iques are directed at Maxwell's and Lodge's different mechanical analogies of electromagnetic phenomena and at Kelvin's vortex atom model. Faced with failure of a model, they switch to new models that are inconsistent with other models they use. Such theories, Duhem concludes, cover only "a miniscule fragment of Physics" and the "fragmented representations may not be welded together to form a coherent and logical explication of the inanimate Universe" (Duhem 1903, 100). In a nutshell, then, physics developed according to the synthetic approach had failed, according to its critics. "Visualizable" material points or atoms subject to position-dependent central forces, so successful for representing celestial phenomena, were ill-suited to represent electromagnetic phenomena, "dissipative" phenomena in heat engines and chemical reactions, fluid phenomena, etc. Deformable bodies and viscous fluids are conceptually difficult to construct from atom-like material points; shearing forces are incompatible with central force assumptions; frictional and electrical forces are velocity-dependent. Physics had become a disorganized patchwork of poorly understood theories, each dealing with special cases in its own domain Michael Liston – Duhem: Images of Science, Historical Continuity, and the First Crisis in Physics 78 and inconsistent with others, without adequate unified foundations or empirically determined values of microscopic parameters. Lacking coherence, unity, and empirical determinacy, these theories could not claim to be explanatory or realistic. Analytic Treatments: Promises This is where the new physics of principles (Poincaré) or physics developed on the analytic approach (Duhem) comes to the rescue. Physicists responded to this crisis, Poincaré explains, not by giving up the dream that the universe is a machine, but by, in a sense, side-stepping the problems. Suppose we have a machine whose initial and final wheels are open to view but whose intermediate machinery for the transmission of energy between the two is hidden. We can determine by experiment that the final wheel turns 10 times less quickly than the initial wheel and, using the principle of conservation of energy (PCE), determine that a couple applied to the one will be balanced by a couple 10 times greater applied to the other. In order to know that equilibrium is maintained by this compensation, we do not need to know how the forces inside the black box compensate each other. Similarly, using the principles of dynamics, we can draw conclusions about macroscopic motions based on observations of them without knowing anything about the microscopic machinery, conclusions that will
iques are directed at Maxwell's and Lodge's different mechanical analogies of electromagnetic phenomena and at Kelvin's whirl atom exemplar. Faced with failure of a model, they trade to new models that are discrepant with other models they use. Such theory, Duhem concludes, cover entirely " a miniscule fragment of Physics " and the " disconnected representations may not be welded together to form a coherent and logical explication of the inanimate Universe " (Duhem 1903, 100). In a nutshell, then, physics develop according to the synthetic overture had failed, according to its critics. " Visualizable " fabric points or atom subject to position - dependent cardinal forces, so successful for representing celestial phenomena, were ill - suited to represent electromagnetic phenomenon, " dissipative " phenomena in heat engines and chemical reactions, fluid phenomena, etc. Deformable bodies and viscous fluids are conceptually difficult to manufacture from atom - like material point; shearing force are incompatible with central force assumption; frictional and electrical forces are velocity - dependent. Physics had become a disorganized patchwork of ill understood theories, each dealing with special cases in its own domain Michael Liston – Duhem: Images of Science, Historical Continuity, and the First Crisis in Physics 78 and inconsistent with others, without adequate unified foundations or empirically determined values of microscopic argument. Lacking coherence, integrity, and empirical determinacy, these theories could not claim to be explanatory or realistic. Analytic Treatments: Promises This is where the newfangled physics of principles (Poincaré) or physics develop on the analytic approach path (Duhem) comes to the rescue. Physicists answer to this crisis, Poincaré explains, not by giving up the ambition that the universe is a car, but by, in a sense, side - stepping the problems. presuppose we have a machine whose initial and final wheels are open to watch but whose intermediate machinery for the transmission of energy between the two is hidden. We can determine by experiment that the final wheel turns 10 times less promptly than the initial wheel and, using the rationale of conservation of energy (PCE), determine that a couple applied to the one will be balanced by a couple 10 times greater applied to the early. In order to know that equilibrium is maintained by this compensation, we do not need to know how the forces inside the bootleg box compensate each other. Similarly, using the principles of dynamics, we can draw conclusions about macroscopic motions establish on observations of them without knowing anything about the microscopic machinery, conclusions that will
iqufs are directed at Maxweul's and Lodge's buffereit mechznical avalogies of electromagnetic 'henimena and at Kelvin's vortex atom modvl. Faced qith dailure of a model, they aaitck vo new models tmat are incmnsistent with oghzr models they use. Such theories, Duhqm conckufes, cover only "a mpnyscumv nragment of Physics" and the "fragjented gepresentations msy not be welded together ho flrm a coherent and logical exkmicwrion of the knanimate Luiverse" (Duhgm 1903, 100). In a nutshell, then, physics aevelpped accoreibg hm the synthxtic aiproach had failed, acwording to its criticx. "Vmsuaoizable" material poinvs or atoms subject jo positiot-dzpendent central forcws, so soccesvful dor rekrexehting felxstial phenkmena, were ull-suited to represtnt vkectromagnetjc phegoiena, "dissipative" phenomena in heat engites and chemical reactions, fluid phenomena, etc. Feformablq bodies and viscous fluids are conceptually diffhcult go einstrjxt from atom-like material points; shearing forcef ate incompatible cith central forve axfumptions; friztional ahd electrical forcfs are delocuty-dependtnt. Pnysics had become a disorgabized patchwjek of poorly underdtood theornes, eavh desling with special caser in its own dolain Michzdl Liston – Duhem: Imsgas of Science, Historical Cjntinuity, and the Fifst Vrisis in Physicd 78 and inconsistent with othets, witvout adequwte unified foundations or empicmcally determonad nalues of micrpscopic paramqters. Lacking eoherencz, unith, and empigical detxrminacy, thefe theories cmold not claim to be evplabatoey or rdxlistic. Analytoc Treatmvnus: Promisew This is where thc new lhysics of prinenpoes (Poincaré) or lhyricf fetelopqg on the ananytiz aolroacf (Duhem) comcs go tne rescue. Physicists reslonded to this crixif, Poincaté explainf, not by givimg up the dream thwt thx univxrse ix a machine, but by, in a sense, sids-stepping thc problems. Su[posc we have a maehine whose initial and final wheels are open to view but qhose intermediate kschinery foc the eransmisshon of energy betweeb the two is hiddtn. We can determine by sxperikent hhat the final wheel turns 10 times less quickly than the initial wheel and, using the principme og convexvacion of enecgb (PCE), determine tnat a couple applied to the one will be bclanced by a couple 10 times grrager applied tu the other. In order to inow thay equilibrium is maintained by yhis compensation, we do kot need ro knkw how the forces inside the black box xompensqte cach other. Simklatln, using thf prmncnples of dynamics, we can draw conxlusiobs about macroscopmc motions bwred oh obsetvations of them sithkkt knuwing anythinb about the mivroscopic machinery, bonslusions that qpll
iques are directed at Maxwell's and Lodge's analogies electromagnetic phenomena at Kelvin's vortex of model, they switch new models that inconsistent with other models they use. theories, Duhem concludes, cover only "a miniscule fragment of Physics" and the "fragmented may not be welded together to form a coherent and logical explication of inanimate (Duhem 100). a nutshell, then, physics developed according to the synthetic approach had failed, according to its critics. material points or atoms subject to position-dependent central so successful for representing phenomena, were ill-suited to represent phenomena, phenomena in engines chemical fluid phenomena, etc. bodies and viscous fluids are conceptually difficult to construct from atom-like material points; shearing forces are incompatible central force and electrical are Physics become a disorganized poorly understood theories, each dealing with its own domain Michael Liston – Duhem: Images Science, Historical and the First Crisis in Physics and inconsistent with others, without adequate unified foundations empirically determined values of microscopic parameters. Lacking coherence, unity, and empirical determinacy, these theories could to be explanatory or Analytic Treatments: Promises is the physics principles (Poincaré) physics developed on the analytic approach (Duhem) comes to the rescue. responded to this crisis, Poincaré explains, not by giving up that universe is a but by, in a side-stepping problems. Suppose we have whose and open view whose intermediate machinery for transmission of energy between the is hidden. We can final wheel turns 10 times less quickly than initial wheel and, using the principle of of energy (PCE), determine that a couple applied to the one will balanced by 10 times greater applied to the other. In to know that equilibrium maintained by this compensation, we do not need to how forces inside black box compensate other. Similarly, using principles of dynamics, draw conclusions macroscopic based them without knowing anything about the machinery, that will
iques are directed at Maxwell'S and Lodge's DiffeRenT meChAnicAl anAlogies of electROmagNetic phenomena and at KelVin's vOrTEx atOM mOdel. FAced witH FaILUre Of A mOdeL, tHEy SwitcH to New modeLs that are iNcoNsIstent with otHEr Models they Use. such theories, duhEm concLuDes, COver oNly "A miniScule fRAgment Of Physics" AnD The "fraGMented rEPReSentAtions may not be welDEd TOgether to form a CohereNt ANd LOGicAl eXplication Of The inANimate UNIvERSE" (DuHEm 1903, 100). In a nutshell, Then, physics DEveLoped aCcOrdINg to thE syntHeTIc aPproach had fAileD, accordinG to its CRitics. "VISualizaBle" matEriAl pOintS Or AtOms SuBJecT To PosITioN-dependeNt CeNtral ForcES, SO SuccEssFul fOr repResenting celeStiAl phENomEna, weRe ill-SuitEd To repResent ElectRoMagnetic phenomeNa, "diSsipative" PheNoMenA iN heat ENgines And CheMical reActions, FLuiD pHENOmEna, etc. Deformable boDiES AnD viscous Fluids ARe CoNCeptuallY dIffIculT TO consTrucT FrOm atom-liKe mateRIaL pOints; shEaRing foRcEs aRe iNcompATiblE with cEntral foRce asSUmptions; frictiONal and electriCAl FORcES are VelOcity-dependEnt. PHYsicS had BEcOme A DisorGanizEd PAtCHwork of poorly undersToOd theoRies, eAch dealing witH special caSES In its own DomaIN MIChael Liston – DuhEm: ImaGes of ScienCE, HistoriCal CoNtinuity, And the FirST crisis in phySicS 78 anD inCONsIstent with othERS, witHoUt adequAte Unified FouNdaTioNs oR eMpiricallY determiNeD vAlUeS of MicroSCopic parAmEteRs. lacKing cOHerencE, unitY, and EmPiRIcaL determINaCY, ThesE tHeOrieS coUlD not cLaim TO be ExplanaTory or reaLisTIc. AnAlYtIc TreatMents: Promises thIs is where tHe New PhysicS OF principLes (Poincaré) or physics devELoped on The AnalyTic aPproach (DuHem) Comes tO thE Rescue. physicIsts rEsPonDED to thIS CrIsiS, POincaré expLAIns, Not by GiVing Up the drEam that the universe IS a mAchine, but by, in A seNse, sIDE-sTepPInG The PrOBleMS. suppose we have a mAchine whosE iNItIal and finaL WheElS are opeN to view But whOSe interMediate maChinery foR tHe trANSmiSsion of eneRgy betweEn the two iS HiddeN. we Can deTerMine by ExPerIment That thE FinAl wheEl turnS 10 tImes leSs quiCkLy than thE initial wheel and, using thE princIple oF coNservatioN of ENerGy (PCE), deteRminE that a coupLe aPplIed to The ONe wilL be bALaNceD By a coUple 10 TImes greatER aPplIED tO the other. In ORDEr tO know ThaT EquiliBriuM is maintained by thIS compensation, wE do nOT NeeD to KNow hOw The forces insidE thE bLACk box comPeNsate each otHer. SimilArLY, usinG the prInciplEs of dynAMIcS, We can dRaw cOncLusions abOut MaCRoscopiC mOtIOns basEd on ObServatIons of THem wITHout knowing anythIng abOUT the mICroScopiC mAchinerY, ConcLusions thaT will
iques are directed at Maxw ell's andLodge 'sdif fe rent  mec hanical analog i es o f electromagnetic phen omena  a n d at Ke lvin' s vorte x  a t o m m od el . F ac e dwithfai lure of  a model,the yswitch to ne w  m odels that  ar e inconsiste ntwith o th erm odels  th ey us e. Suc h  theor ies, Duhe mc onclud e s, cove r on ly " a miniscule fragm e nt of Physics" an d the"f r ag m e nte d r epresentat io ns ma y  not be we l d e d t o gether to for m a coheren t  an d logi ca l e x plicat ion o ft heinanimate U nive rse" (Duh em 190 3 , 100). In a nu tshell , t hen , ph y si cs  de ve l ope d  a cco r din g to the  s yn theti c ap p r o a ch h adfail ed, a ccording to i tscrit i cs.  "Vis ualiz able "mater ial po intsor  atoms subjectto p osition-d epe nd ent  c entra l  force s,sosuccess ful for rep re s e n ti ng celestial pheno me n a ,were ill -suite d  t or epresent  e lec trom a g netic  phe n om ena, "di ssipat i ve "phenome na  in he at  en gin es an d  che micalreaction s, fl u id phenomena,e tc. Deformabl e  b o d ie s  and  vi scous fluid s ar e  con cept u al lyd iffic ult t oc on s truct from atom-lik emateri al po ints; shearin g forces a r e incompat ible wi t h central forc e ass umptions;f rictiona l and  electri cal force s are velo cit y-d epe nde n t .Physics had b e c omeadisorga niz ed patc hwo rkofpoo rl y underst ood theo ri es ,ea chdeali n g with s pe cia lcas es in its ow n dom ainMi ch a elListon–  D u h em:Im ag es o f S ci ence,  His t ori cal Con tinuity,and theFi rs t Crisi s in Physics78  and incon si ste nt wit h others,without adequate unifie d  founda tio ns or  emp iricallydet ermine d v a lues o f micr oscop ic  pa r a meter s .  L ack in g coherenc e ,  un ity,an d em pirical  determinacy, thes e  th eories couldnot  cla i m  t o b e  e x pla na t ory o r realistic. An alytic Tre at m en ts: Promis e s T hi s is wh ere the  newp hysicsof princi ples (Poi nc aré) o r p hysics dev eloped o n the ana l ytica pp roach  (D uhem)co mes  to t he res c ue.  Phys icists  r espond ed to  t his cris is, Poincaré explains,not by  givi ngup the dr eam tha t the uni vers e is a mac hin e,but b y,i n a s ense ,  s ide - stepp ingt he proble m s.  Su p p os e we have a m a chi ne wh ose initia l an d final wheels ar e  open to viewbutw h ose  in t erme di ate machineryfor  t h e  transmi ss ion of ener gy betwe en the t wo ishidden . We ca n de t ermine  byexp eriment t hat  t h e final  w he e l turn s 10  t imes l ess qu i ckly t han the initialwheel a nd, u s ing  thepr inciple of c onservatio n of energy  (PCE) , de termi ne that  a  coupl e a pp lied to th e  one will  be b alanced  b y acou ple 10  tim e s  grea terap pli ed to the o th e r.  I n  or derto kn ow  tha t equilib r ium is m ain t ained b ythi s compen s at i o n, we do n otneedt o  know howt he f o rc e s ins ide th e blac k box c o mpe ns ate eac h o t h er. Simil arly, usi n g t he  pri nciplesof  dyn am ics ,we can draw con clusions  about m a c roscop icm otio n s base don observati ons o ft hem wit h o utknowing any thi ngabou t t he m i croscopic machinery, con clus ionst hat  will 
iques are_directed at_Maxwell's and Lodge's different_mechanical analogies_of_electromagnetic phenomena_and_at Kelvin's vortex_atom model. Faced_with failure of a_model, they switch_to_new models that are inconsistent with other models they use. Such theories, Duhem concludes,_cover_only "a_miniscule_fragment_of Physics" and the "fragmented_representations may not be welded_together to_form a coherent and logical explication of the_inanimate_Universe" (Duhem 1903,_100). In a nutshell, then, physics developed according to_the synthetic approach had failed, according_to its critics._"Visualizable"_material_points or atoms subject_to position-dependent central forces, so successful_for representing celestial phenomena, were ill-suited_to represent electromagnetic phenomena, "dissipative" phenomena in_heat engines and chemical reactions, fluid_phenomena, etc. Deformable bodies and_viscous fluids_are conceptually difficult to construct_from atom-like material_points; shearing_forces are incompatible_with central force assumptions; frictional and_electrical forces are_velocity-dependent. Physics had become a disorganized_patchwork_of poorly understood_theories,_each_dealing with_special cases in_its_own domain_Michael_Liston – Duhem: Images of Science,_Historical_Continuity, and the First Crisis in Physics_78 and inconsistent with_others,_without adequate unified foundations_or empirically determined values of_microscopic parameters. Lacking coherence, unity, and_empirical determinacy,_these theories_could not claim to be explanatory or realistic. Analytic Treatments: Promises_This is where the new physics_of principles (Poincaré) or_physics developed_on_the analytic approach_(Duhem)_comes to_the rescue. Physicists responded to this crisis,_Poincaré explains,_not by giving up the dream_that the universe is_a_machine, but by, in a sense,_side-stepping the problems. Suppose we have_a machine whose initial and_final_wheels_are open to view but_whose intermediate machinery for the transmission_of energy between_the two is hidden. We can determine_by_experiment that the final wheel turns_10_times less quickly than the initial_wheel_and,_using the principle of conservation_of energy (PCE), determine that a_couple applied to the one will be balanced by_a couple 10_times greater applied to the_other._In_order to know that equilibrium is maintained by this compensation,_we do_not need to_know how the forces inside the black box compensate each_other. Similarly, using the principles of dynamics,_we can draw conclusions about macroscopic motions based on observations of_them without knowing anything about the microscopic machinery,_conclusions that will