The academics S. Sayyid and Abdoolkarim Vakil maintain that Islamophobia is a response to the emergence of a distinct Muslim public identity globally, the presence of Muslims in itself not being an indicator of the degree of Islamophobia in a society. Sayyid and Vakil maintain that there are societies where virtually no Muslims live but many institutionalized forms of Islamophobia still exist in them.
The academics S. Sayyid and Abdoolkarim Vakil. maintain that Islamophobia is a response to the emergence of a distinct Muslim public identity globally, the presence of! Muslims in itself not being an indicator of ,the degree of Islamophobia in a society. Sayyid and Vakil maintain t:hat there are societies where virtually no Muslims live but many institu,tionalized forms of Islamophobia still exist in them.