, 87-94). Víctor Manuel Hernández Márquez – Was Pierre Duhem an Esprit de Finesse? 97 This is not, however, a critique that affects Duhem since his reflections on theoretical physics rest on a careful analysis of scientific practice based on several schools of thought, and since they do not aim to regulate the practice of physics, at least not explicitly. On the other hand, Lowinger is right in subsuming methodological questions under the category of metaphysics and in pointing out that Duhem's thesis on the autonomy of physics excludes any attempt at legislating methodological matters.9 As I will explain below, Duhem feels that methodological controversies will fade away with time once common sense becomes the bon sens of the scientific community. The English Scientific Practice of the Nineteenth Century As noted above, in his early analysis of English science, Duhem does not employ the famous Pascalian distinction between the subtle and geometric minds; however, he does hold that its defining qualities – those that set the English apart from the French and German scientists – help us identify the fundamental character of the English mentality (esprit). For example, English scientists stand out in their striking ability to imagine complex sets of countless, concrete objects, without losing sight of the place each of these occupies and the relations they have with each other. Thus, rarely do English scientists engage in more abstract research, and when they do, the results tend to be unsatisfactory. This approach is found equally among writers, philosophers, and scientists. When we focus on the activity of the English theoretical physicists, the first thing that stands out, Duhem argues, is the use of what they call a "model." Unlike the abstract theory of German and French physicists, models allow us to establish a mental image of the phenomena in question. Nonetheless, the English scientists' insistence on the construction of models leads them to equate theory with the models themselves, which is evident in W. Thomson's (Lord Kelvin) assertion that it is only by means of the creation of models that we can understand physical phenomena. However, the English School's notion of model should not be equated with the abstract notion of a mathematical model employed in contemporary science; after all, Duhem was primarily concerned with the use of mechanical models; that is, with representations that imitate or simulate the phenomenon in question in a mechanical fashion, such that "understanding the nature of material things will be the same thing as imagining a mechanism that will represent or simulate the properties of
, 87 - 94). Víctor Manuel Hernández Márquez – Was Pierre Duhem an Esprit de Finesse? 97 This is not, however, a critique that affects Duhem since his reflections on theoretical physics remainder on a careful psychoanalysis of scientific practice based on respective schools of thinking, and since they do not aim to determine the practice of physics, at least not explicitly. On the early bridge player, Lowinger is right in subsume methodological questions under the category of metaphysics and in point out that Duhem's dissertation on the autonomy of physics excludes any attempt at legislate methodological matters.9 As I will explain downstairs, Duhem feel that methodological controversies will fade away with prison term once common sense becomes the bon sens of the scientific residential district. The English Scientific Practice of the Nineteenth Century As noted above, in his early psychoanalysis of English science, Duhem does not employ the famous Pascalian distinction between the insidious and geometric minds; however, he does hold that its defining qualities – those that set the English aside from the French and German scientist – help oneself us identify the fundamental character of the English mentality (esprit). For example, English scientists digest out in their dramatic ability to imagine complex sets of countless, concrete object, without lose sight of the place each of these occupies and the sexual intercourse they accept with each other. Thus, rarely serve English scientists engage in more abstract research, and when they do, the results tend to be unsatisfactory. This approach is rule equally among writers, philosophers, and scientists. When we concentrate on the activity of the English theoretical physicist, the inaugural thing that stands out, Duhem argues, is the use of what they bid a " model. " Unlike the abstract theory of German and French physicists, models allow us to establish a mental image of the phenomenon in question. however, the English scientists' insistence on the construction of models leads them to compare theory with the model themselves, which is evident in W. Thomson's (Lord Kelvin) affirmation that it is only by means of the creation of models that we can understand forcible phenomena. However, the English School's notion of model should not be equate with the abstract notion of a mathematical model employed in contemporary skill; after all, Duhem was chiefly concerned with the use of mechanical models; that is, with representation that imitate or simulate the phenomenon in question in a mechanical fashion, such that " understanding the nature of material things will be the same thing as imagining a mechanism that will represent or imitate the place of
, 87-94). Víftor Manuel Hernández Márqmez – Was Pierre Byhem ai Esprif de Findsse? 97 This is not, however, a rrituque ukat affects Duhem sivce his rvflectionw on rheoretical physics rest ln a rareful analysix of sciendific practice bxszd on several schools of thought, and since yhfy do not aim jo rebtlats the practice of physics, at least not exklicitly. On the otner hand, Lowinger is right in dubsuming methodollgical quesjjonf under the cxtegory of metaphysics and in pointing out that Duhem'r thexis on the aytojmmy of physmcs exbludes any atbvmpt at legislsting methodolpgiral natters.9 As I will expnain below, Duhem fgels that kechodological controveesues whll xade qwah wjti tjme onfe rommon senss becomes tye bon sens of the xcyvmtific commuhity. Tre English Scientific Practice of the Nintteenfh Century As noted aboce, in his early analydis of Endlish science, Duhem does not employ the famous Pavcalien diwtlnctkin between the subtle and geometric minds; howevqd, ne does hold thab its defining quakihirf – those that set tks Snglish apart from the Frgnch abd German scirntists – help us identify tye fundamentcl xharacter of the Euglish mentauity (esprot). For example, English rciehtists stanf out in ffeir striking abkliny tm imagint complex sets of sountless, conerete obgectx, withjut losing sighb of the place each of tkese mccupies ajd the relations they have with each other. Thos, sarvly do Enylish xcientists endage in more aystract xesearzh, and wheh they vo, the resules tend to be onsatisfactorb. This ap[roaxh iw found dqually among eriters, pknlosopherw, and scientists. Wmen wg rocus on the accnvuty of the Englosh thqogetmcal [vysicists, tha fifst yhing that sucndw out, Duhem argues, is the use of what they call a "model." Ublike thq abstract throry of German and Frenrh phyricisys, iodels allow us to establish a mental ilagc of the phenjmenq in questiou. Nonetheless, the English scientists' insmstence on the construcrion of models leadx them to eqnate treory witv the models themselces, which is evidtnt in W. Thomson's (Lord Ielvin) assegtion that it is only by means of the creation of models that we can undeestand physical phsnomrna. Hmwzvex, the Egglidi School's notion pf model should not be equated xith the atscract notion of a mathematicak oodel employea in contemporary sciencs; after sll, Duhem was primarily concernrd with the use of mechakical modwls; tgat is, witi representations thst imicate oe simulqte bhe phenomenon in qmestion in a mtchauical fashion, such that "understaneing tye nature of matermal things wllu be jhe same thing as imaginjng z mechxnism that wikl represent ot simulate the propegtiqs of
, 87-94). Víctor Manuel Hernández Márquez – Duhem Esprit de 97 This is affects since his reflections theoretical physics rest a careful analysis of scientific practice on several schools of thought, and since they do not aim to regulate practice of physics, at least not explicitly. On the other hand, Lowinger is in methodological under category of metaphysics and in pointing out that Duhem's thesis on the autonomy of physics excludes attempt at legislating methodological matters.9 As I will below, Duhem feels that controversies will fade away with once sense becomes bon of scientific community. The Scientific Practice of the Nineteenth Century As noted above, in his early analysis of English science, Duhem not employ Pascalian distinction the and minds; however, he that its defining qualities – those English apart from the French and German scientists help us the fundamental character of the English (esprit). For example, English scientists stand out in striking ability to imagine complex sets of countless, concrete objects, without losing sight of the of these occupies and relations they have each Thus, do scientists engage more abstract research, and when they do, the results tend to unsatisfactory. This approach is found equally among writers, philosophers, and we on the activity the English theoretical physicists, first that stands out, Duhem the of a Unlike abstract theory of German French physicists, models allow us establish a mental image Nonetheless, the English scientists' insistence on the construction models leads them to equate theory with models themselves, which is evident in W. Thomson's (Lord Kelvin) assertion that is only of the creation of models that we can physical phenomena. However, the School's notion of model should not be equated with abstract of a model employed in science; after all, was primarily concerned use of models; is, imitate or simulate the phenomenon in in mechanical fashion, such that "understanding nature things will be the same thing as imagining a mechanism that will represent or simulate of
, 87-94). Víctor Manuel Hernández MárqUez – Was PierRe DuhEm aN EsPrIt de fineSse? 97 This is not, hoWEver, A critique that affects DuHem siNcE His rEFlEctioNs on theOReTICal PhYsIcs ReST oN a carEfuL analysIs of scientIfiC pRactice based ON sEveral schoOls Of thought, and SinCe they Do Not AIm to rEguLate tHe pracTIce of pHysics, at lEaST not exPLicitly. oN ThE othEr hand, Lowinger is rIGhT In subsuming metHodoloGiCAl QUEstIonS under the cAtEgory OF metaphYSiCS ANd iN Pointing out thAt Duhem's theSIs oN the auToNomY Of physIcs exClUDes Any attempt aT legIslating mEthodoLOgical mATters.9 As i will eXplAin BeloW, duHeM feElS ThaT MeThoDOloGical conTrOvErsieS wilL FADE awaY wiTh tiMe oncE common sense bEcoMes tHE boN sens Of the ScieNtIfic cOmmuniTy. The enGlish Scientific pracTice of the ninEtEenTh centuRY As notEd aBovE, in his eArly anaLYsiS oF eNGlIsh science, Duhem doeS nOT EmPloy the fAmous PAScAlIAn distinCtIon BetwEEN the sUbtlE AnD geometrIc mindS; HoWeVer, he doEs Hold thAt Its DefIning QUaliTies – thOse that sEt the eNglish apart froM The French and GERmAN ScIEntiSts – Help us identIfy tHE funDameNTaL chARacteR of thE ENGlISh mentality (esprit). FoR eXample, engliSh scientists sTand out in tHEIR strikinG abiLItY To imagine complEx setS of countleSS, concretE objeCts, withoUt losing sIGHt of the pLacE eaCh oF thESE oCcupies and the RELatiOnS they haVe wIth each OthEr. THus, RarElY do EnglisH scientiStS eNgAgE in More aBStract reSeArcH, aNd wHen thEY do, the ResulTs teNd To BE unSatisfaCToRY. this ApPrOach Is fOuNd equAlly AMonG writerS, philosopHerS, And sCiEnTists. WhEn we focus on thE aCtivity of tHe engLish thEORetical pHysicists, the first thing tHAt standS ouT, DuheM argUes, is the uSe oF what tHey CAll a "moDel." UnlIke thE aBstRACt theORY oF GeRmAn and FrencH PHysIcistS, mOdelS allow uS to establish a mentaL ImaGe of the phenomEna In quESTiOn. NONeTHelEsS, The eNGlish scientists' Insistence On THe ConstructiON of MoDels leaDs them tO equaTE theory With the moDels themsElVes, wHICh iS evident in w. Thomson'S (Lord KelvIN) asseRTiOn thaT it Is only By MeaNs of tHe creaTIon Of modEls thaT wE can unDerstAnD physicaL phenomena. However, the EngLish ScHool's NotIon of modeL shOUld Not be equaTed wIth the abstRacT noTion oF a mAThemaTicaL MoDel EMployEd in COntemporaRY sCieNCE; aFter all, DuheM WAS prImariLy cONcerneD witH the use of mechanicAL models; that is, wIth rEPResEntATionS tHat imitate or siMulAtE THe phenomEnOn in questioN in a mechAnICal faShion, sUch thaT "undersTANdINg the nAturE of Material tHinGs WIll be thE sAmE Thing aS imaGiNing a mEchaniSM thaT WIll represent or siMulatE THe proPErtIes of
, 87-94). Víctor Manuel He rnández Má rquez  –Was  P ierr e Du hem an Espritd e Fi nesse? 97 This is not,  howe ve r , ac ri tique  that a f fe c t s D uh em  si nc e  h is re fle ctionson theoret ica lphysics rest on  a careful  an alysis of sc ien tificpr act i ce ba sed  on s everal school s of thou gh t , ands ince th e y  d o no t aim to regulate th e  practice of p hysics ,a tl e ast  no t explicit ly . Ont he othe r  h a n d , L o winger is rig ht in subsu m ing  metho do log i cal qu estio ns und er the cate gory  of metap hysics and inp ointing  out t hat  Du hem' s  t he sis  o n  th e  a uto n omy  of phys ic sexclu desa n y atte mpt  atlegis lating method olo gica l  ma tters .9 As  I w il l exp lain b elow,  D uhem feels that  met hodologic alco ntr ov ersie s  willfad e a way wit h timeo nce  c o m m on  sense becomes the  b o n  s ens of t he sci e nt if i c commun it y.TheE n glish  Sci e nt ific Pra cticeo fth e Ninet ee nth Ce nt ury  As  note d  abo ve, in  his ear ly an a lysis of Engli s h science, Du h em d oe s  not  em ploy the fa mous Pasc alia n  d ist i nctio n bet we e nt he subtle and geome tr ic min ds; h owever, he do es hold th a t its defi ning qu a lities – those  that  set the E n glish ap art f rom theFrench an d German s cie nti sts  –h e lp  us identifyt h e fu nd amental  ch aracter  of  th e E ngl is h mentali ty (espr it ).  F or  ex ample ,  English  s cie nt ist s sta n d outin th eirst ri k ing  abilit y  t o imag in ecomp lex  s ets o f co u ntl ess, co ncrete ob jec t s, w it ho ut losi ng sight of t he  place eac hoftheseo c cupies a nd the relations they h a ve with  ea ch ot her.  Thus, ra rel y do E ngl i sh sci entist s eng ag e i n morea b st rac tresearch,a n d w hen t he y do , the r esults tend to beu nsa tisfactory. T his  app r o ac h i s  f o und  e q ual l y  among writers,  philosoph er s ,and scient i sts .When we  focuson th e  activi ty of the  Englishth eore t i cal  physicist s, the f irst thin g  that st andsout , Duhe marg ues,is the use  of w hat th ey  calla "mo de l." Unli ke the abstract theoryof Ger man a ndFrench ph ysi c ist s, models  all ow us to e sta bli sh amen t al im ageo fthe pheno mena in questi o n.  No n e th eless, theE n g lis h sci ent i sts' i nsis tence on the cons t ruction of mod elsl e ads  th e m to  e quate theory w ith  t h e  modelsth emselves, w hich isev i dentin W.Thomso n's (Lo r d  K e lvin)asse rti on that i t i so nly byme an s  of th e cr ea tion o f mode l s th a t  we can understa nd ph y s icalp hen omena .However ,  the  English S chool's not ion of  mod el sh ould no tbe equ ate dwith the a b stract no tionof a ma th emat ica l mode l em p l oyedin c on tem porary sc i e nc e ;af t erall,  Duhe mwasprimarily concerne d w i th theus e o f mechan i ca l models; th atis, w i t h represen t atio n st hat i mitate  or si mulatet heph enomeno n i n questionin a mech a nic al  fas hion, su ch  tha t"un de rstanding the n ature of  materia l things  wi l l be the sa me  thing as im agini ng a mecha n i smthat wi l l r epr ese nt o r s imul a te the properties of
, 87-94)._Víctor Manuel_Hernández Márquez – Was_Pierre Duhem_an_Esprit de_Finesse?_97 This is_not, however, a_critique that affects Duhem_since his reflections_on_theoretical physics rest on a careful analysis of scientific practice based on several schools_of_thought, and_since_they_do not aim to regulate_the practice of physics, at_least not_explicitly. On the other hand, Lowinger is right_in_subsuming methodological questions_under the category of metaphysics and in pointing out_that Duhem's thesis on the autonomy_of physics excludes_any_attempt_at legislating methodological matters.9_As I will explain below, Duhem_feels that methodological controversies will fade_away with time once common sense becomes_the bon sens of the scientific_community. The English Scientific Practice_of the_Nineteenth Century As noted above,_in his early_analysis of_English science, Duhem_does not employ the famous Pascalian_distinction between the_subtle and geometric minds; however, he_does_hold that its_defining_qualities_– those_that set the_English_apart from_the_French and German scientists – help_us_identify the fundamental character of the English_mentality (esprit). For example,_English_scientists stand out in_their striking ability to imagine_complex sets of countless, concrete objects,_without losing_sight of_the place each of these occupies and the relations they have_with each other. Thus, rarely do_English scientists engage in_more abstract_research,_and when they_do,_the results_tend to be unsatisfactory. This approach is_found equally_among writers, philosophers, and scientists. When_we focus on the_activity_of the English theoretical physicists, the_first thing that stands out, Duhem_argues, is the use of_what_they_call a "model." Unlike the_abstract theory of German and French_physicists, models allow_us to establish a mental image of_the_phenomena in question. Nonetheless, the English_scientists'_insistence on the construction of models_leads_them_to equate theory with the_models themselves, which is evident in_W. Thomson's (Lord Kelvin) assertion that it is only_by means of_the creation of models that_we_can_understand physical phenomena. However, the English School's notion of model_should not_be equated with_the abstract notion of a mathematical model employed in contemporary_science; after all, Duhem was primarily concerned_with the use of mechanical models; that is, with representations that_imitate or simulate the phenomenon in question in_a mechanical fashion, such that "understanding the_nature of material things_will_be the same thing as imagining a_mechanism_that_will_represent or simulate_the properties of