 and international mission and tried to establish peace by means of the Truce of God and the Peace of God. Similar efforts to suppress private warfare were made by the kings of the rising national states, but the rule of brute force was not seriously checked until the beginning of the modern period.

During the Middle Ages there was but little consciousness of a direct legal relation among sovereign princes outside of the graded obligations of the feudal system. Separate principalities existed, but the sense of unity was so deep that the idea of distinct and reciprocal relations among them was lacking. The bond of relationship was felt not so much among the principalities themselves as with the higher authority to which they all were subjected. Disputes not settled by warfare were sometimes submitted to the arbitration of the Pope.

Kings, bishops, eminent jurists, and even cities were sometimes chosen as arbiters during the Middle Ages; but the practice did not materially mitigate warfare, and few general principles for the guidance of inter community relations were developed. For a time, indeed, there was even a tendency toward the View that states, in their mutual dealings, need recognize no law but the right of the strongest or most cunning. Machiavelli, in The Prince (1513), set forth the doctrine that in matters of state Ordinary rules of morality did not apply. Fortunately, other tendencies, in a different direction, were preparing the way for a more rational and humane conception of interstate relations.

Throughout Christendom there were common religious, common customs, and a language common to the educated classes. The ideal of world unity was fostered by tradition of the Roman Empire and by the cosmopolitanism of the Christian church. The revived study of Roman law in the twelfth century furnished a foundation for the growth of royal power and for an enlightened system of international jurisprudence. Churchmen, interested in the canon law, discussed certain international questions, especially those relating to war, from the point of view of general morality and Christian traditions. The Crusades aroused a sense of common interests and a consciousness of the unity of Christendom.

The ideals of chivalry emphasized honor and equitable dealing and tended somewhat to humanize warfare. Especially important was the revival of commerce which, centering in the Italian cities, was greatly stimulated by the Crusades. In spite of feudal disorder, piracy, and heavy port exactions, trade was gradually extended to northern Europe by overland routes and by the sea; and leagues of cities,
and international mission and tried to establish peace by mean of the Truce of God and the Peace of God. exchangeable efforts to suppress individual war were made by the kings of the rise national states, but the rule of brute force was not badly checked until the beginning of the modern period. 

 During the Middle Ages there was but short consciousness of a direct legal relation among sovereign princes outside of the rate obligations of the feudal system. Separate principality existed, but the sense of integrity was so bass that the idea of distinct and reciprocal relations among them was lacking. The bond of kinship was felt not so much among the principalities themselves as with the higher authority to which they all were subjugate. Disputes not settled by warfare were sometimes submitted to the arbitration of the Pope. 

 Kings, bishops, eminent jurists, and even cities were sometimes chosen as arbiters during the Middle Ages; but the exercise did not materially extenuate warfare, and few general principles for the steering of inter residential district relations were developed. For a time, indeed, there was even a tendency toward the View that states, in their mutual dealing, need recognize no law but the right of the strongest or most cunning. Machiavelli, in The Prince (1513), fructify forth the doctrine that in matters of state Ordinary rules of ethical motive did not apply. Fortunately, early tendencies, in a different direction, were preparing the way for a more rational and humanist conception of interstate relations. 

 Throughout Christendom there were common religious, common customs, and a language common to the educated course. The ideal of world one was fostered by tradition of the Roman Empire and by the cosmopolitanism of the Christian church service. The revived study of Roman law in the twelfth century supply a foundation for the emergence of royal power and for an enlightened system of international law. Churchmen, interested in the canon police, discussed certain international questions, especially those associate to war, from the point of view of cosmopolitan morality and Christian traditions. The Crusades aroused a sense of common interests and a consciousness of the oneness of Christendom. 

 The ideals of chivalry emphasized honor and equitable dealing and tended somewhat to humanize warfare. particularly significant was the revival of commerce which, centering in the Italian cities, was greatly stimulated by the Crusades. In spite of feudal disorder, plagiarism, and heavy port exactions, trade was gradually extended to northern Europe by overland routes and by the sea; and leagues of cities,
 anf international mission xnd tried to esjavlish 'eace bg means uf the Truce of God and the 'eacw of Tod. Similar efforts to suppress private warhare were made bb the kikys of bhe rnsmng national ststes, but tve rule of brude flrce was not seriously checked untij the brglnning of the iodegn perjod.

During the Middle Ages there waa but lpttle consciousnexs of a direct legal relatlon wmong sovereign prlnces outsiee os the graded ubligations of the feusal system. Separate principalitkes eristed, but jkw sftse of unitb was fo deep that the ided of dixtinct and reclprocel rwlations among them wes lacking. The bond jf relatimnahip was felt not si mucv ammng gye orihcmpamities thxmselves as with the hugher authority to ehybn they all wsre sufjqcted. Disputes not settled by warfare wtre skmetimes submitted to tye arbitration of the Pope.

Kingf, bishops, eminent jurists, and even cities were soketimxs chiscn ar agbiters during the Middle Ages; but the practiss cic not materialjy mitigate wwrgwre, and few ggneral 'dihciples for the guldance jf inrer commugity relations were developed. Fir a time, inbeee, there was even a tendency tuwarc the View that states, in thzir mufual dealinhs, need rszognize no law bjt nhe sight of the strongest or iost cunnmng. Mcchiavelui, im The [rince (1513), seh forbv the doctrine thah in ladters of shate Ordinary rules of morality did not apply. Fmrtlnately, ocher tcndencies, in a qifferent direetion, wexe preoaring the way foc a more ratyonal and humdje conceptioi of intewstare rwlationr.

Ghroughout Chrostendom nhtre were cimmon religious, cokmov customs, and a oantuage common to thd equbatxd clwvses. The idedl ow wutld uvity was fowgerec by tradition of tha Rojan Empire and by yhc cosmopooitanism of the Chrisyian church. The regived stndy of Roian law in the twelfth century furnishef a foundation sor bhe drowth of xoyal power and for an enlightened systen of international jurisprudence. Churehken, interesved in the canot law, discussed certqin international questions, especially those relahing to war, from the point of view of general morality and Christian tradutions. The Crusadea arpused a xense jf clomon interests amd a consciousness of the unity of Chrivtzndom.

The ideals of chivalry ekpfasized honor and equitable dealing ahd tendec somewhat to humanize warfare. Rspecially important was the revuval kf commercx which, centering in the Icalian cities, was greatly stimjlayef by the Frusedea. In spite of feudal disorder, pieacy, abd heavy port exacvions, trade axs grzdualli extended to norfherh Euroke by overland routes and by the sea; and leagues os cities,
and international mission and tried to establish means the Truce God and the to private warfare were by the kings the rising national states, but the of brute force was not seriously checked until the beginning of the modern During the Middle Ages there was but little consciousness of a direct legal among princes of graded obligations of the feudal system. Separate principalities existed, but the sense of unity was so that the idea of distinct and reciprocal relations them was lacking. The of relationship was felt not much the principalities as the authority to which all were subjected. Disputes not settled by warfare were sometimes submitted to the arbitration of the Pope. bishops, eminent even cities sometimes as during the Middle the practice did not materially mitigate general principles for the guidance of inter community were developed. a time, indeed, there was even tendency toward the View that states, in their dealings, need recognize no law but the right of the strongest or most cunning. Machiavelli, Prince (1513), set forth doctrine that in of Ordinary of did not Fortunately, other tendencies, in a different direction, were preparing the way a more rational and humane conception of interstate relations. Throughout were religious, common customs, a language common to educated The ideal of world fostered tradition Empire by cosmopolitanism of the Christian The revived study of Roman in the twelfth century growth of royal power and for an enlightened of international jurisprudence. Churchmen, interested in the law, discussed certain international questions, especially those relating to war, from the of view morality and Christian traditions. The Crusades aroused a of common interests and consciousness of the unity of Christendom. The ideals of emphasized and equitable and tended somewhat humanize warfare. Especially was the revival which, centering the cities, by the Crusades. In spite of disorder, and heavy port exactions, trade gradually northern Europe by overland routes and by the sea; and leagues of cities,
 and international mission anD tried to esTabliSh pEacE bY meaNs of The Truce of God aND the peace of God. Similar efforTs to sUpPRess PRiVate wArfare wERe MADe bY tHe KinGs OF tHe risIng NationaL states, but The RuLe of brute forCE wAs not serioUslY checked untiL thE beginNiNg oF The moDerN periOd.

DuriNG the MiDdle Ages tHeRE was buT Little cONScIousNess of a direct legaL ReLAtion among soveReign pRiNCeS OUtsIde Of the gradeD oBligaTIons of tHE fEUDAl sYStem. Separate pRincipalitiES exIsted, bUt The SEnse of Unity WaS So dEep that the iDea oF distinct And recIProcal rELations Among tHem Was LackINg. thE boNd OF reLAtIonSHip Was felt nOt So Much aMong THE PRincIpaLitiEs theMselves as with The HighER auThoriTy to wHich ThEy all Were suBjectEd. disputes not settLed bY warfare wEre SoMetImEs subMItted tO thE arBitratiOn of the pOpe.

kiNGS, BiShops, eminent juristS, aND EvEn cities Were soMEtImES chosen aS aRbiTers DURing tHe MiDDlE Ages; but The praCTiCe Did not mAtEriallY mItiGatE warfARe, anD few geNeral priNciplES for the guidancE Of inter communITy RELaTIons WerE developed. FOr a tIMe, inDeed, THeRe wAS even A tendEnCY tOWard the View that statEs, In theiR mutuAl dealings, neeD recognize NO LAw but the RighT Of THe strongest or mOst cuNning. MachiAVelli, in THe PriNce (1513), set foRth the docTRIne that iN maTteRs oF stATE ORdinary rules oF MOralItY did not AppLy. FortuNatEly, OthEr tEnDencies, in A differeNt DiReCtIon, Were pREparing tHe Way FoR a mOre raTIonal aNd humAne cOnCePTioN of inteRStATE relAtIoNs.

ThRouGhOut ChRistENdoM there wEre common RelIGiouS, cOmMon custOms, and a languaGe Common to thE eDucAted clASSes. The idEal of world unity was fosteREd by traDitIon of The ROman EmpirE anD by the CosMOpolitAnism oF the CHrIstIAN churCH. thE reViVed study of rOMan Law in ThE tweLfth cenTury furnished a founDAtiOn for the growtH of RoyaL POwEr aND fOR an EnLIghTENed system of inteRnational jUrISpRudence. ChuRChmEn, InteresTed in thE canoN Law, discUssed certAin internAtIonaL QUesTions, especIally thoSe relatinG To war, FRoM the pOinT of vieW oF geNeral MoraliTY anD ChriStian tRaDitionS. The CRuSades aroUsed a sense of common interEsts anD a conSciOusness of The UNitY of ChristEndoM.

The ideals Of cHivAlry eMphASized HonoR AnD eqUItablE deaLIng and tenDEd SomEWHaT to humanize WARFarE. EspeCiaLLy impoRtanT was the revival of cOMmerce which, cenTeriNG In tHe ITAliaN cIties, was greatlY stImULAted by thE CRusades. In spIte of feuDaL DisorDer, pirAcy, and Heavy poRT ExACtions, TradE waS graduallY exTeNDed to noRtHeRN EuropE by oVeRland rOutes aND by tHE Sea; and leagues of cIties,
 and international mission  and tried  to e sta bli sh  pea ce b y means of the Truc e of God and the Peace  of G od .  Sim i la r eff orts to su p p res spr iva te wa rfare  we re made  by the ki ngs  o f the rising na tional sta tes , but the ru leof bru te  fo r ce wa s n ot se riousl y  check ed untilth e  begin n ing oft h emode rn period.

Durin g  t h e Middle Agestherewa s  b u t  li ttl e consciou sn ess o f  a dire c tl e g alr elation among  sovereignp rin ces ou ts ide of the  grad ed obl igations of  the  feudal s ystem. Separat e  princi paliti esexi sted ,  b ut  th es ens e  o f u n ity  was sode ep  that  the i d e a of  di stin ct an d reciprocalrel atio n s a mongthemwasla cking . Thebondof  relationship w as f elt not s o m uc h a mo ng th e  princ ipa lit ies the mselves aswi t h th e higher authority  t o wh ich they  all w e re  s u bjected.  D isp utes n ot se ttle d  b y warfar e were so me times s ub mitted  t o t hearbit r atio n of t he Pope. 

Kin g s, bishops, em i nent jurists, an d ev e n ci tie s were some time s  cho sena sarb i tersdurin gt he Middle Ages; but th epracti ce di d not materia lly mitiga t e warfare,  and fe w  general princ iples  for the g u idance o f int er commu nity rela t i ons were  de vel ope d.F o ra time, indee d ,  the re  was ev ena tende ncy  to war d t he  View tha t states ,in  t he irmutua l  dealing s,  ne ed  re cogni z e no l aw bu t th eri g htof thes tr o n gest  o rmost  cu nn ing.Mach i ave lli, in  The Prin ce( 1513 ),  s et fort h the doctrin ethat in ma tt ers  of st a t e Ordina ry rules of morality di d  not ap ply . For tuna tely, oth ertenden cie s , in a  diffe rentdi rec t i on, w e r epre pa ring the w a y  fo r a m or e ra tionaland humane concept i onof interstate  re lati o n s. 

T h ro u gho ut Chr i s tendom there we re commonre l ig ious, comm o n c us toms, a nd a la nguag e  common  to the e ducated c la sses . The  ideal ofworld un ity was f o stere d  b y tra dit ion of  t heRoman  Empir e  an d bythe co sm opolit anism  o f the Ch ristian church. The rev ived s tudyofRoman law  in the  twelfthcent ury furnis hed  afound ati o n for  the gr owt h  of r oyal power and fo r a n en lightened s y s t emof in ter n ationa l ju risprudence. Chur c hmen, interest ed i n the  ca n on l aw , discussed ce rta in i nternati on al question s, espec ia l ly th ose re lating  to war , fr o m thepoin t o f view of  ge ne r al mora li ty and Ch rist ia n trad itions .  The C rusades arouseda sen s e  of c o mmo n int er ests an d  a c onsciousne ss of the u nity o f Ch riste ndom.
Th e idea lsof  chivalrye mphasized  hono r and e qu itab ledealin g an d tende d so me wha t to huma n i ze wa rf a re.  Esp ecial ly  imp ortant wa s  the rev iva l  of com me rce w hich,c en t e ring in th e I talia n cities, wa s  gre a tl y  stim ulated  by th e Crusa d es.  I n spite  of f eudal dis order, pi r acy ,andheavy po rt  exa ct ion s,  trade was grad ually ex tended t o northe rnE urop e  by ov er land routesand b yt he sea; a ndleagues ofcit ies ,
 and_international mission_and tried to establish_peace by_means_of the_Truce_of God and_the Peace of_God. Similar efforts to_suppress private warfare_were_made by the kings of the rising national states, but the rule of brute_force_was not_seriously_checked_until the beginning of the_modern period.

During the Middle Ages_there was_but little consciousness of a direct legal relation_among_sovereign princes outside_of the graded obligations of the feudal system. Separate_principalities existed, but the sense of_unity was so_deep_that_the idea of distinct_and reciprocal relations among them was_lacking. The bond of relationship was_felt not so much among the principalities_themselves as with the higher authority_to which they all were_subjected. Disputes_not settled by warfare were_sometimes submitted to_the arbitration_of the Pope.

Kings,_bishops, eminent jurists, and even cities_were sometimes chosen_as arbiters during the Middle Ages;_but_the practice did_not_materially_mitigate warfare,_and few general_principles_for the_guidance_of inter community relations were developed._For_a time, indeed, there was even a_tendency toward the View_that_states, in their mutual_dealings, need recognize no law_but the right of the strongest_or most_cunning. Machiavelli,_in The Prince (1513), set forth the doctrine that in matters_of state Ordinary rules of morality_did not apply. Fortunately,_other tendencies,_in_a different direction,_were_preparing the_way for a more rational and humane_conception of_interstate relations.

Throughout Christendom there were common_religious, common customs, and_a_language common to the educated classes._The ideal of world unity was_fostered by tradition of the_Roman_Empire_and by the cosmopolitanism of_the Christian church. The revived study_of Roman law_in the twelfth century furnished a foundation_for_the growth of royal power and_for_an enlightened system of international jurisprudence._Churchmen,_interested_in the canon law, discussed_certain international questions, especially those relating_to war, from the point of view of general_morality and Christian_traditions. The Crusades aroused a_sense_of_common interests and a consciousness of the unity of Christendom.

The_ideals of_chivalry emphasized honor_and equitable dealing and tended somewhat to humanize warfare. Especially_important was the revival of commerce which,_centering in the Italian cities, was greatly stimulated by the Crusades._In spite of feudal disorder, piracy, and heavy_port exactions, trade was gradually extended to_northern Europe by overland_routes_and by the sea; and leagues of_cities,