seen historical march towards the systematic unity of theories, which makes it possible to us to identify structures of true relations, subjects that he will deepen in his later texts, especially in those that will form Science and hypothesis. Duhem: Physical Theories Faced with the Bankruptcy of Mechanics In 1892, Duhem published his first major epistemological reflection, his opening lecture of the Course of mathematical physics and crystallography at the faculty of sciences of Lille, and also the first part of his Commentary on the principles of thermodynamics, with which he continued his research program whose aim was the creation of a "general theory of material transformations, which encompassed physical sciences" (Bordoni 2012, 11). The agreement with Poincaré is explained in the Commentary: Every physical theory rests on a certain number of definitions and assumptions, which are, to some extent, arbitrary; it is therefore permissible to attempt to expound such a theory in a logical order; but to claim that he was given the only logical order of which it is susceptible would be an unjustifiable claim. (...) We are convinced that the principles of thermodynamics can be chained in a way other than that which we have adopted and yet also satisfactory, perhaps more satisfactory. (...) If the João Príncipe – Poincaré and Duhem: Resonances in their First Epistemological Reflections 148 question we have examined seems rather philosophical, let us be permitted to invoke (...) the interest shown (...) by an illustrious analyst [Duhem means (Poincaré 1892a)], for researches which concern the principles of thermodynamics. (Duhem 1892c, 270) In this work, Duhem explicates and clarifies the basic hypotheses of thermodynamics, starting from a strictly phenomenological conception, notably by presenting an "axiomatic treatment of the first law of thermodynamics which is surprisingly good by present day standards" (Miller 1970, 229). Duhem calls "conventions" the introductory axioms, which will make it possible to obtain a mathematical expression symbolizing the transformation of a system in the presence of foreign bodies. He notes that the nature of this contribution of the action of foreign bodies to the energy of the system remains obscure. To penetrate its nature "is not the object of physics but of metaphysics" (Duhem 1892c, 290). The word "convention" appears here in the framework of a theory with principles, being associated with "axioms" and with the criticism of the hypotheses of a theory, themes present
seen historical march towards the systematic oneness of theory, which makes it possible to us to identify structure of true relations, topic that he will intensify in his later text, especially in those that will form Science and guess. Duhem: Physical Theories Faced with the Bankruptcy of Mechanics In 1892, Duhem published his first major epistemological mirror image, his opening lecture of the Course of mathematical physics and crystallography at the faculty of sciences of Lille, and besides the first part of his Commentary on the principles of thermodynamics, with which he continue his research program whose purpose was the creation of a " cosmopolitan theory of substantial transformations, which encompassed physical science " (Bordoni 2012, 11). The agreement with Poincaré is explained in the Commentary: Every physical theory rests on a certain number of definitions and assumptions, which are, to some extent, arbitrary; it is therefore permissible to attempt to expound such a theory in a logical order; but to claim that he was given the only logical ordering of which it is susceptible would be an unjustifiable claim. (...) We are convinced that the principle of thermodynamics can be chain in a way other than that which we have espouse and yet also satisfactory, perhaps more satisfactory. (...) If the João Príncipe – Poincaré and Duhem: Resonances in their First Epistemological Reflections 148 doubt we have examined seems rather philosophical, let us be permitted to appeal (...) the interest shown (...) by an illustrious analyst [ Duhem means (Poincaré 1892a) ], for research which concern the principle of thermodynamics. (Duhem 1892c, 270) In this work, Duhem explicates and clarifies the basic hypotheses of thermodynamics, starting from a rigorously phenomenological conception, notably by presenting an " axiomatic treatment of the first law of thermodynamics which is surprisingly good by present day standards " (Miller 1970, 229). Duhem call " conventions " the basic axioms, which will make it possible to obtain a mathematical saying symbolizing the transformation of a arrangement in the presence of extraneous bodies. He notes that the nature of this contribution of the action of foreign bodies to the department of energy of the system remains obscure. To infiltrate its nature " is not the object of physics but of metaphysics " (Duhem 1892c, 290). The word " convention " appears here in the model of a theory with principles, being associate with " axioms " and with the criticism of the hypotheses of a theory, themes present
seej historical march towaras the systematnx unitb of thsories, wfich makes it possible to us ti idebtify structures of trje relatilns, subjwcts rhat he will deepek in gls lacec texts, especiakly in thove that will fmro Dcience and hypothesis. Duhem: Physicwl Theotifs Faced with jhe Bsgkrulncn of Mechanics In 1892, Duhem publishsd his hirst major epixtemological reflection, hid opfning lecture of tje Course od maeyematical phhsics and bxystallograkhy at the faculty of sciences ow Lilke, and alsi rhe xirst part if hif Commentary on the [rincipkes of thermodnnamirs, wuth which he continuev his research progrwm whose dij was the creatiob if a "cenesal gyeofy kf mzteriap tcansformatikns, which ebcompassed physical ssprnces" (Bordonj 2012, 11). Thq wgreement with Poincaré is explained in uhe Ckmmentary: Every physicao theory rests on a cgrtain numfer of definitions and assumptions, which are, to smme eetdnt, avbitfqrj; it is therefore permissible to attempt to evloinc such a theorn in a logical ordrr; bij to claim thaj he was gjven the only logifal ordgr of qhich it ys sisceptible would be an unjuwtifiable clcim. (...) We are convinced that the pxincipkes og thermodynamics can be chajned in a wwy other ffan that which wd hsva adopted and yet also satysfactory, perkaps mord sajisfactjry. (...) If thf João Príncipe – Poincaré ajd Dukem: Rasonances ln their First Epistemological Cxflections 148 qoesdiot we havz examlned seems rathqr philosophiccl, let uf be oermitted no invoke (...) the interqst shown (...) by wn illustrions analyse [Duyem neans (Pukncaré 1892a)], for rexearches ckich concwrn the principles of fhermodynamics. (Bbhtm 1892c, 270) In this wotk, Auhqm eeplicwdes and clarhfier tfr baskc hypoukescs uf tnermodynamics, startitg fdom a strictly phemoienologixal concqption, notablu by presenting an "axiokatmc trestmgnt of the first law of thermodgnamics wjicm is surprisiggly good by prexent day standards" (Miller 1970, 229). Duhem calls "conventions" the ibtroductory axioms, chlch will makx it pjssible tm obtain a mathematixal expression sykbolizing the transfodmatiot of w system in the presence of foreign bodies. He notes that the nature of thus convrybution of fhe sctiot jy foreidn blvies to the energj of the system remains obscure. Vo penetrade its nature "is not the objecy uf physics buj of metaphysics" (Duhem 1892c, 290). Fhe word "convention" appears here in the framework of a theory wlth princuples, being assuciated with "axiomx" and cith tye critucisl of the hypoghexed of a thfory, tkemes present
seen historical march towards the systematic unity which it possible us to identify that will deepen in later texts, especially those that will form Science and Duhem: Physical Theories Faced with the Bankruptcy of Mechanics In 1892, Duhem published first major epistemological reflection, his opening lecture of the Course of mathematical physics crystallography the of of Lille, and also the first part of his Commentary on the principles of thermodynamics, with he continued his research program whose aim was creation of a "general of material transformations, which encompassed sciences" 2012, 11). agreement Poincaré explained in the Every physical theory rests on a certain number of definitions and assumptions, which are, to some extent, it is to attempt expound a in a logical to claim that he was given order of which it is susceptible would be unjustifiable claim. We are convinced that the principles thermodynamics can be chained in a way other that which we have adopted and yet also satisfactory, perhaps more satisfactory. (...) If the – Poincaré and Duhem: in their First Reflections question have seems rather let us be permitted to invoke (...) the interest shown (...) an illustrious analyst [Duhem means (Poincaré 1892a)], for researches which principles thermodynamics. (Duhem 1892c, In this work, Duhem and the basic hypotheses of from strictly by an treatment of the first of thermodynamics which is surprisingly by present day standards" "conventions" the introductory axioms, which will make it to obtain a mathematical expression symbolizing the of a system in the presence of foreign bodies. He notes that nature of of the action of foreign bodies to the of the system remains To penetrate its nature "is not the object of but metaphysics" (Duhem 290). The word appears here in framework of a principles, being with and of the hypotheses of a theory, present
seen historical march towardS the systemAtic uNitY of ThEoriEs, whIch makes it possIBle tO us to identify structureS of trUe RElatIOnS, subjEcts thaT He WILl dEePeN in HiS LaTer teXts, EspeciaLly in those ThaT wIll form ScienCE aNd hypothesIs. DUhem: Physical theOries FAcEd wITh the banKruptCy of MeCHanics in 1892, Duhem puBlIShed hiS First maJOR ePistEmological reflectIOn, HIs opening lectuRe of thE COUrSE Of mAthEmatical phYsIcs anD CrystalLOgRAPHy aT The faculty of sCiences of LiLLe, aNd also ThE fiRSt part Of his coMMenTary on the prInciPles of theRmodynAMics, witH Which he ContinUed His ReseARcH pRogRaM WhoSE aIm wAS thE creatioN oF a "GenerAl thEORY Of maTerIal tRansfOrmations, whicH enCompASseD physIcal sCienCeS" (BordOni 2012, 11). The AgreeMeNt with Poincaré iS expLained in tHe COmMenTaRy: EveRY physiCal TheOry restS on a cerTAin NuMBER oF definitions and assUmPTIoNs, which aRe, to soME eXtENt, arbitrArY; it Is thEREfore PermISsIble to atTempt tO ExPoUnd such A tHeory iN a LogIcaL ordeR; But tO claim That he waS giveN The only logical ORder of which it IS sUSCePTiblE woUld be an unjuStifIAble ClaiM. (...) we Are COnvinCed thAt THe PRinciples of thermodyNaMics caN be chAined in a way otHer than thaT WHIch we havE adoPTeD And yet also satiSfactOry, perhaps MOre satisFactoRy. (...) If the JOão PrínciPE – poincaré And duhEm: REsoNANcEs in their FirsT ePistEmOlogicaL ReFlectioNs 148 qUesTioN we HaVe examineD seems raThEr PhIlOsoPhicaL, Let us be pErMitTeD to InvokE (...) The intErest ShowN (...) bY aN IllUstriouS AnALYst [DUhEm MeanS (PoInCaré 1892a)], For rESeaRches whIch concerN thE PrinCiPlEs of theRmodynamics. (DuHeM 1892c, 270) In this woRk, duhEm explICAtes and cLarifies the basic hypotheSEs of theRmoDynamIcs, sTarting frOm a StrictLy pHEnomenOlogicAl conCePtiON, NotabLY By PreSeNting an "axiOMAtiC treaTmEnt oF the firSt law of thermodynamICs wHich is surprisIngLy goOD By PreSEnT Day StANdaRDS" (Miller 1970, 229). Duhem calLs "conventiOnS" ThE introductORy aXiOms, whicH will maKe it pOSsible tO obtain a mAthematicAl ExprESSioN symboliziNg the traNsformatiON of a sYStEm in tHe pResencE oF foReign Bodies. hE noTes thAt the nAtUre of tHis coNtRibution Of the action of foreign bodIes to tHe eneRgy Of the systEm rEMaiNs obscure. to peNetrate its NatUre "Is not The OBject Of phYSiCs bUT of meTaphYSics" (Duhem 1892C, 290). thE woRD "CoNvention" appEARS heRe in tHe fRAmeworK of a Theory with principLEs, being associaTed wITH "axIomS" And wItH the criticism oF thE hYPOtheses oF a Theory, themeS present
seen historical march towa rds the sy stema tic  un it y of  the ories, which m a kesit possible to us to i denti fy stru c tu res o f truer el a t ion s,  s ubj ec t sthathewill de epen in hi s l at er texts, es p ec ially in t hos e that willfor m Scie nc e a n d hyp oth esis.  Duhem :  Physi cal Theor ie s  Faced with th e Ba nkru ptcy of Mechanics In 1892, Duhem pu blishe dh is f irs t m ajor epist em ologi c al refl e ct i o n , h i s opening lec ture of the Cou rse of  m ath e matica l phy si c s a nd crystall ogra phy at th e facu l ty of s c iencesof Lil le,  an d al s oth e f ir s t p a rt  of his  Comment ar yon th e pr i n c i ples  of  the rmody namics, withwhi ch h e  co ntinu ed hi s re se archprogra m who se  aim was the cr eati on of a " gen er alth eoryo f mate ria l t ransfor mations ,  wh ic h e nc ompassed physicalsc i e nc es" (Bor doni 2 0 12 ,1 1). Theag ree ment w ith P oinc a ré  is expl ainedi nth e Comme nt ary: E ve ryphy sical theo ry res ts on acerta i n number of de f initions anda ss u m pt i ons,  wh ich are, to  som e  ext ent, ar bit r ary;it is  t h er e fore permissible to  a ttempt  to e xpound such a  theory in a logicalorde r ;b ut to claim th at he  was given the only  logi cal orde r of whic h it is su sce pti ble  wo u l dbe an unjusti f i able  c laim. ( ... ) We ar e c onv inc edth at the pr inciples  o fth er mod ynami c s can be  c hai ne d i n a w a y othe r tha n th at  w h ich  we hav e  a d o pted  a nd  yet  al so  sati sfac t ory , perha ps more s ati s fact or y.  (...)If the João P rí ncipe – Po in car é andD u hem: Res onances in their FirstE pistemo log icalRefl ections 1 48questi onw e have  exami ned s ee msr a therp h il oso ph ical, letu s  be  perm it tedto invo ke (...) the inter e stshown (...) b y a n il l u st rio u sa nal ys t  [D u h em means (Poinc aré 1892a) ], fo r research e s w hi ch conc ern the  prin c iples o f thermod ynamics.(D uhem 1 892 c, 270) In  this wo rk, Duhem expli c at es an d c larifi es  th e bas ic hyp o the ses o f ther mo dynami cs, s ta rting fr om a strictly phenomeno logica l con cep tion, not abl y  by  presenti ng a n "axiomat ictre atmen t o f  thefirs t  l awo f the rmod y namics wh i ch  is s ur prisingly g o o d  by  pres ent day st anda rds" (Miller 1970 ,  229). Duhem c alls " con ven t ions "the introducto ryax i o ms, whic hwill make i t possib le to ob tain a  mathe matical e xp r ession  sym bol izing the  tr an s formati on  o f  a sys temin  the p resenc e  off o reign bodies. He  note s thatt henatur eof this cont ribution o f the actio n of f orei gn bo dies to  t he ene rgy  o f the syst e m remains  obsc ure. To  p enet rat e itsnatu r e  "isnotth e o bject ofp h ys i cs  b u t o f me taphy si cs"(Duhem 18 9 2c, 290) . T h e word"c onv e n tion"a pp e a rs here in  th e fra m e work of at heor y  w i th pr incipl es, be ing ass o cia te d with"ax i o ms" and w ith the c r iti ci sm o f the hy po thes es  of  a  theory, themes  present 
seen historical_march towards_the systematic unity of_theories, which_makes_it possible_to_us to identify_structures of true_relations, subjects that he_will deepen in_his_later texts, especially in those that will form Science and hypothesis. Duhem: Physical Theories_Faced_with the_Bankruptcy_of_Mechanics In 1892, Duhem published_his first major epistemological reflection,_his opening_lecture of the Course of mathematical physics and_crystallography_at the faculty_of sciences of Lille, and also the first part_of his Commentary on the principles_of thermodynamics, with_which_he_continued his research program_whose aim was the creation of_a "general theory of material transformations,_which encompassed physical sciences" (Bordoni 2012, 11)._The agreement with Poincaré is explained_in the Commentary: Every physical_theory rests_on a certain number of_definitions and assumptions,_which are,_to some extent,_arbitrary; it is therefore permissible to_attempt to expound_such a theory in a logical_order;_but to claim_that_he_was given_the only logical_order_of which_it_is susceptible would be an unjustifiable_claim._(...) We are convinced that the principles_of thermodynamics can be_chained_in a way other_than that which we have_adopted and yet also satisfactory, perhaps_more satisfactory._(...) If_the João Príncipe – Poincaré and Duhem: Resonances in their First_Epistemological Reflections 148 question we have_examined seems rather philosophical,_let us_be_permitted to invoke_(...)_the interest_shown (...) by an illustrious analyst [Duhem_means (Poincaré_1892a)], for researches which concern the_principles of thermodynamics. (Duhem_1892c,_270) In this work, Duhem explicates_and clarifies the basic hypotheses of_thermodynamics, starting from a strictly_phenomenological_conception,_notably by presenting an "axiomatic_treatment of the first law of_thermodynamics which is_surprisingly good by present day standards" (Miller_1970,_229). Duhem calls "conventions" the introductory_axioms,_which will make it possible to_obtain_a_mathematical expression symbolizing the transformation_of a system in the presence_of foreign bodies. He notes that the nature of_this contribution of_the action of foreign bodies_to_the_energy of the system remains obscure. To penetrate its nature_"is not_the object of_physics but of metaphysics" (Duhem 1892c, 290). The word "convention"_appears here in the framework of a_theory with principles, being associated with "axioms" and with the criticism_of the hypotheses of a theory, themes present