During this period, David Gross, Jeffrey Harvey, Emil Martinec, and Ryan Rohm discovered heterotic strings. The gauge group of these closed strings was two copies of E8, and either copy could easily and naturally include the standard model. Philip Candelas, Gary Horowitz, Andrew Strominger and Edward Witten found that the Calabi–Yau manifolds are the compactifications that preserve a realistic amount of supersymmetry, while Lance Dixon and others worked out the physical properties of orbifolds, distinctive geometrical singularities allowed in string theory. Cumrun Vafa generalized T-duality from circles to arbitrary manifolds, creating the mathematical field of mirror symmetry. Daniel Friedan, Emil Martinec and Stephen Shenker further developed the covariant quantization of the superstring using conformal field theory techniques. David Gross and Vipul Periwal discovered that string perturbation theory was divergent. Stephen Shenker showed it diverged much faster than in field theory suggesting that new non-perturbative objects were missing.
dUrInG tHis periOD, david grosS, JefFRey HaRVey, Emil MaRTinEc, and ryan rohm DiScoveRed hEterotiC sTrINgS. thE gAuge group Of ThEsE cloSeD stRInGS WAs two copieS OF e8, and eIther copy coulD EaSiLy anD naturally INclude the StaNdard moDel. philiP caNDELas, garY horOwitz, aNDreW StromInGEr aNd edwaRd WittEN Found that ThE calabi–yaU mAniFOlds Are tHE ComPactIficAtioNS That prEserVe A rEAlisTIC amoUNt of sUPErsYmmetry, whIle laNce DIxon and oThers wOrkeD oUT The PhysIcAl propertIes oF orbiFolds, DiStInCTIvE gEomEtricAl SinguLarItIES aLLOWeD iN StrInG theorY. CumruN VaFA gEneraliZed t-dUaliTy From CIrcles to ARBItRary maNifOldS, creATing THe MathematiCal FIeld oF mirRor symmEtry. daniel fRIedAn, emil martiNEc aNd stephen sHeNker furtHEr DeveloPED the cOvAriant quaNtIzatiON of thE supersTrIng usInG conformaL fieLd theorY teChNiquEs. David GrOsS and vIpul peRiwAL DiscoVERED THat sTrIng peRtuRBATiOn thEorY Was dIvErgent. Stephen sHEnKer ShowEd iT dIVERGed Much FaSter tHAn in field THeorY sUGgeSting that NeW nOn-perTurbAtIVE obJects wEre MIssing.