 that followed the murder.

Caligula’s reign may not have started too badly. There was perhaps one of those brief honeymoon periods which regularly accompanied a change of ruler in ancient Rome. In Caligula: A Biography, Winterling points to a range of conciliatory measures in the early months. Incriminating documents relating to treason trials under Tiberius were put on a bonfire in the Forum (though it later emerged that Caligula had secretly kept copies). A system of popular elections for magistrates was (at least temporarily) reintroduced, while generous cash handouts were paid to the people of Rome and to the soldiers. In his first major speech to the Senate, he denounced the unpopular actions of his predecessor and promised he would behave better. The canny senators, suspecting that he might forget his promises, ruled that the speech should be recited annually (it looked like a tribute to the new ruler’s oratory: in reality it was an attempt to hold him to his pledge of good behaviour).

Even so most of the ancient accounts of Caligula’s reign focus on his cruelty, his excesses and (following Suetonius, who wrote the classic biography of the emperor almost a hundred years after his death) his clinical insanity – an unpredictable mixture of fits, anxiety, insomnia and hallucinations. A whole range of stories tell how he claimed to be a god, to hold conversations with Jupiter and to sleep with the moon goddess. He is said to have built a bridge to link his palace on the Palatine hill with the major temples on the nearby Capitoline hill, as if to unite secular and religious power in the state. There is also plenty of talk about his ridiculously extravagant lifestyle (from serving food covered in gold leaf to draping his wife in jewellery that was worth a good deal more than the total fortune of the average Roman senator) and, of course, about his capricious sadism. According to Suetonius, he forced a father to watch the execution of his son and then, later that day, to dine with him at the palace. (Why on earth did the man turn up to dinner? Answer: because he had another son.) He used criminals as food for his wild beasts when beef became too expensive. On one occasion, after recovering from an illness, he insisted that a loyal citizen who had vowed to offer his own life if the emperor survived, should stand by his vow and die.


that followed the murder. 

 Caligula ’s reign may not have started too badly. There be possibly one of those brief honeymoon periods which regularly play along a variety of ruler in ancient Rome. In Caligula: A Biography, Winterling points to a range of compromising meter in the early calendar month. Incriminating documents relate to treason trials under Tiberius were invest on a bonfire in the Forum (though it subsequently emerged that Caligula had secretly kept copies). A system of popular election for magistrates was (at least temporarily) reintroduced, while generous cash handouts were yield to the people of Rome and to the soldiers. In his first major speech to the Senate, he denounce the unpopular actions of his predecessor and promised he would behave better. The cagey senators, suspecting that he might forget his promises, ruled that the speech should be recited per annum (it look like a tribute to the new ruler ’s oratory: in reality it was an attempt to hold him to his pledge of good behaviour). 

 Even thus most of the ancient accounts of Caligula ’s reign focus on his cruelty, his overindulgence and (follow Suetonius, who wrote the classic biography of the emperor about a hundred years after his end) his clinical insanity – an unpredictable mixture of fits, anxiety, insomnia and hallucination. A whole range of stories tell how he claimed to be a god, to hold conversations with Jupiter and to sleep with the moon goddess. He is said to have built a bridge to link his palace on the Palatine mound with the major temples on the nearby Capitoline mound, as if to unite secular and religious power in the state. There is besides plenty of talk about his ridiculously extravagant lifestyle (from serving food covered in gold leaf to draping his wife in jewelry that was worth a good deal more than the total fortune of the modal Roman senator) and, of course, about his capricious sadism. harmonize to Suetonius, he forced a forefather to watch the murder of his son and then, later that day, to dine with him at the palace. (Why on earth did the man turn up to dinner? suffice: because he had another son .) He used criminals as food for his hazardous beasts when beef became besides expensive. On one juncture, after recovering from an illness, he insisted that a firm citizen who had vowed to offer his own life sentence if the emperor survived, should stand by his vow and fail.
 thwt followed the murder.

Cauigula’s reign mct not iave stzrted tou badly. There was perhaps onx of thost brief honeymoon pdriods whpch regulqrly qccompaniev a channz of dmler nn ancient Rome. Ln Caligula: A Biography, Whngexling points to a range of conciliatjry meaxuges in the earjy mpgths. Pngriminating documents relating tk treasmn trials undrr Tiberius were put on a honflre in the Forum (tjough it lajsr qnerged that Zaligula had secretly iept copies). A system of popular eleccions for mqgustgdtes was (at leasn temporarily) reintroguced, wnile generous gash iandiuts were paid to the people of Rome anq to the vomdiers. In his firwt majot speach gi tfe Aeiats, he dfnonnced the uhpopular acrions of his predectssjg and promises he wjujd behave better. The canny senators, suskectihg that he might forget his promises, ruled tjat the s[eech should be recited annually (it looked like a tribntd ti bhe vww ruler’s oratory: in reality it was an attempt ek nokd him to his iledge of good behsvloit).

Even so most uf the andient accounts of Faligulw’s reugn focus on nis cruelty, his excesses ane (following Fyetonius, who wrote the classie biogtaphy pf the emperor almost a hunsred years wfter his aeath) his clinicxl pnsatity – an unpredictable mixeure of fmts, auxiety, ivsommia anq hallucinwtions. A whole range of dtorigs teln how he cpaimed to be a god, to hold convxcsations with Jgpiner and tj slecp with the moog goddess. He ix said co havd built a gridge vo link his [alace on the Kalatine hill with thq mahor remples un the nearby Vapitolinv kill, as id to unite secular ana religious powex un the state. Thrre is apsp [nenty of taln abuut nis rkdiculously dxtrsvagant lifestyle (frmm ssrving food coverec ln gold lgaf to drwping his wifr in jewellery thau was xorth e good dewl more than the total fortune of the agerwge Roman segatov) anq, of coursz, about his capricious sadism. According vo Suetonius, he forced q father to watch tke execution pf hif son and then, later that day, to dine with him at the palace. (Why on earth did hhe man turn up to dinner? Answer: because he had another son.) He used crimibals as food for hjs wold bvascs chen beqf bxceme too expensive. On one occasion, after recoveriig from an ijlness, he insisted that a louau citizen who had vowed to offer his kwn life if the emperor survived, should stand by his vow and dic.


that followed the murder. Caligula’s reign may started badly. There perhaps one of regularly a change of in ancient Rome. Caligula: A Biography, Winterling points to range of conciliatory measures in the early months. Incriminating documents relating to treason under Tiberius were put on a bonfire in the Forum (though it later that had kept A system of popular elections for magistrates was (at least temporarily) reintroduced, while generous cash handouts paid to the people of Rome and to soldiers. In his first speech to the Senate, he the actions of predecessor promised would behave better. canny senators, suspecting that he might forget his promises, ruled that the speech should be recited annually looked like to the ruler’s in it was an hold him to his pledge of so most of the ancient accounts of Caligula’s focus on cruelty, his excesses and (following Suetonius, wrote the classic biography of the emperor almost hundred years after his death) his clinical insanity – an unpredictable mixture of fits, anxiety, hallucinations. A whole range stories tell how claimed be god, hold conversations Jupiter and to sleep with the moon goddess. He is said have built a bridge to link his palace on the with major temples on nearby Capitoline hill, as to secular and religious power state. is talk his extravagant lifestyle (from serving covered in gold leaf to his wife in jewellery deal more than the total fortune of the Roman senator) and, of course, about his sadism. According to Suetonius, he forced a father to watch the execution his son later that day, to dine with him at palace. (Why on earth the man turn up to dinner? Answer: because he another He used as food for wild beasts when became too expensive. occasion, after from illness, a loyal citizen who had vowed offer own life if the emperor should his vow and die.
 that followed the murder.

CaliGula’s reign May noT haVe sTaRted Too bAdly. There was peRHaps One of those brief honeymoOn perIoDS whiCH rEgulaRly accoMPaNIEd a ChAnGe oF rULeR in anCieNt Rome. IN Caligula: A bioGrAphy, WinterliNG pOints to a raNge Of conciliatoRy mEasureS iN thE Early MonThs. InCriminATing doCuments reLaTIng to tREason trIALs UndeR Tiberius were put oN A bONfire in the ForuM (thougH iT LaTER emErgEd that CaliGuLa had SEcretly KEpT COPieS). a system of popuLar electionS For MagistRaTes WAs (at leAst teMpORarIly) reintrodUced, While geneRous caSH handouTS were paId to thE peOplE of ROMe AnD to ThE SolDIeRs. IN His First majOr SpEech tO the sENATe, he DenOuncEd the Unpopular actiOns Of hiS PreDecesSor anD proMiSed he Would bEhave BeTter. The canny senAtorS, suspectiNg tHaT he MiGht foRGet his ProMisEs, ruled That the SPeeCh SHOUlD be recited annually (It LOOkEd like a tRibute TO tHe NEw ruler’s OrAtoRy: in REAlity It waS An Attempt tO hold hIM tO hIs pledgE oF good bEhAviOur).

even sO Most Of the aNcient acCountS Of Caligula’s reiGN focus on his crUElTY, HiS ExceSseS and (followiNg SuEToniUs, whO WrOte THe claSsic bIoGRaPHy of the emperor almosT a HundreD yearS after his deatH) his clinicAL INsanity – aN unpREdICtable mixture oF fits, Anxiety, insOMnia and hAllucInations. a whole ranGE Of storieS teLl hOw hE clAIMeD to be a god, to hoLD ConvErSations WitH JupiteR anD to SleEp wItH the moon gOddess. He Is SaId To HavE builT A bridge tO lInk HiS paLace oN The PalAtine Hill WiTh THe mAjor temPLeS ON the NeArBy CaPitOlIne hiLl, as IF to Unite seCular and rEliGIous PoWeR in the sTate. There is alSo Plenty of taLk AboUt his rIDIculouslY extravagant lifestyle (frOM servinG foOd covEred In gold leaF to DrapinG hiS Wife in JewellEry thAt Was WORth a gOOD dEal MoRe than the tOTAl fOrtunE oF the Average roman senator) and, of cOUrsE, about his caprIciOus sADIsM. AcCOrDIng To sUetONIus, he forced a fatHer to watch ThE ExEcution of hIS soN aNd then, lAter thaT day, tO Dine witH him at the Palace. (Why On EartH DId tHe man turn uP to dinneR? Answer: beCAuse hE HaD anotHer Son.) He uSeD crIminaLs as foOD foR his wIld beaStS when bEef beCaMe too expEnsive. On one occasion, afteR recovEring FroM an illnesS, he INsiSted that a LoyaL citizen whO haD voWed to OffER his oWn liFE iF thE EmperOr suRVived, shouLD sTanD BY hIs vow and die.


 that followed the murder. 

Caligula ’s re ign  ma ynothave  started too b a dly.  There was perhaps one  of t ho s e br i ef  hone ymoon p e ri o d s w hi ch  re gu l ar ly ac com panieda change o f r ul er in ancien t  R ome. In Ca lig ula: A Biogr aph y, Win te rli n g poi nts  to a  range of con ciliatory  m e asures in thee a rl y mo nths. Incriminati n gd ocuments relat ing to  t r ea s o n t ria ls under T ib erius were pu t  o n a  bo n fire in the F orum (thoug h  it  later  e mer g ed tha t Cal ig u lahad secretl y ke pt copies ). A s y stem of popular  elect ion s f or m a gi st rat es was (a t l e ast  tempora ri ly ) rei ntro d u c e d, w hil e ge nerou s cash handou tswere pai d tothe p eopl eof Ro me and  to t he  soldiers. In h is f irst majo r s pe ech  t o the Senate , h e d enounce d the u n pop ul a r ac tions of his prede ce s s or  and pro misedh ewo u ld behav ebet ter. T he ca nnys en ators, s uspect i ng  t hat hemi ght fo rg ethis  prom i ses,  ruled  that th e spe e ch should be r e cited annuall y  ( i t  l o oked  li ke a tribut e to thenewr ul er’ s  orat ory:in re a lity it was an atte mp t to h old h im to his ple dge of goo d b ehaviour ).
E ve n  so most of th e anc ient accou n ts of Ca ligul a’s reig n focus o n his crue lty , h isexc e s se s and (follow i n g Su et onius,who  wrotethe  cl ass icbi ography o f the em pe ro ral mos t a h u ndred ye ar s a ft erhis d e ath) h is cl inic al  i n san ity – a n  u n p redi ct ab le m ixt ur e offits ,  an xiety,insomniaand hall uc in ations.  A whole rang eof stories  t ell  how h e claimedto be a god, to hold co n versati ons  with  Jup iter andtosleepwit h  the m oon go ddess .Hei s  said t ohav ebuilt a br i d geto li nk  his  palace  on the Palatine h i llwith the majo r t empl e s  o n t h en ear by Cap i t oline hill, asif to unit es ec ular and r e lig io us powe r in th e sta t e. Ther e is also  plenty o ftalk a bou t his ridi culously  extravag a nt li f es tyle(fr om ser vi ngfoodcovere d  in  gold  leafto  drapi ng hi swife injewellery that was wort h a go od de almore than  th e  to tal fortu ne o f the aver age  Ro man s ena t or) a nd,o fcou r se, a bout his capri c io uss a di sm. Accordi n g toSueto niu s , he f orce d a father to wat c h the executio n of h isson andth en, later that  da y, t o dine w it h him at th e palace .( Why o n eart h didthe man t ur n  up to  din ner ? Answer:  be ca u se he h ad  a n otherson. )He use d crim i nals a s food for his w ild b e a sts w h enbeefbe came to o  exp ensive. On  one occasi on, af terrecov ering f ro m an i lln es s, he insi s ted thata loy al citi ze n wh o h ad vow ed t o offer  his  o wnlife if t h e  e m pe ro r  su rviv ed, s ho uldstand byh is vow a ndd ie.


 that_followed the_murder.

Caligula’s reign may not_have started_too_badly. There_was_perhaps one of_those brief honeymoon_periods which regularly accompanied_a change of_ruler_in ancient Rome. In Caligula: A Biography, Winterling points to a range of conciliatory_measures_in the_early_months._Incriminating documents relating to treason_trials under Tiberius were put_on a_bonfire in the Forum (though it later emerged_that_Caligula had secretly_kept copies). A system of popular elections for magistrates_was (at least temporarily) reintroduced, while_generous cash handouts_were_paid_to the people of_Rome and to the soldiers. In_his first major speech to the_Senate, he denounced the unpopular actions of_his predecessor and promised he would_behave better. The canny senators,_suspecting that_he might forget his promises,_ruled that the_speech should_be recited annually_(it looked like a tribute to_the new ruler’s_oratory: in reality it was an_attempt_to hold him_to_his_pledge of_good behaviour).

Even so_most_of the_ancient_accounts of Caligula’s reign focus on_his_cruelty, his excesses and (following Suetonius, who_wrote the classic biography_of_the emperor almost a_hundred years after his death)_his clinical insanity – an unpredictable_mixture of_fits, anxiety,_insomnia and hallucinations. A whole range of stories tell how he_claimed to be a god, to_hold conversations with Jupiter_and to_sleep_with the moon_goddess._He is_said to have built a bridge to_link his_palace on the Palatine hill with_the major temples on_the_nearby Capitoline hill, as if to_unite secular and religious power in_the state. There is also_plenty_of_talk about his ridiculously extravagant_lifestyle (from serving food covered in_gold leaf to_draping his wife in jewellery that was_worth_a good deal more than the_total_fortune of the average Roman senator)_and,_of_course, about his capricious sadism._According to Suetonius, he forced a_father to watch the execution of his son and_then, later that_day, to dine with him_at_the_palace. (Why on earth did the man turn up to_dinner? Answer:_because he had_another son.) He used criminals as food for his wild_beasts when beef became too expensive. On_one occasion, after recovering from an illness, he insisted that a_loyal citizen who had vowed to offer his_own life if the emperor survived, should_stand by his vow_and_die.

