For example, ‘rigor mortis fixed’ was marked as present or absent, whereas ‘skin slippage’ could also be scored using TBSA to account for the gradation of this marker. The TBSA method is commonly used to calculate the extent of burn injuries and has previously been applied to estimate the expression of mummification in forensic cases.35 It anatomically divides the body into 11 areas to include the anterior and posterior of the head, upper limbs, torso, back, and lower limbs; each of which has an assigned value of 9% (except for the groin at 1%).
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## Forensic Science International

Volume 288, July 2018, Pages 330.e1-330.e9

# Forensic Anthropology Population Data  Modern (forensic) mummies: A study of twenty cases

Author links open overlay panelCélineLecciaa, VéroniqueAlunnib, GéraldQuatrehommeb

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## Highlights

- •
  Hot and dry environment found indoors are favorable conditions for mummification.

- •
  Emaciation also seems to be a favorable condition for mummification.

- •
  Extensive mummification (indoor) may occur within three weeks.

- •
  Extensive mummification of the skin and decomposition of the viscerae is not rare.

## Abstract

Twenty mummies discovered in a forensic context between 2002 and 2016 were compiled in this work. 15 cases were excluded and 15 cases of forensic mummies were found in the literature. In the current work the percentage of mummification was calculated by “the rule of nines” used for describing burned injuries in livings. Dry and hot environments, emaciation, little access to flies are favorable conditions for mummification. Nevertheless mummification was also observed in other cold and humid environments. Extensive mummification (defined in this work as “at least 50% of mummification of the body skin) has occurred in as little as three weeks in the current series. The post mortem interval was estimated by indirect clues. The cause of death was usually impossible to establish.

## Introduction

Mummification results from the dehydration and desiccation of soft tissues. Most of the scientific literature concerns ancient mummies (especially Egyptian and Peruvian mummies). Hot and dry climates are favorable conditions for dehydration [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]. Mummification may occur indoors, in catacombs and crypts [6], and occasionally in tanks [7], caskets or sarcophagi [8], or boxes [9]. It can even take place if the body is wrapped in plastic [1], [2], [6], [7], [8], [10], [11], [12]. Mummification has been known to occur underwater, for example in some marshes of Northern Europe, the result of an acidic and anaerobic environment. In these instances, the mummies remain flexible and retain some anatomical details such as fingerprints and tattoos [13]. Inhumation may also lead to mummification, as can occur in certain sandy soils [1], [14]. Salt mummies have also been discovered in salt mines [2], [15].

Most mummification processes are linked to hot and dry environments. Nevertheless, mummification can occur in cold climates; the process of mummification then requires, windy and dry environments, protected from the rain and snow in caves or by stones [16], [17], [18]. Frozen mummies have been discovered on several continents [2], [19], [20], [21], [22].

In forensics, completely mummified bodies are often discovered in enclosed areas. This indoor process of total mummification is not rare and encountered several times a year in the South of France. Occasionally, forensic mummies are discovered outdoors. There is a discrepancy between the number of cases of mummified bodies that are discovered each year and the number of relevant articles in the forensic literature, identifying a gap in our knowledge of the process of mummification.

The difficulty for forensic pathologists is the determination of the manner and time of death. The first aim of this article is to describe forensic cases of complete or extensive mummification discovered in the Nice region of the south of France between 2002 and 2016 and to compare them with cases found in the forensic literature. The second aim of this article is to try to assess the minimum period of time necessary for “complete” or “extensive” mummification with the intention of helping to date mummies in forensics.

## Section snippets

## Material and methods

All cases of mummification discovered between 2002 and 2016 were analyzed. There is no consensus on what constitutes “extensive” and partial mummification. As several cases included both mummification and decomposition, “extensive mummification” for the purposes of this study means mummification of at least 50% of the body skin and “complete mummification” means mummification of 100% of the body skin. The percentage of mummification was established by the “rule of nine” used in burned injuries.

## Results

Table 1 compiles the main features of the forensic extensive mummification recorded in the region of Nice. In fifteen cases the body was discovered indoors (thirteen in homes, one in a garage, one in a boat). In five cases the mummy was discovered outdoors (one under a bridge, one at the bottom of a cliff, one in a field near a small stream, and two cases in the middle of a forest).

Twelve of the mummies were male (including one genetic gender person). The mummies ranged in age from 22 to 81.

## Discussion

Mummification is not rare in forensic science and has been interpreted as a sign of social isolation [23]. In our forensic pathology department, we recorded 35 cases and compiled twenty cases of extensive mummification since 2002 (the date of the first available records). Before 2011, there was no centralization of cases. These were scattered across smaller morgues in the region. Since January 2011, nearly all forensic pathology cases from three judiciary districts are centralized, thus

## Conflict of interest

There is no conflict of interest in this work.

## Acknowledgments

We thank very much Damien Charabidze and Marie-Catherine Francino for their relevant advice.

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## Cited by (14)

2022, Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine

Citation Excerpt :

For example, ‘rigor mortis fixed’ was marked as present or absent, whereas ‘skin slippage’ could also be scored using TBSA to account for the gradation of this marker. The TBSA method is commonly used to calculate the extent of burn injuries and has previously been applied to estimate the expression of mummification in forensic cases.35 It anatomically divides the body into 11 areas to include the anterior and posterior of the head, upper limbs, torso, back, and lower limbs; each of which has an assigned value of 9% (except for the groin at 1%).

Show abstract

Forensic experts rely on scene and/or autopsy photographs to estimate the post-mortem interval (PMI) when an in-situ assessment of decomposition is unfeasible. The degree of decomposition may vary between the scene and autopsy, which importantly could affect estimations of the unknown PMI in forensic casework. This study aimed to investigate decomposition variability between the scene and autopsy and assess the subsequent effect on the accuracy of PMI estimations. Scene and autopsy photographs from 94 cases with known PMI were used from the Allegheny County Office of the Medical Examiner in Pittsburgh, United States. The total decomposition scoring (TDS) method measured the overall decomposition level, and 28 markers of decomposition were recorded as a percentage of the total body surface area (TBSA). In 60% of cases the TDS had increased at autopsy causing significant overestimations of the autopsy PMI and 86% of decomposition markers varied between the scene and autopsy. Decomposition progressed during mortuary time lags (MTL) of 3–44 h, where bodies were stored in a pre-autopsy refrigerator at 4 °C, suggesting that refrigeration may not always delay decomposition. This research also assisted in validating photographs as a proxy for real-time decomposition assessments. While the autopsy photographs conferred higher quality than the scene photographs, the scene photographs produced more accurate PMI estimations. Forensic experts should exhibit caution when estimating the PMI from autopsy photographs alone, as they may not accurately reflect scene decomposition. To prevent misinterpretation of the PMI estimation, both scene and autopsy photographs should always be requested.

2024, Mortality

2023, International Journal of Legal Medicine

2023, Journal of Forensic Sciences

2023, Forensic Anthropology

2023, Handbook of Archaeological Sciences, Volume 1, Second Edition

© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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