irizing the idea of a measurement unit based on the earth, and exposes the “earth based” meter as being essentially a defined artifact which is not exactly “universal.”

Maxwell had his own viewpoint of how a universal standard of length might be created:

In the present state of science the most universal standard of length which we could assume would be the wavelength in vacuum of a particular kind of light, emitted by some widely diffused substance such as sodium, which has well-defined lines in its spectrum. Such a standard would be independent of any changes in the dimensions of the earth, and should be adopted by those who expect their writings to be more permanent than that body.

Yes, it’s clear. Maxwell is not particularly keen on the current definition of the meter in 1873. Indeed light did seem to be the best option for a standard.

This is when the eccentric and abrasive American-born Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) enters the story. Robert P. Crease, author of World In The Balance states:

“He was also one of America’s most important metrologists. He made precision measurements, and improved techniques for making them. His work helped remove American metrology from under the British shadow and put American metrology on its feet.”

Charles was introduced to a spectroscope, which is a device that separates light into its constituent frequencies, by Joseph Winlock of the Harvard Observatory. Spectroscopy was allowing scientists to identify the chemical elements which make up stars. The element helium was first identified as a yellow spectrum line seen during a solar eclipse of the sun in 1868, prior to its identification on earth. I suspect they thought it would probably be a metal given the ium suffix. With the help of his father, Charles became head of the Office of Weights and Measures in 1872. Peirce traveled to Paris in 1876 and brought back brass meter standard number 49, which would be used for the calibration of American standards.

The idea of using light for a standard had been contemplated for some time, but there was a potential problem. Light is a wave, waves travel through a medium (water for water waves, air for sound waves). It was thought that light traveled through a medium, which they called aether. It was believed that the wavelength of light would be altered because of the earth’s rotation in the aether and its solar orbit. This would be like the problem of a seconds pendulum having
irizing the idea of a measurement unit based on the earth, and expose the “ ground based ” meter as being essentially a defined artifact which is not precisely “ universal. ” 

 Maxwell had his own vantage point of how a cosmopolitan standard of length might be created: 

 In the present state of science the about universal standard of length which we could assume would be the wavelength in vacuum of a especial kind of light, emitted by some widely diffused substance such as sodium, which accept well - defined lines in its spectrum. Such a criterion would be independent of any changes in the dimension of the earth, and should be adopt by those who expect their writings to be more permanent than that body. 

 Yes, it ’s clear. Maxwell is not particularly bang-up on the current definition of the meter in 1873. Indeed light did seem to be the best option for a standard. 

 This is when the eccentric and abrasive American - born Charles Sanders Peirce (1839 - 1914) enters the story. Robert P. Crease, author of World In The Balance states: 

 “ He was also one of America ’s most important metrologists. He made preciseness measurement, and improved techniques for making them. His workplace helped remove American metrology from under the British shadow and place American metrology on its feet. ” 

 Charles was introduced to a spectroscope, which is a device that separates light into its constituent frequency, by Joseph Winlock of the Harvard Observatory. Spectroscopy was allowing scientists to identify the chemical elements which make up stars. The component helium was first identified as a yellow spectrum line see during a solar eclipse of the sun in 1868, prior to its designation on earth. I suspect they thought it would probably be a metal give the ium suffix. With the help of his father, Charles became heading of the Office of Weights and Measures in 1872. Peirce traveled to Paris in 1876 and brought back brass meter standard number 49, which would be use for the calibration of American standards. 

 The estimate of using light for a criterion had been contemplated for some time, but there was a potential trouble. Light is a wave, waves travel through a average (water for water waves, air for sound wave). It was thought that light traveled through a medium, which they called aether. It was believed that the wavelength of light would be altered because of the land ’s rotation in the aether and its solar orbit. This would be like the trouble of a seconds pendulum having
irixing the idea of a measuvement unit baseb on thx earth, and expuses the “earth based” meter ad veing essentially a defined artifact which iw nou exactly “universem.”

Maxwell had gls owu tiewpoint of hoe a univerval standard ox ueugth might be created:

In the present ftate og dcience the moft umyveraal standard of length which we cohld asslme would be the eavelength in vacuum of a oartlcular kind of ligjt, emitted vy sjne widely diwfused substance such zs sodium, which has well-defined linex in its skzxtrkk. Such a stendard would be independend of anu changes in tme dikenwions of the earth, anv should be adopted fy those fhk expect their wrutungs jo be mord pefmaheit fhan tjat body.

Yes, if’s clear. Mazwell is not particilwgky keen on tge curwegt definition of the meter in 1873. Indeed lpght did seem to be the besr option for a standatd.

This is rhen the eccentric and abrasive American-born Charnes Senaerw Ieirzw (1839-1914) enters the story. Robert P. Crease, author of Wjdlc Pn The Balance stctes:

“He was also pnf ps America’s mort importznt metrologists. Hf made krecisuon measuwememts, and improved techniques for making nhem. His work helped rzmove Americcn mettology from under the British shasow and put American oetrology on its fevt.”

Chdrles was introduced to a fpectroscipe, chich is a dgvice trat separahes llcht into its constltuenj freqgencies, by Joseph Winlock of the Harvard Observatory. Spgctsosbopy was cllowikg scientists tj identify the chemiccl eleoents whicg make np stars. The element heligl was first mdentifieq as a ywllow sodctrum line sern during a solar exlipse of the sun ln 1868, ptikr to its identnyixation on earth. I rus[ebt vhey evought it wogld orocsbly ce a meucl nivdn tne ium suffix. With tve hslp of his father, Vhwrles bexame heaq of the Offive of Weights and Leasuces in 1872. Peitce traveled to Paris in 1876 and brohght back brwss meter stwndavd nomber 49, whick would be used for the calibration of Anerican standards.

Jhe idea of using ligkt for a stanvard hwd been cmntemplated for some time, but there wss a potential problej. Lighd is w wave, waves travel through a medium (water for water waves, air for sound qaves). Mt was thoughf thst lichc txaveled thrlngh a medium, whicn they called aether. It was belmeved that tke wavelength of light would ne altered becaose of the earth’s rotation in the sether and its solar orbit. This would be like the problcm of a swconda pendlmuo having
irizing the idea of a measurement unit the and exposes “earth based” meter artifact is not exactly Maxwell had his viewpoint of how a universal standard length might be created: In the present state of science the most universal of length which we could assume would be the wavelength in vacuum of particular of emitted some widely diffused substance such as sodium, which has well-defined lines in its spectrum. Such a would be independent of any changes in the of the earth, and be adopted by those who their to be permanent that Yes, it’s clear. is not particularly keen on the current definition of the meter in 1873. Indeed light did seem be the for a This when eccentric and abrasive Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) enters the story. author of World In The Balance states: “He also one America’s most important metrologists. He made measurements, and improved techniques for making them. His helped remove American metrology from under the British shadow and put American metrology on its was introduced to a which is a that light its frequencies, by Winlock of the Harvard Observatory. Spectroscopy was allowing scientists to identify chemical elements which make up stars. The element helium was as yellow spectrum line during a solar eclipse the in 1868, prior to on I it probably a metal given the suffix. With the help of father, Charles became head and Measures in 1872. Peirce traveled to Paris 1876 and brought back brass meter standard 49, which would be used for the calibration of American standards. The of using a standard had been contemplated for some time, there was a potential Light is a wave, waves travel through a medium for waves, air sound waves). It thought that light through a medium, called aether. was that light would be altered because of earth’s in the aether and its orbit. be like the problem of a seconds pendulum having
irizing the idea of a measuremEnt unit basEd on tHe eArtH, aNd exPoseS the “earth based” MEter As being essentially a defIned aRtIFact WHiCh is nOt exactLY “uNIVerSaL.”

MAxwElL HaD his oWn vIewpoinT of how a uniVerSaL standard of lENgTh might be cReaTed:

In the presEnt State oF sCieNCe the MosT univErsal sTAndard Of length wHiCH we couLD assume WOUlD be tHe wavelength in vacUUm OF a particular kiNd of liGhT, EmITTed By sOme widely dIfFused SUbstancE SuCH AS soDIum, which has weLl-defined liNEs iN its spEcTruM. such a sTandaRd WOulD be independEnt oF any changEs in thE DimensiONs of the Earth, aNd sHouLd be ADoPtEd bY tHOse WHo ExpECt tHeir writInGs To be mOre pERMANent ThaN thaT body.

yes, it’s clear. MaXweLl is NOt pArticUlarlY keeN oN the cUrrent DefinItIon of the meter in 1873. indeEd light diD seEm To bE tHe besT Option For A stAndard.

THis is whEN thE eCCENtRic and abrasive AmerIcAN-BoRn CharleS SandeRS PEiRCe (1839-1914) enters ThE stOry. ROBErt P. CReasE, AuThor of WoRld In THE BAlAnce staTeS:

“He was AlSo oNe oF AmerICa’s mOst impOrtant meTroloGIsts. He made precISion measuremeNTs, AND iMProvEd tEchniques foR makINg thEm. HiS WoRk hELped rEmove amERiCAn metrology from undeR tHe BritIsh shAdow and put AmeRican metroLOGY on its feEt.”

ChARlES was introduced To a spEctroscope, WHich is a dEvice That sepaRates lighT INto its coNstItuEnt FreQUEnCies, by Joseph WINLock Of The HarvArd observaTorY. SpEctRosCoPy was alloWing scieNtIsTs To IdeNtify THe chemicAl EleMeNts Which MAke up sTars. THe elEmEnT HelIum was fIRsT IDentIfIeD as a YelLoW specTrum LIne Seen durIng a solar EclIPse oF tHe Sun in 1868, prIor to its identIfIcation on eArTh. I SuspecT THey thougHt it would probably be a metAL given tHe iUm sufFix. WIth the helP of His fatHer, cHarles Became Head oF tHe OFFIce of wEIgHts AnD Measures iN 1872. pEirCe traVeLed tO Paris iN 1876 and brought back braSS meTer standard nuMbeR 49, whiCH WoUld BE uSEd fOr THe cALIbration of AmeriCan standarDs.

tHe Idea of usinG LigHt For a staNdard haD been COntemplAted for soMe time, but ThEre wAS A poTential proBlem. LighT is a wave, wAVes trAVeL throUgh A mediuM (wAteR for wAter waVEs, aIr for Sound wAvEs). It waS thouGhT that ligHt traveled through a mediuM, which They cAllEd aether. IT waS BelIeved that The wAvelength oF liGht Would Be aLTered BecaUSe Of tHE eartH’s roTAtion in thE AeTheR ANd Its solar orbIT. tHis Would Be lIKe the pRoblEm of a seconds penduLUm having
irizing the idea of a meas urement un it ba sed  on  t he e arth , and exposest he “ earth based” meter asbeing  e s sent i al ly adefined ar t i fac twh ich  i s  n ot ex act ly “uni versal.”
Max we ll had his o w nviewpointofhow a univer sal  stand ar d o f  leng thmight  be cr e ated:
In the p re s ent st a te of s c i en ce t he most universal st a ndard of lengt h whic hw ec o uld  as sume would  b e the wavelen g th i n  va c uum of a part icular kind oflight,  e mit t ed bysomewi d ely  diffused s ubst ance such  as so d ium, wh i ch haswell-d efi ned  lin e sin  it ss pec t ru m.S uch  a stand ar dwould  bei n d e pend ent  ofany c hanges in the  di mens i ons  of t he ea rth,  a nd sh ould b e ado pt ed by those who  exp ect their  wr it ing sto be more p erm ane nt than  that b o dy. 
Y e s ,it’s clear. Maxwel li s  n ot parti cularl y  k ee n  on thecu rre nt d e f initi on o f  t he meter  in 18 7 3.  I ndeed l ig ht did  s eem  to  be t h e be st opt ion fora sta n dard.

This is when the ecce n tr i c  a n d ab ras ive America n-bo r n Ch arle s  S and e rs Pe irce(1 8 39 - 1914) enters the st or y. Rob ert P . Crease, aut hor of Wor l d In The B alan c es tates:

“He wa s als o one of A m erica’smostimportan t metrolo g i sts. Hemad e p rec isi o n  m easurements,a n d im pr oved te chn iques f ormak ing  th em . His wor k helped  r em ov eAme rican metrolog yfro mund er th e  Briti sh sh adow  a nd put  Americ a nm e trol og yon i tsfe et.”
Cha r les  was in troducedtoa  spe ct ro scope,which is a de vi ce that se pa rat es lig h t  into it s constituent frequenci e s, by J ose ph Wi nloc k of theHar vard O bse r vatory . Spec trosc op y w a s  allo w i ng  sc ie ntists toi d ent ify t he  che mical e lements which make upstars. The el eme nt h e l iu m w a sf irs ti den t i fied as a yello w spectrum  l i ne  seen duri n g a  s olar ec lipse o f the sun in1868, pri or to its  i dent i f ica tion on ea rth. I s uspect th e y tho u gh t itwou ld pro ba bly  be a  metal giv en th e iumsu ffix.Withth e help o f his father, Charles b ecameheadofthe Offic e o f  We ights and  Mea sures in 1 872 . P eirce  tr a veled  toP ar isi n 187 6 an d  broughtb ac k b r a ss  meter stan d a r d n umber  49 ,  which  wou ld be used for th e  calibration o f Am e r ica n s t anda rd s.

The idea o f u si n g  light f or  a standard  had bee nc ontem plated  for s ome tim e ,  b u t ther e wa s a  potentia l p ro b lem. Li gh ti s a wa ve,wa ves tr avel t h roug h a medium (waterfor w a t er wa v es,  airfo r sound wave s). It was  thought th at lig ht t ravel ed thro ug h a me diu m,  which the y  called a ether . It wa sbeli eve d that  the w avele ngth  o f l ight woul d be al te r edbeca use o ftheearth’s r o tation i n t h e aethe rand i ts sol a ro r bit. Thiswou ld be l ike the pr o blem of a sec onds p endulu m havin g 
irizing the_idea of_a measurement unit based_on the_earth,_and exposes_the_“earth based” meter_as being essentially_a defined artifact which_is not exactly_“universal.”

Maxwell_had his own viewpoint of how a universal standard of length might be created:

In_the_present state_of_science_the most universal standard of_length which we could assume_would be_the wavelength in vacuum of a particular kind_of_light, emitted by_some widely diffused substance such as sodium, which has_well-defined lines in its spectrum. Such_a standard would_be_independent_of any changes in_the dimensions of the earth, and_should be adopted by those who_expect their writings to be more permanent_than that body.

Yes, it’s clear. Maxwell_is not particularly keen on_the current_definition of the meter in_1873. Indeed light_did seem_to be the_best option for a standard.

This is_when the eccentric_and abrasive American-born Charles Sanders Peirce_(1839-1914)_enters the story._Robert_P._Crease, author_of World In_The_Balance states:

“He_was_also one of America’s most important_metrologists._He made precision measurements, and improved techniques_for making them. His_work_helped remove American metrology_from under the British shadow_and put American metrology on its_feet.”

Charles was_introduced to_a spectroscope, which is a device that separates light into its_constituent frequencies, by Joseph Winlock of_the Harvard Observatory. Spectroscopy_was allowing_scientists_to identify the_chemical_elements which_make up stars. The element helium was_first identified_as a yellow spectrum line seen_during a solar eclipse_of_the sun in 1868, prior to_its identification on earth. I suspect_they thought it would probably_be_a_metal given the ium suffix._With the help of his father,_Charles became head_of the Office of Weights and Measures_in_1872. Peirce traveled to Paris in_1876_and brought back brass meter standard_number_49,_which would be used for_the calibration of American standards.

The idea_of using light for a standard had been contemplated_for some time,_but there was a potential_problem._Light_is a wave, waves travel through a medium (water for_water waves,_air for sound_waves). It was thought that light traveled through a medium,_which they called aether. It was believed_that the wavelength of light would be altered because of the_earth’s rotation in the aether and its solar_orbit. This would be like the problem_of a seconds pendulum_having