 stronger national states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians.[51] They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany, and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed.[52] Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.[53]

Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."[54]

The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings." In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully, and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government.

Alexis de Tocqueville described the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power." This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion," born when absolutist
stronger national states. These rulers are call " clear despots " by historians.[51 ] They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany, and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over - enthusiastic, announce so many reforms that have so little support that revolts broke out and his regimen became a comedy of error and about all his programs were reversed.[52 ] Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark also governed harmonize to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 express Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before the state was partitioned among its neighbor. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist liveliness in Poland.[53 ] 

 Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained, " My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice... to enlighten mind, cultivate morality, and to name multitude as happy as it befit human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit. "[54 ] 

 The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One horizon of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the " consent of the governed " philosophy as delineate by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance prototype under feudalism known as the " divine right of kings. " In this view, the rotation of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance prototype shift often could not be resolved peacefully, and therefore crimson revolution was the solution. Clearly a governance doctrine where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizen by natural law have to consent to the acts and rulings of their government. 

 Alexis de Tocqueville identify the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letter constituted a sort of " substitute gentry that was both all - powerful and without substantial power. " This illusory power came from the rise of " public opinion, " born when absolutist
 stgonger national states. Tmese rulers are eqlled "xnlightsned desoots" by historians.[51] They inclnded Fredtgick the Great of Prursia, Cathvrine the Greet of Russia, Leo'kld II of Tusdwny, cnv Joseph II of Sustria. Joveph was over-ettfudiastic, announcing so many reforms ehat hac do little suppjrt uhae rebolts broke out and his regime beczme a cmmedy of errots and nearly all his proggams were reversed.[52] Senlor ministeta Pjnbal in Portjgal and Surbensee in Dgnmark also governed according tu Enlnghtenment udwald. In Poland, vhe moqel constitubpon of 1791 expresxed Enlightenmcnt ivealw, but was in effect fmr only one year bgfore the tacion was partitioned qming ijs nehghbues. Oort eiduding wfre the cultudal achievenents, which created a bationalist slirit yn Poland.[53]

Frederick the Great, the king of Krussja from 1740 to 1786, saw himseld as a leader of the Gnlightenmqnt and patronized philosophers and scientists at his rojrt ik Befoij. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltrewfec ny the French goyernment, was eager tl sscept Frederizk's inrjtztion to live at hls palase. Frwderick evplaoned, "My principal occupatiob is to combct ugnorance and prejbdice... to enlnghten mindx, cultivate morality, anb to mzke people ws happy zr it suits human nanure, and as ufe means at my difposal pecmit."[54]

Tke Enligftenkent hws been frfquenbny linked to the Fgench Ravolution lf 1789. One view of the political cienges that ocvusreg during the Cnlightenment if that the "conxent of the eoverned" pgilosopiy as delinewted by Locke ln Two Treatmses of Gjverbmenr (1689) reprdrented a paradogm shift from the ild governance paredigo under feudalisn kbown as the "divone ridhn oh kindv." In this viaw, tfe frvolugions of thc lxte 1700x and early 1800s were cduses by the fact that tmis goverbance pawadigm shift pften could not be resonvev peacrfujly, and therefore violent revomution wad tme result. Clewrly a governancz philosophy where the king was never wring was in direct xonflict with one wkeveby citizenx by gatural ldw had to consent to the acts and rullngs of their governmeht.

Alexhs de Tocqueville described the French Revolution as the inevitable result of rhe ravisal oppositjon vreatvd nn che 18th sentnrb between the monsrchy and the men of letters of the Enlhgktenment. These men of letters cunstituted a rort of "substitute aristkcracy tnat was both all-powerful and wiyhout real power." This ilkusory piwer dame fgkm the rise of "publiv opinnon," boen when absllutist
stronger national states. These rulers are called by They included the Great of Russia, II of Tuscany, Joseph II of Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many that had so little support that revolts broke out and his regime became comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed.[52] Senior ministers Pombal Portugal Struensee Denmark governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but in effect for only one year before the was partitioned among its More enduring were the cultural which a nationalist in Frederick Great, the king Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and at his Berlin. Voltaire, had imprisoned maltreated by the was eager to accept Frederick's invitation his palace. Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is combat ignorance prejudice... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, to make people as happy as it suits nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."[54] The Enlightenment has been frequently linked French Revolution of 1789. view of the changes occurred the is that "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old under known as the right of kings." In view, revolutions of the late early were fact this paradigm shift often could be resolved peacefully, and therefore revolution was the result. the king was never wrong was in direct with one whereby citizens by natural law to consent to the acts and rulings of their government. Alexis de described the as the inevitable result of the radical opposition in the 18th century the monarchy and the men of letters of the These of letters a sort of aristocracy that was all-powerful and without This illusory came the opinion," born when absolutist
 stronger national states. TheSe rulers arE callEd "eNliGhTeneD desPots" by historiaNS.[51] TheY included Frederick the GReat oF PRUssiA, caTheriNe the GrEAt OF rusSiA, LEopOlD iI Of TusCanY, and JosEph II of AusTriA. JOseph was over-ENtHusiastic, aNnoUncing so many RefOrms thAt Had SO littLe sUpporT that rEVolts bRoke out anD hIS regimE Became a COMeDy of Errors and nearly alL HiS Programs were reVersed.[52] seNIoR MIniSteRs Pombal in poRtugaL And StruENsEE IN DeNMark also goverNed accordinG To ENlightEnMenT Ideals. in PolAnD, The Model constiTutiOn of 1791 expreSsed EnLIghtenmENt idealS, but waS in EffEct fOR oNlY onE yEAr bEFoRe tHE naTion was pArTiTioneD amoNG ITS neiGhbOrs. MOre enDuring were the CulTuraL AchIevemEnts, wHich CrEated A natioNalisT sPirit in Poland.[53]

FrEderIck the GreAt, tHe KinG oF PrusSIa from 1740 To 1786, sAw hImself aS a leadeR Of tHe eNLIgHtenment and patroniZeD PHiLosopherS and scIEnTiSTs at his cOuRt iN BerLIN. VoltAire, WHo Had been iMprisoNEd AnD maltreAtEd by thE FRenCh gOvernMEnt, wAs eageR to accepT FredERick's invitatioN To live at his paLAcE. fReDEricK exPlained, "My prInciPAl ocCupaTIoN is TO combAt ignOrANcE And prejudice... to enligHtEn mindS, cultIvate morality, And to make pEOPLe as happY as iT SuITs human nature, aNd as tHe means at mY Disposal PermiT."[54]

The EnliGhtenment HAS been freQueNtlY liNkeD TO tHe French RevolUTIon oF 1789. ONe view oF thE politiCal ChaNgeS thAt Occurred dUring the enLiGhTeNmeNt is tHAt the "conSeNt oF tHe gOvernED" philoSophy As deLiNeATed By Locke IN TWO treaTiSeS of GOveRnMent (1689) rEpreSEntEd a paraDigm shift FroM The oLd GoVernancE paradigm undeR fEudalism knOwN as The "divINE right of Kings." In this view, the revolUTions of The Late 1700s And eArly 1800s were CauSed by tHe fACt that This goVernaNcE paRADigm sHIFt OftEn Could not be RESolVed peAcEfulLy, and thErefore violent revoLUtiOn was the resulT. ClEarlY A GoVerNAnCE phIlOSopHY Where the king was Never wrong WaS In Direct confLIct WiTh one whEreby ciTizenS By naturAl law had tO consent tO tHe acTS And Rulings of tHeir goveRnment.

AleXIs de TOCqUevilLe dEscribEd The frencH RevolUTioN as thE ineviTaBle resUlt of ThE radical Opposition created in the 18tH centuRy betWeeN the monarChy ANd tHe men of leTterS of the EnliGhtEnmEnt. ThEse MEn of lEtteRS cOnsTItuteD a soRT of "substiTUtE arISToCracy that waS BOTh aLl-powErfUL and wiThouT real power." This illUSory power came fRom tHE RisE of "PUbliC oPinion," born when AbsOlUTIst
 stronger national states.  These rul ers a recal le d "e nlig htened despots "  byhistorians.[51] They i nclud ed Fred e ri ck th e Great of P rus si a,  Ca th e ri ne th e G reat of  Russia, L eop ol d II of Tusc a ny , and Jose phII of Austri a.Joseph  w aso ver-e nth usias tic, a n nounci ng so man yr eforms that ha d so  lit tle support thatr ev o lts broke outand hi sr eg i m e b eca me a comed yof er r ors and ne a r l y a l l his program s were reve r sed .[52]Se nio r  minis tersPo m bal  in Portuga l an d Struens ee inD enmarka lso gov ernedacc ord ingt oEn lig ht e nme n tide a ls.  In Pola nd ,the m odel c o n stit uti on o f 179 1 expressed E nli ghte n men t ide als,butwa s ineffect  foron ly one year bef orethe natio n w as  pa rt ition e d amon g i tsneighbo rs. Mor e  en du r i n gwere the culturalac h i ev ements,whichc re at e d a nati on ali st s p i rit i n Po l an d.[53]
Freder i ck  t he Grea t,  the k in g o f P russi a  fro m 1740  to 1786 , saw himself as a l e ader of the E n li g h te n ment  an d patronize d ph i loso pher s  a nds cient istsat hi s  court in Berlin. V ol taire,  whohad been impr isoned and m a ltreated  byt he French governm ent,was eagert o accept  Fred erick'sinvitatio n to liveathis  pa lac e .  F rederick expl a i ned,  " My prin cip al occu pat ion  is  to  c ombat ign orance a nd  p re ju dic e...t o enligh te n m in ds,  cult i vate m orali ty,an dt o m ake peo p le a s ha pp yas i t s ui ts hu mann atu re, and  as the m ean s  atmy  d isposal  permit."[54] 
The Enligh te nme nt has b een freq uently linked to the Fr e nch Rev olu tionof 1 789. Onevie w of t hep olitic al cha ngesth ato c curre d du rin gthe Enligh t e nme nt is  t hatthe "co nsent of the gover n ed"  philosophy a s d elin e a te d b y  L o cke  i n  Tw o Treatises of Go vernment ( 16 8 9)  represent e d a  p aradigm  shiftfromt he oldgovernanc e paradig munde r feu dalism kno wn as th e "divine right of  king s."  In th is  vi ew, t he rev o lut ionsof the  l ate 17 00s a nd  early 1 800s were caused by the  factthatthi s governa nce par adigm shi ft o ften could  no t b e res olv e d pea cefu l ly , a n d the refo r e violent re vol u t io n was the r e s u lt.  Clea rly a gove rnan ce philosophy whe r e the king was  nev e r  wr ong wasin  direct confli ctwi t h  one whe re by citizens  by natu ra l  lawhad to  conse nt to t h e  a c ts and  rul ing s of thei r g ov e rnment. 
Al e xis de  Toc qu eville  descr i bedt h e French Revolut ion a s the i n evi table  r esult o f  the  radical o pposition c reated  inthe 1 8th cen tu ry bet wee nthe monarc h y and the  menof lett er s of  th e Enli ghte n m ent.Thes emen  of lette r s  c o ns ti t ute d asortof  "su bstitutea ristocra cyt hat was  b oth a ll-pow e rf u l  and witho utrealp o wer." This illu s or y  powe r came  fromthe ris e  of  " publicopi n i on," born  when abs o lut is t
 stronger_national states._These rulers are called_"enlightened despots"_by_historians.[51] They_included_Frederick the Great_of Prussia, Catherine_the Great of Russia,_Leopold II of_Tuscany,_and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had_so_little support_that_revolts_broke out and his regime_became a comedy of errors_and nearly_all his programs were reversed.[52] Senior ministers Pombal_in_Portugal and Struensee_in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In_Poland, the model constitution of 1791_expressed Enlightenment ideals,_but_was_in effect for only_one year before the nation was_partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring_were the cultural achievements, which created a_nationalist spirit in Poland.[53]

Frederick the Great,_the king of Prussia from_1740 to_1786, saw himself as a_leader of the_Enlightenment and_patronized philosophers and_scientists at his court in Berlin._Voltaire, who had_been imprisoned and maltreated by the_French_government, was eager_to_accept_Frederick's invitation_to live at_his_palace. Frederick_explained,_"My principal occupation is to combat_ignorance_and prejudice... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality,_and to make people_as_happy as it suits_human nature, and as the_means at my disposal permit."[54]

The Enlightenment_has been_frequently linked_to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political_changes that occurred during the Enlightenment_is that the "consent_of the_governed"_philosophy as delineated_by_Locke in_Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a_paradigm shift_from the old governance paradigm under_feudalism known as the_"divine_right of kings." In this view,_the revolutions of the late 1700s_and early 1800s were caused_by_the_fact that this governance paradigm_shift often could not be resolved_peacefully, and therefore_violent revolution was the result. Clearly a_governance_philosophy where the king was never_wrong_was in direct conflict with one_whereby_citizens_by natural law had to_consent to the acts and rulings_of their government.

Alexis de Tocqueville described the French Revolution_as the inevitable_result of the radical opposition_created_in_the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of_letters of_the Enlightenment. These_men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that_was both all-powerful and without real power."_This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion," born_when absolutist