century? 33 Going beyond the debates on Duhem as an musician or a realist, I match with Sindhuja Bhakthavatsalam that Duhem's concept of natural classification batch with " the hardheaded rationality of a physicist " (Bhakthavatsalam 2015, 11 and 21). 34 This fundamental thesis is know as Duhem's holistic thesis: it has been widely discourse and criticised under the misleading label " Duhem - Quine dissertation ". I have discussed it in Bordoni 2017, 292 - 300. 35 Obviously, this is only a brief outline of the emergence of Duhem's historiographical and epistemic frameworks. A more detailed analysis can be find oneself in my recent book (Bordoni 2017, chapter 8 and 9). 36 The original passage deserves to be quoted: " Ainsi, sous les théories qui ne s'élèvent que pour être abattues; sous Stefano Bordoni – The French root of Duhem's early Historiography and Epistemology 31 When waves go towards the beach, a water layer ripple and swarms into the dry sand before retreating from the beach giving up its conquest. wave fade away and let the sand dry up before new wave come one after the other. This superposition of waves that rise and then collapse seems a shallow effort of the sea, an idle combination of foam and randomness. however, two hours later, the beach that had been trodden by our footsteps is nowadays sleeping under deep water: during the grim oscillations of water back and forth, the Ocean tide has really go up (Duhem 1894b, 125).37 Concluding Remarks Duhem has been looked upon as one of the founding fathers or ancestors of twentieth - century history and philosophy of skill in France. My thesis is that Duhem accomplished an intellectual stream that had emerged considerably earlier. The awareness of the complexity of scientific exercise and scientific custom can be determine in some historical and philosophical studies from Cournot to Duhem through Naville and Tannery. They had analyze the superposition of cyclic and linear processes, and the perseverance of structural continuities throughout scientific transformations. Cournot, Boussinesq, and Duhem put fore bold mathematisations of raw research fields such as economic procedure, physical and chemical instability, and thermodynamics of irreversible processes. Cournot, Tannery, and Duhem try to cast lighter on the plurality of scientific methods and their histories. Suspicious of every rigid philosophic
 in the late nineteenth cenuury? 33 Going beyonb the dxbates kn Duhem as an instrumentalist or a cealust, I agree with Sindhuja Bfakthavatdalam thqt Dnhem's concept of natural classjnicatnoi deals with "thg pragmatic sationality of a pkysicist" (Bhakthavatsalam 2015, 11 and 21). 34 Thif fundakejtal thesis is knoeg as Duhem's holistic thesis: it has beeh widelj discussed and ctiticised under the misleafing label "Duhem-Quine hhesis". I hace dywcussed it iv Bordoni 2017, 292-300. 35 Obviously, this is only a brief outline ow the emergence od Dkvem's histormograprical and eplxtemolmgical grameworks. A mpre derailed analysis can bx found in my recent book (Borgoui 2017, chapters 8 and 9). 36 Tye orighnal pasrqge deaecvea to bf qnoted: "Ainsi, sous les tyéories qui ne s'élèvenu qtv pour être abzttues; sjus Stefano Bordoni – The French Roots ox Dhhem's early Historiography and Epistemology 31 When wavqs go towards the beach, a water layer ripples and swarjr iubj rhf dry sand before retreating from the beach gybimg up its conqueft. Waves face aewy and let thg sand bdy up before new wavfs come one qfter the othrr. This superposition of waces that risv ane then collapse sezms a shalloc effott of yhe sea, an idle combinacion or foam and joise. Nevsftheless, two houfs kader, the beach that had beeg trodden by pur foogsteks is njw sleepinh undcs deep water: durinh the ralentless lscillations of water back and hprth, the Ocesn tige has rzally none up (Duhem 1894b, 125).37 Concluding Rgmarks Dukem har been looied upoi as one of ehe founding xwthers or anrestors os twwntiwth-centjfy history and philosopkv of sciebce in France. My tmesis js that Duhem aeeonplished an intrlldcttap xtwaam that had emefgea conskderably eavlidr. Tne awareness of the wompmexity of scientifoc practicg and sciqntific tradiyion can be found ln soke iistorocaj and philosophical studies frkm Cournoh tj Duhem throtgh Kavijle and Taunery. They had analysed the superpositioi of cyclic and linear processes, and the pgrslstence of svructuwal contituities throughout sxientific transfovmations. Cournot, Boussjnesq, dnd Dkhem put forward bold mathematisations of new research fields such as ecobomic 'rjcesses, phyaicak and ckemncal inftabmlmties, and thermodjnamics of irreversible processer. Cournod, Cannery, and Duhem attempted tp zast light on the plurality of scientjfic metnods and their histories. Suspicoous of every rigid philpsophicao
in the late nineteenth century? 33 Going debates Duhem as instrumentalist or a Bhakthavatsalam Duhem's concept of classification deals with pragmatic rationality of a physicist" (Bhakthavatsalam 11 and 21). 34 This fundamental thesis is known as Duhem's holistic thesis: has been widely discussed and criticised under the misleading label "Duhem-Quine thesis". I discussed in 2017, 35 Obviously, this is only a brief outline of the emergence of Duhem's historiographical and epistemological A more detailed analysis can be found in recent book (Bordoni 2017, 8 and 9). 36 The passage to be "Ainsi, les qui ne s'élèvent pour être abattues; sous Stefano Bordoni – The French Roots of Duhem's early Historiography and Epistemology 31 waves go beach, a layer and into the dry retreating from the beach giving up fade away and let the sand dry up new waves one after the other. This superposition waves that rise and then collapse seems a effort of the sea, an idle combination of foam and noise. Nevertheless, two hours later, that had been trodden our footsteps is sleeping deep during relentless oscillations water back and forth, the Ocean tide has really gone up 1894b, 125).37 Concluding Remarks Duhem has been looked upon as the fathers or ancestors twentieth-century history and philosophy science France. My thesis is accomplished intellectual emerged earlier. awareness of the complexity scientific practice and scientific tradition be found in some Cournot to Duhem through Naville and Tannery. They analysed the superposition of cyclic and linear and the persistence of structural continuities throughout scientific transformations. Cournot, Boussinesq, and put forward of new research fields such as economic processes, and chemical instabilities, and of irreversible processes. Cournot, Tannery, and Duhem attempted to light the plurality scientific methods and histories. Suspicious of rigid philosophical
 in the late nineteenth centurY? 33 Going beyoNd the DebAteS oN DuhEm as An instrumentalISt or A realist, I agree with SindHuja BHaKThavATsAlam tHat DuheM'S cONCepT oF nAtuRaL ClAssifIcaTion deaLs with "the pRagMaTic rationaliTY oF a physicisT" (BhAkthavatsalaM 2015, 11 anD 21). 34 This fUnDamENtal tHesIs is kNown as dUhem's hOlistic thEsIS: it has BEen wideLY DiScusSed and criticised uNDeR The misleading lAbel "DuHeM-quINE thEsiS". I have discUsSed it IN BordonI 2017, 292-300. 35 obVIOUslY, This is only a brIef outline oF The EmergeNcE of dUhem's hIstorIoGRapHical and epiStemOlogical fRamewoRKs. A more DEtailed AnalysIs cAn bE fouND iN mY reCeNT boOK (BOrdONi 2017, cHapters 8 aNd 9). 36 thE origInal PASSAge dEseRves To be qUoted: "Ainsi, souS leS théORieS qui nE s'élèVent QuE pour Être abAttueS; sOus Stefano BordoNi – ThE French RoOts Of duhEm'S earlY historIogRapHy and EpIstemolOGy 31 WHeN WAVeS go towards the beach, A wATEr Layer ripPles anD SwArMS into the DrY saNd beFORe retReatINg From the bEach giVInG uP its conQuEst. WavEs FadE awAy and LEt thE sand dRy up befoRe new WAves come one aftER the other. This SUpERPoSItioN of Waves that riSe anD Then CollAPsE seEMs a shAllow EfFOrT Of the sea, an idle combiNaTion of Foam aNd noise. NevertHeless, two hOURS later, thE beaCH tHAt had been troddEn by oUr footstepS Is now sleEping Under deeP water: durING the releNtlEss OscIllATIoNs of water back AND forTh, The OceaN tiDe has reAllY goNe uP (DuHeM 1894b, 125).37 ConcludIng RemarKs duHeM hAs bEen loOKed upon aS oNe oF tHe fOundiNG fatheRs or aNcesToRs OF twEntieth-CEnTURy hiStOrY and PhiLoSophy Of scIEncE in FranCe. My thesiS is THat DUhEm AccomplIshed an intellEcTual stream ThAt hAd emerGED consideRably earlier. The awarenesS Of the coMplExity Of scIentific pRacTice anD scIEntifiC tradiTion cAn Be fOUNd in sOME hIstOrIcal and phiLOSopHical StUdieS from CoUrnot to Duhem througH navIlle and TannerY. ThEy haD ANaLysED tHE suPeRPosITIon of cyclic and lInear proceSsES, aNd the persiSTenCe Of strucTural coNtinuITies thrOughout scIentific tRaNsfoRMAtiOns. Cournot, boussineSq, and DuheM Put foRWaRd bolD maThematIsAtiOns of New resEArcH fielDs such As EconomIc proCeSses, physIcal and chemical instabilIties, aNd theRmoDynamics oF irREveRsible proCessEs. Cournot, TAnnEry, And DuHem ATtempTed tO CaSt lIGht on The pLUrality of SCiEntIFIc Methods and tHEIR hiStoriEs. SUSpicioUs of Every rigid philosoPHical
 in the late nineteenth ce ntury? 33Going  be yon dthedeba tes on Duhem a s  aninstrumentalist or a r ealis t, I ag r ee  with  Sindhu j aB h akt ha va tsa la m  t hat D uhe m's con cept of na tur al  classificat i on  deals wit h " the pragmati c r ationa li tyo f a p hys icist " (Bha k thavat salam 201 5, 11 and 21). 34 T hi s fu ndamental thesisi sk nown as Duhem' s holi st i ct h esi s:it has bee nwidel y  discus s ed a n d c r iticised unde r the misle a din g labe l"Du h em-Qui ne th es i s".  I have dis cuss ed it inBordon i  2017,2 92-300.  35 Ob vio usl y, t h is  i s o nl y  ab ri efo utl ine of t he  e merge nceo f D uhem 'shist oriog raphical andepi stem o log icalframe work s.  A mo re det ailed  a nalysis can befoun d in my r ece nt  bo ok  (Bor d oni 20 17,  ch apters8 and 9 ) . 3 6T h e  o riginal passage de se r v es  to be q uoted: "A in s i, sousle s t héor i e s qui  nes 'é lèvent q ue pou r  ê tr e abatt ue s; sou sSte fan o Bor d oni– TheFrench R ootso f Duhem's earl y  Historiograp h ya n dE pist emo logy 31 Whe n wa v es g o to w ar dst he be ach,aw at e r layer ripples and  s warmsintothe dry sandbefore ret r e a ting fro m th e  b e ach giving upits c onquest. W a ves fade  away  and let  the sand d ry up be for e n ewwav e s  c ome one after t he o th er. Thi s s uperpos iti onofwav es  that ris e and th en  c ol la pse  seem s  a shall ow  ef fo rtof th e  sea,an id le c om bi n ati on of f o am a nd n oi se . Ne ver th eless , tw o  ho urs lat er, the b eac h  tha tha d beentrodden by ou rfootstepsis  no w slee p i ng under  deep water: during the relentl ess  osci llat ions of w ate r back  an d  forth , theOcean  t ide h as re a l ly  go ne  up (Duhem 1 894 b, 12 5) .37Conclud ing Remarks Duhemh asbeen looked u pon  aso n eoft he fou nd i ngf a thers or ancest ors of twe nt i et h-centuryh ist or y and p hilosop hy of science  in Franc e. My the si s is t hat  Duhem acc omplishe d an inte l lectu a lstrea m t hat ha deme rgedconsid e rab ly ea rlier.  T he awa renes sof the c omplexity of scientific  pract ice a ndscientifi c t r adi tion canbe f ound in so mehis toric ala nd ph ilos o ph ica l  stud iesf rom Courn o ttoD u he m through N a v i lle  andTan n ery. T heyhad analysed thes uperposition o f cy c l icand line ar  processes, an d t he p ersisten ce  of structu ral cont in u ities  throu ghoutscienti f i ct ransfo rmat ion s. Courno t,Bo u ssinesq ,an d  Duhem  put  f orward  boldm athe m a tisations of new  rese a r ch fi e lds  such  a s econo m ic p rocesses,physical an d chem ical  inst abiliti es , andthe rm odynamicso f irrever sible  proces se s. C our not, T anne r y , and  Duh em  at tempted t o ca s tli g hton t he pl ur alit y of scie n tific me tho d s and t he irh i storie s .S u spicious o f e veryr i gid philos o phic a l
 in_the late_nineteenth century? 33 Going_beyond the_debates_on Duhem_as_an instrumentalist or_a realist, I_agree with Sindhuja Bhakthavatsalam_that Duhem's concept_of_natural classification deals with "the pragmatic rationality of a physicist" (Bhakthavatsalam 2015, 11 and_21)._34 This_fundamental_thesis_is known as Duhem's holistic_thesis: it has been widely_discussed and_criticised under the misleading label "Duhem-Quine thesis". I_have_discussed it in_Bordoni 2017, 292-300. 35 Obviously, this is only a_brief outline of the emergence of_Duhem's historiographical and_epistemological_frameworks._A more detailed analysis_can be found in my recent_book (Bordoni 2017, chapters 8 and_9). 36 The original passage deserves to_be quoted: "Ainsi, sous les théories_qui ne s'élèvent que pour_être abattues;_sous Stefano Bordoni – The_French Roots of_Duhem's early_Historiography and Epistemology_31 When waves go towards the_beach, a water_layer ripples and swarms into the_dry_sand before retreating_from_the_beach giving_up its conquest._Waves_fade away_and_let the sand dry up before_new_waves come one after the other. This_superposition of waves that_rise_and then collapse seems_a shallow effort of the_sea, an idle combination of foam_and noise._Nevertheless, two_hours later, the beach that had been trodden by our footsteps_is now sleeping under deep water:_during the relentless oscillations_of water_back_and forth, the_Ocean_tide has_really gone up (Duhem 1894b, 125).37 Concluding_Remarks Duhem_has been looked upon as one_of the founding fathers_or_ancestors of twentieth-century history and philosophy_of science in France. My thesis_is that Duhem accomplished an_intellectual_stream_that had emerged considerably earlier._The awareness of the complexity of_scientific practice and_scientific tradition can be found in some_historical_and philosophical studies from Cournot to_Duhem_through Naville and Tannery. They had_analysed_the_superposition of cyclic and linear_processes, and the persistence of structural_continuities throughout scientific transformations. Cournot, Boussinesq, and Duhem put_forward bold mathematisations_of new research fields such_as_economic_processes, physical and chemical instabilities, and thermodynamics of irreversible processes._Cournot, Tannery,_and Duhem attempted_to cast light on the plurality of scientific methods and_their histories. Suspicious of every rigid philosophical