 of particles on bodies, kinetic theories of gases, Kelvin's gyroscopic ether, Maxwell's mechanical models of electromagnetism, and contemporary mechanical models of light, electricity, and new radiations proposed by Lorentz, Larmor, J.J. Thomson, Langevin, and Perrin. Most contemporary physicists, Duhem points out, have concluded that synthetic methods cannot deliver mechanical explanations of natural phenomena that are complete, unified, general, coherent, or empirically adequate. Instead, Duhem claims, like Poincaré, most contemporary physicists have turned to analytic treatments. 8 On Duhem's telling of the history each approach has its heroes: Descartes, Huygens, Boscovich, Laplace, Poisson, Kelvin, and Maxwell favor the causal explanatory approach, while Newton, Fresnel, Ampère, Fourier, Rankine, Helmholtz, Gibbs, and Duhem himself favor the abstract representative view. 9 He mentions Laplace's celestial mechanics, Briot's hypothesis that etherial atoms attract each other with forces that are proportional to the inverse 6th power of the distance, and Maxwell's hypothesis that gas molecules repel each other by inverse 5th forces. Michael Liston – Duhem: Images of Science, Historical Continuity, and the First Crisis in Physics 77 Synthetic Treatments: Problems Synthetic treatments are guided by R, by a picture of the universe in which all empirical regularities are the effects of fundamental processes involving fundamental entities. They attempt to derive from the bottom up the equations of motion of an isolated mechanical system S from the laws governing S's elementary parts: the state of S is determined by the positions and motions of its component bodies (understood ultimately as fundamental particles), and the motions of S are determined by the motions of its parts and the forces to which they are subject, generally assumed to be inverse functions of their relative distances from each other. It is a physics of differential equations whose natural class of applications is initial value problems. While this worked very successfully to describe the motions of heavenly bodies, Duhem argues, there were many difficulties, especially when it came to dealing with terrestrial phenomena. Some of the difficulties concerned empirical adequacy. For example, Poisson's physical mechanics, a synthetic theory, predicts various bulk and elasticity ratios that disagreed with experiment and, in some cases, were absurd. Some of the difficulties were conceptual. According to mechanism, energy added to a system, like that produced by heat or friction, is converted into energy of the system's elementary bodies. But
of particles on bodies, kinetic theories of gasoline, Kelvin's gyroscopic quintessence, Maxwell's mechanical models of electromagnetism, and contemporary mechanical model of sparkle, electricity, and new radiations nominate by Lorentz, Larmor, J.J. Thomson, Langevin, and Perrin. Most contemporaneous physicists, Duhem points out, have concluded that synthetic methods cannot render mechanical explanations of natural phenomenon that are accomplished, unified, general, coherent, or empirically adequate. Instead, Duhem claims, like Poincaré, most contemporary physicist have turned to analytic treatments. 8 On Duhem's telling of the history each approach path has its heroes: Descartes, Huygens, Boscovich, Laplace, Poisson, Kelvin, and Maxwell prefer the causal explanatory approach, while Newton, Fresnel, Ampère, Fourier, Rankine, Helmholtz, Gibbs, and Duhem himself prefer the abstract representative view. 9 He mentions Laplace's celestial mechanics, Briot's hypothesis that etherial atoms attract each early with forces that are proportional to the inverse 6th power of the distance, and Maxwell's hypothesis that gas molecules repel each early by inverse fifth force. Michael Liston – Duhem: Images of Science, Historical Continuity, and the First Crisis in Physics 77 Synthetic Treatments: Problems Synthetic treatments are guided by R, by a picture of the universe in which all empiric regularity are the effects of cardinal summons imply fundamental entities. They attempt to derive from the bottom up the equations of motion of an apart mechanical system S from the laws governing S's elementary parts: the state of S is determined by the place and motions of its component bodies (understood ultimately as cardinal particles), and the motion of S are settle by the motions of its parts and the forces to which they are subject, by and large assumed to be inverse functions of their relative distance from each other. It is a physics of differential equations whose natural course of applications is initial value problems. While this worked very successfully to describe the motions of celestial bodies, Duhem argue, there were many trouble, especially when it hail to dealing with terrestrial phenomena. Some of the difficulties concerned empiric adequacy. For example, Poisson's physical machinist, a synthetic theory, predicts various bulk and elasticity ratio that disagreed with experiment and, in some cases, were absurd. Some of the difficulty were conceptual. According to mechanism, energy add to a system, like that produced by heat or clash, is converted into energy of the system's elementary bodies. But
 of particles on bodies, kinttic theories of yqses, Kxlvin's fyroscopkc ether, Maxwell's mechanical midels of electromagnetism, avd contemiorary mexhanmcal models of lmfht, elegcricifn, and iew radiations kroposed by Norentz, Larmor, J.G. Chomson, Langevin, and Perrin. Most coneemporaty physicists, Durem koigts klt, have concluded that synthetid methovs cannot delivrr mechanical explanations of jatural phenomena hhat are conpleew, unified, geveral, cohegznt, or empitically adequate. Instead, Duhem cuaims, like Poinxaeé, mlvt contempocary prysicists hayv turneg to anslytic treatmekts. 8 Mn Euhem's telling of the history each apprjach has hta heroes: Descartew, Yuygets, Bmscoxuch, Laklare, Loissoj, Kxlvin, and Mzxwell favoe the causal explanstjgu approach, wgile Nqweon, Fresnel, Ampère, Fourier, Rankine, Helmhmlta, Gibbs, and Duhem himseof favor the abstract represeneative view. 9 He mentions Laplace's celestial mechatics, Urkot'w mypogyedis that etherial atoms attract each other wieg gogces that are proiortional to the imvfrxg 6th power of jhe discznde, and Maxwell's hyoothesif thar gas moltculex repel each other by inverwe 5th forces. Nichael Liston – Dukem: Images oy Sciemce, Hostorical Continuity, anb the Rirst Crisid in Physjzs 77 Synthetic Trdatketts: Problems Synthetic trewtments ace gunded by F, by a piceure of thf uniyarse in which all fmpirncal segularitifs are the effects of fundamentek processes oneolning fundcmentak entities. Thqy attempt to berive fxom thd bottom ui the equetions of moeion of an ismpated mechanmcal systqm S fron the lxds governing S'x elementcxy parts: rhe state of S is vetetmjned by the posnuiobs and motions pf kts clm'onene bodies (undesstoud jktimagely as funbaoentsl particles), and the motjons of S are detetmlned by tye motiogs of its parys and the forces uo whirh theb are xubtect, generally assumed to be ihverse fujctlons of their relqtive distanees from each other. It is a physics of dmfferential equations wyose natural class pn applicatiois is ynitial vdlue problems. While rhis worked very xuccessfully to descrjbe tha motlons of heavenly bodies, Duhem argues, there were many difficulties, especiaoly whxn it came to deaking fich cerrestwial 'henomena. Some of the difficulties concerned empmrical adexuccy. For example, Poisson's physocxl mechanics, x synthetic theory, predidts varipus bulk and elasticity ratios yhat disagreed with expeviment ane, in aome cases, were absurd. Some pf the diffucultiew weve conceptual. Xccprfing to mfchaiisj, energy added to a system, like rhat peofuced by heat or friction, id convgrted injo energy of the aystsl's elgmentary bodiex. But
of particles on bodies, kinetic theories of gyroscopic Maxwell's mechanical of electromagnetism, and electricity, new radiations proposed Lorentz, Larmor, J.J. Langevin, and Perrin. Most contemporary physicists, points out, have concluded that synthetic methods cannot deliver mechanical explanations of natural that are complete, unified, general, coherent, or empirically adequate. Instead, Duhem claims, like most physicists turned analytic treatments. 8 On Duhem's telling of the history each approach has its heroes: Descartes, Huygens, Laplace, Poisson, Kelvin, and Maxwell favor the causal approach, while Newton, Fresnel, Fourier, Rankine, Helmholtz, Gibbs, and himself the abstract view. He Laplace's celestial mechanics, hypothesis that etherial atoms attract each other with forces that are proportional to the inverse 6th power the distance, hypothesis that molecules each by inverse 5th Liston – Duhem: Images of Science, the First Crisis in Physics 77 Synthetic Treatments: Synthetic treatments guided by R, by a picture the universe in which all empirical regularities are effects of fundamental processes involving fundamental entities. They attempt to derive from the bottom up of motion of an mechanical system S the governing elementary the state S is determined by the positions and motions of its component (understood ultimately as fundamental particles), and the motions of S by motions of its and the forces to they subject, generally assumed to functions their each It a physics of differential whose natural class of applications initial value problems. While describe the motions of heavenly bodies, Duhem argues, were many difficulties, especially when it came dealing with terrestrial phenomena. Some of the difficulties concerned empirical adequacy. For Poisson's physical synthetic theory, predicts various bulk and elasticity ratios disagreed with experiment and, some cases, were absurd. Some of the difficulties were According mechanism, energy to a system, that produced by or friction, is energy of system's bodies.
 of particles on bodies, kinetiC theories oF gaseS, KeLviN's GyroScopIc ether, Maxwell'S MechAnical models of electromAgnetIsM, And cONtEmporAry mechANiCAL moDeLs Of lIgHT, eLectrIciTy, and neW radiationS prOpOsed by LorentZ, laRmor, J.J. ThomSon, langevin, and PErrIn. Most CoNteMPorarY phYsiciSts, DuhEM pointS out, have cOnCLuded tHAt synthETIc MethOds cannot deliver mEChANical explanatiOns of nAtURaL PHenOmeNa that are cOmPlete, UNified, gENeRAL, CohERent, or empiricAlly adequatE. insTead, DuHeM clAIms, likE PoinCaRÉ, moSt contemporAry pHysicists Have tuRNed to anALytic trEatmenTs. 8 ON DuHem's TElLiNg oF tHE hiSToRy eACh aPproach hAs ItS heroEs: DeSCARTes, HUygEns, BOscovIch, Laplace, PoiSsoN, KelVIn, aNd MaxWell fAvor ThE causAl explAnatoRy Approach, while NeWton, fresnel, AmPèrE, FOurIeR, RankINe, HelmHolTz, GIbbs, and duhem hiMSelF fAVOR tHe abstract represenTaTIVe View. 9 He meNtions lApLaCE's celestIaL meChanICS, BrioT's hyPOtHesis thaT etherIAl AtOms attrAcT each oThEr wIth ForceS That Are proPortionaL to thE Inverse 6th power OF the distance, aND MAXWeLL's hyPotHesis that gaS molECuleS repEL eAch OTher bY inveRsE 5Th FOrces. Michael Liston – DUhEm: ImagEs of SCience, HistoriCal ContinuITY, And the FiRst CRIsIS in Physics 77 SyntHetic treatments: pRoblems SYntheTic treatMents are gUIDed by R, by A piCtuRe oF thE UNiVerse in which aLL EmpiRiCal reguLarIties arE thE efFecTs oF fUndamentaL processEs InVoLvIng FundaMEntal entItIes. thEy aTtempT To deriVe froM the BoTtOM up The equaTIoNS Of moTiOn Of an IsoLaTed meChanICal System S From the laWs gOVernInG S'S elemenTary parts: the sTaTe of S is detErMinEd by thE POsitions And motions of its componenT Bodies (uNdeRstooD ultImately as FunDamentAl pARticleS), and thE motiOnS of s ARe detERMiNed By The motions OF Its Parts AnD the Forces tO which they are subjeCT, geNerally assumeD to Be inVERsE fuNCtIOns Of THeiR RElative distanceS from each oThER. IT is a physicS Of dIfFerentiAl equatIons wHOse natuRal class oF applicatIoNs is INItiAl value proBlems. WhiLe this worKEd verY SuCcessFulLy to deScRibE the mOtions OF heAvenlY bodieS, DUhem arGues, tHeRe were maNy difficulties, especiallY when iT came To dEaling witH teRResTrial phenOmenA. Some of the DifFicUltieS coNCerneD empIRiCal ADequaCy. FoR Example, PoISsOn's PHYsIcal mechaniCS, A SynThetiC thEOry, preDictS various bulk and elASticity ratios tHat dISAgrEed WIth eXpEriment and, in soMe cAsES, Were absuRd. some of the diFficultiEs WEre coNceptuAl. AccoRding to MEChANism, enErgy AddEd to a systEm, lIkE That proDuCeD By heat Or frIcTion, is ConverTEd inTO Energy of the systeM's eleMENtary BOdiEs. But
 of particles on bodies, k inetic the ories  of  ga se s, K elvi n's gyroscopic ethe r, Maxwell's mechanica l mod el s  ofe le ctrom agnetis m ,a n d c on te mpo ra r ymecha nic al mode ls of ligh t,el ectricity, a n dnew radiat ion s proposed b y L orentz ,Lar m or, J .J.  Thom son, L a ngevin , and Per ri n . Most contemp o r ar y ph ysicists, Duhem p o in t s out, have co nclude dt ha t syn the tic method scanno t  delive r  m e c h ani c al explanatio ns of natur a l p henome na  th a t arecompl et e , u nified, gen eral , coheren t, ore mpirica l ly adeq uate.Ins tea d, D u he mcla im s , l i ke  Po i nca ré, most  c on tempo rary p h y sici sts  hav e tur ned to analyt ictrea t men ts. 8  On D uhem 's  tell ing of  thehi story each appr oach  has itsher oe s:De scart e s, Huy gen s,Boscovi ch, Lap l ace ,P o i ss on, Kelvin, and Ma xw e l lfavor th e caus a lex p lanatory  a ppr oach , while  New t on , Fresne l, Amp è re ,Fourier ,Rankin e,  He lmh oltz, Gibb s, and  Duhem h imsel f  favor the abs t ract represen t at i v ev iew.  9He mentions  Lap l ace' s ce l es tia l  mech anics ,B ri o t's hypothesis that  e theria l ato ms attract ea ch other w i t h  forcesthat ar e  proportionalto th e inverse6 th power  of t he dista nce, andM a xwell'shyp oth esi s t h a tgas molecules r epel  e ach oth erby inve rse  5t h f orc es . Michael  Liston–Du he m:  Im ageso f Scienc e,  Hi st ori cal C o ntinui ty, a nd t he  F i rst  Crisis in P hysi cs  7 7 Sy nth et ic Tr eatm e nts : Probl ems Synth eti c  tre at me nts are  guided by R,  b y a pictur eofthe un i v erse inwhich all empirical reg u laritie s a re th e ef fects offun dament alp rocess es inv olvin gfun d a menta l en tit ie s. They at t e mpt  to d er ivefrom th e bottom up the eq u ati ons of motion  of  ani s ol ate d  m e cha ni c als y stem S from the  laws gove rn i ng  S's eleme n tar yparts:the sta te of S is de terminedby the po si tion s and  motions o f its co mponent b o dies( un derst ood  ultim at ely  as f undame n tal  part icles) ,and th e mot io ns of Sare determined by the m otions  of i tsparts and  th e  fo rces to w hich  they aresub jec t, ge ner a lly a ssum e dtob e inv erse functions of  th e i rrelative di s t a nce s fro m e a ch oth er.It is a physics o f  differentialequa t i ons  wh o se n at ural class ofapp li c a tions is  i nitial valu e proble ms .  Whil e this  worke d verys u cc e ssfull y to  de scribe th e m ot i ons ofhe av e nly bo dies ,Duhemargues ,  the r e  were many diffi culti e s , esp e cia lly w he n it ca m e to  dealing w ith terrest rial p heno mena.  Some o fthe di ffi cu lties conc e rned empi rical  adequa cy . Fo r e xample , Po i s son's  phy si cal  mechanic s ,  a sy nt h eti c th eory,  p redi cts vario u s bulk a nde lastici ty  ra t i os tha t  d i s agreed wit h e xperi m e nt and, in some ca s es, w ere ab surd.Some of the  d ifficul tie s were conc eptual. A c cor di ng t o mechan is m, e ne rgy  a dded to a syste m, likethat pro d u ced by  he a t or fricti on , is convert ed in to energyo f  th e syste m 'sele men tary  bo dies .  But
 of_particles on_bodies, kinetic theories of_gases, Kelvin's_gyroscopic_ether, Maxwell's_mechanical_models of electromagnetism,_and contemporary mechanical_models of light, electricity,_and new radiations_proposed_by Lorentz, Larmor, J.J. Thomson, Langevin, and Perrin. Most contemporary physicists, Duhem points out,_have_concluded that_synthetic_methods_cannot deliver mechanical explanations of_natural phenomena that are complete,_unified, general,_coherent, or empirically adequate. Instead, Duhem claims, like_Poincaré,_most contemporary physicists_have turned to analytic treatments. 8 On Duhem's telling_of the history each approach has_its heroes: Descartes,_Huygens,_Boscovich,_Laplace, Poisson, Kelvin, and_Maxwell favor the causal explanatory approach,_while Newton, Fresnel, Ampère, Fourier, Rankine,_Helmholtz, Gibbs, and Duhem himself favor the_abstract representative view. 9 He mentions_Laplace's celestial mechanics, Briot's hypothesis_that etherial_atoms attract each other with_forces that are_proportional to_the inverse 6th_power of the distance, and Maxwell's_hypothesis that gas_molecules repel each other by inverse_5th_forces. Michael Liston_–_Duhem:_Images of_Science, Historical Continuity,_and_the First_Crisis_in Physics 77 Synthetic Treatments: Problems_Synthetic_treatments are guided by R, by a_picture of the universe_in_which all empirical regularities_are the effects of fundamental_processes involving fundamental entities. They attempt_to derive_from the_bottom up the equations of motion of an isolated mechanical system_S from the laws governing S's_elementary parts: the state_of S_is_determined by the_positions_and motions_of its component bodies (understood ultimately as_fundamental particles),_and the motions of S are_determined by the motions_of_its parts and the forces to_which they are subject, generally assumed_to be inverse functions of_their_relative_distances from each other. It_is a physics of differential equations_whose natural class_of applications is initial value problems. While_this_worked very successfully to describe the_motions_of heavenly bodies, Duhem argues, there_were_many_difficulties, especially when it came_to dealing with terrestrial phenomena. Some_of the difficulties concerned empirical adequacy. For example, Poisson's_physical mechanics, a_synthetic theory, predicts various bulk_and_elasticity_ratios that disagreed with experiment and, in some cases, were_absurd. Some_of the difficulties_were conceptual. According to mechanism, energy added to a system,_like that produced by heat or friction,_is converted into energy of the system's elementary bodies. But