1. A computer program product comprising a non-transitory machine-readable medium storing instructions that, when executed by at least one programmable processor, cause the at least one programmable processor to perform operations comprising: determining, using one or more processors, covariates associated with a unit representing at least one of an individual and an account of the individual; determining, using the one or more processors, decision alternatives based on the covariates, a probability that a decision alternative has a predetermined value being independent of values of the covariates; determining, using the one or more processors, potential outcomes for the decision alternatives, the potential outcomes being independent of the decision alternatives; and determining, using the one or more processors, a treatment effect by performing a statistical analysis using the potential outcomes.