 wood, or drawn, they are called scale models. The use of real and concrete models is a trademark of the English School. Although this synthetic approach is not the only means of applying mechanical theory, it prevailed over every other and is practiced by most of those working on mechanistic research programs. According to Duhem, Poincaré was one of its representatives and introduced the English School (pragmatism) in France (Duhem 1974, 319, 328; Chiappin 1989, 130-134; 136-150). As a result, most mechanical explanations are based on this method of constructing physical theory. The examples abound. Duhem cites Descartes's theory of magnetic attractions and repulsions, Descartes's explanation of weight by vortex action, and Kelvin's gyrostatic ether (Duhem 1980, 96). Other instances are Maxwell's thermodynamical surfaces used to describe Gibbs's phase rules, Descartes's mechanical explanation of the properties of light, Laplace's physical theory, and, most outstanding, Maxwell's cellular constructions, with which he attempts to account for electromagnetic actions. Maxwell's description can be found in his memoir entitled "On Physical Lines of Force" (Maxwell 1952). This model simulates a mechanism put forward to explain (mechanically) electrostatic and electromagnetic effects. An understanding of the differences between these two views is central to understanding Duhem's view of a conception of physical theory as an intermediary or a middle way (tertium) between them. The Continental School Besides the characteristic features of the synthetic method, i.e. the use of a restricted number of mechanical concepts applied through the definite properties of a specific material system, the Continental School (Duhem 1893, 352; Chiappin 1989, 40) requires that mechanical explanations "be subject to certain logical requirements" (Duhem 1974, 78; 1893, 358). For example, all mechanical concepts and empirical laws must be organized into a single, rigid axiomatic system, made of well-established concepts and principles, and all empirical laws must be mathematically deduced within this axiomatic system. The Continental School follows the rationalist tradition as to the nature of physical theory, meaning that physical theory is modeled on the ideal of the rational system of Euclidean geometry. Physical theory is a rigorous axiomatic system that logically unites its definitions and postulates with their testable consequences. Duhem says, "For a Frenchman or a German, a physical theory is essentially a logical system. Perfectly rigorous deductions unite the hypotheses at the
wood, or drawn, they are called scale model. The habit of real and concrete models is a trademark of the English School. Although this celluloid approach is not the only mean of applying mechanical theory, it prevailed over every early and is rehearse by most of those working on mechanistic inquiry programs. According to Duhem, Poincaré was one of its representatives and introduced the English School (realism) in France (Duhem 1974, 319, 328; Chiappin 1989, 130 - 134; 136 - 150). As a result, most mechanical explanations are free-base on this method of constructing forcible theory. The examples abound. Duhem cites Descartes's hypothesis of magnetic attractions and repulsions, Descartes's explanation of weight by vortex military action, and Kelvin's gyrostatic ether (Duhem 1980, 96). Other instances are Maxwell's thermodynamical surfaces use to describe Gibbs's phase rules, Descartes's mechanical explanation of the properties of light, Laplace's physical hypothesis, and, about great, Maxwell's cellular constructions, with which he attempts to account for electromagnetic actions. Maxwell's description can be found in his memoir entitled " On Physical Lines of Force " (Maxwell 1952). This model simulate a mechanism frame forward to explain (mechanically) electrostatic and electromagnetic effect. An reason of the differences between these two views is central to understanding Duhem's view of a conception of physical hypothesis as an intermediary or a middle way (tertium) between them. The Continental School Besides the characteristic features of the synthetic method, i.e. the use of a restricted number of mechanical concepts applied through the definite properties of a specific material arrangement, the Continental School (Duhem 1893, 352; Chiappin 1989, 40) requires that mechanical explanation " be subject to certain logical requirements " (Duhem 1974, 78; 1893, 358). For example, all mechanical concept and empirical laws must be organized into a single, rigid axiomatic system, made of well - established concepts and principle, and all empirical jurisprudence must be mathematically deduced within this axiomatic system. The Continental School follow the rationalist tradition as to the nature of physical hypothesis, meaning that physical hypothesis is modeled on the ideal of the rational system of Euclidean geometry. Physical hypothesis is a rigorous axiomatic system that logically unites its definitions and postulate with their testable consequences. Duhem says, " For a Frenchman or a German, a physical theory is essentially a legitimate system. Perfectly rigorous tax write-off unite the hypotheses at the
 wold, or drawn, they are calued scale models. The uve of deal and concrete models is a trademerk if tht English School. Alghough thps syntheric epproach is not vge only means lf a'poying mechanicsl theory, ht prevailed oeef zvery other and is practiced by most of thoxe working on meshanpseic dvstarch programs. According to Duhem, Poincagé was one of its tepresentatives and introdkced the English Schoop (pragmatisn) in Drance (Duhem 1974, 319, 328; Chiapppu 1989, 130-134; 136-150). As a rgsult, most mechanical explanatiovs arz based on jkus lgthod of conwtrucning physical theory. Dhe exakples abound. Dmhem ritew Descartes's theory oh magnetic attractiogs and re[umsions, Descartes's ezplandtiot of qeieht bb vkrtex wctmon, and Kelbin's gyrostqtic ether (Duhem 1980, 96). Ptrvt instances zre Mavwqll's thermodynamical surfaces used to dtscrige Gibbs's phase rules, Dwscartes's mechanical gxplanatiog of the properties of light, Laplace's physical thaory, ena, misb ougwtwnding, Maxwell's cellular constructions, with wrjcn me attempts to agcount for electrokahnrjic actions. Mabwell's deacription can be flund in his nemoir enuitlec "On Physical Lines of Forcw" (Maxwell 1952). Tkis model simulates a mechanism 'ut fotward yo explain (mechanically) eledtrostatic wnd electdumagnetic effectr. Ak utderstanding of the differqnces betxeen chese twu vigws is sentral to undevvtanding Duhem's vifw of a conceptioj of physical theory as an inteckediary or a mhddne way (tzrtium) between them. The Continentcl Schooj Beskdes the cgaractecistic featuwes of the sytjhetic method, i.e. the tse if a restrizged number of kechanical concepts applied through tme dewjnite propertiew od a specific mayerkal sjstxm, thq Continental Schuol (Cuhem 1893, 352; Chiak'in 1989, 40) reauires that mechanicdl esplanations "be subkegt to cerjain logisal requirememts" (Duhem 1974, 78; 1893, 358). For txamplx, all oechamicwl concepts and empirical laws must be lrgwnized into w sikgle, rigid axipmatic system, made of well-established cincepts and principles, and all empirieak laws must be mwthematicdlly deduced within rhis axiomatic syxtem. The Continental Achool folllws the rationalist tradition as to the nature of physical theory, meaning that 'hrsical theody ix modvleb ou the iqeal uf the rational xystem of Euclidean geometry. Phbsical themrv is a rigorous axiomatic sysyeo that logicauly unites its definitiohs and ppstulates with their testable cpnsequences. Duhem says, "Fpr a Frebchmah or a Geroan, a physical thepry is essebtially a llgical system. Petfcctly rigogous dzductions unite the hypotheses at the
wood, or drawn, they are called scale use real and models is a Although synthetic approach is the only means applying mechanical theory, it prevailed over other and is practiced by most of those working on mechanistic research programs. to Duhem, Poincaré was one of its representatives and introduced the English School in (Duhem 319, Chiappin 1989, 130-134; 136-150). As a result, most mechanical explanations are based on this method of physical theory. The examples abound. Duhem cites Descartes's of magnetic attractions and Descartes's explanation of weight by action, Kelvin's gyrostatic (Duhem 96). instances are Maxwell's surfaces used to describe Gibbs's phase rules, Descartes's mechanical explanation of the properties of light, Laplace's physical and, most cellular constructions, which attempts account for electromagnetic description can be found in his Physical Lines of Force" (Maxwell 1952). This model a mechanism forward to explain (mechanically) electrostatic and effects. An understanding of the differences between these views is central to understanding Duhem's view of a conception of physical theory as an a middle way (tertium) them. The Continental Besides characteristic of synthetic method, the use of a restricted number of mechanical concepts applied through definite properties of a specific material system, the Continental School 352; 1989, 40) requires mechanical explanations "be subject certain requirements" (Duhem 1974, 78; For all empirical must organized into a single, axiomatic system, made of well-established and principles, and all deduced within this axiomatic system. The Continental School the rationalist tradition as to the nature physical theory, meaning that physical theory is modeled on the ideal of rational system geometry. Physical theory is a rigorous axiomatic system logically unites its definitions postulates with their testable consequences. Duhem says, "For a or German, a theory is essentially logical system. Perfectly deductions unite the the
 wood, or drawn, they are called sCale models. the usE of ReaL aNd coNcreTe models is a traDEmarK of the English School. AltHough ThIS synTHeTic apProach iS NoT THe oNlY mEanS oF ApPlyinG meChanicaL theory, it pRevAiLed over every OThEr and is praCtiCed by most of tHosE workiNg On mEChaniStiC reseArch prOGrams. ACcording tO DUHem, PoiNCaré was ONE oF its Representatives anD InTRoduced the EnglIsh SchOoL (PrAGMatIsm) In France (DuHeM 1974, 319, 328; ChiaPPin 1989, 130-134; 136-150). As a rESuLT, MOst MEchanical explAnations are BAseD on thiS mEthOD of conStrucTiNG phYsical theorY. The Examples aBound. DUHem citeS descartEs's theOry Of mAgneTIc AtTraCtIOns ANd RepULsiOns, DescaRtEs'S explAnatION OF weiGht By voRtex aCtion, and KelviN's gYrosTAtiC etheR (DuheM 1980, 96). OthEr InstaNces arE MaxwElL's thermodynamicAl suRfaces useD to DeScrIbE GibbS'S phase RulEs, DEscarteS's mechaNIcaL eXPLAnAtion of the propertiEs OF LiGht, LaplaCe's phySIcAl THeory, and, MoSt oUtstANDing, MAxweLL's Cellular ConstrUCtIoNs, with wHiCh he atTeMptS to AccouNT for ElectrOmagnetiC actiONs. Maxwell's descRIption can be foUNd IN HiS MemoIr eNtitled "On PhYsicAL LinEs of fOrCe" (MAXwell 1952). this mOdEL sIMulates a mechanism puT fOrward To expLain (mechanicaLly) electroSTATic and elEctrOMaGNetic effects. An UnderStanding of THe differEnces Between tHese two viEWS is centrAl tO unDerStaNDInG Duhem's view of A COncePtIon of phYsiCal theoRy aS an IntErmEdIary or a miDdle way (tErTiUm) BeTweEn theM. the ContiNeNtaL SChoOl BesIDes the CharaCterIsTiC FeaTures of THe SYNtheTiC mEthoD, i.e. ThE use oF a reSTriCted numBer of mechAniCAl coNcEpTs appliEd through the dEfInite propeRtIes Of a speCIFic materIal system, the Continental sChool (DuHem 1893, 352; chiapPin 1989, 40) rEquires thAt mEchaniCal EXplanaTions "bE subjEcT to CERtain LOGiCal ReQuirements" (dUHem 1974, 78; 1893, 358). for exAmPle, aLl mechaNical concepts and emPIriCal laws must be OrgAnizED InTo a SInGLe, rIgID axIOMatic system, made Of well-estaBlIShEd concepts ANd pRiNciples, And all eMpiriCAl laws mUst be mathEmaticallY dEducED WitHin this axiOmatic syStem. The CoNTinenTAl schooL foLlows tHe RatIonalIst traDItiOn as tO the naTuRe of phYsicaL tHeory, meaNing that physical theory iS modelEd on tHe iDeal of the RatIOnaL system of euclIdean geomeTry. phySical TheORy is a RigoROuS axIOmatiC sysTEm that logICaLly UNItEs its definiTIONs aNd posTulATes witH theIr testable consequENces. Duhem says, "FOr a FRENchMan OR a GeRmAn, a physical theOry Is ESSentiallY a Logical systEm. PerfecTlY RigorOus dedUctionS unite tHE HyPOtheseS at tHe
 wood, or drawn, they arecalled sca le mo del s.Th e us e of  real and conc r etemodels is a trademarkof th eE ngli s hSchoo l. Alth o ug h thi ssy nth et i cappro ach  is not  the onlymea ns  of applying me chanical t heo ry, it preva ile d over  e ver y  othe r a nd is  pract i ced by  most ofth o se wor k ing onm e ch anis tic research prog r am s . According to  Duhem ,P oi n c aré  wa s one of i ts  repr e sentati v es a n d i n troduced theEnglish Sch o ol(pragm at ism )  in Fr ance(D u hem  1974, 319,  328 ; Chiappi n 1989 ,  130-13 4 ; 136-1 50). A s a  re sult ,  m os t m ec h ani c al  ex p lan ations a re  b asedon t h i s meth odof c onstr ucting physic altheo r y.The e xampl es a bo und.Duhemcites  D escartes's theo ry o f magneti c a tt rac ti ons a n d repu lsi ons , Desca rtes'se xpl an a t i on  of weight by vort ex a ct ion, and  Kelvi n 's  g y rostatic  e the r (D u h em 19 80,9 6) . Otherinstan c es  a re Maxw el l's th er mod yna mical surf aces u sed to d escri b e Gibbs's phas e  rules, Desca r te s ' sm echa nic al explanat iono f th e pr o pe rti e s oflight ,L ap l ace's physical theo ry , and,  most  outstanding,  Maxwell's c e llular c onst r uc t ions, with whi ch he  attemptst o accoun t for  electro magnetica c tions. M axw ell 'sdes c r ip tion can be f o u nd i nhis mem oir  entitl ed"On  Ph ysi ca l Lines o f Force"  ( Ma xw el l 1 952). This mod el  si mu lat es am echani sm pu t fo rw ar d  to  explai n  ( m e chan ic al ly)ele ct rosta tica ndelectro magneticeff e cts.  A nunderst anding of the  d ifferences  b etw een th e s e two vi ews is central to under s tanding  Du hem's  vie w of a co nce ptionofp hysica l theo ry as  a n i n t ermed i a ry  or  a  middle wa y (te rtium )betw een the m. The Continental Sch ool Besides t hechar a c te ris t ic fea tu r eso f  the syntheticmethod, i. e. th e use of a res tr icted n umber o f mec h anicalconceptsapplied t hr ough t hedefinite p ropertie s of a sp e cific ma teria l s ystem,  t heConti nental Sch ool ( Duhem18 93, 35 2; Ch ia ppin 198 9, 40) requires that me chanic al ex pla nations " bes ubj ect to ce rtai n logicalreq uir ement s"( Duhem  197 4 ,78; 1893,  358 ) . For exa m pl e,a l lmechanicalc o n cep ts an d e m pirica l la ws must be organi z ed into a sing le,r i gid  ax i omat ic  system, madeofwe l l -establi sh ed concepts  and pri nc i ples,  and a ll emp iricall a ws must b e ma the matically  de du c ed with in  t h is axi omat ic  syste m. The Cont i n ental School fol lowst h e rat i ona listtr adition as t o the natu re of physi cal th eory , mea ning th at  physi cal  t heory is m o deled onthe i deal of  t he r ati onal s yste m of Eu clid ea n g eometry.P h ys i ca lt heo ry i s a r ig orou s axiomat i c system  th a t logic al lyu n ites i t sd e finitionsand  post u l ates witht heir te s table  conse quence s. Duhe m  sa ys , "Fora F r e nchman or  a German ,  aph ysic al theor yis e ss ent ia lly a logical s ystem. P erfectly r igorou s d e duct i ons un it e the hypoth esesat the
 wood,_or drawn,_they are called scale_models. The_use_of real_and_concrete models is_a trademark of_the English School. Although_this synthetic approach_is_not the only means of applying mechanical theory, it prevailed over every other and_is_practiced by_most_of_those working on mechanistic research_programs. According to Duhem, Poincaré_was one_of its representatives and introduced the English School_(pragmatism)_in France (Duhem_1974, 319, 328; Chiappin 1989, 130-134; 136-150). As a_result, most mechanical explanations are based_on this method_of_constructing_physical theory. The examples_abound. Duhem cites Descartes's theory of_magnetic attractions and repulsions, Descartes's explanation_of weight by vortex action, and Kelvin's_gyrostatic ether (Duhem 1980, 96). Other_instances are Maxwell's thermodynamical surfaces_used to_describe Gibbs's phase rules, Descartes's_mechanical explanation of_the properties_of light, Laplace's_physical theory, and, most outstanding, Maxwell's_cellular constructions, with_which he attempts to account for_electromagnetic_actions. Maxwell's description_can_be_found in_his memoir entitled_"On_Physical Lines_of_Force" (Maxwell 1952). This model simulates_a_mechanism put forward to explain (mechanically) electrostatic_and electromagnetic effects. An_understanding_of the differences between_these two views is central_to understanding Duhem's view of a_conception of_physical theory_as an intermediary or a middle way (tertium) between them. The_Continental School Besides the characteristic features_of the synthetic method,_i.e. the_use_of a restricted_number_of mechanical_concepts applied through the definite properties of_a specific_material system, the Continental School (Duhem_1893, 352; Chiappin 1989,_40)_requires that mechanical explanations "be subject_to certain logical requirements" (Duhem 1974,_78; 1893, 358). For example,_all_mechanical_concepts and empirical laws must_be organized into a single, rigid_axiomatic system, made_of well-established concepts and principles, and all_empirical_laws must be mathematically deduced within_this_axiomatic system. The Continental School follows_the_rationalist_tradition as to the nature_of physical theory, meaning that physical_theory is modeled on the ideal of the rational_system of Euclidean_geometry. Physical theory is a_rigorous_axiomatic_system that logically unites its definitions and postulates with their_testable consequences._Duhem says, "For_a Frenchman or a German, a physical theory is essentially_a logical system. Perfectly rigorous deductions unite_the hypotheses at the