By 500 BC, the Persian Empire controlled the Greek city states in Asia Minor and Macedonia.Joseph Roisman, Ian Worthington. "A companion to Ancient Macedonia" John Wiley & Sons, 2011. pp 135–138, p 343 Attempts by Greek city-states of Asia Minor to overthrow Persian rule failed, and Persia invaded the states of mainland Greece in 492 BC, but was forced to withdraw after defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. In response, the Greek city-states formed the Hellenic League in 481 BC, led by Sparta, which was the first recorded union of Greek states since the mythical union of the Trojan War. The second Persian invasion of Greece was decisively defeated in 480–479 BC, at Salamis and Plataea, marking the eventual withdrawal of the Persians from all their European territories. The Greek victories in the Greco-Persian Wars are a pivotal moment in history, as the 50 years of peace afterwards are known as the Golden Age of Athens, a seminal period that laid many foundations of Western civilisation. Lack of political unity resulted in frequent conflict between Greek states. The most devastating intra-Greek war was the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), which marked the demise of the Athenian Empire and the emergence of Spartan and later Theban hegemony. Weakened by constant wars among them during the 4th century BC, the Greek poleis were subjugated to the rising power of the kingdom of Macedon under king Philip II into an alliance known as the Hellenic League., , .
by 500 bc, the peRsiAn empIre cOntrOLLeD tHe greeK CiTY stateS iN Asia minor anD maCEdOnia.joSePH rOismaN, IaN worThingtoN. "a cOmpaNion To Ancient MAcedoNiA" joHN wIley & sons, 2011. Pp 135–138, p 343 atteMpts by GReEK city-states oF asia MInor TO OverthRow pERSIaN rUlE faileD, And PeRsIa iNvaDed tHe StateS of mainLand greece iN 492 BC, BuT waS foRcED to witHDraw aFTEr defeAt aT the baTTLE oF mAratHoN in 490 bc. iN rEspoNsE, the greek citY-sTaTeS FORmed tHe hELLENIc leAgue in 481 bc, Led By spArtA, wHICH wAS the fiRsT recordED uNion of GREEk states sincE the mytHical UNiON OF the trOJan war. the SecOnd persIAn iNvAsion oF greeCe WAs deCiSiVely defeAted in 480–479 bC, at Salamis ANd plaTaea, maRkiNg tHe EvenTuAL withDrawal of thE persianS frOm alL thEiR europeaN TeRriToriES. thE GrEek VictORies iN The greco-persian WArs arE a pivotal mOment in hIstory, As tHe 50 yEARs oF Peace afteRWaRds Are kNOwn as the Golden agE Of AThens, a semiNaL PeRIod that LAiD mAny foUndatioNs of wEstern cIVilISatioN. lacK of poLItIcAl UnIty reSulTED In frequent confLiCt bEtween GrEek STAtEs. the mosT devAStAtiNg intrA-grEEk WAr wAs THe peLopoNNEsiAN WaR (431–404 BC), whIch markEd the demise OF The AThenian empire aNd tHe emErgenCe of spaRtan and later thebaN hegEmony. WEAkeneD BY cOnsTAnt wArs aMong tHem duRing thE 4Th cenTurY bc, The grEek poleis Were SubJUGated tO thE risiNG Power of the kiNgDom of maceDon undEr kiNg phILip ii INTo An alLIancE knOwn as thE helleNic leagUe., , .