 the relativist might ask, what moral truths could possibly have this kind of universal application? This problem is especially serious if we think of morality as a collection of simple rules, such as 'Do not steal', 'Do not kill', and so on. It just doesn't seem credible that rules like this could really apply to all people at all times. Indeed, we can all think of contexts or circumstances in which rules like this have exceptions. Take 'Do not steal', for instance. This seems like a pretty good moral rule as applied to you or I standing in a clothes shop thinking about shoplifting. But if someone were lost and starving in the wilderness, and she came across an empty and deserted cabin, would it really be wrong for her to go inside and take a tin of beans from the cupboard, if this would save her life? We might say: the moral rule 'Do not steal' doesn't apply to a starving person out in the wilderness, even though it does apply to us in a clothes shop. Or that it's true for us, but not true for her. And that, presumably, is moral relativism. 7 Here's another example of the same kind of thing. Suppose that you visit a distant culture, and you find out that they practice cannibalism. Not just that: you find out that they eat their own parents. (They don't kill their parents; they just eat them once they're already dead.) Pretty horrifying, right? If you asked around in our culture, I'd expect that almost everyone would agree that eating your own dead parents is morally wrong. But suppose that, as you get to know these people better, you also come to understand more about this practice. You learn that, for them, eating someone is a sign of enormous respect. You find out that they believe that by eating someone, by literally taking their flesh into your body, you enable them to live on through you, and you give them further life. You see that this is something they do as part of their funeral ceremonies, and that it has great cultural and emotional significance for them. Eventually, you're not quite so horrified by it. (I don't mean it's something you'd think about doing yourself-just that you can start to understand a bit why they do it.) Now, consider the following abstract moral question: 'Is it morally permissible to eat your own dead parents?' Well, it depends. In the context of our cultural beliefs and ideas, it almost certainly is wrong (
the relativist might ask, what moral truths could possibly have this kind of universal lotion? This trouble is specially serious if we remember of ethical motive as a collection of simple rules, such as' Do not steal',' Do not stamp out', and so on. It merely doesn't seem credible that rules like this could very apply to all people at all time. Indeed, we can all think of contexts or circumstances in which rules like this have exception. Take' Do not steal', for instance. This seems like a reasonably good moral rule as enforce to you or I stand in a clothes shop thinking about shoplifting. But if someone were lost and starve in the wilderness, and she came across an empty and deserted cabin, would it really be wrong for her to go inwardly and take a tin of beans from the cupboard, if this would save her life? We might say: the moral rule' Do not steal' doesn't apply to a starving person out in the wilderness, even though it does apply to us in a apparel workshop. Or that it's true for us, but not on-key for her. And that, presumably, is moral relativism. 7 Here's another case of the same kind of thing. Suppose that you chew the fat a distant culture, and you find out that they practice cannibalism. Not barely that: you find out that they eat their own parents. (They don't kill their parents; they just consume them once they're already dead .) Pretty horrifying, right? If you ask around in our culture, I'd ask that almost everyone would agree that eating your own dead parents is morally faulty. But suppose that, as you get to know these people better, you also come to understand more about this exercise. You learn that, for them, eating someone is a sign of enormous respect. You find out that they think that by eating someone, by literally taking their flesh into your body, you enable them to know on through you, and you give them further life sentence. You see that this is something they do as part of their funeral ceremonies, and that it has bang-up cultural and emotional meaning for them. Eventually, you're not quite so horrified by it. (I don't mean it's something you'd think about do yourself - merely that you can start to understand a spot why they do it .) Now, consider the following abstract moral question:' Is it morally permissible to eat your own all in parents?' Well, it depends. In the context of our cultural beliefs and ideas, it almost certainly is wrong (
 thf relativist might ask, wmat moral truths could 'ossiblg have tfis kind of universal applicetiob? Thiw problem is especiallh serious if we tyink if moralitb as a collectjln oy wimple rules, soch as 'Do nod steal', 'Do not kklp', and so on. It just doesn't seem creqible tnah rules like tris botld dvaoly apply to all people at alm times. Indeed, we cam all think of contexts or cirfumstances in whicj rules likg thyw have excepgions. Take 'Do not steam', for instance. This seems like x precty good motco rkne as applixd to jou or I standing in d clothrs shop thinkikg abmut shoplifting. But if smmeone were lost agd starvitg in the wildernesw, qnd sve cdme xxrors zn ejpty ajd veserted cagin, would ir really be wrong fpr yer to go insjde anq eake a tin of beans from the cupboard, ix tgis would save her life? We might say: the morwl rule 'Dj not steal' doesn't apply to a starving person out in tie wiodcrnerw, fven though it does apply to us in a clothes fgok. Og that it's true fjr us, but npt ttoe for her. And that, 'deaumably, is moral rflativifm. 7 Hwre's anotrer rxample of the same kind of thing. Suppofw that you visit a distant cuuturg, and uou find out that they 'ractide canniballsm. Not jhrt that: you find oun thdt they txt their own paregts. (They von't lill thdir karents; they just eat bvem once they're algeady daad.) Pretty horrifying, right? If you asked ecound in our vuntuge, I'd expzct thst almost evewyone would agtee that zating your own sead pacents is morwlly wrong. Bud suppose thav, as you det ro kbow therd people bettet, you also come to ynderstand more abput fhis practice. Yiu oearn that, for yheo, ewtpng sjkeone is a shgn uf dmormojs resptet. Nou finc out that they beliave fhat by eating somroke, by litgrally tahing their flrsh into your body, you xnable them to live on through you, and you gjve them vurbher life. You see that this ix something they do as part of their fuieral ceremonies, and thqt it has great culjursl and emotmonal fignificatce for them. Eventuaoly, you're not quiue so horrified by it. (I don't kean lt's something you'd think about doing yourself-just that you can start to ubderstenq a bit why theu do pt.) Uow, consiqer vhx following abstrsct moral question: 'Is it morallb permissitlz to eat your own dead parentx?' Dell, it depenas. In the context of our culturak beliefs and ideas, it almost crrtainly is wrong (
the relativist might ask, what moral truths have kind of application? This problem think morality as a of simple rules, as 'Do not steal', 'Do not and so on. It just doesn't seem credible that rules like this could apply to all people at all times. Indeed, we can all think of or in rules this have exceptions. Take 'Do not steal', for instance. This seems like a pretty good moral as applied to you or I standing in clothes shop thinking about But if someone were lost starving the wilderness, she across empty and deserted would it really be wrong for her to go inside and take a tin of beans from cupboard, if save her We say: moral rule 'Do doesn't apply to a starving person wilderness, even though it does apply to us a clothes Or that it's true for us, not true for her. And that, presumably, is relativism. 7 Here's another example of the same kind of thing. Suppose that you visit culture, and you find that they practice Not that: find that they their own parents. (They don't kill their parents; they just eat once they're already dead.) Pretty horrifying, right? If you asked our I'd expect that everyone would agree that your dead parents is morally suppose as know people you also come to more about this practice. You that, for them, eating enormous respect. You find out that they believe by eating someone, by literally taking their into your body, you enable them to live on through you, and give them You see that this is something they do part of their funeral and that it has great cultural and emotional significance them. you're not so horrified by (I don't mean something you'd think yourself-just that can to why they do it.) Now, consider following moral question: 'Is it morally to own dead parents?' Well, it depends. In the context of our cultural beliefs and ideas, certainly is wrong (
 the relativist might ask, what Moral truthS coulD poSsiBlY havE thiS kind of universAL appLication? This problem is eSpeciAlLY serIOuS if we Think of MOrALIty As A cOllEcTIoN of siMplE rules, sUch as 'Do not SteAl', 'do not kill', and SO oN. It just doeSn't Seem credible ThaT rules LiKe tHIs couLd rEally Apply tO All peoPle at all tImES. IndeeD, We can alL THiNk of Contexts or circumsTAnCEs in which rules Like thIs HAvE EXcePtiOns. Take 'Do nOt Steal', FOr instaNCe. tHIS seEMs like a pretty Good moral ruLE as ApplieD tO yoU Or I staNding In A CloThes shop thiNkinG about shoPliftiNG. But if sOMeone weRe lost And StaRvinG In ThE wiLdERneSS, aNd sHE caMe across An EmPty anD desERTED cabIn, wOuld It reaLly be wrong for Her To go INsiDe and Take a Tin oF bEans fRom the CupboArD, if this would savE her Life? We migHt sAy: The MoRal ruLE 'Do not SteAl' dOesn't apPly to a sTArvInG PERsOn out in the wilderneSs, EVEn Though it Does apPLy To US in a clotHeS shOp. Or THAt it's True FOr Us, but not True foR HeR. ANd that, pReSumablY, iS moRal RelatIVism. 7 here's aNother exAmple OF the same kind of THing. Suppose thAT yOU ViSIt a dIstAnt culture, aNd yoU Find Out tHAt TheY PractIce caNnIBaLIsm. Not just that: you fiNd Out thaT they Eat their own paRents. (They dON'T Kill theiR parENtS; They just eat theM once They're alreADy dead.) PrEtty hOrrifyinG, right? If yOU Asked aroUnd In oUr cUltURE, I'D expect that alMOSt evErYone wouLd aGree thaT eaTinG yoUr oWn Dead parenTs is moraLlY wRoNg. but SuppoSE that, as yOu Get To KnoW thesE People BetteR, you AlSo COme To underSTaND More AbOuT thiS prAcTice. YOu leARn tHat, for tHem, eating SomEOne iS a SiGn of enoRmous respect. YOu Find out thaT tHey BelievE THat by eatIng someone, by literally taKIng theiR flEsh inTo yoUr body, you EnaBle theM to LIve on tHrough You, anD yOu gIVE them FURtHer LiFe. You see thAT ThiS is soMeThinG they do As part of their funerAL ceRemonies, and thAt iT has GREaT cuLTuRAl aNd EMotIONal significance For them. EveNtUAlLy, you're not QUitE sO horrifIed by it. (i don't MEan it's sOmething yOu'd think aBoUt doING yoUrself-just That you cAn start to UNdersTAnD a bit Why They do It.) now, ConsiDer the FOllOwing AbstraCt Moral qUestiOn: 'is it moraLly permissible to eat your Own deaD pareNts?' well, it depEndS. in tHe context Of ouR cultural bEliEfs And idEas, IT almoSt ceRTaInlY Is wroNg (
 the relativist might ask,  what mora l tru ths  co ul d po ssib ly have this k i nd o f universal applicatio n? Th is prob l em  is e special l ys e rio us  i f w et hi nk of  mo ralityas a colle cti on  of simple r u le s, such as  'D o not steal' , ' Do not  k ill ' , and  so  on.It jus t  doesn 't seem c re d ible t h at rule s li ke t his could reallya pp l y to all peopl e at a ll ti m e s.Ind eed, we ca nall t h ink ofc on t e x tso r circumstanc es in which rul es lik ethi s  haveexcep ti o ns.  Take 'Do n ot s teal', fo r inst a nce. Th i s seems  likea p ret ty g o od  m ora lr ule as  ap p lie d to you  o rI sta ndin g i n  a c lot hesshopthinking abou t s hopl i fti ng. B ut if  som eo ne we re los t and  s tarving in thewild erness, a ndsh e c am e acr o ss anemp tyand des erted c a bin ,w o u ld  it really be wron gf o rher to g o insi d ean d  take ati n o f be a n s fro m th e  c upboard,  if th i swo uld sav eher li fe ? W e m ights ay:the mo ral rule  'Don ot steal' does n 't apply to a st a r vi n g pe rso n out in th e wi l dern ess, ev ent hough  it d oe s  a p ply to us in a clot he s shop . Orthat it's tru e for us,b u t  not tru e fo r  h e r. And that, p resum ably, is m o ral rela tivis m. 7 Her e's anoth e r  example  of  th e s ame k in d of thing. S u p pose  t hat you  vi sit a d ist ant  cu ltu re , and you  find ou tth at  t hey  prac t ice cann ib ali sm . N ot ju s t that : you  fin dou t  th at they ea t thei row n pa ren ts . (Th ey d o n't  kill t heir pare nts ;  the yju st eatthem once the y' re already  d ead .) Pre t t y horrif ying, right? If you ask e d aroun d i n our  cul ture, I'd  ex pect t hat almost  every one w ou lda g ree t h a teat in g your own d ead  pare nt s is  morall y wrong. But suppo s e t hat, as you g etto k n o wthe s ep eop le bet t e r, you also com e to under st a nd  more abou t  th is  practi ce. You  lear n  that,for them,  eating s om eone i s a  sign of e normousrespect.Y ou fi n dout t hat  theybe lie ve th at bye ati ng so meone,  b y lite rally  t aking th eir flesh into your bod y, you  enab lethem to l ive onthrough y ou,and you gi vethe m fur the r  life . Yo u  s eet hat t hisi s somethi n gthe y do  as part of t h eir  fune ral ceremo nies , and that it has great cultural  and e mot ion a l si gn ificance for t hem .E v entually ,you're notquite so  h o rrifi ed byit. (I  don'tm e an it's s omet hin g you'd t hin ka bout do in gy oursel f-ju st  thatyou ca n  sta r t  to understand a  bitw h y the y  do  it.)  N ow, con s ider  the follo wing abstra ct mor al q uesti on: 'Is  i t mora lly  p ermissible to eat yo ur ow n deadpa rent s?'  Well,  itd e pends . In  t hecontext o f ou r  c ul t ura l be liefs  a nd i deas, ita lmost ce rta i nly iswr ong ( 
 the_relativist might_ask, what moral truths_could possibly_have_this kind_of_universal application? This_problem is especially_serious if we think_of morality as_a_collection of simple rules, such as 'Do not steal', 'Do not kill', and so_on._It just_doesn't_seem_credible that rules like this_could really apply to all_people at_all times. Indeed, we can all think of_contexts_or circumstances in_which rules like this have exceptions. Take 'Do not_steal', for instance. This seems like_a pretty good_moral_rule_as applied to you_or I standing in a clothes_shop thinking about shoplifting. But if_someone were lost and starving in the_wilderness, and she came across an_empty and deserted cabin, would_it really_be wrong for her to_go inside and_take a_tin of beans_from the cupboard, if this would_save her life?_We might say: the moral rule_'Do_not steal' doesn't_apply_to_a starving_person out in_the_wilderness, even_though_it does apply to us in_a_clothes shop. Or that it's true for_us, but not true_for_her. And that, presumably,_is moral relativism. 7 Here's_another example of the same kind_of thing._Suppose that_you visit a distant culture, and you find out that they_practice cannibalism. Not just that: you_find out that they_eat their_own_parents. (They don't_kill_their parents;_they just eat them once they're already_dead.) Pretty_horrifying, right? If you asked around_in our culture, I'd_expect_that almost everyone would agree that_eating your own dead parents is_morally wrong. But suppose that,_as_you_get to know these people_better, you also come to understand_more about this_practice. You learn that, for them, eating_someone_is a sign of enormous respect._You_find out that they believe that_by_eating_someone, by literally taking their_flesh into your body, you enable_them to live on through you, and you give_them further life._You see that this is_something_they_do as part of their funeral ceremonies, and that it_has great_cultural and emotional_significance for them. Eventually, you're not quite so horrified by_it. (I don't mean it's something you'd_think about doing yourself-just that you can start to understand a_bit why they do it.) Now, consider the_following abstract moral question: 'Is it morally_permissible to eat your_own_dead parents?' Well, it depends. In the_context_of_our_cultural beliefs and_ideas, it almost_certainly is wrong_(