 and that all physical phenomena be deduced from the concepts and fundamental principles of mechanics. Duhem's Critical Analysis of Mechanicism and his Defense of a Formal Conception of Theoretical Physics José R. N. Chiappin – Cássio Costa Laranjeiras 41 The English School The nature and character of the English School's mechanical explanation of physical phenomena (Chiappin 1989,43) is spelled out by Lord Kelvin when he says that It seems to me that the true meaning of the question "What do we understand or not understand by a particular subject in physics?" is this: Can we make a corresponding mechanical model? [...] I am never satisfied as long as I have been unable to make a mechanical model for the object; if I can make a mechanical model, I understand; for as long as I cannot make a mechanical model, I do not understand (in Duhem 1980, 102). Therefore, model-building is the method of construction of physical theories, and physical theory is identified with the constructions of models. The synthetic application of mechanical theory in the English School's view is influenced by the empiricist tradition stemming from Bacon, Locke, Hume and Newton. Particularly, the experimentalist conception of physical theory is taken from Newton's optics. At the root of this experimental/empirical conception of physics is the methodological principle of the separability and testability of isolated hypotheses, of crucial experiments, and of the inductive method. This principle can also be associated with Newton's basic view of mechanics as applying to isolated particles. The fundamental laws of mechanics as stated by Newton hold in the first instance for a single particle only (Lanczos 1986, 4). The English School took from the empiricist tradition the determination to emphasize the empirical/practical aspects of physics over the theoretical. Moreover, for the English School, empirical adequacy should be the relevant criterion to accept mechanical explanations over rationalist criteria. Most of the English scientific community in the 19th century did not take formal and rationalist values as meaningful criteria to construct physical theory. Logical unity and other rationalist virtues such as axiomatization, consistency and simplicity were considered of no great importance to elaborate a mechanical explanation of physical phenomena. For this school, as opposed to the Continental School, a mechanical explanation is not given by a well-constructed system of propositions logically chained from its definitions and postulates to its testable consequences, but rather by means of a sequence of disparate, concrete and figurative models. The English School does not require
and that all physical phenomena be deduced from the concepts and cardinal principle of mechanics. Duhem's Critical Analysis of Mechanicism and his Defense of a Formal Conception of Theoretical Physics José R. N. Chiappin – Cássio Costa Laranjeiras 41 The English School The nature and character of the English School's mechanical explanation of forcible phenomena (Chiappin 1989,43) is spell out by Lord Kelvin when he says that It seem to me that the on-key meaning of the question " What do we sympathize or not sympathize by a particular subject in purgative? " is this: Can we make a corresponding mechanical mannequin? [... ] I am never quenched as long as I have been unable to seduce a mechanical model for the object; if I can lay down a mechanical model, I understand; for equally long as I cannot make a mechanical model, I do not sympathize (in Duhem 1980, 102). Therefore, mannequin - building is the method acting of construction of physical theories, and physical hypothesis is identified with the constructions of models. The synthetic application of mechanical theory in the English School's view is influenced by the empiricist tradition stemming from Bacon, Locke, Hume and Newton. Particularly, the experimentalist conception of physical theory is taken from Newton's optics. At the root of this experimental / empiric concept of physics is the methodological rationale of the separability and testability of apart guess, of crucial experiments, and of the inductive method. This principle can also be associated with Newton's basic view of automobile mechanic as applying to isolated particles. The fundamental laws of mechanics as submit by Newton hold in the first instance for a single atom only (Lanczos 1986, 4). The English School consider from the empiricist tradition the determination to emphasize the empirical / practical expression of physics over the theoretical. Moreover, for the English School, empirical adequacy should be the relevant criterion to accept mechanical explanations over rationalist criteria. Most of the English scientific residential district in the 19th century did not take formal and rationalist values as meaningful standard to construct forcible theory. Logical unity and other rationalist virtue such as axiomatization, consistency and simplicity were considered of no great importance to elaborate a mechanical explanation of physical phenomenon. For this school, as opposed to the Continental School, a mechanical explanation is not given by a well - constructed system of propositions logically chained from its definitions and postulates to its testable consequences, but preferably by means of a sequence of disparate, concrete and figural models. The English School does not require
 anf that all physical phenumena be deduceb from vhe condepts ana fundamental principles of lexhanixs. Duhem's Critical Anauysis of Lechanicusm end his Defense of a Formal Cohgeptimi of Theoreticak Physics Bosé R. N. Chiapphn – Eássio Costa Laranjeiras 41 The English School Tje nature and sharsster of the English School's mechanical explanetion of physicsl phenomena (Chiappin 1989,43) is dpelped out by Lord Kepvin when hg sarw that It sedms to me uhct the true meaning of the question "What du we bnderstand ir noh understand by a particular subject hn physocs?" is this: Cak we kakw a corresponding mecianical model? [...] I am gever sathsyied as long as I havw veen onabla to nakd a mxchznical movel for the object; if U can make a mechanocwo model, I undsrstanq; sor as long as I cannot make a mechanicdl jodel, I do not understabd (in Duhem 1980, 102). Therefote, model-buylding is the method of construction of physical dheormer, aue phyrucwl theory is identified with the constructionf og kodels. The synbhetic application ov kgchanical theoty in tks Snglish School's vifw is igfluebced by tre ekpiricist tradition stemmint from Bacon, Oocke, Hume and Newcon. Particulcrly, tne exlerimentalist conceptiou of pgysical thelry is taidn from Newton's uptpcs. Dt the root of this experiiental/empmricak conceotiom of prysics is hhe mcdhodological princlple lf the separwbility and testability of isoleved hypothesex, mf brucial erperimcnts, and of the inductive metkod. This prinziple can zlso be associated with Newton's hasic view oh mechaniss aw applying gu isolated paryicles. Thv yundamentql laws of mechanigs as atated by Newtou yold in the firxt knseajcx for d single pardicld ovky (Lavczos 1986, 4). The Dnglosh School took from the empiricist traditook the detgrminatiog to emphasizr the empirical/praftican arpectx os physics over the theoretical. Moreover, fov the English Schiol, empiricak adequacy should be the relevant critecion to accept mechanicql explanations ovet rstionalist rriterya. Most ox the English scientufic community in the 19th century did nkt taka forlal and rationalist values as meaningful criteria to construct physical tyeory. Logical unitg anc othvr xatnonalise victnes such as axiomstization, consistency and simplmcity were cjnsidered of no great importsnze to elaboraje a mechanical explanatioh of phyxical phenomena. For this school, as opposed to the Contikental Scyool, z mechanicel explanation is noy giveu by a well-cobstrmcted system ow ptoiositions pogiralmy chained from its definitions qnd powtklates to its tevtable conscqmences, but rwther by means or a afquenze of disparaye, concrete anc figurative models. Nhe English Schooo does not reauire
and that all physical phenomena be deduced concepts fundamental principles mechanics. Duhem's Critical Defense a Formal Conception Theoretical Physics José N. Chiappin – Cássio Costa Laranjeiras The English School The nature and character of the English School's mechanical explanation physical phenomena (Chiappin 1989,43) is spelled out by Lord Kelvin when he says It to that true meaning of the question "What do we understand or not understand by a particular subject physics?" is this: Can we make a corresponding model? [...] I am satisfied as long as I been to make mechanical for object; if I make a mechanical model, I understand; for as long as I cannot make a mechanical model, I not understand 1980, 102). model-building the of construction of and physical theory is identified with models. The synthetic application of mechanical theory in English School's is influenced by the empiricist tradition from Bacon, Locke, Hume and Newton. Particularly, the conception of physical theory is taken from Newton's optics. At the root of this experimental/empirical physics is the methodological of the separability testability isolated of experiments, and the inductive method. This principle can also be associated with Newton's view of mechanics as applying to isolated particles. The fundamental mechanics stated by Newton in the first instance a particle only (Lanczos 1986, English took tradition determination emphasize the empirical/practical aspects physics over the theoretical. Moreover, the English School, empirical criterion to accept mechanical explanations over rationalist criteria. of the English scientific community in the century did not take formal and rationalist values as meaningful criteria to physical theory. and other rationalist virtues such as axiomatization, consistency simplicity were considered of great importance to elaborate a mechanical explanation of physical For school, as to the Continental a mechanical explanation not given by system of logically from postulates to its testable consequences, but by of a sequence of disparate, and The English School does not require
 and that all physical phenomeNa be deduceD from The ConCePts aNd fuNdamental princIPles Of mechanics. Duhem's CritiCal AnAlYSis oF meChaniCism and HIs dEFenSe Of A FoRmAL COncepTioN of TheoRetical PhySicS JOsé R. N. ChiappiN – cáSsio Costa LAraNjeiras 41 The EnGliSh SchoOl the NAture And CharaCter of THe EnglIsh School'S mEChanicAL explanATIoN of pHysical phenomena (CHIaPPin 1989,43) is spelled ouT by LorD KELvIN WheN he Says that It SeEms to ME that thE TrUE MEanINg of the questiOn "What do we uNDerStand oR nOt uNDerstaNd by a PaRTicUlar subject In phYsics?" is thIs: Can wE Make a coRRespondIng mecHanIcaL modEL? [...] I Am NevEr SAtiSFiEd aS LonG as I have BeEn UnablE to mAKE A MechAniCal mOdel fOr the object; if i caN makE A meChaniCal moDel, I UnDerstAnd; for As lonG aS I cannot make a meChanIcal model, i do NoT unDeRstanD (In DuheM 1980, 102). ThEreFore, modEl-buildINg iS tHE MEtHod of construction oF pHYSiCal theorIes, and PHySiCAl theory Is IdeNtifIED with The cONsTructionS of modELs. thE syntheTiC appliCaTioN of MechaNIcal Theory In the EngLish SCHool's view is infLUenced by the emPIrICIsT TradItiOn stemming fRom BACon, LOcke, hUmE anD newtoN. PartIcULaRLy, the experimentalisT cOnceptIon of Physical theorY is taken frOM nEwton's opTics. aT tHE root of this expErimeNtal/empiriCAl concepTion oF physics Is the methODOlogical PriNciPle Of tHE SeParability and TEStabIlIty of isOlaTed hypoTheSes, Of cRucIaL experimeNts, and of ThE iNdUcTivE methOD. This priNcIplE cAn aLso be ASsociaTed wiTh NeWtOn'S BasIc view oF MeCHAnicS aS aPplyIng To IsolaTed pARtiCles. The FundamentAl lAWs of MeChAnics as Stated by NewtoN hOld in the fiRsT inStance FOR a single Particle only (Lanczos 1986, 4). The ENGlish ScHooL took From The empiriCisT tradiTioN The detErminaTion tO eMphASIze thE EMpIriCaL/practical ASPecTs of pHySics Over the Theoretical. MoreoveR, For The English SchOol, EmpiRICaL adEQuACy sHoULd bE THe relevant criteRion to accePt MEcHanical expLAnaTiOns over RationaList cRIteria. MOst of the ENglish sciEnTifiC COmmUnity in the 19Th centurY did not taKE formAL aNd ratIonAlist vAlUes As meaNingfuL CriTeria To consTrUct phySical ThEory. LogiCal unity and other rationaList viRtues SucH as axiomaTizATioN, consisteNcy aNd simpliciTy wEre ConsiDerED of no GreaT ImPorTAnce tO elaBOrate a mecHAnIcaL EXpLanation of pHYSIcaL phenOmeNA. For thIs scHool, as opposed to thE continental SchOol, a MEChaNicAL expLaNation is not givEn bY a WELl-constrUcTed system of PropositIoNS logiCally cHained From its DEFiNItions And pOstUlates to iTs tEsTAble conSeQuENces, buT ratHeR by meaNs of a sEQuenCE Of disparate, concrEte anD FIguraTIve ModelS. THe EngliSH SchOol does not Require
 and that all physical phe nomena bededuc edfro mtheconc epts and funda m enta l principles of mechan ics.Du h em's Cr itica l Analy s is o f M ec ha nic is m  a nd hi s D efenseof a Forma l C on ception of T h eo retical Ph ysi cs José R. N . C hiappi n– C á ssioCos ta La ranjei r as 41The Engli sh School The nat u r eandcharacter of theE ng l ish School's m echani ca l  e x p lan ati on of phys ic al ph e nomena( Ch i a p pin 1989,43) is s pelled outb y L ord Ke lv inw hen he  says  t h atIt seems to  methat thetrue m e aning o f  the qu estion  "W hat  dow eun der st a ndo rnot und erstandby  a  part icul a r s ubje ctin p hysic s?" is this:Can  wem ake  a co rresp ondi ng  mech anical  mode l?  [...] I am nev er s atisfiedaslo ngas  I ha v e been  un abl e to ma ke a me c han ic a l mo del for the object ;i f  I  can mak e a me c ha ni c al model ,I u nder s t and;fora slong asI cann o tma ke a me ch anical  m ode l,I don ot u nderst and (inDuhem 1980, 102). Th e refore, model - bu i l di n g is  th e method of  con s truc tion of  ph y sical  theo ri e s, and physical theory  i s iden tifie d with the co nstruction s o f models . Th e  s y nthetic applic ation  of mechan i cal theo ry in  the Eng lish Scho o l 's viewisinf lue nce d by  the empirici s t  tra di tion st emm ing fro m B aco n,Loc ke , Hume an d Newton .Pa rt ic ula rly,t he exper im ent al ist  conc e ptionof ph ysic al  t h eor y is ta k en f romNe wt on's  op ti cs. A t th e  ro ot of t his exper ime n tal/ em pi rical c onception ofph ysics is t he  me thodol o g ical pri nciple of the separabil i ty andtes tabil ityof isolat edhypoth ese s , of c rucial  expe ri men t s , and o fthe  i nductive m e t hod . Thi sprin ciple c an also be associa t edwith Newton's  ba sicv i ew  of me c han ic s  as a pplying to isol ated parti cl e s.  The funda m ent al  laws o f mecha nicsa s state d by Newt on hold i nthef i rst  instancefor a si ngle part i cle o n ly  (Lan czo s 1986 ,4).  TheEnglis h  Sc hooltook f ro m theempir ic ist trad ition the determination  to em phasi zethe empir ica l /pr actical a spec ts of phys ics  ov er th e t h eoret ical .  M ore o ver,fort he Englis h  S cho o l ,empirical a d e q uac y sho uld be the  rel evant criterion t o  accept mechan ical e xpl ana t ions  o ver rationalis t c ri t e ria. Mos tof the Engl ish scie nt i fic c ommuni ty inthe 19t h ce n tury d id n ottake form alan d  ration al is t  value s as  m eaning ful cr i teri a to construct phy sical t heory .  Lo gical  u nity an d  oth er rationa list virtue s such  asaxiom atizati on , cons ist en cy and sim p licity we re co nsidere dof n o g reat i mpor t a nce t o el ab ora te a mech a n ic a lex p lan atio n ofph ysic al phenom e na. Forthi s  school ,aso p posedt ot h e Continen tal  Scho o l , a mechan i cale xp l anati on isnot gi ven bya  we ll -constr uct e d  system o f proposi t ion slogi cally ch ai nedfr omit s definitions a nd postu lates to i ts tes tab l e co n sequen ce s, but rathe r byme a ns of a s equ ence of dis par ate , co ncr etea nd figurative models. Th e En glish Sch ool d oes n ot  require 
 and_that all_physical phenomena be deduced_from the_concepts_and fundamental_principles_of mechanics. Duhem's_Critical Analysis of_Mechanicism and his Defense_of a Formal_Conception_of Theoretical Physics José R. N. Chiappin – Cássio Costa Laranjeiras 41 The English_School_The nature_and_character_of the English School's mechanical_explanation of physical phenomena (Chiappin_1989,43) is_spelled out by Lord Kelvin when he says_that_It seems to_me that the true meaning of the question "What_do we understand or not understand_by a particular_subject_in_physics?" is this: Can_we make a corresponding mechanical model?_[...] I am never satisfied as_long as I have been unable to_make a mechanical model for the_object; if I can make_a mechanical_model, I understand; for as_long as I_cannot make_a mechanical model,_I do not understand (in Duhem_1980, 102). Therefore,_model-building is the method of construction_of_physical theories, and_physical_theory_is identified_with the constructions_of_models. The_synthetic_application of mechanical theory in the_English_School's view is influenced by the empiricist_tradition stemming from Bacon,_Locke,_Hume and Newton. Particularly,_the experimentalist conception of physical_theory is taken from Newton's optics._At the_root of_this experimental/empirical conception of physics is the methodological principle of the_separability and testability of isolated hypotheses,_of crucial experiments, and_of the_inductive_method. This principle_can_also be_associated with Newton's basic view of mechanics_as applying_to isolated particles. The fundamental laws_of mechanics as stated_by_Newton hold in the first instance_for a single particle only (Lanczos_1986, 4). The English School_took_from_the empiricist tradition the determination_to emphasize the empirical/practical aspects of_physics over the_theoretical. Moreover, for the English School, empirical_adequacy_should be the relevant criterion to_accept_mechanical explanations over rationalist criteria. Most_of_the_English scientific community in the_19th century did not take formal_and rationalist values as meaningful criteria to construct physical_theory. Logical unity_and other rationalist virtues such_as_axiomatization,_consistency and simplicity were considered of no great importance to_elaborate a_mechanical explanation of_physical phenomena. For this school, as opposed to the Continental_School, a mechanical explanation is not given_by a well-constructed system of propositions logically chained from its definitions_and postulates to its testable consequences, but rather_by means of a sequence of disparate,_concrete and figurative models._The_English School does not require