 movement", Duhem points out that supplementary hypotheses are always associated with the assumption that a trihedron has its axes absolutely fixed (Duhem 1983c, 271), which prefigures the broader discussion of (Duhem 1894) and makes one think of Lakatos' protection belt; see Leite (2017, 145). João Príncipe – Poincaré and Duhem: Resonances in their First Epistemological Reflections 151 view in which mechanics has a more abstract structuring role. For Duhem there exists an ideal form of theory: the hypotheses of a theory must be the symbolic translation of experimental laws, in which case the theory is modified by a continuous process. When hypotheses move away from experimental laws, theories become more vulnerable to demolition (Duhem 1892a, 153). Implicitly, he sees an opposition between phenomenological theories and theories that postulate unobservables, which is typical of atomic mechanical theories. Duhem believes that this last class of theories has fulfilled its historical function and is in a state of rupture. The Bankruptcy of Mechanical/Atomic Theories Around 1870, in chemistry, atomic hypotheses were rejected by the adepts of the theory of equivalents. The atomist Adolphe Wurtz was opposed to Marcellin Berthelot and to Henri Saint-Claire Deville. In this connection, two debates took place at the Académie des sciences (1876, 1877) between physicists and chemists; the first one had as a pretext the result of Kundt and Warburg's experiments on the specific heat of mercury vapor (the ratio between the specific heats obtained, γ = 5/3 = 1.66, corresponding to a monoatomic gas according to the predictions of the kinetic theory), the second concerned the law-hypothesis of Avogadro and the law of Dulong and Petit for specific heats (base of the atomic hypothesis in chemistry). The debate made it clear that the elite of French physicists was predominantly in favor of atomic hypotheses (Príncipe 2008, 190-200). In 1892, in his article on atomistic hypotheses, Duhem took the side of the equivalentists, judging that atomistic hypotheses produced only "difficulties which had arisen from the presumptuous desire to take a classification for an explanation." Duhem cites in his favor the ideas of Sainte-Claire Deville (1818-1881) for whom chemistry must follow a method not "in the manner of geometrical concepts,
movement ", Duhem points out that supplementary hypotheses are constantly consociate with the assumption that a trihedron has its axes absolutely fixed (Duhem 1983c, 271), which bode the broader discussion of (Duhem 1894) and makes one think of Lakatos' protective covering belt; see Leite (2017, 145). João Príncipe – Poincaré and Duhem: resonance in their First Epistemological Reflections 151 view in which mechanics suffer a more abstract structuring role. For Duhem there exist an ideal mannequin of theory: the hypotheses of a theory must be the symbolic translation of experimental torah, in which case the theory is modified by a continuous summons. When hypotheses move away from experimental laws, theory become more vulnerable to demolition (Duhem 1892a, 153). Implicitly, he sees an opposition between phenomenological theories and theories that contend unobservables, which is typical of atomic mechanical theories. Duhem believes that this last class of theories has fulfilled its historical function and is in a state of rupture. The Bankruptcy of Mechanical / Atomic Theories Around 1870, in chemistry, atomic hypotheses were rejected by the adepts of the theory of equivalents. The atomist Adolphe Wurtz was oppose to Marcellin Berthelot and to Henri Saint - Claire Deville. In this connection, two debates take home at the Académie des sciences (1876, 1877) between physicists and chemists; the first one have as a pretext the result of Kundt and Warburg's experiments on the specific heat of mercury vaporization (the ratio between the specific heats obtained, γ = 5/3 = 1.66, corresponding to a monoatomic gas according to the predictions of the kinetic theory), the second concerned the law - guess of Avogadro and the law of Dulong and Petit for specific heat (root of the atomic hypothesis in chemistry). The debate made it clean that the elite of French physicists was predominantly in favor of atomic guess (Príncipe 2008, 190 - 200). In 1892, in his article on atomistic hypotheses, Duhem took the side of the equivalentists, judging that atomistic hypothesis produced only " trouble which had arisen from the assumptive desire to take a classification for an explanation. " Duhem cites in his favor the idea of Sainte - Claire Deville (1818 - 1881) for whom chemistry must follow a method not " in the manner of geometric concepts,
 mogement", Duhem points out uhat supplementari yypothxses ars always associated with the assumptmon rhat q trihedron has its axds absolunely fixee (Duiem 1983c, 271), which prehjgures bke brkwder viscussion of (Dohem 1894) and manes one think mf Lckatos' protection belt; see Leite (2017, 145). Jjão Príncopf – Poincaré and Duhtm: Wesohances in their First Epistemologidal Refnections 151 viee in which mechanics has a morf abstract structuging role. Fir Dtyem there exksts an idtan form of jheory: the hypotheses of a theorh musc be the synbilif translatioi of eqperimental laws, in wvich caxe the theory ls movifiwd by a continuous prmcess. When hypothefes move dwcy from experimental oaqs, thgoriev bezime mode vhlnerahle to demolifion (Duhem 1892q, 153). Implicitly, he sets wb opposition getweeg [henomenological theories and theories uhat lostulate unobservables, which is typical of wtomic meshanical theories. Duhem believes that this last cnass kw tkcjfued has fulfilled its historical function and if im s state of rupbure. The Bankruptcu lf Iechanical/Atooic Thzkrjes Around 1870, in chelistry, wtomix hypothefes eere rejected by the adepts of the theogy od equivalents. The ctomist Adol'he Wuttz wax opposed to Marcellin Yerthemot and to Jenri Saihg-Claire Deville. Kn nhis connection, two debates tojk place et thz Académid dex sciegces (1876, 1877) betaeen ivysicists and chemlsts; jhe fisst one haf as a pretext the result of Kuivt and Warburb's exieriments on tme specific heae of mercury vcpor (the ratiu between nhe specihic heats obeained, γ = 5/3 = 1.66, cmtresponding tm a monowtomuc gqs accofaing to the prrdictions of the kibetic theory), the sccond doncerned the lcc-hipothesis of Avpgaaro ajd tra law of Dulmng xnd Letit for spteiflc featx (base of the atomic hypkthesis in chemistty). The debqte made it clear thay the elite of Frejch piysicirts wss kredominantly in favor of atomid hypothedes (Príncipe 2008, 190-200). Ig 1892, ik hif article pn atomistic hypotheses, Duhem took the wide of the equivaoentists, judging thct atomistic iypothqses prodgced only "difficultiws which had aristn from the presumptuoua desise to take a classification for an explanation." Duhem cites in his favor the idwas of Sainte-Clairs Defille (1818-1881) yor whom shemmsvry must follow a method not "in the manner of geumetrican eoncepts,
movement", Duhem points out that supplementary hypotheses associated the assumption a trihedron has 1983c, which prefigures the discussion of (Duhem and makes one think of Lakatos' belt; see Leite (2017, 145). João Príncipe – Poincaré and Duhem: Resonances in First Epistemological Reflections 151 view in which mechanics has a more abstract structuring For there an form of theory: the hypotheses of a theory must be the symbolic translation of experimental laws, which case the theory is modified by a process. When hypotheses move from experimental laws, theories become vulnerable demolition (Duhem 153). he an opposition between theories and theories that postulate unobservables, which is typical of atomic mechanical theories. Duhem believes that this class of fulfilled its function is a state of Bankruptcy of Mechanical/Atomic Theories Around 1870, hypotheses were rejected by the adepts of the of equivalents. atomist Adolphe Wurtz was opposed to Berthelot and to Henri Saint-Claire Deville. In this two debates took place at the Académie des sciences (1876, 1877) between physicists and chemists; one had as a the result of and experiments the heat of vapor (the ratio between the specific heats obtained, γ = 5/3 1.66, corresponding to a monoatomic gas according to the predictions kinetic the second concerned law-hypothesis of Avogadro and law Dulong and Petit for (base the chemistry). debate it clear that the of French physicists was predominantly favor of atomic hypotheses in his article on atomistic hypotheses, Duhem took side of the equivalentists, judging that atomistic produced only "difficulties which had arisen from the presumptuous desire to take classification for Duhem cites in his favor the ideas of Deville (1818-1881) for whom must follow a method not "in the manner of concepts,
 movement", Duhem points out thaT supplemenTary hYpoTheSeS are AlwaYs associated wiTH the Assumption that a trihedrOn has ItS Axes ABsOluteLy fixed (dUhEM 1983C, 271), whIcH pRefIgUReS the bRoaDer discUssion of (DuHem 1894) AnD makes one thiNK oF Lakatos' prOteCtion belt; see leiTe (2017, 145). João prÍncIPe – PoiNcaRé and duhem: RESonancEs in their fiRSt EpisTEmologiCAL REfleCtions 151 view in which MEcHAnics has a more aBstracT sTRuCTUriNg rOle. For DuheM tHere eXIsts an iDEaL FORm oF Theory: the hypoTheses of a thEOry Must be ThE syMBolic tRanslAtIOn oF experimentAl laWs, in which Case thE Theory iS ModifieD by a coNtiNuoUs prOCeSs. wheN hYPotHEsEs mOVe aWay from eXpErImentAl laWS, THEoriEs bEcomE more Vulnerable to dEmoLitiON (DuHem 1892a, 153). IMplicItly, He Sees aN opposItion BeTween phenomenolOgicAl theorieS anD tHeoRiEs thaT PostulAte UnoBservabLes, whicH Is tYpICAL oF atomic mechanical tHeORIeS. Duhem beLieves THaT tHIs last clAsS of TheoRIEs has FulfILlEd its hisToricaL FuNcTion and Is In a staTe Of rUptUre. ThE bankRuptcy Of MechanIcal/ATOmic Theories ArOUnd 1870, in chemistrY, AtOMIc HYpotHesEs were rejecTed bY The aDeptS Of The THeory Of equIvALeNTs. The atomist Adolphe wuRtz was OpposEd to Marcellin berthelot aND TO Henri SaInt-CLAiRE Deville. In this ConneCtion, two deBAtes took Place At the AcaDémie des sCIEnces (1876, 1877) betWeeN phYsiCisTS AnD chemists; the fIRSt onE hAd as a prEteXt the reSulT of kunDt aNd warburg's eXperimenTs On ThE sPecIfic hEAt of mercUrY vaPoR (thE ratiO BetweeN the sPeciFiC hEAts ObtaineD, Γ = 5/3 = 1.66, cORRespOnDiNg to A moNoAtomiC gas ACcoRding to The predicTioNS of tHe KiNetic thEory), the second CoNcerned the LaW-hyPothesIS Of AvogadRo and the law of Dulong and PETit for sPecIfic hEats (Base of the AtoMic hypOthESis in cHemistRy). The DeBatE MAde it CLEaR thAt The elite of fREncH physIcIsts Was predOminantly in favor of ATomIc hypotheses (PRínCipe 2008, 190-200). iN 1892, In His ARtICle On ATomISTic hypotheses, DuHem took the SiDE oF the equivaLEntIsTs, judgiNg that aTomisTIc hypotHeses prodUced only "dIfFicuLTIes Which had arIsen from The presumPTuous DEsIre to TakE a clasSiFicAtion For an eXPlaNatioN." Duhem CiTes in hIs favOr The ideas Of Sainte-Claire Deville (1818-1881) foR whom cHemisTry Must folloW a mEThoD not "in the MannEr of geometRicAl cOncepTs,
 movement", Duhem points o ut that su pplem ent ary  h ypot hese s are always a s soci ated with the assumpti on th at a tr i he dronhas its ax e s  ab so lu tel yf ix ed (D uhe m 1983c , 271), wh ich  p refigures th e  b roader dis cus sion of (Duh em1894)an d m a kes o nethink  of La k atos'protectio nb elt; s e e Leite ( 20 17,145). João Prínci p e–  Poincaré andDuhem:  R e so n a nce s i n their Fi rs t Epi s temolog i ca l R efl e ctions 151 vi ew in which mec hanics  h asa  moreabstr ac t  st ructuring r ole.  For Duhe m ther e  exists an idea l form  of  th eory :  t he  hy po t hes e sofa  th eory mus tbe  thesymb o l i c  tra nsl atio n ofexperimentallaw s, i n  wh ich c ase t he t he ory i s modi fiedby  a continuous p roce ss. Whenhyp ot hes es  move away f rom  ex perimen tal law s , t he o r i es  become more vulne ra b l eto demol ition( Du he m  1892a,15 3).  Imp l i citly , he se es an op positi o nbe tween p he nomeno lo gic altheor i es a nd the ories th at po s tulate unobser v ables, whichi st y pi c al o f a tomic mecha nica l  the orie s .Duh e m bel ieves  t h at this last class ofth eories  hasfulfilled its  historica l f unctionandi si n a state of r uptur e. The Ban k ruptcy o f Mec hanical/ Atomic Th e o ries Aro und  18 70,  in c he mistry, atomi c hypo th eses we rerejecte d b y t heade pt s of thetheory o feq ui va len ts. T h e atomis tAdo lp heWurtz was op posed  toMa rc e lli n Berth e lo t andto  H enri  Sa in t-Cla ireD evi lle. In  this con nec t ion,  t wo  debate s took placeat  the Acadé mi e d es sci e n ces (187 6, 1877) between physic i sts and  ch emist s; t he firstone  had a s a pretex t theresul tofK u ndt a n d  W arb ur g's experi m e nts  on t he  spe cific h eat of mercury vap o r ( the ratio bet wee n th e sp eci f ic hea ts obt a i ned, γ = 5/3 =1.66, corr es p on ding to am ono at omic ga s accor dingt o the p rediction s of theki neti c the ory), thesecond c oncernedt he la w -h ypoth esi s of A vo gad ro an d thel awof Du long a nd  Petit  forsp ecific h eats (base of the atomi c hypo thesi s i n chemist ry) .  Th e debatemade  it cleartha t t he el ite of Fr ench ph ysi c istswasp redominan t ly  in f av or of atomi c h ypo these s ( P ríncip e 20 08, 190-200). In1 892, in his ar ticl e onato m isti chypotheses, Du hem  t o o k the si de  of the equ ivalenti st s , jud ging t hat at omistic h yp o theses  pro duc ed only " dif fi c ultieswh ic h  had a rise nfrom t he pre s umpt u o us desire to tak e a c l a ssifi c ati on fo ran expl a nati on." Duhem  cites in h is fav or t he id eas ofSa inte-C lai re  Deville ( 1 818-1881)  forwhom ch em istr y m ust fo llow a  meth od n ot  "i n the man n e ro fge o met rica l con ce pts, 
 movement",_Duhem points_out that supplementary hypotheses_are always_associated_with the_assumption_that a trihedron_has its axes_absolutely fixed (Duhem 1983c,_271), which prefigures_the_broader discussion of (Duhem 1894) and makes one think of Lakatos' protection belt; see_Leite_(2017, 145)._João_Príncipe_– Poincaré and Duhem: Resonances_in their First Epistemological Reflections_151 view_in which mechanics has a more abstract structuring_role._For Duhem there_exists an ideal form of theory: the hypotheses of_a theory must be the symbolic_translation of experimental_laws,_in_which case the theory_is modified by a continuous process._When hypotheses move away from experimental_laws, theories become more vulnerable to demolition_(Duhem 1892a, 153). Implicitly, he sees_an opposition between phenomenological theories_and theories_that postulate unobservables, which is_typical of atomic_mechanical theories._Duhem believes that_this last class of theories has_fulfilled its historical_function and is in a state_of_rupture. The Bankruptcy_of_Mechanical/Atomic_Theories Around_1870, in chemistry,_atomic_hypotheses were_rejected_by the adepts of the theory_of_equivalents. The atomist Adolphe Wurtz was opposed_to Marcellin Berthelot and_to_Henri Saint-Claire Deville. In_this connection, two debates took_place at the Académie des sciences_(1876, 1877)_between physicists_and chemists; the first one had as a pretext the result_of Kundt and Warburg's experiments on_the specific heat of_mercury vapor_(the_ratio between the_specific_heats obtained,_γ = 5/3 = 1.66, corresponding to_a monoatomic_gas according to the predictions of_the kinetic theory), the_second_concerned the law-hypothesis of Avogadro and_the law of Dulong and Petit_for specific heats (base of_the_atomic_hypothesis in chemistry). The debate_made it clear that the elite_of French physicists_was predominantly in favor of atomic hypotheses_(Príncipe_2008, 190-200). In 1892, in his_article_on atomistic hypotheses, Duhem took the_side_of_the equivalentists, judging that atomistic_hypotheses produced only "difficulties which had_arisen from the presumptuous desire to take a classification_for an explanation."_Duhem cites in his favor_the_ideas_of Sainte-Claire Deville (1818-1881) for whom chemistry must follow a_method not_"in the manner_of geometrical concepts,