 that constitutive relations are constant across variable set expansions. They either hold relative to all expansions of a set that is common-cause coupled to a scrutinized phenomenon or they do not hold at all. 5 Constitutional discovery in a new light As indicated in §2, one of the most attractive features of MM is that it is straightforwardly operationalizable methodologically: to establish that a spatiotemporal part is a constituent of a phenomenon, it is sufficient to produce one successful topdown and one bottom-up intervention each. We have seen, however, that MM does not ground a viable method of constitutional discovery. For reasons of space, we must postpone a methodological operationalization of NDC to another occasion. Still, we want to emphasize that, against the background of NDC, constitutional discovery appears in a very different light than against the background of MM. The role NDC attributes to experimental manipulations of mechanisms differs fundamentally from the role attributed to them by MM. MM calls for top-down and bottom-up manipulations whose intended purpose is to reveal mutual differencemaking. By contrast, NDC-being formulated in terms of common-cause coupling 16 Michael Baumgartner and Lorenzo Casini instead of mutual difference-making-does justice to the fact that there cannot exist top-down and bottom-up manipulations in the first place, that is, manipulations that indirectly induce changes on one level of a mechanism by virtue of directly changing the other level. Rather than for mutual difference-making, NDC requires testing for unbreakable common-cause coupling, which is considerably more challenging than the simple test designs demanded by MM. Whereas, according to MM, one successful top-down and one bottom-up manipulation warrant an inference to constitution, corroborating the unrestricted universal quantifiers in Coupling and the impossibility operator in No De-Coupling calls for a whole battery of severe tests. In a nutshell, the ways of manipulating a phenomenon Ψ and the elements of a candidate constituting set Φ must be systematically altered while the baseline set of modeled variables V is gradually expanded, in order to check whether, outside of V, there exist surgical causes that break the common-cause coupling of Φ and Ψ. That is, testing for the unbreakability of a common-cause coupling calls for maximally diverse manipulations in maximally diverse background conditions. Of course, it will often be infeasible to conduct experiments on the whole space of common causes of a systems's levels, and all variable set expansions are bound to be finite.
that constitutive relations are constant across variable hardening expansion. They either hold relative to all expansions of a bent that is common - cause copulate to a scrutinized phenomenon or they do not defend at all. 5 built-in discovery in a new light As argue in § 2, one of the most attractive features of MM is that it is squarely operationalizable methodologically: to establish that a spatiotemporal part is a constituent of a phenomenon, it is sufficient to produce one successful topdown and one bottom - up intervention each. We have seen, however, that MM does not grind a viable method of constitutional discovery. For rationality of space, we must postpone a methodological operationalization of NDC to another occasion. Still, we want to stress that, against the background of NDC, constitutional discovery appears in a very different light than against the setting of MM. The role NDC attributes to experimental manipulations of mechanisms differs fundamentally from the role attributed to them by MM. MM calls for top - down and bottom - up manipulations whose intended purpose is to reveal mutual differencemaking. By contrast, NDC - being formulated in terminus of common - cause copulate 16 Michael Baumgartner and Lorenzo Casini alternatively of mutual difference - making - does judge to the fact that there cannot exist top - down and bottom - up manipulations in the first place, that is, manipulations that indirectly induce change on one level of a mechanism by virtue of directly changing the other level. quite than for mutual difference - making, NDC requires test for unbreakable common - campaign coupling, which is considerably more challenging than the simple test invention demanded by MM. Whereas, according to MM, one successful top - down and one bottom - up handling warrant an inference to united states constitution, corroborating the unrestricted cosmopolitan quantifiers in Coupling and the impossibility operator in No De - Coupling calls for a whole battery of hard tests. In a nutshell, the way of manipulating a phenomenon Ψ and the element of a candidate constituting typeset Φ must be systematically altered while the baseline set of modeled variables volt is gradually expanded, in orderliness to check whether, outside of V, there exist surgical causes that break the common - campaign coupling of Φ and Ψ. That is, testing for the unbreakability of a coarse - cause coupling call for maximally diverse manipulations in maximally diverse backdrop conditions. Of course, it will often be infeasible to conduct experiments on the unharmed quad of coarse causes of a systems's levels, and all variable set expansions are oblige to be finite.
 thwt constitutive relationr are constant cxross tariabls set exoansions. They either hold reparive uj all expansions ow a set tjat is cimmoi-cause coupled to a scrubnnizes pheuonenon or they co not holg at all. 5 Consdigucional discovery in a new light As igdicatec ln §2, one of the mosu aetradniye features of MM is that it is atraighuforwardly operatipnalizable methodologicallj: to establish that a dpatiotempotzl [qrt is a conrtituent of a phenomenkn, it is sufficient to produce une sbccessful tipeowj and one bovtom-up interventiok each. Fe have seen, however, bhat KM eoes not ground a viaule method of constijutional dhseovery. For reasons of space, fe mgst oistoont a msthodopogmcal operatjonalizatiob of NDC to another osbssion. Still, se wane eo emphasize that, against the backgroung or NDC, constitutional diwcovery appears in a gery diffqrent light than against the background of MM. The role VDC abtricytfs to experimental manipulations of mechanismf dofners fundamentaljy from the rllr attributed tu them by MM. MM calls for tlp-down wnd bittom-up mwnipilations whose intended purpose is to rvveao mutual differenczmaking. By cuntrsst, NCC-being formulated in tzrms or common-caude couplihe 16 Michael Baumgxrtker and Lortvzo Casini insteaq of mutuel diyference-oakimg-does justice tl the fact that there cajnot gxist dop-down anf bottom-up manipulations in the first place, tnad iv, manipujatioks that indirecely induce chauges on jne ldvel of a jechanivm by virtuq of directly fhanging the other lqvel. Ratyer thav for mutual digference-mching, NDC requires testlng fud unbreakable cimmin-cause couplinb, wficr ps ronsiqarably more whalueneong tfan the simile tesy designs demanded bf MM. Whereas, according tj MM, one successsul top-down amd one bottom-up majipuletion xarrany ag inference to constitution, codroboratijg bhe unrestriceed mnivgrsal quantnfiers in Coupling and the impossibility operator in No Dg-Coupling calls for a ehole battecy of fevere tevts. In a nutshell, thw ways of manipulsting a phenomenon Ψ ahd the elemfnts of a candidate constituting set Φ must be systematically altered whilw the uafeline set kf mpdeleg rarnables D is jradually expandec, in order to check whether, outride of E, chere exist surgical causes tnag break the cummon-cause coupling of Φ znd Ψ. Thay is, testing for the unbreakabikity of a common-cause compling caols fkr maxpjauly diverse manipukationv in naximaloy dlverse backgrojnd clnditions. Of rouxse, it will often be infeasible ti condych experiments on the whole dkace of commog causes of a syatema'd levgls, and all vatiable set expsnsions are bound to bq finite.
that constitutive relations are constant across variable They hold relative all expansions of coupled a scrutinized phenomenon they do not at all. 5 Constitutional discovery in new light As indicated in §2, one of the most attractive features of is that it is straightforwardly operationalizable methodologically: to establish that a spatiotemporal part a of phenomenon, is sufficient to produce one successful topdown and one bottom-up intervention each. We have seen, however, MM does not ground a viable method of discovery. For reasons of we must postpone a methodological of to another Still, want emphasize that, against background of NDC, constitutional discovery appears in a very different light than against the background of MM. role NDC experimental manipulations mechanisms fundamentally the role attributed by MM. MM calls for top-down whose intended purpose is to reveal mutual differencemaking. contrast, NDC-being in terms of common-cause coupling 16 Baumgartner and Lorenzo Casini instead of mutual difference-making-does to the fact that there cannot exist top-down and bottom-up manipulations in the first place, manipulations that indirectly induce on one level a by of changing the level. Rather than for mutual difference-making, NDC requires testing for unbreakable coupling, which is considerably more challenging than the simple test by Whereas, according to one successful top-down and bottom-up warrant an inference to the universal and impossibility in No De-Coupling calls a whole battery of severe In a nutshell, the Ψ and the elements of a candidate constituting Φ must be systematically altered while the set of modeled variables V is gradually expanded, in order to check outside of exist surgical causes that break the common-cause coupling Φ and Ψ. That testing for the unbreakability of a common-cause coupling calls maximally manipulations in diverse background conditions. course, it will be infeasible to on the space common systems's levels, and all variable set are to be finite.
 that constitutive relations Are constanT acroSs vAriAbLe seT expAnsions. They eitHEr hoLd relative to all expansiOns of A sET thaT Is CommoN-cause cOUpLED to A sCrUtiNiZEd PhenoMenOn or theY do not hold At aLl. 5 constitutionAL dIscovery in A neW light As indiCatEd in §2, onE oF thE Most aTtrActivE featuREs of MM Is that it iS sTRaightFOrwardlY OPeRatiOnalizable methodoLOgICally: to establiSh that A sPAtIOTemPorAl part is a cOnStituENt of a phENoMENOn, iT Is sufficient tO produce one SUccEssful ToPdoWN and onE bottOm-UP inTervention eAch. WE have seen, HoweveR, That MM dOEs not grOund a vIabLe mEthoD Of CoNstItUTioNAl DisCOveRy. For reaSoNs Of spaCe, we MUST PostPonE a meThodoLogical operatIonAlizATioN of NDc to anOtheR oCcasiOn. StilL, we waNt To emphasize that, AgaiNst the bacKgrOuNd oF NdC, conSTitutiOnaL diScovery Appears IN a vErY DIFfErent light than agaiNsT THe BackgrouNd of MM. tHe RoLE NDC attrIbUteS to eXPErimeNtal MAnIpulatioNs of meCHaNiSms diffErS fundaMeNtaLly From tHE rolE attriButed to tHem by mm. MM calls for top-DOwn and bottom-uP MaNIPuLAtioNs wHose intendeD purPOse iS to rEVeAl mUTual dIfferEnCEmAKing. By contrast, NDC-beInG formuLated In terms of commOn-cause couPLINg 16 MichaeL BauMGaRTner and Lorenzo casinI instead of MUtual difFerenCe-making-Does justiCE To the facT thAt tHerE caNNOt Exist top-down aND BottOm-Up manipUlaTions in The FirSt pLacE, tHat is, maniPulationS tHaT iNdIreCtly iNDuce chanGeS on OnE leVel of A MechanIsm by VirtUe Of DIreCtly chaNGiNG The oThEr LeveL. RaThEr thaN for MUtuAl diffeRence-makiNg, Ndc reqUiReS testinG for unbreakabLe Common-causE cOupLing, whICH is consiDerably more challenging tHAn the siMplE test DesiGns demandEd bY MM. WheReaS, AccordIng to Mm, one sUcCesSFUl top-DOWn And OnE bottom-up mANIpuLatioN wArraNt an infErence to constitutiON, coRroborating thE unRestRICtEd uNIvERsaL qUAntIFIers in Coupling aNd the imposSiBIlIty operatoR In NO DE-CoupliNg calls For a wHOle battEry of seveRe tests. In A nUtshELL, thE ways of manIpulatinG a phenomeNOn Ψ anD ThE elemEntS of a caNdIdaTe conStitutINg sEt Φ muSt be syStEmaticAlly aLtEred whilE the baseline set of modeleD variaBles V Is gRadually eXpaNDed, In order to ChecK whether, ouTsiDe oF V, theRe eXIst suRgicAL cAusES that BreaK The common-CAuSe cOUPlIng of Φ and Ψ. THAT Is, tEstinG foR The unbReakAbility of a common-cAUse coupling calLs foR MAxiMalLY divErSe manipulationS in MaXIMally divErSe backgrounD conditiOnS. of couRse, it wIll oftEn be infEASiBLe to coNducT exPeriments On tHe WHole spaCe Of COmmon cAuseS oF a systEms's leVEls, aND All variable set exPansiONS are bOUnd To be fInIte.
 that constitutive relatio ns are con stant  ac ros svari able  set expansion s . Th ey either hold relativ e toal l  exp a ns ionsof a se t  t h a t i sco mmo n- c au se co upl ed to a  scrutiniz edph enomenon ort he y do not h old  at all. 5 C ons tituti on ald iscov ery  in a  new l i ght As  indicate di n §2,o ne of t h e  m ostattractive featur e so f MM is that i t is s tr a ig h t for war dly operat io naliz a ble met h od o l o gic a lly: to estab lish that a spa tiotem po ral part i s a c on s tit uent of a p heno menon, it  is su f ficient to prod uce on e s ucc essf u lto pdo wn and on e b o tto m-up int er ve ntion  eac h . W e ha veseen , how ever, that MM  do es n o t g round  a vi able  m ethod  of co nstit ut ional discovery . Fo r reasons  of  s pac e,  we m u st pos tpo nea metho dologic a l o pe r a t io nalization of NDCto a no ther occ asion. St il l , we wan ttoemph a s ize t hat, ag ainst th e back g ro un d of ND C,  const it uti ona l dis c over y appe ars in a  very different ligh t  than against th e ba c kgro und  of MM. The  rol e  NDC  att r ib ute s  to e xperi me n ta l  manipulations of m ec hanism s dif fers fundamen tally from t h e role a ttri b ut e d to them by M M. MM  calls for top-down  andbottom-u p manipul a t ions who seint end edp u rp ose is to rev e a l mu tu al diff ere ncemaki ng.  By  co ntr as t, NDC-be ing form ul at ed  i n t ermso f common -c aus ecou pling 16 Mic haelBaum ga rt n erand Lor e nz o Casi ni  i nste adof  mutu al d i ffe rence-m aking-doe s j u stic eto  the fa ct that there  c annot exis ttop -downa n d bottom -up manipulations in th e  firstpla ce, t hatis, manip ula tionstha t  indir ectlyinduc echa n g es on o ne  le ve l of a mec h a nis m byvi rtue  of dir ectly changing the oth er level. Rat her  tha n fo r m u tu a l d if f ere n c e-making, NDC r equires te st i ng  for unbre a kab le  common -causecoupl i ng, whi ch is con siderably  m orec h all enging tha n the si mple test desig n sdeman ded  by MM .Whe reas,  accor d ing  to M M, one  s uccess ful t op -down an d one bottom-up manipul ationwarra ntan infere nce toconstitut ion,  corrobora tin g t he un res t ricte d un i ve rsa l  quan tifi e rs in Cou p li nga n dthe impossi b i l ity  oper ato r  in No  De- Coupling calls fo r  a whole batte ry o f sev ere test s.  In a nutshell , t he w ays of m an ipulating a  phenome no n  Ψ an d theelemen ts of a c an d idatecons tit uting set  Φmu s t be sy st em a ticall y al te red wh ile th e  bas e l ine set of model ed va r i ables V i s gra du ally ex p ande d, in orde r to checkwhethe r, o utsid e of V,  t here e xis tsurgical c a uses that  brea k the c om mon- cau se cou plin g of ΦandΨ.  Th at is, te s t in g  f or the  unb reaka bi lity  of a com m on-cause  co u pling c al lsf o r maxi m al l y  diverse m ani pulat i o ns in maxi m ally di v ersebackgr ound c onditio n s.Of  course , i t will ofte n be infe a sib le  toconductex peri me nts  o n the whole spa ce of co mmon cau s e s of a  sy s tems ' s leve ls , and all va riabl es et expa n s ion s are b o und  to  be  fin ite .
 that_constitutive relations_are constant across variable_set expansions._They_either hold_relative_to all expansions_of a set_that is common-cause coupled_to a scrutinized_phenomenon_or they do not hold at all. 5 Constitutional discovery in a new light_As_indicated in_§2,_one_of the most attractive features_of MM is that it_is straightforwardly_operationalizable methodologically: to establish that a spatiotemporal part_is_a constituent of_a phenomenon, it is sufficient to produce one successful_topdown and one bottom-up intervention each._We have seen,_however,_that_MM does not ground_a viable method of constitutional discovery._For reasons of space, we must_postpone a methodological operationalization of NDC to_another occasion. Still, we want to_emphasize that, against the background_of NDC,_constitutional discovery appears in a_very different light_than against_the background of_MM. The role NDC attributes to_experimental manipulations of_mechanisms differs fundamentally from the role_attributed_to them by_MM._MM_calls for_top-down and bottom-up_manipulations_whose intended_purpose_is to reveal mutual differencemaking. By_contrast,_NDC-being formulated in terms of common-cause coupling_16 Michael Baumgartner and_Lorenzo_Casini instead of mutual_difference-making-does justice to the fact_that there cannot exist top-down and_bottom-up manipulations_in the_first place, that is, manipulations that indirectly induce changes on one_level of a mechanism by virtue_of directly changing the_other level._Rather_than for mutual_difference-making,_NDC requires_testing for unbreakable common-cause coupling, which is_considerably more_challenging than the simple test designs_demanded by MM. Whereas,_according_to MM, one successful top-down and_one bottom-up manipulation warrant an inference_to constitution, corroborating the unrestricted_universal_quantifiers_in Coupling and the impossibility_operator in No De-Coupling calls for_a whole battery_of severe tests. In a nutshell, the_ways_of manipulating a phenomenon Ψ and_the_elements of a candidate constituting set_Φ_must_be systematically altered while the_baseline set of modeled variables V_is gradually expanded, in order to check whether, outside_of V, there_exist surgical causes that break_the_common-cause_coupling of Φ and Ψ. That is, testing for the_unbreakability of_a common-cause coupling_calls for maximally diverse manipulations in maximally diverse background conditions._Of course, it will often be infeasible_to conduct experiments on the whole space of common causes of_a systems's levels, and all variable set expansions_are bound to be finite.