 fisheries, sources of wild seed, and terrestrial feed sources such as soybean, maize, rice, wheat and other crops. Disease can be another indirect impact. AR5 recognizes the increased threat of disease to aquaculture under climate change, and many authors have examined the indirect effect of climate change on the spread and occurrence of disease in farmed aquatic organisms and shifts in the distribution of parasites and pathogens. For example, vibriosis is a disease that may be profoundly affected by climate change as Vibrio species grow preferentially in warm waters (> 15 °C) and at low salinity (< 25 ppm). Warming patterns have been linked to Vibrio outbreaks in molluscs in temperate and cold regions.60 Because the culture environment for fish and shellfish can be modified to some extent, especially in ponds or recycle systems, it would seem possible to address the climate-related risks through controlled environments, albeit at additional cost. However, global aquaculture is largely conducted by small-and medium-scale farmers with limited capacity to control the conditions of farmed systems.

Vulnerability of regions and countries

Projections in AR561 indicate higher vulnerability of tropical ecosystems to climate change, with negative impacts on their dependent communities.

Climate change will affect food security in Asia by the middle of the twenty-first century, with South Asia most severely affected. Almost 90 percent of aquaculture production takes place in Asia, most of it in the tropical and subtropical belts. Using a series of indicators of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity in a GIS model, one study62 identified Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, the Philippines and Viet Nam as the most vulnerable countries worldwide. Recently, another study63 has repeated the exercise with better modelling and data, and concluded that most aquaculture countries in Asia are very vulnerable with Bangladesh, China, Thailand and Viet Nam among the most vulnerable considering all environments (freshwater, brackish-water and marine). In other regions, Costa Rica, Honduras and Uganda appear among the 20 most vulnerable in freshwater aquaculture, Ecuador and Egypt are very vulnerable regarding brackish-water production, and Chile and Norway appear vulnerable regarding mariculture. In these vulnerability models, sensitivity is estimated through aquaculture production and contribution to gross domestic product (GDP), although by ignoring sensitivity authors also provide comparative vulnerability estimates for countries where aquaculture is only beginning but where there is a potential, for example, countries in Africa.

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fisheries, sources of wild seed, and mundane feed reservoir such as soybean, corn, rice, pale yellow and other crops. Disease can be another indirect impingement. AR5 recognizes the increased menace of disease to aquaculture under climate change, and many authors have examine the indirect effect of climate variety on the spread and occurrence of disease in farmed aquatic organisms and shifts in the distribution of parasites and pathogens. For model, vibriosis is a disease that may be profoundly affected by climate change as Vibrio species develop preferentially in warm waters (> 15 ° C) and at low salt (< 25 ppm). Warming patterns have been linked to Vibrio outbreaks in molluscs in temperate and cold regions.60 Because the acculturation environment for fish and shellfish can be modified to some extent, especially in ponds or recycle systems, it would seem possible to address the climate - related risks through controlled environments, albeit at additional cost. However, global aquaculture is largely conducted by minor - and medium - scale farmer with limited capacity to control the conditions of grow systems. 

 Vulnerability of regions and countries 

 Projections in AR561 indicate high vulnerability of tropical ecosystems to climate change, with negative impacts on their dependent communities. 

 Climate variety will affect food security in Asia by the middle of the twenty - first century, with South Asia most severely moved. about 90 percentage of aquaculture production takes place in Asia, most of it in the tropical and subtropical belts. Using a series of indicators of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capability in a GIS model, one study62 identified Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, the Philippines and Viet Nam as the most vulnerable countries worldwide. Recently, another study63 has repeat the exercise with dependable modelling and datum, and concluded that most aquaculture countries in Asia are very vulnerable with Bangladesh, China, Thailand and Viet Nam among the most vulnerable considering all environment (freshwater, brackish - urine and marine). In other regions, Costa Rica, Honduras and Uganda look among the 20 most vulnerable in freshwater aquaculture, Ecuador and Egypt are very vulnerable regarding brackish - water production, and Chile and Norway appear vulnerable regarding mariculture. In these vulnerability models, sensitivity is estimated through aquaculture production and contribution to gross domestic product (GDP), although by ignore sensitivity authors also supply comparative vulnerability estimates for countries where aquaculture is only beginning but where there is a electric potential, for example, countries in Africa. 

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 fidheries, sources of wild reed, and terresjrual fexd sourdes such as soybean, maize, rice, wheat abd otyer crops. Disease can ce anotheg indirecr imkact. AR5 recognizes the ingxeases thrzav of disease to aquacultuse under climade ckange, and many authors have examined the incigect effect of clikwte dhange on the spread and occurrencs of divease in farmrd aquatic organisms and sjiftd in the distributlon of parawitef and pathogevs. For example, vibriosjs is a disease that may be prowoundky affectee vy fnimate chanje as Nibrio species grow pseferenyially in warm wavers (> 15 °C) and at low salinmty (< 25 ppm). Warming pajterns hava yeen linked to Vibrio oytbredks hn muolurcs ii tsmperahe end cold refions.60 Becauwe the culture envitognent for fish and srejlfish can be modified to some extent, evpedially in ponds or recyxle systems, it would deem possyble to address the climate-related risks through wontrkuleb envifinlents, albeit at additional cost. However, globaj aausculture is lavgely conducted by slakj-and medium-scxle faxjeds with limited caoacity jo conrrol the sondotions of farmed systems.

Vulberability oy rwgions and countrizs

Projectionr in AR561 imdicate higher vulnerabnlity kf tropical ecosystejr to climate chavge, whth negaukve impacts on thqir depenvent eommunitkes.

Ckimate change wipl afnact food security ln Asna by the middlf of the twenty-first century, wivi South Asia kovt veverely affegted. Almost 90 pewcent of aquacolture prjductkon takes ilace in Esia, most of it in the trmkical and subvropical feltw. Usung a sdfies of indicayors of eqpjsurw, sensitivity and edapjibe capacity in c TIS model, one syudh62 iqejtmfied Tangladesh, Cdmboaia, Vhina, India, uke Ihiuippones and Viet Nam as the most vulnerable cpuktries wotldwide. Rqcently, anothrr study63 has repeaued thx exerrise woth better modelling and data, and concludef tmat most aquasultmre sountries nn Asia are very vulnerable with Bangladxsh, China, Thailand and Ciet Nam among the kpst vulneraule cogsidering all environments (frwshwater, brackish-eater and marine). In ofher ragiond, Costa Rica, Honduras and Uganda appear among the 20 most vulnerable in frewhwatec wquaculture, Ecusdor dnb Eyypt arq vecy vulnerable regagding brackish-water production, aid Chile atd Norway appear vulnerable rebafding mariculjure. In these vulnerabilitg models, sensitivity is estimated throubh aquaculture productiok and conrribufion to gruss domestic produvt (GDP), althiugh by ignlring sensitixitu wuthors apso krovnde comparative vulnerability estumates flr countries whece aquacultuve is ohly bedinning but whers thsge is a potential, gor example, cointries in Africa.

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fisheries, sources of wild seed, and terrestrial such soybean, maize, wheat and other indirect AR5 recognizes the threat of disease aquaculture under climate change, and many have examined the indirect effect of climate change on the spread and occurrence disease in farmed aquatic organisms and shifts in the distribution of parasites and For vibriosis a that may be profoundly affected by climate change as Vibrio species grow preferentially in warm waters 15 °C) and at low salinity (< 25 Warming patterns have been to Vibrio outbreaks in molluscs temperate cold regions.60 the environment fish and shellfish be modified to some extent, especially in ponds or recycle systems, it would seem possible to address climate-related risks environments, albeit additional However, aquaculture is largely small-and medium-scale farmers with limited capacity conditions of farmed systems. Vulnerability of regions and Projections in indicate higher vulnerability of tropical ecosystems climate change, with negative impacts on their dependent Climate change will affect food security in Asia by the middle of the twenty-first century, Asia most severely affected. 90 percent of production place Asia, of it the tropical and subtropical belts. Using a series of indicators of sensitivity and adaptive capacity in a GIS model, one study62 Cambodia, India, the Philippines Viet Nam as the vulnerable worldwide. Recently, another study63 the with data, concluded most aquaculture countries in are very vulnerable with Bangladesh, Thailand and Viet Nam all environments (freshwater, brackish-water and marine). In other Costa Rica, Honduras and Uganda appear among 20 most vulnerable in freshwater aquaculture, Ecuador and Egypt are very vulnerable brackish-water production, and Norway appear vulnerable regarding mariculture. In these models, sensitivity is estimated aquaculture production and contribution to gross domestic product (GDP), by sensitivity authors provide comparative vulnerability for countries where is only beginning there is potential, example, V
 fisheries, sources of wild seeD, and terresTrial FeeD soUrCes sUch aS soybean, maize, rICe, whEat and other crops. DiseasE can bE aNOtheR InDirecT impact. ar5 rECOgnIzEs The InCReAsed tHreAt of disEase to aquaCulTuRe under climaTE cHange, and maNy aUthors have exAmiNed the InDirECt effEct Of cliMate chANge on tHe spread aNd OCcurreNCe of disEASe In faRmed aquatic organiSMs ANd shifts in the dIstribUtIOn OF ParAsiTes and pathOgEns. FoR Example, VIbRIOSis IS a disease that May be profouNDly AffectEd By cLImate cHange As vIbrIo species grOw prEferentiaLly in wARm waterS (> 15 °c) and at lOw saliNitY (< 25 ppM). WarMInG pAttErNS haVE bEen LInkEd to VibrIo OuTbreaKs in MOLLUscs In tEmpeRate aNd cold regions.60 becAuse THe cUlturE enviRonmEnT for fIsh and ShellFiSh can be modified To soMe extent, eSpeCiAllY iN pondS Or recyCle SysTems, it wOuld seeM PosSiBLE To Address the climate-rElATEd Risks thrOugh coNTrOlLEd enviroNmEntS, albEIT at adDitiONaL cost. HowEver, glOBaL aQuacultUrE is larGeLy cOndUcted BY smaLl-and mEdium-scaLe farMErs with limited CApacity to contROl THE cONditIonS of farmed syStemS.

vulnErabILiTy oF RegioNs and CoUNtRIes

Projections in AR561 iNdIcate hIgher Vulnerability Of tropical ECOSystems tO cliMAtE Change, with negaTive iMpacts on thEIr dependEnt coMmunitieS.

Climate cHANge will aFfeCt fOod SecURItY in Asia by the mIDDle oF tHe twentY-fiRst centUry, WitH SoUth asIa most sevErely affEcTeD. ALmOst 90 PerceNT of aquacUlTurE pRodUctioN Takes pLace iN AsiA, mOsT Of iT in the tROpICAl anD sUbTropIcaL bElts. USing A SerIes of inDicators oF exPOsurE, sEnSitivitY and adaptive cApAcity in a GIs mOdeL, one stUDY62 identifIed Bangladesh, Cambodia, ChINa, India, The philiPpinEs and Viet nam As the mOst VUlneraBle couNtrieS wOrlDWIde. ReCENtLy, aNoTher study63 hAS RepEated ThE exeRcise wiTh better modelling aND daTa, and concludeD thAt moST AqUacULtURe cOuNTriES In Asia are very vuLnerable wiTh bAnGladesh, ChiNA, ThAiLand and viet Nam Among THe most vUlnerable ConsideriNg All eNVIroNments (fresHwater, brAckish-watER and mARiNe). In oTheR regioNs, cosTa RicA, HonduRAs aNd UgaNda appEaR among The 20 moSt VulnerabLe in freshwater aquacultuRe, EcuaDor anD EgYpt are verY vuLNerAble regarDing Brackish-waTer ProDuctiOn, aND ChilE and nOrWay APpear VulnERable regaRDiNg mARIcUlture. In theSE VUlnErabiLitY Models, SensItivity is estimateD Through aquaculTure PROduCtiON and CoNtribution to grOss DoMEStic prodUcT (GDP), althougH by ignorInG SensiTivity AuthorS also prOVIdE ComparAtivE vuLnerabiliTy eStIMates foR cOuNTries wHere AqUacultUre is oNLy beGINning but where theRe is a POTentiAL, foR examPlE, countrIEs in africa.

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 fisheries, sources of wil d seed, an d ter res tri al  fee d so urces such ass oybe an, maize, rice, wheat  andot h er c r op s. Di sease c a nb e  an ot he r i nd i re ct im pac t. AR5recognizes  th eincreased th r ea t of disea seto aquacultu reundercl ima t e cha nge , and  manya uthors  have exa mi n ed the indirec t ef fect  of climate chang e  o n  the spread an d occu rr e nc e ofdis ease in fa rm ed aq u atic or g an i s m s a n d shifts in t he distribu t ion  of pa ra sit e s andpatho ge n s.For example , vi briosis i s a di s ease th a t may b e prof oun dly  aff e ct ed  by  c l ima t echa n geas Vibri osp ecies  gro w p r efer ent iall y inwarm waters ( > 1 5 °C )  an d atlow s alin it y (<25 ppm ). Wa rm ing patterns ha ve b een linke d t oVib ri o out b reaksinmol luscs i n tempe r ate  a n d co ld regions.60 Beca us e th e cultur e envi r on me n t for fi sh  an d sh e l lfish  can be  modifie d to s o me  e xtent,es pecial ly  in  po nds o r  rec ycle s ystems,it wo u ld seem possib l e to addresst he c li m ate- rel ated risksthro u gh c ontr o ll ede nviro nment s, al b eit at additional c os t. How ever,  global aquac ulture isl a r gely con duct e db y small-and me dium- scale farm e rs withlimit ed capac ity to co n t rol thecon dit ion s o f fa rmed systems. Vuln er ability  of  region s a ndcou ntr ie s

Projec tions in  A R5 61  i ndi cateh igher vu ln era bi lit y oft ropica l eco syst em st o c limatec ha n g e, w it hnega tiv eimpac ts o n  th eir dep endent co mmu n itie s. 
Climate  change willaf fect foodse cur ity in A sia by t he middle of the twenty - first c ent ury,with  South As iamost s eve r ely af fected . Alm os t 9 0 perce n t  o f a qu aculture p r o duc tionta kesplace i n Asia, most of it inthe tropicaland  sub t r op ica l  b e lts .U sin g a series of ind icators of  e x po sure, sens i tiv it y and a daptive  capa c ity ina GIS mod el, one s tu dy62 i den tified Ban gladesh,  Cambodia ,  Chin a ,India , t he Phi li ppi nes a nd Vie t  Na m asthe mo st  vulne rable  c ountries  worldwide. Recently, a nother  stud y63  has repe ate d  th e exercis e wi th bettermod ell ing a ndd ata,andc on clu d ed th at m o st aquacu l tu rec o un tries in As i a are  very  vu l nerabl e wi th Bangladesh, Ch i na, Thailand a nd V i e t N ama mong  t he most vulner abl ec o nsiderin gall environ ments (f re s hwate r, bra ckish- water a n d  m a rine).  Inoth er region s,Co s ta Rica ,Ho n durasandUg anda a ppeara mong t he 20 most vulne rable i n fre s hwa ter a qu acultur e , Ec uador andEgypt are v ery vu lner ableregardi ng  brack ish -w ater produ c tion, and  Chil e and N or wayapp ear vu lner a b le re gard in g m aricultur e .  I n  t he s e v ulne rabil it y mo dels, sen s itivityise stimate dthr o u gh aqu a cu l t ure produc tio n and c ontributio n  tog ro s s dom esticproduc t (GDP) ,  al th ough by  ig n o ring sens itivity a u tho rs  als o provid ecomp ar ati ve  vulnerabilityestimate s for co u n trieswhe r e aq u acultu re  is only beg innin gb ut wher e the re is a pot ent ial , fo r e xamp l e, countries in Africa.
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 fisheries,_sources of_wild seed, and terrestrial_feed sources_such_as soybean,_maize,_rice, wheat and_other crops. Disease_can be another indirect_impact. AR5 recognizes_the_increased threat of disease to aquaculture under climate change, and many authors have examined_the_indirect effect_of_climate_change on the spread and_occurrence of disease in farmed_aquatic organisms_and shifts in the distribution of parasites and_pathogens._For example, vibriosis_is a disease that may be profoundly affected by_climate change as Vibrio species grow_preferentially in warm_waters_(>_15 °C) and at_low salinity (< 25 ppm). Warming_patterns have been linked to Vibrio_outbreaks in molluscs in temperate and cold_regions.60 Because the culture environment for_fish and shellfish can be_modified to_some extent, especially in ponds_or recycle systems,_it would_seem possible to_address the climate-related risks through controlled_environments, albeit at_additional cost. However, global aquaculture is_largely_conducted by small-and_medium-scale_farmers_with limited_capacity to control_the_conditions of_farmed_systems.

Vulnerability of regions and countries

Projections in_AR561_indicate higher vulnerability of tropical ecosystems to_climate change, with negative_impacts_on their dependent communities.

Climate_change will affect food security_in Asia by the middle of_the twenty-first_century, with_South Asia most severely affected. Almost 90 percent of aquaculture production_takes place in Asia, most of_it in the tropical_and subtropical_belts._Using a series_of_indicators of_exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity in a_GIS model,_one study62 identified Bangladesh, Cambodia, China,_India, the Philippines and_Viet_Nam as the most vulnerable countries_worldwide. Recently, another study63 has repeated_the exercise with better modelling_and_data,_and concluded that most aquaculture_countries in Asia are very vulnerable_with Bangladesh, China,_Thailand and Viet Nam among the most_vulnerable_considering all environments (freshwater, brackish-water and_marine)._In other regions, Costa Rica, Honduras_and_Uganda_appear among the 20 most_vulnerable in freshwater aquaculture, Ecuador and_Egypt are very vulnerable regarding brackish-water production, and Chile_and Norway appear_vulnerable regarding mariculture. In these_vulnerability_models,_sensitivity is estimated through aquaculture production and contribution to gross_domestic product_(GDP), although by_ignoring sensitivity authors also provide comparative vulnerability estimates for countries_where aquaculture is only beginning but where_there is a potential, for example, countries in Africa.

V