To facilitate the effective and efficient deployment of personnel and capabilities, Frontex also gathers intelligence and produces its own risk analyses, which address the (expected) situation at the EU external borders. As its intelligence role is growing, the agency collects data from cross-border movements inside the EU and from entrance information that Member States and the various organisational partners provide (Den Boer, 2015; Takle, 2017). Some of this information is also retrieved from third countries, with which Frontex has concluded working arrangements. This is beneficial for Frontex as it ensures continuous data exchange on relevant migration trends and the sharing of best practices (Coman-Kund, 2018). In turn, representatives of these third countries have been participant observers in Frontex operations (Sagrera, 2014). To what extent these agreements are binding remains subject to debate (cf. Sagrera, 2014; Coman-Kund, 2018). Finally, Frontex also mediates between the Member States to coordinate joint returns when multiple Member States have nationals of the same country to be sent back. The agency makes sure that returnees are gathered in one Member State from where a collective return flight departs. A Frontex staff member monitors compliance with its Code of Conduct when it organises the return flight (Pirjola, 2015). It is striking how rapid Frontex’ responsibilities have expanded. Frontex’ tasks, first of all, horizontally expanded with its mandate to set up rapid response teams that can be deployed on short notice. Frontex’ tasks have also deepened as existing responsibilities were elaborated. For instance, Frontex received the authority to organise return flights. At this moment, Frontex could even contribute to the reintroduction of border controls when a Member State does not comply with the recommendations that follow its vulnerability assessments (Scipioni, 2017). Current studies on Frontex display strong links to the field of critical theory, migration law research and literature on EU public administration. This has provided many insightful publications. Yet, there are very few connections with organisation and management literature, crisis studies and policing scholarship, even though these disciplines may improve our understanding of Frontex’ agency characteristics, how it operates during joint operations and how Frontex negotiates tensions between providing care and exercising control. Likewise, EU studies can shed light on the relations between EU agencies and other European actors and what this means for their relative autonomy (e.g. Egeberg and Trondal, 2011). Next, while there are some links between the five themes, these connections can be reinforced in the interest of theory-building. For instance, there is a suggestion that Frontex’ autonomy (in line with neo-institutionalist explanations) reduces its accountability (Carrera et al., 2013). Likewise, Frontex’ limited accountability and transparency may help to explain its continuing struggles with human rights. In general, as Frontex continues to expand, new theory-building is needed to further assess and understand the agency and its impact.
to facilitate the EFfEcTive ANd EfFIcienT DeplOYmEnT oF PeRsonNEl AnD capabiLITies, frontex also gATHeRs inTEllIgEncE And ProDucEs iTs OWN risk Analyses, WhiCh addreSS THe (exPEcted) SiTUaTion at ThE eU External borders. as ITS inTelligeNce Role Is GrowING, The AgenCY collEctS data From cROss-BoRder moVeMentS inSidE the Eu AnD froM entRanCe iNfoRmaTion thaT Member sTaTes and thE various orgANIsatioNal paRtners PROVidE (den boer, 2015; Takle, 2017). soME of ThIS informaTiON iS also REtRieVeD froM thIRd CountRiEs, wIth whiCH frOnteX HaS conClUDed wORkIng aRrangeMents. tHis iS beNefiCiAl for frOnteX aS iT eNsuREs cONtinuoUS Data Exchange on rElEVANT MigRation trEnDS anD The SharinG of best PRactIces (Coman-kUnd, 2018). In TuRn, repResentATIVes Of thESe thiRD countRIes hAVE beEn ParTicIpAnT observeRS IN fROntEx opErAtions (sagrera, 2014). to wHaT extEnt THese agreEMeNts aRe BiNdinG remAiNS subJeCt TO debate (cf. saGrERa, 2014; comaN-kUnd, 2018). finally, fronteX Also mediates BETWeeN the meMBEr stAtes to coOrdinaTE joiNt retuRns wheN mUlTIplE mEMber statEs hAvE naTionalS oF tHe sAMe coUntry to bE sent bAck. the agency makes sUre that ReTurneEs are gAtHerEd in onE MeMber state from WHeRE a CoLLecTive return FLighT deparTS. A frONtEx StAff meMbeR mOnitors coMplIAnce WITh ItS code OF cONDUct when IT OrGaNisEs The retuRn flight (PirjOla, 2015). it is STriKiNG how RApid FRontex’ rEsponsibIlitIEs hAve exPANdEd. frontEX’ tAsks, FiRSt of all, hOrizoNTallY expaNdeD witH iTs manDaTe To Set up rApid resPonsE TEams tHaT cAN be DePloyeD on sHoRT notice. FrOntex’ TAsks HavE aLSO DEEpened As EXiStING ResponsIbIlitIes wEre elaBOrated. For InStaNce, fRoNTex receiveD ThE auTHORity To ORGanisE rEturN fLights. AT thiS Moment, FroNTex CoUld evEn ContrIButE TO tHe ReintroDUCTIon OF boRdeR cONtroLs whEn a MembEr STATe Does NOt comply with tHe RECommeNdations That follow its vuLNErABiliTy assessmeNTs (sCipIoni, 2017). CurREnT sTudies on fRonTex dISpLAY StronG LiNks tO tHE FiElD OF CRitiCal TheORy, Migration law resEarch And LItERAtUre On eU pubLIc ADminisTRAtion. thIs Has pROviDED mAny iNsiGhtful publicATIoNs. yet, There are VERy fEw cONNectIoNs wItH OrgANisATion and manaGemENT LiTeraturE, crIsis stUdIes And policiNg SchOlarship, Even thouGH These disciplinEs may ImProve our UNDErsTanding oF fRontex’ agENcY ChAracteRisTics, how it oPeRaTes DURInG joINt oPeraTiOnS and how fRontex NegOtiAtEs TensionS betWEeN proViding CAre and eXercising control. lIKEwise, eu StuDiEs cAN shEd lIGht on the RElatIoNS beTweeN eu AGeNcies aNd otHEr euRoPean AcTorS and What this mEans fOr their rElaTIVe autoNomY (e.G. egeberG anD TrOndal, 2011). neXt, While thErE are some linKs betweEN the FivE themeS, thEse ConnectiOns Can Be reinFoRced in the interESt Of theoRY-buiLdiNG. for inStaNCe, tHerE iS a SugGestIoN thAT FRonTEx’ aUtonomy (in Line wiTh NeO-iNstituTIOnaList exPlAnatIons) ReDucEs ITs accouNTabIliTY (CARRERa et al., 2013). likeWISe, frOntex’ liMited accountabilitY ANd tRaNspArenCy may help To ExplAiN its cOntiNUING sTrugGlEs WITh HumaN RIghtS. in generaL, As fRonTeX COntiNuEs To expAnd, nEw TheOry-bUIldINg Is NEedEd to fURther aSsess anD uNDerstand the AGenCy and Its iMPACt.