Accountability and corruption Political corruption refers to "the misuse or the abuse of public office for private gains". Corrupt practices include fraud, appropriation of public funds, and accepting bribes. Corruption can cause people to negatively evaluate politicians, since citizens may perceive corruption as a signal of poor performance, motivating them to sanction an incumbent. As the model of retrospective voting suggests that voters incentivize good politicians' behavior by rewarding good performance and punishing bad performance, citizens are expected to sanction corrupt politicians. However, studies suggest that though voters have a distaste for corruption, they often fail to punish corrupt incumbents; some of them receive benefits from their representatives' corrupt practices, and prefer to retain this type of politician. In high-corruption contexts, voters may become more tolerant of or even prefer corrupt politicians because others are also perceived as corrupt, leading to a corrupt equilibrium "where voters are generally willing to retain corrupt politicians", referred to as a "political corruption trap". This high corruption equilibrium is difficult to break due to interaction between corrupt politicians, voters who tolerate and retain corrupt politicians, and potential entrants or challengers who also engage in corrupt practices, leading to the maintenance of corruption. Economic development is associated with a decrease in corruption. Freedom of the press contributes to the reduction of corruption by exposing corrupt actions. Documentation on how a corrupt government (e.g. Alberto Fujimori's government from 1998 to 2000 in Peru) can strategically undermine checks-and-balances institutions, suggests that the news media—i.e. newspapers and mainly television—is crucial to the dissemination of information to the public. There is also evidence about the importance of local media, such as local radio stations, in holding corrupt incumbents accountable and in promoting non-corrupt politicians. Information about corruption may not only lead to vote losses for the incumbent parties, but also for challenging parties, as well the erosion of partisan attachments, which implies that information about corruption also provokes citizens' disengagement from the political process.
acCounTabiLiTY And corruptIon PoLitical corruptiOn reFerS to "The mIsUse or THE abuse oF public oFfICe fOR pRivaTe gaINs". corrupT pRAcTiCEs Include fRauD, approPrIaTion of PubLiC funDS, AnD AcCepTing bribes. corrUPtiON can Cause pEoPLe to NegativEly evAluaTe poliTicIAns, sInCE cItIzens maY perceivE corrupTion as A sIgnaL Of Poor pErFormanCe, MotivatIng TheM to sanCtioN an incUmbeNt. aS the MOdel of Retrospective votinG sUggEsts tHat voters InCentivizE Good politicians' bEHaVior by reWARding GoOd peRforMaNCE AnD PUniShing BaD performance, CITiZEns are EXPEcteD tO sAncTion coRrUpt politicians. hOweveR, studIes sugGESt thAT though VoterS Have A disTaSte foR CorruptION, tHEy ofTen Fail to punisH Corrupt incumBentS; sOme OF them reCEive BEnefitS froM tHeIr rEprEseNtatives' corrupt practiCES, and PreFer tO rEtaIn THis tYPe of pOLIticIan. in high-cORRupTion ConTeXts, voters may bEcome MoRe tOLeranT of or eVEn prEfer corrupT PoliTiCians becAuse othErs are AlsO perCeived as cOrRuPt, LeadInG TO a corrupt eQUilibrIum "wheRe voterS Are genErally wIlling To retaiN corRupt poLITIcians", rEFerREd to as a "PolItical CorruPtion trap". This hIgH corruptiON EquiLibRium iS dIFfiCulT tO break duE To interactiOn betwEeN coRrUpt polIticIaNs, voteRs Who tolerAtE and rETaiN coRrupt PoliTicIAns, aNd pOtential entrants oR chAllengERS who also engagE in cOrrUPT PRAcTices, leAdING tO The mAiNteNAnCe OF coRruption. econoMIc deVElopmEnt is associaTed With A deCrEase in corruPtIon. fREedoM of thE PreSS coNTrIBUTEs to thE rEDuctiON OF cORrUptiON bY expOsing Corrupt ACtionS. dOcUMEnTatiOn on How a CoRRuPt goVERnmenT (E.g. aLbErto FujiMoRi's GoVernment froM 1998 TO 2000 in pEru) can StrategicAlLY uNdermiNE ChecKs-anD-bALAncES iNsTItutions, suGgests thAt tHe NewS MEdiA—I.e. newSpapers ANd mAinly teLEViSioN—Is crucIal to The disseminAtioN oF inforMAtioN tO the pUbLic. thEre Is Also Evidence aBOut the importance of LoCal mEDia, sUCh as local radIO StaTions, in hoLding CorrUpT incumbEnTs ACcoUNtable and in ProMotinG Non-corrUPt pOlIticians. infoRMAtion aBoUt cOrRupTIOn may not onLy leAD to Vote LossEs fOR tHe iNcUmbEnT pArTIES, But AlSO for chAlLEnGiNG PaRTies, AS wEll The eRoSIOn of partIsaN attAchments, which ImpLies THAt INFormation aBOuT corrUpTIoN alsO pRovoKeS cItizEns' diseNgaGeMent fRom the Political ProcEss.