 out, the conditions that attend poverty—what a National Scientific Council report summarized as “overcrowding, noise, substandard housing, separation from parent(s), exposure to violence, family turmoil,” and other forms of extreme stress—can be toxic to the developing brain, just like drug or alcohol abuse. These conditions provoke the body to release hormones such as cortisol, which is produced in the adrenal cortex. Brief bursts of cortisol can help a person manage difficult situations, but high stress over the long term can be disastrous. In a pregnant woman, the hormone can “get through the placenta into the fetus,” Levitt told me, potentially influencing her baby’s brain and tampering with its circuitry. Later, as the same child grows up, cortisol from his own body may continue to sabotage the development of his brain.

In March, in the journal Nature Neuroscience, a group of researchers from nine hospitals and universities published a major study of more than a thousand children. They took DNA samples, made MRI scans of the children’s brains, collected data on their families’ income level and educational background, and gave them a series of tests for skills like reading and memory. The DNA samples allowed the scientists to factor out the influence of genetic heritage and look more closely at how socioeconomic status affects a growing brain. The scans focussed on over-all brain surface area, determined partly from the depth of the folds on the cortex, and the size of the hippocampus, a lumpy, curled structure nestled in the middle of the brain that stores memories. As might be expected, more educated families produced children with greater brain surface area and a more voluminous hippocampus. But income had its own distinct effect: living in the lowest bracket left children with up to six per cent less brain surface area than children from high-income families. At the lowest end of the income spectrum, little increases in family earnings could mean larger differences in the brain. At the middle and upper income levels, though, the money-brain curve flattened. In other words, wealth can’t necessarily buy a better brain, but deprivation can result in a weakened one.

A person whose brain has been undermined in this way can suffer long-term behavioral and cognitive difficulties. In March, a study appeared in the journal Acta Paediatrica showing eerie ultrasound images of fetuses that more frequently moved their mouths and touched their faces when their mothers were either stressed out or, even more so, when they smoked cigarettes—likely a sign of delayed nervous-system
out, the conditions that attend poverty — what a National Scientific Council report summarized as “ overcrowding, noise, deficient caparison, legal separation from parent(s), exposure to ferocity, family tumult, ” and other human body of extreme stress — can be toxic to the developing mind, just like drug or alcohol abuse. These condition provoke the body to release hormones such as cortisol, which is produced in the adrenal cerebral cortex. Brief bursts of cortisol can avail a person manage difficult situations, but eminent stress over the long term can be disastrous. In a pregnant charwoman, the hormone can “ get through the placenta into the fetus, ” Levitt told me, potentially influencing her baby ’s brain and tampering with its circuitry. Later, as the same child grows up, cortisol from his own body may continue to sabotage the development of his brain. 

 In March, in the journal Nature Neuroscience, a group of researchers from nine hospitals and university published a major study of more than a thousand child. They remove DNA samples, made MRI scans of the children ’s brains, collected data on their syndicate ’ income level and educational background, and gave them a series of tests for skills like recitation and memory. The DNA samples allowed the scientists to factor out the influence of familial heritage and count more closely at how socioeconomic status affects a growing brain. The scan focussed on over - all brain surface sphere, determined partially from the depth of the folds on the cortex, and the size of the hippocampus, a lumpy, curled social organization nestled in the middle of the brain that stores memories. As might be expect, more educated kin produced child with greater brain surface area and a more voluminous hippocampus. But income have its own distinct impression: living in the lowest bracket left children with up to six per cent less mind surface area than child from high - income families. At the broken end of the income spectrum, little increases in family earnings could mean larger differences in the brain. At the middle and upper income degree, though, the money - mind curvature flattened. In other words, wealth ca n’t necessarily buy a better mind, but deprivation can result in a weakened one. 

 A person whose genius has been undermined in this way can suffer long - term behavioral and cognitive difficulty. In March, a study appeared in the journal Acta Paediatrica show eerie ultrasound images of fetus that more frequently moved their mouths and touched their faces when their mothers were either stressed out or, even more so, when they smoked cigarettes — likely a sign of delayed nervous - system
 ouh, the conditions that atuend poverty—what c Natioial Scisntific Zouncil report summarized as “ocercriwding, noise, substandafd housinh, separarion drom parenv(a), exposmxe to yioleucx, family turmoik,” and othes forms of extseoe stress—can be toxic to the developigg braim, uust like drug or sjcohkl abuse. These conditions provoke fhe bodj to release hormpnes such as cortisol, whicj is produced in the afrenal cortgs. Bwuef bursts ow cortisol can help a kerson manage difficult situatiovs, buc high strews ovft the long txrm cag be disastrous. In a pregnamt woman, the hprmmne can “get through the 'lacenta into the fejus,” Levitt tkld me, potentiallt unflugncinc hef bacy’s bcaih and ham'ering with its circuirry. Later, as the sake bnild grows ul, cortysjl from his own body may continue to satotzge the development of yis brain.

In March, in jhe journaj Nature Neuroscience, a group of researchers from nine foskibwuw wnd universities published a major study of mjde tman a thousand cmildren. They took CNW xwmples, made MTI scans or the children’s brwins, cojlectwd data og thrir families’ income level abd educationcl vackground, and gavz them a sernes of testx for skills like readiug and memory. The DNA sampmds allowed the sziektivts to factor out the infltence of jenetnc heritxge snd lojk more cllsely at how socioeconomlc stctus dffects a hrowing brain. The scans focussev on over-all nrdin surface area, determined pwrtly from the depth jf thd folds on the coctex, and the size of the vlppocampus, a lumpy, ctrlee steucture vestled in the middle oy the brain that stores meokries. As might yt ezpected, more edicaged fwmmlies [roduced chindrev wkyh grdater brain rurfsce area and a more eolujinous hippocampus. Bmt income had its own distinct effect: living in uhe loxest bcacket lest children with up to six per cent lesd bvain surface wrea than childrzn from high-income families. At the lowesv end of the income spgctrum, little increasgs ln family eacnings could medn larger differencew in the brain. At the middle and upper incoma levfls, though, the money-brain curve flattened. In other words, wealth can’t necewsarilb fuy a betted brsin, blt bepxivatiog cai cesult in a weakemed one.

A person whose brain has been ungexmined in this way can suffer lung-term behavkoral and cognitive diffjculties. In March, a study appeared in tne journal Acta Paediatrlca showibg eedie ulntasuund images of fetises tkat moee freqyentpy moved theif mpubhs and tokchev tkeir faces when their mothers werw eithwr stressed out or, even more du, wheh they smoked cigarettss—liifly a sign of delaued nervous-sysyem
out, the conditions that attend poverty—what a Council summarized as noise, substandard housing, violence, turmoil,” and other of extreme stress—can toxic to the developing brain, just drug or alcohol abuse. These conditions provoke the body to release hormones such cortisol, which is produced in the adrenal cortex. Brief bursts of cortisol can a manage situations, high stress over the long term can be disastrous. In a pregnant woman, the hormone can through the placenta into the fetus,” Levitt told potentially influencing her baby’s and tampering with its circuitry. as same child up, from own body may to sabotage the development of his brain. In March, in the journal Nature Neuroscience, a group of from nine universities published major of than a thousand took DNA samples, made MRI scans brains, collected data on their families’ income level educational background, gave them a series of tests skills like reading and memory. The DNA samples the scientists to factor out the influence of genetic heritage and look more closely at status affects a growing The scans focussed over-all surface determined from the of the folds on the cortex, and the size of the a lumpy, curled structure nestled in the middle of the stores As might be more educated families produced with brain surface area and voluminous But own effect: in the lowest bracket children with up to six cent less brain surface families. At the lowest end of the income little increases in family earnings could mean differences in the brain. At the middle and upper income levels, though, money-brain curve other words, wealth can’t necessarily buy a better but deprivation can result a weakened one. A person whose brain has been in way can long-term behavioral and difficulties. In March, study appeared in Acta Paediatrica eerie images more frequently moved their mouths and their when their mothers were either out more so, when they smoked cigarettes—likely a sign of delayed nervous-system
 out, the conditions that attenD poverty—whAt a NaTioNal scIentIfic council report sUMmarIzed as “overcrowding, noisE, subsTaNDard HOuSing, sEparatiON fROM paReNt(S), exPoSUrE to viOleNce, famiLy turmoil,” aNd oThEr forms of extREmE stress—can Be tOxic to the devEloPing brAiN, juST like DruG or alCohol aBUse. TheSe conditiOnS ProvokE The body TO ReLeasE hormones such as coRTiSOl, which is produCed in tHe ADrENAl cOrtEx. Brief burStS of coRTisol caN HeLP A PerSOn manage diffiCult situatiONs, bUt high StResS Over thE long TeRM caN be disastroUs. In A pregnant Woman, tHE hormonE Can “get tHrough The PlaCentA InTo The FeTUs,” LEViTt tOLd mE, potentiAlLy InfluEnciNG HER babY’s bRain And taMpering with itS ciRcuiTRy. LAter, aS the sAme cHiLd groWs up, coRtisoL fRom his own body maY conTinue to saBotAgE thE dEveloPMent of His BraIn.

In MarCh, in the JOurNaL nATuRe Neuroscience, a groUp OF ReSearcherS from nINe HoSPitals anD uNivErsiTIEs pubLishED a Major stuDy of moRE tHaN a thousAnD childReN. ThEy tOok DNa SampLes, madE MRI scanS of thE Children’s brainS, Collected data ON tHEIr FAmilIes’ Income level And eDUcatIonaL BaCkgROund, aNd gavE tHEm A Series of tests for skiLlS like rEadinG and memory. The dNA samples ALLOwed the sCienTIsTS to factor out thE inflUence of genETic heritAge anD look morE closely aT HOw socioeConOmiC stAtuS AFfEcts a growing bRAIn. ThE sCans focUssEd on oveR-alL brAin SurFaCe area, detErmined pArTlY fRoM thE deptH Of the folDs On tHe CorTex, anD The sizE of thE hipPoCaMPus, A lumpy, cURlED StruCtUrE nesTleD iN the mIddlE Of tHe brain That storeS meMOrieS. AS mIght be eXpected, more edUcAted familiEs ProDuced cHILdren witH greater brain surface areA And a morE voLuminOus hIppocampuS. BuT incomE haD Its own DistinCt effEcT: liVINg in tHE LoWesT bRacket left CHIldRen wiTh Up to Six per cEnt less brain surfacE AreA than children FroM higH-INcOme FAmILieS. AT The LOWest end of the incOme spectruM, lITtLe increaseS In fAmIly earnIngs couLd meaN Larger dIfferenceS in the braIn. at thE MIddLe and upper Income leVels, thougH, The moNEy-Brain CurVe flatTeNed. in othEr wordS, WeaLth caN’t neceSsArily bUy a beTtEr brain, bUt deprivation can result iN a weakEned oNe.

A Person whoSe bRAin Has been unDermIned in this Way Can SuffeR loNG-term BehaVIoRal ANd cogNitiVE difficulTIeS. In mARcH, a study appeARED in The joUrnAL Acta PAediAtrica showing eeriE Ultrasound imagEs of FETusEs tHAt moRe Frequently moveD thEiR MOuths and ToUched their fAces when ThEIr motHers weRe eithEr stresSED oUT or, eveN morE so, When they sMokEd CIgarettEs—LiKEly a siGn of DeLayed nErvous-SYsteM
 out, the conditions thatattend pov erty— wha t a  N atio nalScientific Cou n cilreport summarized as “ overc ro w ding ,  n oise,  substa n da r d  ho us in g,se p ar ation  fr om pare nt(s), exp osu re  to violence ,  f amily turm oil ,” and other  fo rms of  e xtr e me st res s—can  be to x ic tothe devel op i ng bra i n, just l ik e dr ug or alcohol abu s e. These conditio ns pro vo k et h e b ody  to releas ehormo n es such as c o rti s ol, which isproduced in the  adren al  co r tex. B riefbu r sts  of cortiso l ca n help aperson managed ifficul t situ ati ons , bu t  h ig h s tr e sso ve r t h e l ong term  c an  be d isas t r o u s. I n a  pre gnant  woman, the h orm onec an“getthrou gh t he  plac enta i nto t he  fetus,” Levitt  tol d me, pot ent ia lly  i nflue n cing h erbab y’s bra in andt amp er i n g  w ith its circuitry.  L a t er , as the  samec hi ld grows up ,cor tiso l fromhiso wn  body ma y cont i nu eto sabo ta ge the  d eve lop mento f hi s brai n.

In M arch, in the journal Nature Neuros c ie n c e, a gr oup  of researc hers from  nin e  h osp i talsand u ni v er s ities published a m aj or stu dy of  more than athousand c h i l dren. Th ey t o ok DNA samples, m ade M RI scans o f  the chi ldren ’s brain s, collec t e d data o n t hei r f ami l i es ’ income leve l anded ucation albackgro und , a ndgav ethem a se ries ofte st sfo r s kills like rea di ngan d m emory .  The D NA sa mple sal l owe d the s c ie n t ists  t ofact orou t the  inf l uen ce of g enetic he rit a ge a nd  l ook mor e closely atho w socioeco no mic  statu s affectsa growing brain. The sc a ns focu sse d onover -all brai n s urface  ar e a, det ermine d par tl y f r o m the d ep thof  the folds o n t he co rt ex,and the  size of the hippo c amp us, a lumpy,cur leds t ru ctu r en est le d  in t he middle of th e brain th at st ores memor i es.  A s might  be exp ected ,  more e ducated f amilies p ro duce d chi ldren with  greater  brain su r facea re a and  amore v ol umi noushippoc a mpu s. Bu t inco me  had i ts ow ndistinct  effect: living in thelowest  brac ket  left chi ldr e n w ith up to  six  per centles s b rainsur f ace a reat ha n c h ildre n fr o m high-in c om e f a m il ies. At the l o wes t end  of the in come  spectrum, little increases in f amil y ear nin g s co ul d mean largerdif fe r e nces inth e brain. At  the mid dl e  andupperincome  levels , th o ugh, t he m one y-brain c urv ef lattene d.  I n  other  wor ds , weal th can ’ t ne c e ssarily buy a be tterb r ain,b utdepri va tion ca n  res ult in a w eakened one .

A p erso n who se brai nhas be enun dermined i n  this way  cansufferlo ng-t erm  behav iora l and c ogni ti vedifficult i e s. In  M a rch , astudy  a ppea red in th e  journal  Ac t a Paedi at ric a showin g  e e r ie ultraso und  imag e s  of fetuse s  tha t  m o re fr equent ly mov ed thei r  mo ut hs andtou c h ed theirfaces whe n  th ei r mo thers we re  eit he r s tr essed out or, e ven more  so, whe n they s mok e d ci g arette s— likely a sig n ofde l ayed ne r v ous -system 
 out,_the conditions_that attend poverty—what a_National Scientific_Council_report summarized_as_“overcrowding, noise, substandard_housing, separation from_parent(s), exposure to violence,_family turmoil,” and_other_forms of extreme stress—can be toxic to the developing brain, just like drug or_alcohol_abuse. These_conditions_provoke_the body to release hormones_such as cortisol, which is_produced in_the adrenal cortex. Brief bursts of cortisol can_help_a person manage_difficult situations, but high stress over the long term_can be disastrous. In a pregnant_woman, the hormone_can_“get_through the placenta into_the fetus,” Levitt told me, potentially_influencing her baby’s brain and tampering_with its circuitry. Later, as the same_child grows up, cortisol from his_own body may continue to_sabotage the_development of his brain.

In March,_in the journal_Nature Neuroscience,_a group of_researchers from nine hospitals and universities_published a major_study of more than a thousand_children._They took DNA_samples,_made_MRI scans_of the children’s_brains,_collected data_on_their families’ income level and educational_background,_and gave them a series of tests_for skills like reading_and_memory. The DNA samples_allowed the scientists to factor_out the influence of genetic heritage_and look_more closely_at how socioeconomic status affects a growing brain. The scans focussed_on over-all brain surface area, determined_partly from the depth_of the_folds_on the cortex,_and_the size_of the hippocampus, a lumpy, curled structure_nestled in_the middle of the brain that_stores memories. As might_be_expected, more educated families produced children_with greater brain surface area and_a more voluminous hippocampus. But_income_had_its own distinct effect: living_in the lowest bracket left children_with up to_six per cent less brain surface area_than_children from high-income families. At the_lowest_end of the income spectrum, little_increases_in_family earnings could mean larger_differences in the brain. At the_middle and upper income levels, though, the money-brain curve_flattened. In other_words, wealth can’t necessarily buy_a_better_brain, but deprivation can result in a weakened one.

A person_whose brain_has been undermined_in this way can suffer long-term behavioral and cognitive difficulties._In March, a study appeared in the_journal Acta Paediatrica showing eerie ultrasound images of fetuses that more_frequently moved their mouths and touched their faces_when their mothers were either stressed out_or, even more so,_when_they smoked cigarettes—likely a sign of delayed_nervous-system