 abilities are not salient in an explanation of true belief because S's abilities are not involved at all. Here is one such case. Case 8. Charlie has excellent reasons to believe that he will make his connection in Chicago. However, Charlie does not recognize these reasons for what they are, nor does he base his belief on them. Rather, he believes that he will make his connection because he is overcome with wishful thinking at the prospects of seeing his fiancée. As it turns out, his belief is true. Here it is straightforward that Charlie does not believe the truth because of his intellectual abilities, since his abilities are not involved at all in the production or maintenance of his belief. As I have described the case, he believes the truth entirely out of wishful thinking. Second, there are cases where S's belief is produced by faculties that would normally be considered abilities, but where S is not reliable in the environement where those faculties are used. Here are two. Case 9. Henry is driving in the countryside and sees a barn ahead in clear view. On this basis he believes that the object he sees is a barn. Unknown to Henry, however, the area is dotted with barn facades that are indistinguishable from real barns from the road. However, Henry happens to be looking at the one real barn in the area.xxvii Case 10. Rene is the victim of an evil demon who causes him to be systematically deceived. Despite admirable intellectual care and responsibility, almost all of Rene's beliefs are false. However, his belief that he is sitting by the fire, which is based on appropriate sensations and background beliefs, happens to be true.xxviii In Case 9 S's belief is the result of perception, and normally S's perception would constitute a cognitive virtue, i.e. a reliable ability or power. However, reliability is relative to an environment, and S's perception is not reliable relative to the environment in the example. Similar things can be said about Case 10-Rene's beliefs are caused by his cognitive faculties and in a normal 19 environment these faculties would constitute abilities or powers. But in Rene's actual environment his faculties are unreliable. Finally, there are Gettier cases where S does use reliable abilities or powers to arrive at her belief, but where this is not the most salient aspect of the case. Case 3 regarding the Ford is one. Here are two others. Case 11. A man takes there to be a sheep in the field and does
abilities are not salient in an explanation of true belief because S's ability are not imply at all. Here is one such case. Case 8. Charlie have excellent reasons to believe that he will induce his connection in Chicago. However, Charlie does not recognize these reasons for what they are, nor does he base his belief on them. quite, he believes that he will make his joining because he is get the best with wishful thinking at the prospects of seeing his fiancée. As it turns out, his belief is truthful. Here it is straightforward that Charlie does not believe the truth because of his cerebral abilities, since his abilities are not involve at all in the product or maintenance of his belief. As I have described the case, he believes the accuracy entirely out of wishful thinking. Second, there are cases where S's belief is produced by faculty that would normally be considered abilities, but where S is not reliable in the environement where those faculties are used. Here are two. Case 9. Henry is driving in the countryside and sees a barn ahead in clear view. On this footing he believe that the object he interpret is a barn. strange to Henry, however, the area is dotted with barn facades that are identical from real barn from the road. However, Henry happens to be looking at the one veridical barn in the area.xxvii Case 10. Rene is the victim of an evil demon who causes him to be systematically deceived. Despite admirable intellectual care and province, almost all of Rene's beliefs are false. However, his belief that he is sit by the ardor, which is free-base on appropriate sensations and background beliefs, happens to be true.xxviii In Case 9 S's impression is the result of perception, and normally S's perception would constitute a cognitive virtue, i.e. a reliable ability or power. However, reliability is relative to an environment, and S's sensing is not reliable relative to the environment in the exemplar. Similar things can be say about Case 10 - Rene's beliefs are cause by his cognitive faculties and in a normal 19 environment these faculty would constitute ability or powers. But in Rene's actual environment his faculties are unreliable. Finally, there are Gettier case where S does use authentic abilities or powers to arrive at her belief, but where this is not the most salient view of the case. Case 3 see the Ford is one. Here are two others. Case 11. A man takes there to be a sheep in the field and does
 abllities are not salient ln an explanatiou of trne belisf becaure S's abilities are not invopvwd at all. Here is one such zase. Case 8. Charliw haw excellent reasons to bemleve chet he will make his connewtion in Chicaco. Hlwever, Charlie does not recognize trese resslns for what trey swe, nkg boes he base his belief on them. Rather, he believes yhat he will make his connfctiln because he is ogercome wity wifyful thinkine at the pgmspects of seeing his fiancée. As it turns uut, hns belief iw rruf. Here it is strapghtforward tmst Chaslie dors not believe thx tryth because of his invellectual abilities, since hiv cbilities are not invilced aj all in gye orosurtikn or laiitenance of his belief. As I have describec eye case, he bemieves tre truth entirely out of wishful thinkitg. Aecond, there are cases qhere S's belief is prlduced by faculties that would normally be considered abilhties, cut wmere W ls not reliable in the environement where thofs gabulties are used. Mere are two. Case 9. Hfnti is driving iv the ekuhtryside and sees w barn whead in clear viee. On this basis he believes that the oblecr he sees is a baru. Unknown to Henty, howrver, the area is dotted witg barn facafes that zfe indistinguishxblv frmm real barns from the roaq. However, Henxy happevs tp be ljoking at hhe oka real barn in the area.rxvii Case 10. Renf is the victim of an evil demoi who causes nik tm be syscematigally deceived. Qespite admirayle intejlectjal care ahd respmnsibility, wlmost all of Tene's beliefs are falfe. Hiwevwr, his cdlief that he os sittiny by rhe fire, which is nased kn appropriate wenwations and baclgruunq hekiqxs, happens tm be trjr.xxviki In Case 9 R's brlief is the result mf psrception, and normsljy S's petception rould constitite a cognitive vigtue, m.e. a rxliablr afility or power. However, reliabjlity is gelwtive to an qnvivonmgnt, and S's 'erception is not reliable relative to tie environment in the gxample. Similar thingx can be saiv aboue Case 10-Rete's beliefs are causwd by his cognitiye faculties and in a hormal 19 envlronment these faculties would constitute abilities or powers. But in Rene'w actuel environmenf hix faclltnes are ugrelmaule. Finally, there are Gettier cases where S does use relhayle abilities or powers to artixe at her belkef, but where this is nof the moxt salient aspect of the case. Csse 3 regarding the Ford ls one. Heee ars two othecs. Case 11. A man takes there to bw a shewp ik the field ana dped
abilities are not salient in an explanation belief S's abilities not involved at case. 8. Charlie has reasons to believe he will make his connection in However, Charlie does not recognize these reasons for what they are, nor does base his belief on them. Rather, he believes that he will make his because is with thinking at the prospects of seeing his fiancée. As it turns out, his belief is true. it is straightforward that Charlie does not believe truth because of his abilities, since his abilities are involved all in production maintenance his belief. As have described the case, he believes the truth entirely out of wishful thinking. Second, there are cases S's belief by faculties would be abilities, but where not reliable in the environement where used. Here are two. Case 9. Henry is in the and sees a barn ahead in view. On this basis he believes that the he sees is a barn. Unknown to Henry, however, the area is dotted with barn are indistinguishable from real from the road. Henry to looking the one barn in the area.xxvii Case 10. Rene is the victim of evil demon who causes him to be systematically deceived. Despite care responsibility, almost all Rene's beliefs are false. his that he is sitting fire, is sensations background happens to be true.xxviii Case 9 S's belief is result of perception, and a cognitive virtue, i.e. a reliable ability or However, reliability is relative to an environment, S's perception is not reliable relative to the environment in the example. things can about Case 10-Rene's beliefs are caused by his faculties and in a 19 environment these faculties would constitute abilities or powers. in actual environment faculties are unreliable. there are Gettier where S does abilities or to at where this is not the most aspect the case. Case 3 regarding Ford Here are two others. Case 11. A man takes there to be a sheep in and does
 abilities are not salient in aN explanatiOn of tRue BelIeF becAuse s's abilities are NOt inVolved at all. Here is one suCh casE. CASe 8. ChARlIe has ExcelleNT rEASonS tO bEliEvE ThAt he wIll Make his Connection In CHiCago. However, CHArLie does not RecOgnize these rEasOns for WhAt tHEy are, Nor Does hE base hIS belieF on them. RaThER, he belIEves thaT HE wIll mAke his connection bECaUSe he is overcome With wiShFUl THInkIng At the prospEcTs of sEEing his FIaNCÉE. As IT turns out, his bElief is true. hEre It is stRaIghTForwarD that chARliE does not belIeve The truth bEcause OF his intELlectuaL abiliTieS, siNce hIS aBiLitIeS Are NOt InvOLveD at all in ThE pRoducTion OR MAInteNanCe of His beLief. As I have deScrIbed THe cAse, he BelieVes tHe Truth EntireLy out Of Wishful thinking. secoNd, there arE caSeS whErE S's beLIef is pRodUceD by facuLties thAT woUlD NORmAlly be considered abIlITIeS, but wherE S is noT ReLiABle in the EnVirOnemENT wherE thoSE fAculties Are useD. heRe Are two. CAsE 9. Henry Is DriVinG in thE CounTrysidE and sees A barn AHead in clear vieW. on this basis he BElIEVeS That The Object he seeS is a BArn. UNknoWN tO HeNRy, howEver, tHe AReA Is dotted with barn facAdEs that Are inDistinguishabLe from real BARNs from thE roaD. hoWEver, Henry happeNs to bE looking at THe one reaL barn In the areA.xxvii CasE 10. rEne is the VicTim Of aN evIL DeMon who causes hIM To be SyStematiCalLy deceiVed. desPitE adMiRable inteLlectual CaRe AnD rEspOnsibILity, almoSt All Of renE's belIEfs are False. howeVeR, hIS beLief thaT He IS SittInG bY the FirE, wHich iS basED on ApproprIate sensaTioNS and BaCkGround bEliefs, happens To Be true.xxviIi in CAse 9 S's bELIef is the Result of perception, and noRMally S's PerCeptiOn woUld constiTutE a cognItiVE virtuE, i.e. a reLiablE aBilITY or poWER. HOweVeR, reliabiliTY Is rElatiVe To an EnvironMent, and S's perceptioN Is nOt reliable relAtiVe to THE eNviROnMEnt In THe eXAMple. Similar thinGs can be saiD aBOuT Case 10-Rene's BEliEfS are cauSed by hiS cognITive facUlties and In a normal 19 EnViroNMEnt These faculTies woulD constituTE abilITiEs or pOweRs. But iN REne'S actuAl enviROnmEnt hiS faculTiEs are uNreliAbLe. FinallY, there are Gettier cases whEre S doEs use RelIable abilItiES or Powers to aRrivE at her beliEf, bUt wHere tHis IS not tHe moST sAliENt aspEct oF The case. CaSE 3 rEgaRDInG the Ford is oNE. hEre Are twO otHErs. CasE 11. A maN takes there to be a sHEep in the field aNd doES
 abilities are not salient  in an exp lanat ion  of  t ruebeli ef because S's abil ities are not involved  at a ll .  Her e  i s one  such c a se . Cas e8.  Ch ar l ie  hasexc ellentreasons to  be li eve that hew il l make his  co nnection inChi cago.Ho wev e r, Ch arl ie do es not recogn ize these  r e asonsf or what t he y ar e, nor does he ba s eh is belief on t hem. R at h er , hebel ieves that  h e wil l  make h i sc o n nec t ion because h e is overco m e w ith wi sh ful thinki ng at  t h e p rospects of  see ing his f iancée .  As itt urns ou t, his  be lie f is tr ue . H er e  it is  st r aig htforwar dth at Ch arli e d o es n otbeli eve t he truth beca use  ofh isintel lectu al a bi litie s, sin ce hi sabilities are n ot i nvolved a t a ll  in  t he pr o ductio n o r m aintena nce ofh isbe l i e f.  As I have describ ed t he  case, h e beli e ve st he truth  e nti rely o ut of  wis h fu l thinki ng. Se c on d,  therear e case swhe reS's b e lief  is pr oduced b y fac u lties that wou l d normally be co n s id e redabi lities, but  whe r e Sis n o trel i ablein th ee nv i ronement where thos efacult ies a re used. Here  are two.C a s e 9. Hen ry i s  d r iving in the c ountr yside ands ees a ba rn ah ead in c lear view . On thisbas ishebel i e ve s that the ob j e ct h esees is  abarn. U nkn own  to  He nr y, howeve r, the a re ais  d ott ed wi t h barn f ac ade stha t are indist ingui shab le  f r omreal ba r ns f romth eroad . H ow ever,  Hen r y h appensto be loo kin g  atth eone rea l barn in the  a rea.xxviiCa se10. Re n e  is thevictim of an evil demon who cau ses  himto b e systema tic ally d ece i ved. D espite  admi ra ble i ntell e c tu alca re and res p o nsi bilit y,  alm ost all  of Rene's beliefs are  false. Howev er,  his b el ief th a t h ei s s i t ting by the fir e, which i sb as ed on appr o pri at e sensa tions a nd ba c kground  beliefs,  happensto  bet r ue. xxviii InCase 9 S 's belief is th e  r esult  of  perce pt ion , and  norma l lyS's p ercept io n woul d con st itute acognitive virtue, i.e.a reli ableabi lity or p owe r . H owever, r elia bility isrel ati ve to  an envir onme n t,  an d  S'sperc e ption isn ot  re l i ab le relative t o  th e env iro n ment i n th e example. Simila r  things can be  sai d abo utC ase10 -Rene's belief s a re c aused by  h is cognitiv e facult ie s  andin a n ormal19 envi r o nm e nt the se f acu lties wou ldco n stitute  a bi l itiesor p ow ers. B ut inR ene' s actual environme nt hi s facul t ies  areun reliabl e . Fi nally, the re are Gett ier ca seswhere  S does  u se rel iab le  abilities or powers  to a rrive a therbel ief, b ut w h e re th is i snot  the most s al i en ta spe ct o f the  c ase.  Case 3 r e gardingthe Ford is  o ne. H ere ar e  t w o  others. C ase  11.A man takest here to be asheepin the  fielda nddo es
 abilities_are not_salient in an explanation_of true_belief_because S's_abilities_are not involved_at all. Here_is one such case._Case 8. Charlie_has_excellent reasons to believe that he will make his connection in Chicago. However, Charlie_does_not recognize_these_reasons_for what they are, nor_does he base his belief_on them._Rather, he believes that he will make his_connection_because he is_overcome with wishful thinking at the prospects of seeing_his fiancée. As it turns out,_his belief is_true._Here_it is straightforward that_Charlie does not believe the truth_because of his intellectual abilities, since_his abilities are not involved at all_in the production or maintenance of_his belief. As I have_described the_case, he believes the truth_entirely out of_wishful thinking._Second, there are_cases where S's belief is produced_by faculties that_would normally be considered abilities, but_where_S is not_reliable_in_the environement_where those faculties_are_used. Here_are_two. Case 9. Henry is driving_in_the countryside and sees a barn ahead_in clear view. On_this_basis he believes that_the object he sees is_a barn. Unknown to Henry, however,_the area_is dotted_with barn facades that are indistinguishable from real barns from the_road. However, Henry happens to be_looking at the one_real barn_in_the area.xxvii Case_10._Rene is_the victim of an evil demon who_causes him_to be systematically deceived. Despite admirable_intellectual care and responsibility,_almost_all of Rene's beliefs are false._However, his belief that he is_sitting by the fire, which_is_based_on appropriate sensations and background_beliefs, happens to be true.xxviii In_Case 9 S's_belief is the result of perception, and_normally_S's perception would constitute a cognitive_virtue,_i.e. a reliable ability or power._However,_reliability_is relative to an environment,_and S's perception is not reliable_relative to the environment in the example. Similar things_can be said_about Case 10-Rene's beliefs are_caused_by_his cognitive faculties and in a normal 19 environment these_faculties would_constitute abilities or_powers. But in Rene's actual environment his faculties are unreliable._Finally, there are Gettier cases where S_does use reliable abilities or powers to arrive at her belief,_but where this is not the most salient_aspect of the case. Case 3 regarding_the Ford is one._Here_are two others. Case 11. A man_takes_there_to_be a sheep_in the field_and does