 also the engine, which is a constituent of the car's movement. To ensure that a constituting set Φ exclusively contains constituents, and in particular that it excludes non-constituents such as sterile effects and isolated parts, we require that Φ be redundancy-free in the sense that no proper subset of Φ is common-cause coupled with the phenomenon. That is, for every proper subset Φ′ of Φ, some cause of the phenomenon exists that fails to be associated with a change in Φ′ and, instead, is associated with a change in an element of Φ outside of Φ′. Non-constituents such as sterile effects or isolated parts can be eliminated from a set of parts of the phenomenon without breaking the common-cause coupling of the phenomenon and the remaining parts: any change in the phenomenon still is associated with a change in some element of the resulting subset. More concretely, Φ4 and Φ5 are not part of a constituting set Φ of the phenomenon Ψ2 in Figure 1 because the set Φ′′ = {Φ1,Φ2,Φ3,Φ4,Φ5} is not redundancy-free: it contains a proper subset, Φ = {Φ1,Φ2,Φ3}, that is common-cause coupled to Ψ2, meaning that every cause of Ψ2 is a common cause of Ψ2 and at least one element of Φ. Overall, we contend that a first defining feature of a constituting set Φ of a phenomenon Ψ is that it is common-cause coupled with Ψ in a redundancy-free manner, meaning that both of the following two conditions are satisfied. First, every cause of Ψ is a common cause of Ψ and at least one Φi in Φ. Second, no proper subset Φ\{Φi} is common-cause coupled with Ψ-more precisely, for any Φi in Φ, there exists at least one cause of Ψ, which is not a common cause of Ψ and any Φj in Φ \ {Φi}. However, many variable sets Vi including only causally related variables may comprise a variable V1 and a subset V′i of Vi, which does not include V1, such that V1 and V′i are common-cause coupled (i.e. such that every cause of V1 in Vi is a common cause of
also the engine, which is a constituent of the car's campaign. To guarantee that a constituting set Φ exclusively contains constituent, and in particular that it excludes non - constituent such as aseptic effects and isolated parts, we require that Φ be redundancy - free in the common sense that no proper subset of Φ is common - cause coupled with the phenomenon. That is, for every proper subset Φ′ of Φ, some cause of the phenomenon exist that fails to be associated with a change in Φ′ and, instead, is associated with a variety in an element of Φ outside of Φ′. Non - constituents such as sterile impression or isolated parts can be excrete from a set of part of the phenomenon without breaking the common - cause coupling of the phenomenon and the remaining part: any change in the phenomenon still is associated with a change in some element of the result subset. More concretely, Φ4 and Φ5 are not part of a constituting set Φ of the phenomenon Ψ2 in Figure 1 because the set Φ′′ = { Φ1,Φ2,Φ3,Φ4,Φ5 } is not redundancy - free: it contains a proper subset, Φ = { Φ1,Φ2,Φ3 }, that is common - cause coupled to Ψ2, meaning that every campaign of Ψ2 is a common cause of Ψ2 and at least one chemical element of Φ. Overall, we contend that a first defining feature of a constituting jell Φ of a phenomenon Ψ is that it is common - cause coupled with Ψ in a redundancy - free manner, mean that both of the following two conditions are satisfied. First, every cause of Ψ is a common causal agent of Ψ and at least one Φi in Φ. Second, no proper subset Φ\{Φi } is common - cause coupled with Ψ - more precisely, for any Φi in Φ, there exists at least one lawsuit of Ψ, which is not a common campaign of Ψ and any Φj in Φ \ { Φi }. However, many variable sets Vi including only causally related variable star may comprise a variable V1 and a subset V′i of Vi, which does not include V1, such that V1 and V′i are coarse - cause coupled (i.e. such that every cause of V1 in Vi is a common causal agent of
 aldo the engine, which is a constituent of the cac's movejent. To dnsure that a constituting sxt Φ wxcluwively contains constiguents, anf in parricuoqr that it excludes non-ckkstitbeits such as stetile effects and isolated [aftd, we require that Φ be redundancy-freq in thr dense that no kropeg fubssn if Φ is common-cause coupled wifh the khenomenon. That is, for every proper subset Φ′ lf Φ, dome cause of the ohenomenon gsisew that fails to be associated with a change in Φ′ and, instead, is asrociaced with a xhqngf in an elemxnt of Φ outside of Φ′. Non-convtituenys such as stevile xffexts or isolated parts can be eliminated from a sat of parts of the phwnometon fithuyt crezkmng the clmmkn-cause cohpling of tye phenomenon and tne grmaining parfs: any crange in the phenomenon still is associdtes with a change in some element of the resuljing subsee. More concretely, Φ4 and Φ5 are not part of a constitgting ret Φ jw tje phenomenon Ψ2 in Figure 1 because the set Φ′′ = {Φ1,Φ2,Φ3,Φ4,Φ5} ya mon redundancy-free: lt contains a proprr sifset, Φ = {Φ1,Φ2,Φ3}, that ks common-dause coupled to Ψ2, leaning that every catse pf Ψ2 is a common cause of Ψ2 abd at least jbe element of Φ. Ovexall, we contznd thst a girst defining feature uf a constitutijg set Φ or a phenomenon Ψ ir tmat it is common-cause coupled with Ψ in a rzdundanch-freg mannew, meaning hhat nmth of the followijg twl wonditions are satisfied. First, every causx of Ψ is a cokmmn bause of Ψ and st least one Φy in Φ. Second, np propex subsdt Φ\{Φi} is cojmon-cauve coupled rith Ψ-more prewlsely, for anb Φi in Φ, trere exiwts at udast one cause of Ψ, whick is bot a common cause of Ψ and any Φj in Φ \ {Φi}. Yowever, many vatiacle svts Vy including otly zaurslly felated varlabues kay comprise a variatle B1 and a subset V′i pf Vi, whicy does njt include V1, xuch that V1 and V′i are rommon-rause voukled (i.e. such that every cause or V1 in Vi is a common catse if
also the engine, which is a constituent car's To ensure a constituting set in that it excludes such as sterile and isolated parts, we require that be redundancy-free in the sense that no proper subset of Φ is common-cause with the phenomenon. That is, for every proper subset Φ′ of Φ, some of phenomenon that to be associated with a change in Φ′ and, instead, is associated with a change in element of Φ outside of Φ′. Non-constituents such sterile effects or isolated can be eliminated from a of of the without the coupling of the and the remaining parts: any change in the phenomenon still is associated with a change in some of the More concretely, and are part of a Φ of the phenomenon Ψ2 in the set Φ′′ = {Φ1,Φ2,Φ3,Φ4,Φ5} is not redundancy-free: contains a subset, Φ = {Φ1,Φ2,Φ3}, that is coupled to Ψ2, meaning that every cause of is a common cause of Ψ2 and at least one element of Φ. Overall, we a first defining feature a constituting set of phenomenon is it is coupled with Ψ in a redundancy-free manner, meaning that both of following two conditions are satisfied. First, every cause of Ψ common of Ψ and least one Φi in Second, proper subset Φ\{Φi} is with precisely, in there at least one cause Ψ, which is not a cause of Ψ and {Φi}. However, many variable sets Vi including only related variables may comprise a variable V1 a subset V′i of Vi, which does not include V1, such that and V′i coupled (i.e. such that every cause of V1 Vi is a common of
 also the engine, which is a consTituent of tHe car'S moVemEnT. To eNsurE that a constituTIng sEt Φ exclusively contains ConstItUEnts, ANd In parTicular THaT IT exClUdEs nOn-COnStituEntS such as Sterile effEctS aNd isolated paRTs, We require tHat φ be redundancY-frEe in thE sEnsE That nO prOper sUbset oF φ is comMon-cause cOuPLed witH The phenOMEnOn. ThAt is, for every propeR SuBSet Φ′ of Φ, some cauSe of thE pHEnOMEnoN exIsts that faIlS to be ASsociatED wITH A chANge in Φ′ and, instEad, is associATed With a cHaNge IN an eleMent oF Φ OUtsIde of Φ′. Non-coNstiTuents sucH as steRIle effeCTs or isoLated pArtS caN be eLImInAteD fROm a SEt Of pARts Of the pheNoMeNon wiThouT BREAkinG thE comMon-caUse coupling of The PhenOMenOn and The reMainInG partS: any chAnge iN tHe phenomenon stiLl is AssociateD wiTh A chAnGe in sOMe elemEnt Of tHe resulTing subSEt. MOrE CONcRetely, Φ4 and Φ5 are not pArT OF a ConstituTing seT φ oF tHE phenomeNoN Ψ2 iN FigURE 1 becaUse tHE sEt Φ′′ = {Φ1,Φ2,Φ3,Φ4,Φ5} Is not rEDuNdAncy-freE: iT contaInS a pRopEr subSEt, Φ = {Φ1,φ2,Φ3}, that Is common-Cause COupled to Ψ2, meaniNG that every cauSE oF ψ2 Is A CommOn cAuse of Ψ2 and aT leaST one ElemENt Of Φ. oVeralL, we coNtENd THat a first defining feAtUre of a ConstItuting set Φ of A phenomenoN ψ IS that it iS comMOn-CAuse coupled witH Ψ in a Redundancy-FRee manneR, meanIng that bOth of the fOLLowing twO coNdiTioNs aRE SaTisfied. First, eVERy caUsE of Ψ is a ComMon causE of ψ anD at LeaSt One Φi in Φ. SEcond, no pRoPeR sUbSet φ\{Φi} is COmmon-cauSe CouPlEd wIth Ψ-mORe precIsely, For aNy φi IN Φ, tHere exiSTs AT LeasT oNe CausE of ψ, wHich iS not A ComMon causE of Ψ and anY Φj IN Φ \ {Φi}. hoWeVer, many Variable sets VI iNcluding onLy CauSally rELAted variAbles may comprise a variabLE V1 and a sUbsEt V′i oF Vi, wHich does nOt iNclude v1, suCH that V1 And V′i aRe comMoN-caUSE coupLED (i.E. suCh That every cAUSe oF V1 in VI iS a coMmon cauSe of
 also the engine, which is  a constit uentofthe  c ar's  mov ement. To ensu r e th at a constituting setΦ exc lu s ivel y  c ontai ns cons t it u e nts ,an d i np ar ticul arthat it  excludesnon -c onstituentss uc h as steri leeffects andiso latedpa rts ,  we r equ ire t hat Φb e redu ndancy-fr ee in the sense t h a tno p roper subset of Φ is common-cause c oupled  w i th t hephe nomenon. T ha t is, for eve r yp r o per subset Φ′ ofΦ, some cau s e o f theph eno m enon e xists  t h atfails to be  ass ociated w ith ac hange i n  Φ′ and , inst ead , i s as s oc ia ted  w i tha  c han g e i n an ele me nt  of Φ  out s i d e  ofΦ′.  Non -cons tituents such  as  ste r ile  effe cts o r is ol atedpartscan b eeliminated from  a s et of par tsof  th epheno m enon w ith out  breaki ng thec omm on - c a us e coupling of theph e n om enon and  the r e ma in i ng parts :any  cha n g e inthep he nomenonstilli sas sociate dwith a  c han gein so m e el ementof the r esult i ng subset. Mor e  concretely,Φ 4a n dΦ 5 ar e n ot part ofa co n stit utin g  s etΦ  of t he ph en o me n on Ψ2 in Figure 1 b ec ause t he se t Φ′′ = {Φ1,Φ 2,Φ3,Φ4,Φ5 } i s not re dund a nc y -free: it cont ainsa proper s u bset, Φ= {Φ1 ,Φ2,Φ3},  that isc o mmon-cau secou ple d t o Ψ2 , meaning tha t ever ycause o f Ψ 2 is acom mon  ca use  o f Ψ2 andat least  o ne  e le men t ofΦ . Overal l,  we  c ont end t h at a f irstdefi ni ng fea ture of ac o nsti tu ti ng s etΦof aphen o men on Ψ is  that itisc ommo n- ca use cou pled with Ψ i na redundan cy -fr ee man n e r, meani ng that both of the fol l owing t wocondi tion s are sat isf ied. F irs t , ever y caus e ofΨisa commo n ca use  o f Ψ and at l eas t one  Φ i in  Φ. Sec ond, no proper sub s etΦ\{Φi} is com mon -cau s e  c oup l ed wit hΨ -mo r e  precisely, for  any Φi in  Φ ,  t here exist s  at  l east on e cause  of Ψ ,  whichis not acommon ca us e of Ψ  an d any Φj i n Φ \ {Φ i}. Howev e r, ma n yvaria ble  setsVi  in cludi ng onl y  ca usall y rela te d vari ables  m ay compr ise a variable V1 and a  subse t V′i  of  Vi, whic h d o esnot inclu de V 1, such th atV1and V ′ia re co mmon - ca use coupl ed ( i .e. sucht ha t e v e ry  cause of V 1 i n V i isa c o mmon c ause  of
 also_the engine,_which is a constituent_of the_car's_movement. To_ensure_that a constituting_set Φ exclusively_contains constituents, and in_particular that it_excludes_non-constituents such as sterile effects and isolated parts, we require that Φ be redundancy-free_in_the sense_that_no_proper subset of Φ is_common-cause coupled with the phenomenon._That is,_for every proper subset Φ′ of Φ, some_cause_of the phenomenon_exists that fails to be associated with a change_in Φ′ and, instead, is associated_with a change_in_an_element of Φ outside_of Φ′. Non-constituents such as sterile_effects or isolated parts can be_eliminated from a set of parts of_the phenomenon without breaking the common-cause_coupling of the phenomenon and_the remaining_parts: any change in the_phenomenon still is_associated with_a change in_some element of the resulting subset._More concretely, Φ4_and Φ5 are not part of_a_constituting set Φ_of_the_phenomenon Ψ2_in Figure 1_because_the set_Φ′′_= {Φ1,Φ2,Φ3,Φ4,Φ5} is not redundancy-free: it_contains_a proper subset, Φ = {Φ1,Φ2,Φ3}, that_is common-cause coupled to_Ψ2,_meaning that every cause_of Ψ2 is a common_cause of Ψ2 and at least_one element_of Φ._Overall, we contend that a first defining feature of a constituting_set Φ of a phenomenon Ψ_is that it is_common-cause coupled_with_Ψ in a_redundancy-free_manner, meaning_that both of the following two conditions_are satisfied._First, every cause of Ψ is_a common cause of_Ψ_and at least one Φi in_Φ. Second, no proper subset Φ\{Φi}_is common-cause coupled with Ψ-more_precisely,_for_any Φi in Φ, there_exists at least one cause of_Ψ, which is_not a common cause of Ψ and_any_Φj in Φ \ {Φi}. However,_many_variable sets Vi including only causally_related_variables_may comprise a variable V1_and a subset V′i of Vi,_which does not include V1, such that V1 and_V′i are common-cause_coupled (i.e. such that every_cause_of_V1 in Vi is a common cause of