Sociologist David Armor states in his 1995 book Forced Justice: School Desegregation and the Law that efforts to change the racial compositions of schools had not contributed substantially to academic achievement by minorities. Carl L. Bankston and Stephen J. Caldas, in their books A Troubled Dream: The Promise and Failure of School Desegregation in Louisiana (2002) and Forced to Fail: The Paradox of School Desegregation (2005), argued that continuing racial inequality in the larger American society had undermined efforts to force schools to desegregate. They maintained that racial inequality had resulted in popular associations between school achievement and race. Therefore, the achievement levels of American schools were generally associated with their class and racial compositions. This meant that even parents without racial prejudice tended to seek middle class or better residential neighborhoods in seeking the best schools for their children. As a result, efforts to impose court-ordered desegregation often led to school districts with too few White students for effective desegregation, as White students increasingly left for majority White suburban districts or for private schools.
SoCioloGIsT dAViD ArMor StatEs IN his 1995 bOok FORced jUstiCe: sCHOOl desegregatiOn and The lAw ThAt efforts to chAnGe the racial cOmPoSitIonS of schoOls had Not cOntRibutEd SubstantIaLLy to aCademiC aChIEvement BY mInOriTies. carl l. bankSton and stePhen j. caldas, iN TheIR booKS a TrOuBLed dreAm: ThE pRomise anD faiLuRE of scHOol dEseGRegAtiON in louIsiana (2002) And forCed to FaiL: the parAdOX OF SchOol desEGrEgatIOn (2005), argUeD That contInUing RacIal inEqUaliTY in ThE laRgER aMerICan soCieTY haD uNdeRMIneD EffOrtS to forCe scHooLS to DeSegregATe. they mAinTaIned that Racial inequaLIty hAd rESulTed iN popULar AsSocIATions Between schoOl AchiEvement aND rAcE. tHeREfoRe, tHe acHiEvemeNT lEveLs of amEriCan SchooLS Were generally aSsOciaTeD wIth tHeir Class and raCiAl composiTionS. this mEaNt tHat EVen pareNTs WitHouT RaCial prejudiCe TeNded to SeEk mIddle ClAss oR beTter RESidential nEighboRHoods In seEking THe BEst schools for Their cHilDRen. as A resUlt, efForts To imPosE courT-ordeRed DeseGregation oFten leD to schooL dISTricTS WiTh tOo few white stUDentS For eFfECTIve desEgRegatiOn, as WhitE Students increAsingly lEft for MaJority white sUBuRban distriCTS or for PrIVate SchooLs.