 from 96% to around 80%. So that’s getting better. Unfortunately, or perhaps fortunately, a lot of that is due to the entry of China into genetics. A lot of that was due to large-scale studies in Chinese and East Asian populations. Hispanics, for example, make up less than 1% of genome-wide association studies. So we need to do better. Ultimately, we want precision medicine to benefit everybody.

Aside from a fairness issue, why is diversity in genomic data important? What do we miss without it?

First of all, it has nothing to do with political correctness. It has everything to do with human biology and the fact that human populations and the great diaspora of human migrations have left their mark on the human genome. The genetic underpinnings of health and disease have shared components across human populations and things that are unique to different populations.

How does that play out?

Diabetes is a great example. If we look at the genetics of diabetes, they are different in different parts of the world. In the early 2010s, the Broad [Institute of MIT and Harvard] did a study with the National Institute of Genomic Medicine in Mexico to study the genetics of diabetes. Sure enough, they found a genetic variant that has a 25% frequency in Mexico that you don’t see in European, East Asian, or African populations. It is largely seen only in the Americas, and it underscores a large part of ethnic disparity in diabetes.

“We can’t use genetics for the purpose of trying to define the stories we tell about ourselves.”

We’ve done research on seemingly innocuous traits like blond hair. There is no more striking phenotype. Some people have blond hair and some people don’t. And the cause of blond hair in Melanesia is completely different from the cause in Europe—and that’s blond hair. So why do you think diabetes, heart disease, all these other complex traits will have identical causes in all humans? It doesn’t make sense.

It turns out the highest prevalence of asthma [in the US] is in individuals of Puerto Rican ancestry, followed by individuals of African-American ancestry, followed by European ancestry. The people with the lowest rate of asthma are those of Mexican ancestry. You have two of the Hispanic populations at the opposite ends of the spectrum.

Why is detailing these genetic differences helpful for medicine?

If the genetic etiology of
from 96% to around 80% . So that ’s getting better. Unfortunately, or perhaps fortunately, a fortune of that is ascribable to the entry of China into genetics. A lot of that was ascribable to large - plate studies in Chinese and East Asian population. spanish american, for example, make up less than 1% of genome - wide association studies. indeed we need to do well. Ultimately, we want precision medicine to benefit everybody. 

 Aside from a fairness topic, why is diversity in genomic data important? What do we neglect without it? 

 First of all, it has nothing to suffice with political correctness. It has everything to make with human biology and the fact that human populations and the great diaspora of human migrations have left their bell ringer on the human genome. The genetic underpinnings of health and disease have shared components across human populations and things that are unique to different populations. 

 How does that play out? 

 Diabetes is a great example. If we look at the genetics of diabetes, they are different in different parts of the world. In the early 2010s, the Broad [ Institute of MIT and Harvard ] did a survey with the National Institute of Genomic Medicine in Mexico to study the genetics of diabetes. Sure enough, they discover a genic variant that has a 25% frequency in Mexico that you do n’t determine in European, East Asian, or African populations. It is largely seen only in the Americas, and it underscores a big part of ethnic disparity in diabetes. 

 “ We ca n’t use genetics for the purpose of trying to define the fib we tell about ourselves. ” 

 We ’ve done research on seemingly innocent traits like blond haircloth. There constitute no more striking phenotype. Some people have blond hair's-breadth and some people do n’t. And the cause of blond hair's-breadth in Melanesia is completely different from the cause in Europe — and that ’s blond hair. indeed why do you think diabetes, kernel disease, all these other complex traits will suffer identical causes in all world? It does n’t make common sense. 

 It turns out the highest preponderance of asthma [ in the US ] is in individuals of Puerto Rican ancestry, followed by individuals of African - American ancestry, stick to by European ancestry. The people with the lowest rate of asthma are those of Mexican ancestry. You have two of the Hispanic populations at the opposite end of the spectrum. 

 Why is detailing these genetic difference helpful for medicine? 

 If the genetic etiology of
 frlm 96% to around 80%. So that’s netting better. Uudortunetely, od perhapr fortunately, a lot of that ms dye to the entry of China ingo genetibs. A lot if tiat was due to ledge-scalc stusles iu Rhinese and Easj Asian popunations. Hispanhcr, yor example, make up less than 1% of gegome-widr wssociation stodies. Fo ws need to do better. Ultimately, we sant prtcision medicine tp benefit everybody.

Aside fgom w fairness issue, wjy is diverwity un genomic dxta important? What do se miss without it?

First of all, kt hax nothing jo dl with politmcal cjrrectness. Ib has eeerythimg to do with muman biilogy and the fact thet human populations and the crzat diaspora of human mugrathons havd lewt uhemr jark oj tie human gehome. The gebetic underpinnings os health and djsease hwve shared components across human popunatjons and things that arw unique to different populatijns.

How does that play out?

Diabetes is a great exam[le. Ih de oojy ah the genetics of diabetes, they are different jn dpfferent parts of the world. On tng early 2010s, the Croad [Nhsfitute of MIT and Jarvard] did q study wyth yhe National Institute of Gwnomic Medicpne un Mexico to study the geneties of ciabeyes. Sure enough, they fobnd a fenetic varlant that fas a 25% frequency in Maxico that you don’t see in European, Easc Asian, ur Agrican populatiojs. It is largely seen onpy in tve Americad, and it underscores a large pacv of ethnic dos[arpty in dicbetes.

“Ee can’t use gqnetics for thg purpose of tfying to dvfine the stories we tell about ogtselves.”

We’ve dmne resewrch on weeminguh innocuous trsits like blond haie. There is no more sttiiing phenotype. Womt people have blpnd hayr aid soia people don’d. Ana tfr caure of blond fair in Melanesia is com[letsly different from tme cause un Europq—and that’s blpnd hair. So why do you vhink viabetrs, reart disease, all these other domplex tgaibs will have ydenbicaj causes iu all humans? It doesn’t make sense.

It turnw out the highest prevalence of asthmc [ln the US] is in igdividualv of Puerto Rican anxestry, followed bn individuals of Africzn-Amerhcan wncestry, followed by European ancestry. The people with the lowest rate of asthme wre those or Mecican aucextry. Yju hevx two of the Hispsnic populations at the oppositx ends of dhz spectrum.

Why is detailing thrsd genetic difwerences helpful for medjcine?

If yhe genetic etiology of
from 96% to around 80%. So that’s Unfortunately, perhaps fortunately, lot of that of into genetics. A of that was to large-scale studies in Chinese and Asian populations. Hispanics, for example, make up less than 1% of genome-wide association So we need to do better. Ultimately, we want precision medicine to benefit Aside a issue, is diversity in genomic data important? What do we miss without it? First of all, it nothing to do with political correctness. It has to do with human and the fact that human and great diaspora human have their mark on human genome. The genetic underpinnings of health and disease have shared components across human populations and things are unique populations. How that out? is a great we look at the genetics of different in different parts of the world. In early 2010s, Broad [Institute of MIT and Harvard] a study with the National Institute of Genomic in Mexico to study the genetics of diabetes. Sure enough, they found a genetic variant a 25% frequency in that you don’t in East or populations. It largely seen only in the Americas, and it underscores a large of ethnic disparity in diabetes. “We can’t use genetics for of to define the we tell about ourselves.” done on seemingly innocuous traits hair. is phenotype. people blond hair and some don’t. And the cause of hair in Melanesia is in Europe—and that’s blond hair. So why do think diabetes, heart disease, all these other traits will have identical causes in all humans? It doesn’t make sense. turns out prevalence of asthma [in the US] is in of Puerto Rican ancestry, by individuals of African-American ancestry, followed by European ancestry. people the lowest of asthma are of Mexican ancestry. have two of populations at opposite of is detailing these genetic differences helpful medicine? the genetic etiology of
 from 96% to around 80%. So that’s gettinG better. UnfOrtunAteLy, oR pErhaPs foRtunately, a lot oF That Is due to the entry of China Into gEnETics. a LoT of thAt was duE To LARge-ScAlE stUdIEs In ChiNesE and EasT Asian popuLatIoNs. Hispanics, fOR eXample, make Up lEss than 1% of genOme-Wide asSoCiaTIon stUdiEs. So wE need tO Do bettEr. UltimatElY, We want PRecisioN MEdIcinE to benefit everyboDY.

ASIde from a fairneSs issuE, wHY iS DIveRsiTy in genomiC dAta imPOrtant? WHAt DO WE miSS without it?

FirSt of all, it haS NotHing to Do WitH PolitiCal coRrECtnEss. It has eveRythIng to do wiTh humaN Biology ANd the faCt that HumAn pOpulATiOnS anD tHE grEAt DiaSPorA of human MiGrAtionS havE LEFT theIr mArk oN the hUman genome. The GenEtic UNdeRpinnIngs oF heaLtH and dIsease Have sHaRed components acRoss Human popuLatIoNs aNd ThingS That arE unIquE to diffErent poPUlaTiONS.

hoW does that play out?

DiAbETEs Is a great ExamplE. if We LOok at the GeNetIcs oF DIabetEs, thEY aRe differEnt in dIFfErEnt partS oF the woRlD. In The Early 2010S, The BRoad [InStitute oF MIT aND Harvard] did a stUDy with the NatiONaL iNsTItutE of genomic MediCine IN MexIco tO StUdy THe genEtics Of DIaBEtes. Sure enough, they fOuNd a genEtic vAriant that has A 25% frequency IN mExico thaT you DOn’T See in European, EAst AsIan, or AfricAN populatIons. IT is largeLy seen onlY IN the AmerIcaS, anD it UndERScOres a large parT OF ethNiC disparIty In diabeTes.

“we cAn’t Use GeNetics for The purpoSe Of TrYiNg tO defiNE the storIeS we TeLl aBout oURselveS.”

We’ve Done ReSeARch On seemiNGlY INnocUoUs TraiTs lIkE blonD haiR. theRe is no mOre strikiNg pHEnotYpE. SOme peopLe have blond haIr And some peoPlE doN’t. And tHE Cause of bLond hair in Melanesia is coMPletely DifFerenT froM the cause In EUrope—aNd tHAt’s bloNd hair. so why Do You THInk diABEtEs, hEaRt disease, aLL TheSe othEr CompLex traiTs will have identicaL CauSes in all humanS? It DoesN’T MaKe sENsE.

it tUrNS ouT THe highest prevalEnce of asthMa [IN tHe US] is in inDIviDuAls of PuErto RicAn ancEStry, folLowed by inDividuals Of afriCAN-AmErican anceStry, follOwed by EurOPean aNCeStry. THe pEople wItH thE loweSt rate OF asThma aRe thosE oF MexicAn ancEsTry. You haVe two of the Hispanic populAtions At the OppOsite ends Of tHE spEctrum.

Why Is deTailing theSe gEneTic diFfeREnces HelpFUl For MEdiciNe?

If THe genetic ETiOloGY Of
 from 96% to around 80%. S o that’s g ettin g b ett er . Un fort unately, or pe r haps  fortunately, a lot of  that  i s  due to  theentry o f  C h i nain to  ge ne t ic s. Alot  of tha t was duetola rge-scale st u di es in Chin ese  and East As ian  popul at ion s . His pan ics,for ex a mple,make up l es s  than1 % of ge n o me -wid e association stu d ie s . So we need t o do b et t er . Ult ima tely, we w an t pre c ision m e di c i n e t o  benefit ever ybody.

Asi d e f rom afa irn e ss iss ue, w hy isdiversity i n ge nomic dat a impo r tant? W h at do w e miss  wi tho ut i t ?
F irs to f a l l,  it has  nothing  t odo wi th p o l i t ical  co rrec tness . It has ever yth ingt o d o wit h hum an b io logyand th e fac tthat human popu lati ons and t hegr eat  d iaspo r a of h uma n m igratio ns have lef tt h e ir  mark on the human  g e n om e. The g enetic un de r pinnings  o f h ealt h and d isea s ehave sha red co m po ne nts acr os s huma npop ula tions andthings  that ar e uni q ue to differen t  populations. 
H o w  d o es t hat  play out?
Dia b etes  isa  g rea t  exam ple.If we look at the genetic sof dia betes , they are di fferent in d i fferentpart s  o f  the world. In  theearly 2010 s , the Br oad [ Institut e of MITa n d Harvar d]did  astu d y  w ith the Natio n a l In st itute o f G enomicMed ici neinMe xico to s tudy the  g en et ic s o f dia b etes. Su re  en ou gh,  they founda gen etic  v ar i ant  that h a sa 25%fr eq uenc y i nMexic o th a t y ou don’ t see inEur o pean ,Ea st Asia n, or African  p opulations .Itis lar g e ly seenonly in the Americas, a n d it un der score s alarge par t o f ethn icd ispari ty indiabe te s.“ We ca n ’ tuse  g enetics fo r the  purp os e of  trying  to define the sto r ies  we tell abou t o urse l v es .”We ’ vedo n e r e s earch on seemin gly innocu ou s  t raits like blo nd  hair.There i s nom ore str iking phe notype. S om e pe o p lehave blond  hair an d some pe o ple d o n’ t. An d t he cau se  of  blon d hair inMelan esia i scomple telydi fferentfrom the cause in Europ e—andthat’ s b lond hair . S o  wh y do youthin k diabetes , h ear t dis eas e , all  the s eoth e r com plex traits wi l lhav e id entical cau s e s  in  allhum a ns? It  doe sn’t make sense.It turns out t he h i g hes t p r eval en ce of asthma [ inth e US] is i nindividuals  of Puer to Rican  ances try, f ollowed b yi ndivid uals  of  African- Ame ri c an ance st ry ,  follo wedby  Europ ean an c estr y .  The people with  thel o westr ate  of a st hma are thos e of Mexic an ancestry . Youhave  twoof theHi spanic  po pu lations at the oppos ite e nds ofth e sp ect rum.
Whyi s  deta ilin gthe se geneti c di f fe re n ces  hel pfulfo r me dicine?
I f the ge net i c etiol og y o f 
 from_96% to_around 80%. So that’s_getting better._Unfortunately,_or perhaps_fortunately,_a lot of_that is due_to the entry of_China into genetics._A_lot of that was due to large-scale studies in Chinese and East Asian populations._Hispanics,_for example,_make_up_less than 1% of genome-wide_association studies. So we need_to do_better. Ultimately, we want precision medicine to benefit_everybody.

Aside_from a fairness_issue, why is diversity in genomic data important? What_do we miss without it?

First of_all, it has_nothing_to_do with political correctness._It has everything to do with_human biology and the fact that_human populations and the great diaspora of_human migrations have left their mark_on the human genome. The_genetic underpinnings_of health and disease have_shared components across_human populations_and things that_are unique to different populations.

How does_that play out?

Diabetes_is a great example. If we_look_at the genetics_of_diabetes,_they are_different in different_parts_of the_world._In the early 2010s, the Broad_[Institute_of MIT and Harvard] did a study_with the National Institute_of_Genomic Medicine in Mexico_to study the genetics of_diabetes. Sure enough, they found a_genetic variant_that has_a 25% frequency in Mexico that you don’t see in European,_East Asian, or African populations. It_is largely seen only_in the_Americas,_and it underscores_a_large part_of ethnic disparity in diabetes.

“We can’t use_genetics for_the purpose of trying to define_the stories we tell_about_ourselves.”

We’ve done research on seemingly innocuous_traits like blond hair. There is_no more striking phenotype. Some_people_have_blond hair and some people_don’t. And the cause of blond_hair in Melanesia_is completely different from the cause in_Europe—and_that’s blond hair. So why do_you_think diabetes, heart disease, all these_other_complex_traits will have identical causes_in all humans? It doesn’t make_sense.

It turns out the highest prevalence of asthma [in_the US] is_in individuals of Puerto Rican_ancestry,_followed_by individuals of African-American ancestry, followed by European ancestry. The_people with_the lowest rate_of asthma are those of Mexican ancestry. You have two_of the Hispanic populations at the opposite_ends of the spectrum.

Why is detailing these genetic differences helpful for_medicine?

If the genetic etiology of