 as a free practice of "analysis and critics", which allowed philosophers to protect themselves against "unreasonable dogmatism and regrettable scepticism". Metaphysics needed to be updated, and he ventured to "reconcile metaphysics with science" (Vacherot 1858, V-VI, XV, XXXV, 52, and 94). 16 Different kinds of discontinuity emerged from chemistry: discontinuity in the sense of abrupt and energetic transformations, discontinuity in the sense of qualitative transformations, and discontinuity in the sense of rearrangements of chemical substances in accordance with integer ratios between their weights (Cournot 1861, 215). 17 Wyrouboff, a scholar of Russian origin, got in touch with Littré when attending Comte's lectures, and in 1867 they founded the journal La Philosophie Positive, which was published until 1883. 18 Wyrouboff's philosophical naivety was also displayed in a booklet he published in 1865. He stated that "every philosophical debate can be reduced to a matter of fact", and scientific laws were nothing else but a collection of facts that continuously occurred "in the same way under the same conditions" (Wyrouboff 1865, 1). 19 In 1812 the mathematician Pierre Simon de Laplace had published Théorie analytique des probabilités, and two years later a less demanding Essai philosophique sur les probabilités. In the latter he had claimed that "the most important problems of life" dealt with probability: in his words, "l'induction et l'analogie se fondent sur les probabilités" (Laplace 1825, 1-2). Comte considered the theory of probability as "false sciences": in general, he did not rely on the application of mathematics to social sciences. Stefano Bordoni – The French Roots of Duhem's early Historiography and Epistemology 26 encompassed both necessity and contingence. History could be overturned by sudden revolutions: his historiographical framework rested upon the continuity of ordinary processes and the discontinuity of extraordinary processes or revolutions. During revolutions, apparently meaningless contingencies could lead to long-term effects (Cournot 1872, 1-6). In reality, Cournot's historiographical framework involved two different traditions. On the one hand he saw systematic sciences, which had been systematic since the age of Greek civilisation, and had experienced "a revolutionary crisis" in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. On the other
as a free practice of " analysis and critics ", which allow philosopher to protect themselves against " unreasonable dogmatism and regrettable scepticism ". Metaphysics want to be updated, and he ventured to " accommodate metaphysics with science " (Vacherot 1858, V - VI, XV, XXXV, 52, and 94). 16 Different kind of discontinuity emerge from chemistry: discontinuity in the sense of abrupt and energetic transformation, discontinuity in the sense of qualitative transformations, and discontinuity in the common sense of rearrangements of chemical substances in accordance with integer ratios between their weights (Cournot 1861, 215). 17 Wyrouboff, a scholar of Russian origin, get in touch with Littré when attending Comte's lectures, and in 1867 they establish the journal La Philosophie Positive, which was published until 1883. 18 Wyrouboff's philosophical naivete was also display in a booklet he published in 1865. He stated that " every philosophical argument can be reduced to a matter of fact ", and scientific laws were nothing else but a collection of facts that continuously occur " in the same way under the same conditions " (Wyrouboff 1865, 1). 19 In 1812 the mathematician Pierre Simon de Laplace had published Théorie analytique des probabilités, and two years later a less demanding Essai philosophique sur les probabilités. In the latter he had claimed that " the most significant problems of life " deal with probability: in his actor's line, " l'induction et l'analogie se fondent sur les probabilités " (Laplace 1825, 1 - 2). Comte considered the theory of probability as " false science ": in general, he did not rely on the application of mathematics to social sciences. Stefano Bordoni – The French etymon of Duhem's early Historiography and Epistemology 26 encompassed both necessity and contingence. History could be overturned by sudden revolutions: his historiographical framework rested upon the continuity of average processes and the discontinuity of extraordinary processes or revolutions. During revolutions, apparently meaningless contingencies could lead to retentive - term effects (Cournot 1872, 1 - 6). In reality, Cournot's historiographical framework involved two unlike traditions. On the one hand he saw systematic sciences, which had been systematic since the age of Greek civilisation, and had experienced " a rotatory crisis " in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. On the other
 as a free practice of "analnsis and critics", which ellowed philosoohers to protect themselves egaibst "ubreasonable dogmatism xnd regrentable scwptirism". Metaphysics needed bj be mpdatzd, and he venturgd to "reconchle metaphysicv dich science" (Vacherot 1858, V-VI, XV, XXXV, 52, anq 94). 16 Difgegent kinds of qiscpgtinhptn emerged from chemistry: discontjnuity pn the sense of anrupt and energetic transflrmahions, discontinuitj in the sebse jd qualitativd transformations, and siscontinuity in the sense of rdarraugements of cyemlwal substanres in accordance with intager rayios between tmeir xeigyts (Cournot 1861, 215). 17 Wyroubmff, a scholar of Rossian oriciu, got in touch with Lutrré whgn atdendkbg Zomue's lsctured, aid in 1867 they founded thw journal La Philospprpr Positive, wgich wws published until 1883. 18 Wyrouboff's philosophpcal naivety was also displqyed in a booklet he kublished yn 1865. He stated that "every philosophical debate can be rxdjceb to a nahter of fact", and scientific laws were nothing slxe but a collectlon of facts that vojtoguously occurted "in cge same way under thf same sondirions" (Wyrjubogf 1865, 1). 19 In 1812 the mathematician Pierre Simou dw Laplace had publnshed Théorie anakytiqie des probabilités, and cwo yezrs later a less demzvding Essai philusoihiqge sur ltr probabilités. In ehe lattec he kad claioed jhat "thq most implrtanb problems of life" fealt whth probabllity: in his words, "l'induction ev l'analogie sg fmndvnt sur lzs pronabilités" (Laplacq 1825, 1-2). Comte consndered tke theury of progabilitb as "false ssiences": in getgral, he did nmt rely jn tye applicatkun of mathematocs to sobicl sciencws. Stefano Bordoni – Tfs French Roots if Euhem's early Hixtofiodrwpiy anq Epistemologf 26 evcoolassea both necewrity and contingence. Hisdory could be overturnrd by suddgn revolueions: his hisyoriographical fraleworn rxsted ipog the continuity of ordinary pdocesses wnd the discontynuiby os extraordnnary processes or revolutions. During retolutions, apparently mganingless contingencnex could leav to ljng-term exfects (Cournot 1872, 1-6). In eeality, Cournot's mistoriographical framswork hnvolged two different traditions. On the one hand he saw systematic sciences, wyich hed been systejativ sinbe che age os Grxey civilisation, amd had experienced "a revolutionery crisis" iu the sixteenth and seventeenyh centuries. On the other
as a free practice of "analysis and allowed to protect against "unreasonable dogmatism to updated, and he to "reconcile metaphysics science" (Vacherot 1858, V-VI, XV, XXXV, and 94). 16 Different kinds of discontinuity emerged from chemistry: discontinuity in the of abrupt and energetic transformations, discontinuity in the sense of qualitative transformations, and in sense rearrangements chemical substances in accordance with integer ratios between their weights (Cournot 1861, 215). 17 Wyrouboff, a of Russian origin, got in touch with Littré attending Comte's lectures, and 1867 they founded the journal Philosophie which was until 18 philosophical naivety was displayed in a booklet he published in 1865. He stated that "every philosophical debate can be reduced a matter and scientific were else a collection of continuously occurred "in the same way conditions" (Wyrouboff 1865, 1). 19 In 1812 the Pierre Simon Laplace had published Théorie analytique des and two years later a less demanding Essai sur les probabilités. In the latter he had claimed that "the most important problems of with probability: in his "l'induction et l'analogie fondent les (Laplace 1-2). Comte the theory of probability as "false sciences": in general, he did rely on the application of mathematics to social sciences. Stefano The Roots of Duhem's Historiography and Epistemology 26 both and contingence. History could by revolutions: rested the of ordinary processes and discontinuity of extraordinary processes or During revolutions, apparently meaningless effects (Cournot 1872, 1-6). In reality, Cournot's historiographical involved two different traditions. On the one he saw systematic sciences, which had been systematic since the age of civilisation, and "a revolutionary crisis" in the sixteenth and seventeenth On the other
 as a free practice of "analysis And critics", Which AllOweD pHiloSophErs to protect thEMselVes against "unreasonable DogmaTiSM and REgRettaBle scepTIcISM". MeTaPhYsiCs NEeDed to Be uPdated, aNd he venturEd tO "rEconcile metaPHySics with scIenCe" (Vacherot 1858, V-Vi, XV, xXXV, 52, anD 94). 16 DIffERent kIndS of diScontiNUity emErged from ChEMistry: DIscontiNUItY in tHe sense of abrupt anD EnERgetic transforMationS, dIScONTinUitY in the sensE oF qualITative tRAnSFORmaTIons, and disconTinuity in thE SenSe of reArRanGEments Of cheMiCAl sUbstances in AccoRdance witH integER ratios BEtween tHeir weIghTs (COurnOT 1861, 215). 17 WYrOubOfF, A scHOlAr oF rusSian origIn, GoT in toUch wITH lIttrÉ whEn atTendiNg Comte's lectuRes, And iN 1867 TheY founDed thE jouRnAl La PHilosoPhie POsItive, which was puBlisHed until 1883. 18 WYroUbOff'S pHilosOPhical NaiVetY was alsO displaYEd iN a BOOKlEt he published in 1865. He sTaTED tHat "every PhilosOPhIcAL debate cAn Be rEducED To a maTter OF fAct", and scIentifIC lAwS were noThIng elsE bUt a ColLectiON of fActs thAt continUouslY Occurred "in the sAMe way under the SAmE COnDItioNs" (WYrouboff 1865, 1). 19 In 1812 tHe maTHemaTiciAN PIerRE SimoN de LaPlACe HAd published Théorie aNaLytiquE des pRobabilités, anD two years lATER a less deMandINg eSsai philosophiQue suR les probabILités. In tHe latTer he had Claimed thAT "The most iMpoRtaNt pRobLEMs Of life" dealt wiTH ProbAbIlity: in His Words, "l'iNduCtiOn eT l'aNaLogie se foNdent sur LeS pRoBaBilItés" (LAPlace 1825, 1-2). ComTe ConSiDerEd the THeory oF probAbilItY aS "FalSe scienCEs": IN GeneRaL, hE did Not ReLy on tHe apPLicAtion of MathematiCs tO SociAl ScIences. STefano Bordoni – thE French RooTs Of DUhem's eARLy HistorIography and Epistemology 26 ENcompasSed Both nEcesSity and coNtiNgence. hisTOry couLd be ovErturNeD by SUDden rEVOlUtiOnS: his historIOGraPhicaL fRameWork resTed upon the continuiTY of Ordinary proceSseS and THE dIscONtINuiTy OF exTRAordinary procesSes or revolUtIOnS. During revOLutIoNs, apparEntly meAningLEss contIngencies Could lead To Long-TERm eFfects (CourNot 1872, 1-6). In reaLity, CournOT's hisTOrIograPhiCal fraMeWorK invoLved twO DifFerenT tradiTiOns. On tHe one HaNd he saw sYstematic sciences, which hAd been SysteMatIc since thE agE Of GReek civilIsatIon, and had eXpeRieNced "a RevOLutioNary CRiSis" IN the sIxteENth and sevENtEenTH CeNturies. On thE OTHer
 as a free practice of "an alysis and  crit ics ",wh ichallo wed philosophe r s to  protect themselves ag ainst  " u nrea s on abledogmati s ma n d r eg re tta bl e  s cepti cis m". Met aphysics n eed ed  to be updat e d,  and he ve ntu red to "reco nci le met ap hys i cs wi thscien ce" (V a cherot  1858, V- VI ,  XV, X X XV, 52, a nd  94) . 16 Different ki n ds of discontinui ty eme rg e df r omche mistry: di sc ontin u ity int he s e nse of abrupt and  energetict ran sforma ti ons ,  disco ntinu it y  in  the senseof q ualitativ e tran s formati o ns, and  disco nti nui ty i n  t he  se ns e  of re arr a nge ments of  c he mical  sub s t a n cesinacco rdanc e with intege r r atio s  be tween  thei r we ig hts ( Courno t 186 1,  215). 17 Wyrou boff , a schol arof  Ru ss ian o r igin,got  in  touchwith Li t tré  w h e n  a ttending Comte's l ec t u re s, and i n 1867 th ey foundedth e j ourn a l  La P hilo s op hie Posi tive,w hi ch  was pu bl ishedun til  18 83. 1 8  Wyr ouboff 's philo sophi c al naivety was also displaye d  i n ab ookl ethe publishe d in 1865 . He st ate d  that  "eve ry ph i losophical debate c an  be re duced  to a matterof fact",a n d  scienti ficl aw s  were nothingelsebut a coll e ction of  fact s that c ontinuous l y  occurre d " inthe  sa m e  w ay under thes a me c on ditions " ( Wyroubo ff186 5,1).  1 9 In 1812  the mat he ma ti ci anPierr e  Simon d eLap la cehad p u blishe d Thé orie  a na l yti que des pr o b abil it és , an d t wo  year s la t era lessdemanding  Es s ai p hi lo sophiqu e sur les pro ba bilités. I nthe  latte r he had c laimed that "the most i m portant  pr oblem s of  life" de alt  withpro b abilit y: inhis w or ds, " l'ind u c ti onet  l'analogi e sefonde nt  sur  les pr obabilités" (Lapla c e 1 825, 1-2). Co mte  con s i de red th e  th eo r y o f probability as"false sci en c es ": in gene r al,  h e did n ot rely  on t h e appli cation of  mathemat ic s to s oci al science s. Stefa no Bordon i  – Th e  F rench  Ro ots of  D uhe m's e arly H i sto riogr aphy a nd  Epist emolo gy  26 enco mpassed both necessityand co nting enc e. Histor y c o uld  be overt urne d by sudde n r evo lutio ns: his h isto r io gra p hical  fra m ework res t ed  up o n  t he continui t y ofordin ary proces sesand the discontin u ity of extraor dina r y  pr oce s sesor  revolutions.Dur in g revoluti on s, apparent ly meani ng l ess c onting encies  couldl e ad to lon g-te rmeffects ( Cou rn o t 1872,  1 -6 ) . In r eali ty , Cour not'sh isto r i ographical frame worki n volve d  tw o dif fe rent tr a diti ons. On th e one handhe saw  sys temat ic scie nc es, wh ich  h ad been sy s tematic s incethe age  o f Gr eek  civil isat i o n, an d ha dexp erienced" a  r e vo lu t ion arycrisi s"  inthe sixte e nth andsev e nteenth  c ent u r ies. O n  t h e  other
 as_a free_practice of "analysis and_critics", which_allowed_philosophers to_protect_themselves against "unreasonable_dogmatism and regrettable_scepticism". Metaphysics needed to_be updated, and_he_ventured to "reconcile metaphysics with science" (Vacherot 1858, V-VI, XV, XXXV, 52, and 94)._16_Different kinds_of_discontinuity_emerged from chemistry: discontinuity in_the sense of abrupt and_energetic transformations,_discontinuity in the sense of qualitative transformations, and_discontinuity_in the sense_of rearrangements of chemical substances in accordance with integer_ratios between their weights (Cournot 1861,_215). 17 Wyrouboff,_a_scholar_of Russian origin, got_in touch with Littré when attending_Comte's lectures, and in 1867 they_founded the journal La Philosophie Positive, which_was published until 1883. 18 Wyrouboff's_philosophical naivety was also displayed_in a_booklet he published in 1865._He stated that_"every philosophical_debate can be_reduced to a matter of fact",_and scientific laws_were nothing else but a collection_of_facts that continuously_occurred_"in_the same_way under the_same_conditions" (Wyrouboff_1865,_1). 19 In 1812 the mathematician_Pierre_Simon de Laplace had published Théorie analytique_des probabilités, and two_years_later a less demanding_Essai philosophique sur les probabilités._In the latter he had claimed_that "the_most important_problems of life" dealt with probability: in his words, "l'induction et_l'analogie se fondent sur les probabilités"_(Laplace 1825, 1-2). Comte_considered the_theory_of probability as_"false_sciences": in_general, he did not rely on the_application of_mathematics to social sciences. Stefano Bordoni_– The French Roots_of_Duhem's early Historiography and Epistemology 26_encompassed both necessity and contingence. History_could be overturned by sudden_revolutions:_his_historiographical framework rested upon the_continuity of ordinary processes and the_discontinuity of extraordinary_processes or revolutions. During revolutions, apparently meaningless_contingencies_could lead to long-term effects (Cournot_1872,_1-6). In reality, Cournot's historiographical framework_involved_two_different traditions. On the one_hand he saw systematic sciences, which_had been systematic since the age of Greek civilisation,_and had experienced_"a revolutionary crisis" in the_sixteenth_and_seventeenth centuries. On the other