 base of a theory to the consequences which are derivable from it and are to be compared with experimental laws" (Duhem 1974, 78). The Continental School requires the basic concepts of physical theory to be quantitative in order that algebraic language may be used. Basic concepts are mechanical concepts because they are quantitative. Mechanical theory is thus both a rational and algebraic system. The Continental School also follows the Duhem's Critical Analysis of Mechanicism and his Defense of a Formal Conception of Theoretical Physics José R. N. Chiappin – Cássio Costa Laranjeiras 40 metaphysical view associated with this rationalist tradition, which defines the nature of physical theory as aiming at the causal explanation of physical phenomena. Duhem describes how "The French geometers who composed the first theories of mathematical physics had a tendency to see theories as true explanations in the metaphysical sense. They assumed that they had reached the reality of things and the true causes of phenomena. This tendency begun by Descartes was evident in the work of Laplace and Poisson, of Fresnel, Gauchy and Ampère" (Duhem 1893, 358). The metaphysical commitment of the Continental School to the principle "of the identity of the real and the intelligible" (Duhem 1974, 320) requires that basic mechanical concepts represent the real causes in nature. The content of physical theory is given by assuming that the primary concepts (mass, shape, motion and/or force) and principles which are composed of these concepts represent real mechanical properties of a material system and the laws of nature governing masses in motion. They assume that there are causal principles for all physical phenomena. All remaining physical properties must be reduced to these basic mechanical concepts. According to this view, physical theories are explanatory (Duhem 1974, 80). As mentioned, it was Descartes who developed the ontology and epistemology to legitimate this view and define methodologically the characteristic features of its physical theory and method of construction. Both demands, rationalist and metaphysical, establish fundamental differences between the Continental School's view of physical theory and the English School's view. The rationalist tradition of the Continental School constructs physical theory according to rules of geometrically inspired principles such as abstraction, simplicity, coherence, and logical unity. These principles are also metaphysical principles, in that they are assumed to be properties in nature (as described by Descartes) (Duhem 1893, 352). Among the rationalist virtues with which the Continental School expects physical theory to comply, the logical unity of physical theory is foremost. This principle
base of a theory to the consequences which are derivable from it and are to be compared with experimental law " (Duhem 1974, 78). The Continental School command the basic concepts of physical theory to be quantitative in orderliness that algebraic language may be used. Basic concept are mechanical concepts because they are quantitative. Mechanical theory is thus both a intellectual and algebraic arrangement. The Continental School also keep up the Duhem's Critical Analysis of Mechanicism and his Defense of a Formal Conception of Theoretical Physics José R. N. Chiappin – Cássio Costa Laranjeiras 40 metaphysical view consort with this positivist tradition, which defines the nature of forcible theory as draw a bead on at the causal explanation of forcible phenomena. Duhem describes how " The French geometers who compose the first theories of numerical physics accept a tendency to learn theories as true explanations in the metaphysical common sense. They assumed that they had reached the reality of things and the true causes of phenomenon. This tendency begun by Descartes was evident in the work of Laplace and Poisson, of Fresnel, Gauchy and Ampère " (Duhem 1893, 358). The metaphysical commitment of the Continental School to the principle " of the identity of the real and the intelligible " (Duhem 1974, 320) requires that basic mechanical concepts represent the actual causes in nature. The content of forcible hypothesis is given by assuming that the primary concepts (bulk, shape, motion and/or force) and principles which are frame of these concepts represent real mechanical properties of a material organization and the laws of nature governing masses in motion. They wear that there are causal principle for all physical phenomena. All remaining physical properties must be shrink to these basic mechanical concepts. According to this view, forcible theories are explanatory (Duhem 1974, 80). As note, it was Descartes who developed the ontology and epistemology to legitimate this scene and define methodologically the characteristic feature of its physical theory and method acting of construction. Both demands, rationalist and metaphysical, establish cardinal differences between the Continental School's view of forcible theory and the English School's view. The rationalist tradition of the Continental School constructs physical hypothesis according to rules of geometrically inspired principle such as abstraction, simplicity, coherence, and logical unity. These principles are besides metaphysical principles, in that they are assumed to be property in nature (as described by Descartes) (Duhem 1893, 352). Among the rationalist virtues with which the Continental School expects physical theory to comply, the logical unity of forcible theory is foremost. This principle
 bade of a theory to the coksequences which are decivable from it and are to be compared with ezperinental laws" (Duhem 1974, 78). Thd Continejtal Schiol cequires the basmd conceics of ihysieao theory to be quantitathve in order tvag clgebraic language may be used. Basic concepys are mechanicaj comsepta because they are quantitative. Medhanican theory is tnus both a rational and alhebrwic system. The Conhinental Scyool qlso follows the Duhem's Critical Ahalysis of Mechanicism and his Aefenxe of a Fotmzl Wonception if Thvoretical Physics José R. N. Choappin – Cássio Gosta Laeanjeiras 40 metaphysicel view associated wyth this sacionalist tradition, wyixh dexinev thd nagurt oh pgysicap tieory as aijing at the causal explanation os physical phehomena. Dthem describes how "The French geometers whk composed the first thwories of mathematicap physics had a tendency to see theories as true explanatimns ii ghe mctapftslcal sense. They assumed that they had reached fht rvality of things cnd the true cauxed ps phenomena. Tfis teusehcy begun by Descagtes waf evieent in tre wprk of Laplace and Poisson, if Fresnel, Gcucyy and Ampère" (Duhem 1893, 358). The meta'hysicsl cokmitment of the Contineutal Sdhool to thf principmd "of the identith on tve real and the intelligibje" (Duhem 1974, 320) reauires ghat basic mechanicap congapts represent the real cduses in nwture. The content of physical tixory is given bf avsuming chat tme primary concqpts (mass, shapg, motion cnd/or worce) and irinciplev which are composed of djese conceptv represqnt eeal mechankzal properties of a matvrnal systen and the laws of katurg foverning massew ib motion. They axsuoe ehwt trare are causdl pfinzoples for all phnsizal lhenomena. All remainhng lhysical propertiex iust be teduced tj these basic mechanical concepus. Accmrdmng to thys view, physical theories are sxplanatogy (Quhem 1974, 80). As mqntiined, it was Bescartes who developed the ontology and epistemology to lwgitimate this view snd define kethoqologicalny the characteristix features of its physical theory and jethod of clnstruction. Both demands, rationalist and metaphysical, establish fundamentql difhewences betwsen yhe Cmncinzntal Sshoop'r view of physicsl theory and the English Schoou's view. Dhz rationalist tradition of thr Zontinental Szhool constructs physicam theory according to rules of geometrivally inspired principlex such aw absfraction, smmplicity, coherence, snd loyical ynity. Tyese principles afe sldo metaphjsicel 'rinciples, in that they are assumwd to ve properties in neture (as desgrlbed bi Descarjes) (Duhem 1893, 352). Among the gatiovalist virtuex with which tne Continental Schoon qxpects physicqm theory to vompli, the logical uiity of physhcal theory is foremost. This principle
base of a theory to the consequences derivable it and to be compared 78). Continental School requires basic concepts of theory to be quantitative in order algebraic language may be used. Basic concepts are mechanical concepts because they are Mechanical theory is thus both a rational and algebraic system. The Continental School follows Duhem's Analysis Mechanicism and his Defense of a Formal Conception of Theoretical Physics José R. N. Chiappin – Costa Laranjeiras 40 metaphysical view associated with this tradition, which defines the of physical theory as aiming the explanation of phenomena. describes "The French geometers composed the first theories of mathematical physics had a tendency to see theories as true explanations in metaphysical sense. that they reached reality things and the of phenomena. This tendency begun by in the work of Laplace and Poisson, of Gauchy and (Duhem 1893, 358). The metaphysical commitment the Continental School to the principle "of the of the real and the intelligible" (Duhem 1974, 320) requires that basic mechanical concepts represent causes in nature. The of physical theory given assuming the concepts (mass, motion and/or force) and principles which are composed of these concepts real mechanical properties of a material system and the laws governing in motion. They that there are causal for physical phenomena. All remaining must reduced mechanical According this view, physical theories explanatory (Duhem 1974, 80). As it was Descartes who to legitimate this view and define methodologically the features of its physical theory and method construction. Both demands, rationalist and metaphysical, establish fundamental differences between the Continental view of and the English School's view. The rationalist tradition the Continental School constructs theory according to rules of geometrically inspired principles such abstraction, coherence, and unity. These principles also metaphysical principles, that they are be properties nature described 1893, 352). Among the rationalist virtues which Continental School expects physical theory comply, unity of physical theory is foremost. This principle
 base of a theory to the consequEnces which Are deRivAblE fRom iT and Are to be compareD With Experimental laws" (Duhem 1974, 78). THe ConTiNEntaL scHool rEquires THe BASic CoNcEptS oF PhYsicaL thEory to bE quantitatIve In Order that algEBrAic languagE maY be used. Basic ConCepts aRe MecHAnicaL coNceptS becauSE they aRe quantitAtIVe. MechANical thEORy Is thUs both a rational anD AlGEbraic system. ThE ContiNeNTaL sChoOl aLso follows ThE DuheM'S CriticAL ANALYsiS Of Mechanicism And his DefenSE of A FormaL COncEPtion oF TheoReTIcaL Physics JosÉ R. N. CHiappin – CáSsio CoSTa LaranJEiras 40 meTaphysIcaL viEw asSOcIaTed WiTH thIS rAtiONalIst tradiTiOn, Which DefiNES THe naTurE of pHysicAl theory as aimIng At thE CauSal exPlanaTion Of PhysiCal pheNomenA. DUhem describes hoW "The french geoMetErS whO cOmposED the fiRst TheOries of MathemaTIcaL pHYSIcS had a tendency to see ThEORiEs as true ExplanATiOnS In the metApHysIcal SENse. ThEy asSUmEd that thEy had rEAcHeD the reaLiTy of thInGs aNd tHe truE CausEs of phEnomena. THis teNDency begun by DeSCartes was evidENt IN ThE Work Of LAplace and PoIssoN, Of FrEsneL, gaUchY And AmPère" (DUhEM 1893, 358). THE metaphysical commitMeNt of thE ContInental School To the princIPLE "of the idEntiTY oF The real and the iNtellIgible" (DuheM 1974, 320) Requires That bAsic mechAnical conCEPts repreSenT thE reAl cAUSeS in nature. The cONTent Of PhysicaL thEory is gIveN by AssUmiNg That the prImary conCePtS (mAsS, shApe, moTIon and/or FoRce) AnD prIncipLEs whicH are cOmpoSeD oF TheSe concePTs REPresEnT rEal mEchAnIcal pRopeRTieS of a matErial systEm aND the LaWs Of naturE governing masSeS in motion. THeY asSume thAT There are Causal principles for all pHYsical pHenOmena. all rEmaining pHysIcal prOpeRTies muSt be reDuced To TheSE Basic MEChAniCaL concepts. ACCOrdIng to ThIs viEw, physiCal theories are explANatOry (Duhem 1974, 80). As menTioNed, iT WAs desCArTEs wHo DEveLOPed the ontology aNd epistemoLoGY tO legitimatE ThiS vIew and dEfine meThodoLOgicallY the charaCteristic FeAturES Of iTs physical Theory anD method of COnstrUCtIon. BoTh dEmands, RaTioNalisT and meTAphYsicaL, estabLiSh fundAmentAl DifferenCes between the ContinentaL SchooL's vieW of Physical tHeoRY anD the EngliSh ScHool's view. THe rAtiOnaliSt tRAditiOn of THe conTInentAl ScHOol constrUCtS phYSIcAl theory accORDIng To rulEs oF GeometRicaLly inspired princiPLes such as abstrActiON, SimPliCIty, cOhErence, and logicAl uNiTY. these priNcIples are alsO metaphySiCAl priNcipleS, in thaT they arE ASsUMed to bE proPerTies in natUre (As DEscribeD bY DEScarteS) (DuhEm 1893, 352). among tHe ratiONaliST Virtues with which The CoNTInentAL ScHool eXpEcts phySIcal Theory to coMply, the logiCal uniTy of PhysiCal theoRy Is foreMosT. THis principLE
 base of a theory to the c onsequence s whi chare  d eriv able  from it and a r e to  be compared with expe rimen ta l  law s "(Duhe m 1974, 78 ) .  Th eCo nti ne n ta l Sch ool  requir es the bas icco ncepts of ph y si cal theory  to  be quantita tiv e in o rd ert hat a lge braic  langu a ge may  be used.  B a sic co n cepts a r e  m echa nical concepts be c au s e they are qua ntitat iv e .M e cha nic al theoryis  thus both ar at i o n ala nd algebraicsystem. The Con tinent al  Sc h ool al so fo ll o wsthe Duhem's  Cri tical Ana lysiso f Mecha n icism a nd his  De fen se o f  a  F orm al Con c ep tio n  of  Theoret ic al  Phys icsJ o s é  R.N.Chia ppin– Cássio Cost a L aran j eir as 40  meta phys ic al vi ew ass ociat ed  with this rati onal ist tradi tio n,  wh ic h def i nes th e n atu re of p hysical the or y a saiming at the caus al e xp lanation  of ph y si ca l  phenome na . D uhem d escri besh ow  "The Fr ench g e om et ers who  c ompose dthe  fi rst t h eori es ofmathemat icalp hysics had a t e ndency to see th e o ri e s as  tr ue explanat ions in t he m e ta phy s icalsense .T he y  assumed that theyha d reac hed t he reality of  things an d t he truecaus e so f phenomena. T his t endency be g un by De scart es was e vident in t he workofLap lac e a n d  P oisson, of Fr e s nel,  G auchy a ndAmpère"  (D uhe m 1 893 ,358). The  metaphy si ca lco mmi tment of the C on tin en tal  Scho o l to t he pr inci pl e" ofthe ide n ti t y  ofth ereal  an dthe i ntel l igi ble" (D uhem 1974 , 3 2 0) r eq ui res tha t basic mecha ni cal concep ts  re presen t the real  causes in nature. Thec ontentofphysi caltheory is  gi ven by  as s umingthat t he pr im ary c oncep t s  ( mas s,  shape, mo t i onand/o rforc e) andprinciples which a r e c omposed of th ese  con c e pt s r e pr e sen tr eal m echanical prope rties of a  m a te rial syste m  an dthe law s of na tureg overnin g massesin motion .They a ssu me that th ere arecausal pr i ncipl e sfor a llphysic al  ph enome na. Al l  re maini ng phy si cal pr opert ie s must b e reduced to these basi c mech anica l c oncepts.Acc o rdi ng to thi s vi ew, physic althe ories  ar e  expl anat o ry  (D u hem 1 974, 80). As m e nt ion e d ,it was Desc a r t eswho d eve l oped t he o ntology and epist e mology to legi tima t e  th isv iewan d define metho dol og i c ally the  c haracterist ic featu re s  of i ts phy sicaltheorya n dm ethodof c ons truction.  Bo th demands ,ra t ionali st a nd  metap hysica l , es t a blish fundamenta l dif f e rence s  be tween  t he Cont i nent al School' s view of p hysica l th eoryand the  E nglish  Sc ho ol's view. The ratio nalis t tradi ti on o f t he Con tine n t al Sc hool  c ons tructs ph y s ic a lth e ory  acc ordin gto r ules of g e ometrica lly inspire dpri n c ipless uc h as abstrac tio n, si m p licity, co h eren c e, and l ogical  unity . These pri nc iples a rea l so metaph ysical pr i nci pl es,in thatth ey a re  as su med to be prope rties in  nature( a s desc rib e d by Descar te s) (Duhem 18 93, 3 52 ) . Among t herationa l ist  vi rtu es w ith  whi c h the Continental School  exp ectsp hys icaltheor yto compl y , th e logica l  unity of phy sical theory is for e most . T h is  p rinciple
 base_of a_theory to the consequences_which are_derivable_from it_and_are to be_compared with experimental_laws" (Duhem 1974, 78)._The Continental School_requires_the basic concepts of physical theory to be quantitative in order that algebraic language_may_be used._Basic_concepts_are mechanical concepts because they_are quantitative. Mechanical theory is_thus both_a rational and algebraic system. The Continental School_also_follows the Duhem's_Critical Analysis of Mechanicism and his Defense of a_Formal Conception of Theoretical Physics José_R. N. Chiappin_–_Cássio_Costa Laranjeiras 40 metaphysical_view associated with this rationalist tradition,_which defines the nature of physical_theory as aiming at the causal explanation_of physical phenomena. Duhem describes how_"The French geometers who composed_the first_theories of mathematical physics had_a tendency to_see theories_as true explanations_in the metaphysical sense. They assumed_that they had_reached the reality of things and_the_true causes of_phenomena._This_tendency begun_by Descartes was_evident_in the_work_of Laplace and Poisson, of Fresnel,_Gauchy_and Ampère" (Duhem 1893, 358). The metaphysical_commitment of the Continental_School_to the principle "of_the identity of the real_and the intelligible" (Duhem 1974, 320)_requires that_basic mechanical_concepts represent the real causes in nature. The content of physical_theory is given by assuming that_the primary concepts (mass,_shape, motion_and/or_force) and principles_which_are composed_of these concepts represent real mechanical properties_of a_material system and the laws of_nature governing masses in_motion._They assume that there are causal_principles for all physical phenomena. All_remaining physical properties must be_reduced_to_these basic mechanical concepts. According_to this view, physical theories are_explanatory (Duhem 1974,_80). As mentioned, it was Descartes who_developed_the ontology and epistemology to legitimate_this_view and define methodologically the characteristic_features_of_its physical theory and method_of construction. Both demands, rationalist and_metaphysical, establish fundamental differences between the Continental School's view_of physical theory_and the English School's view._The_rationalist_tradition of the Continental School constructs physical theory according to_rules of_geometrically inspired principles_such as abstraction, simplicity, coherence, and logical unity. These principles_are also metaphysical principles, in that they_are assumed to be properties in nature (as described by Descartes)_(Duhem 1893, 352). Among the rationalist virtues with_which the Continental School expects physical theory_to comply, the logical_unity_of physical theory is foremost. This principle