query: Are Artificial Colors Bad for You?

positive: Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled... BACKGROUND: We undertook a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover trial to test whether intake of artificial food colour and additives (AFCA) affected childhood behaviour. METHODS: 153 3-year-old and 144 8/9-year-old children were included in the study. The challenge drink contained sodium benzoate and one of two AFCA mixes (A or B) or a placebo mix. The main outcome measure was a global hyperactivity aggregate (GHA), based on aggregated z-scores of observed behaviours and ratings by teachers and parents, plus, for 8/9-year-old children, a computerised test of attention. This clinical trial is registered with Current Controlled Trials (registration number ISRCTN74481308). Analysis was per protocol. FINDINGS: 16 3-year-old children and 14 8/9-year-old children did not complete the study, for reasons unrelated to childhood behaviour. Mix A had a significantly adverse effect compared with placebo in GHA for all 3-year-old children (effect size 0.20 [95% CI 0.01-0.39], p=0.044) but not mix B versus placebo. This result persisted when analysis was restricted to 3-year-old children who consumed more than 85% of juice and had no missing data (0.32 [0.05-0.60], p=0.02). 8/9-year-old children showed a significantly adverse effect when given mix A (0.12 [0.02-0.23], p=0.023) or mix B (0.17 [0.07-0.28], p=0.001) when analysis was restricted to those children consuming at least 85% of drinks with no missing data. INTERPRETATION: Artificial colours or a sodium benzoate preservative (or both) in the diet result in increased hyperactivity in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the general population.

positive: Food additives and hyperactivity Evidence supports a trial period of eliminating colourings and preservatives from the diet

positive: Brain cancer associated with environmental lead exposure: evidence from implementation of a National Petrol-Lead Phase-Out Program (PLPOP) in Taiwa... BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: In 1981, a Petrol-Lead Phase-Out Program (PLPOP) was launched in Taiwan for the abatement of environmental lead emissions. The present study was intended to examine whether the high Petrol-Lead Emission Areas (PLEA) would result in an increase in the incidence rate of brain cancer based on a national data bank. METHODS: The national brain cancer incidence data was obtained from the Taiwan National Cancer Registry. Age standardized incidence rates were calculated based on the 2000 WHO world standard population, and gasoline consumption data was obtained from the Bureau of Energy. The differences in the trend tests for age-standardized incidence rates of brain cancer between high, median, low, and small PLEA were analyzed. RESULTS: A significant increase was found from small to high PLEA in age-standardized incidence rates of brain cancer. By taking six possible confounders into account, the age-standardized incidence rates for brain cancer were highly correlated with the median and high PLEA by reference to the small PLEA. CONCLUSION: After being adjusted for a number of relevant confounders, it could be concluded that high PLEA might result in an increase in the incidence rate of brain cancer resulting from high lead exposures. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

positive: Artificial food dyes and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common behavioral disorders in children. Symptoms of ADHD include hyperactivity, low frustration tolerance, impulsivity, and inattention. While the biological pathways leading to ADHD are not clearly delineated, a number of genetic and environmental risk factors for the disorder are recognized. In the early 1970s, research conducted by Dr. Benjamin Feingold found that when hyperactive children were given a diet free of artificial food additives and dyes, symptoms of hyperactivity were reduced. While some clinical studies supported these findings, more rigorous empirical studies conducted over the next 20 years were less positive. As a result, research on the role of food additives in contributing to ADHD waned. In recent years, however, interest in this area has revived. In response to more recent research and public petitions, in December 2009 the British government requested that food manufacturers remove most artificial food dyes from their products. While these strictures could have positive effects on behavior, the removal of food dyes is not a panacea for ADHD, which is a multifaceted disorder with both biological and environmental underpinnings. © 2011 International Life Sciences Institute.

positive: Dietary sensitivities and ADHD symptoms: thirty-five years of research. Artificial food colors (AFCs) have not been established as the main cause of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but accumulated evidence suggests that a subgroup shows significant symptom improvement when consuming an AFC-free diet and reacts with ADHD-type symptoms on challenge with AFCs. Of children with suspected sensitivities, 65% to 89% reacted when challenged with at least 100 mg of AFC. Oligoantigenic diet studies suggested that some children in addition to being sensitive to AFCs are also sensitive to common nonsalicylate foods (milk, chocolate, soy, eggs, wheat, corn, legumes) as well as salicylate-containing grapes, tomatoes, and orange. Some studies found "cosensitivity" to be more the rule than the exception. Recently, 2 large studies demonstrated behavioral sensitivity to AFCs and benzoate in children both with and without ADHD. A trial elimination diet is appropriate for children who have not responded satisfactorily to conventional treatment or whose parents wish to pursue a dietary investigation.

positive: The significance of azo-reduction in the mutagenesis and carcinogenesis of azo dyes. Azo dyes are widely used in textile, printing, cosmetic, drug and food-processing industries. They are also used extensively in laboratories as either biological stains or pH indicators. The extent of such use is related to the degree of industrialization. Since intestinal cancer is more common in highly industrialized countries, a possible connection may exist between the increase in the number of cancer cases and the use of azo dyes. Azo dyes can be reduced to aromatic amines by the intestinal microflora. The mutagenicity of a number of azo dyes is reviewed in this paper. They include Trypan Blue, Ponceau 3R, Pinceau 2R, Methyl Red, Methyl Yellow, Methyl Orange, Lithol Red, Orange I, Orange II, 4-Phenylazo-Naphthylamine, Sudan I, Sudan IV, Acid Alizarin Violet N, Fast Garnet GBC, Allura Red, Ponceau SX, Sunset Yellow, Tartrazine, Citrus Red No. 2, Orange B, Yellow AB, Carmoisine, Mercury Orange, Ponceau S, Versatint Blue, Phenylazophenol, Evan's Blue and their degraded aromatic amines. The significance of azo reduction in the mutagenesis and carcinogenesis of azo dyes is discussed.

positive: Teratological evaluation of FD&C Red no. 2 -a collaborative government-industry study. II. FDA's study. Because of recent studies indicating possible embryolethality and teratogenicity of FD&C Red No. 2, and ad hoc committee was convened by the Food and Drug Administration to consider these questions. The committee suggested a collaborative study by three laboratories [Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories (IBT), and National Center for Toxicological Research (NCTR)] in which Red No. 2 was given at 200 mg/kg body weight, by gavage during days 0-19, 6-15, or 7-9 of gestation. FD&C Red No. 2 was also given at the same dose level via water bottle. Appropriate controls were utilized. FDA used Osborne-Mendel strain rats, IBT used Charles River, and NCTR used both strains. No significant increases in skeletal or visceral abnormalities were seen. No significant increase in resorptions was seen in the Osborne-Mendel strain, but the Charles River strain at IBT showed a significant increase in litters with two or more resorptions after dams had been given 200 mg/kg at 0-19 days of gestation. The NCTR study on the Charles River strain also showed an increase in the same parameter for the same dose level and in addition showed a significant increase in the percentage of resorptions per litter. It was concluded that because of the inherent variation and the absence of an increase in abnormalities or other indications of embryotoxicity, there is reason to doubt that this effect is either biologically significant or reproducible.

positive: Toxicology of food dyes. BACKGROUND: Food dyes, synthesized originally from coal tar and now petroleum, have long been controversial because of safety concerns. Many dyes have been banned because of their adverse effects on laboratory animals or inadequate testing. CONCLUSIONS: This review finds that all of the nine currently US-approved dyes raise health concerns of varying degrees. Red 3 causes cancer in animals, and there is evidence that several other dyes also are carcinogenic. Three dyes (Red 40, Yellow 5, and Yellow 6) have been found to be contaminated with benzidine or other carcinogens. At least four dyes (Blue 1, Red 40, Yellow 5, and Yellow 6) cause hypersensitivity reactions. Numerous microbiological and rodent studies of Yellow 5 were positive for genotoxicity. Toxicity tests on two dyes (Citrus Red 2 and Orange B) also suggest safety concerns, but Citrus Red 2 is used at low levels and only on some Florida oranges and Orange B has not been used for several years. The inadequacy of much of the testing and the evidence for carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, and hypersensitivity, coupled with the fact that dyes do not improve the safety or nutritional quality of foods, indicates that all of the currently used dyes should be removed from the food supply and replaced, if at all, by safer colorings. It is recommended that regulatory authorities require better and independent toxicity testing, exercise greater caution regarding continued approval of these dyes, and in the future approve only well-tested, safe dyes.

positive: Genotoxic and mutagenic effects of erythrosine B, a xanthene food dye, on HepG2 cells. Erythrosine (ErB) is a xanthene and an US Food and Drug Administration approved dye used in foods, drugs and cosmetics. Although its utilization is permitted, ErB is described as inhibitor of enzymes and protein-protein interactions and is toxic to pituitary and spermatogenesis processes. However, the genotoxicity and mutagenicity of ErB is inconclusive in the literature. This study aimed to analyze the genotoxicity of this dye using the alkaline comet assay and is the first investigation to evaluate ErB mutagenicity using the cytokinesis block micronucleus cytome (CBMN-Cyt) assay in HepG2 cells. These cells were chosen because they produce phase I and phase II enzymes that can mimic in vivo metabolism. The cells were treated with seven concentrations (0.1-70.0 μg mL(-1)) of ErB, and the results showed genotoxicity at the two highest concentrations and mutagenicity at six concentrations. Furthermore, as micronuclei result from clastogenic and aneugenic processes, while comet assay is often considered more sensitive and detects DNA single strain breaks, we suggest that an aneugenic is responsible for the observed damage. Although ErB is approved for use in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, it must be used carefully because it damages the DNA structure. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

positive: TOXICITY AND CARCINOGENICITY STUDIES OF 4-METHYLIMIDAZOLE IN F344/N RATS AND B6C3F1 MICE 4-Methylimidazole (4MI) is used in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, photographic chemicals, dyes and pigments, cleaning and agricultural chemicals, and rubber. It has been identified as a by-product of fermentation in foods and has been detected in mainstream and side stream tobacco smoke. 4MI was studied because of its high potential for human exposure. Groups of 50 male and 50 female F344/N rats were fed diets containing 0-, 625-, 1,250-, or 2,500-ppm 4MI (males) or 0-, 1,250-, 2,500-, or 5,000-ppm 4MI (females) for 106 weeks. Based on the food consumption the calculated average daily doses were approximately 30, 55, or 115 mg 4MI/kg body weight to males and 60, 120, or 250 mg 4MI/kg to females. Survival of all exposed groups of males and females was similar to that of the control groups. Mean body weights of males in the 1,250- and 2,500-ppm groups and females in the 2,500- and 5,000-ppm groups were less than those of the control groups throughout the study. Feed consumption by 5,000-ppm females was less than that by the controls. Clonic seizures, excitability, hyperactivity, and impaired gait were observed primarily in 2,500- and 5,000-ppm females. The incidence of mononuclear cell leukemia in the 5,000-ppm females was significantly greater than that in the controls. The incidences of hepatic histiocytosis, chronic inflammation, and focal fatty change were significantly increased in all exposed groups of male and female rats. The incidences of hepatocellular eosinophilic and mixed cell foci were significantly increased in 2,500-ppm males and 5,000-ppm females. Groups of 50 male and 50 female B6C3F1 mice were fed diets containing 0-, 312-, 625-, or 1,250-ppm 4MI for 106 weeks. Based on the food consumption the calculated average daily doses were approximately 40, 80, or 170 mg 4MI/kg body weight to males and females. Survival of all exposed groups of males and females was similar to that of the control groups. Mean body weights of males and females in the 1,250-ppm groups and that in the 312- and 625-ppm females were less than those of the control groups. Feed consumption by exposed groups of male and female mice was similar to that by the controls. The incidences of alveolar/bronchiolar adenoma in all exposed groups of females, alveolar/bronchiolar carcinoma in 1,250-ppm males, and alveolar/bronchiolar adenoma or carcinoma (combined) in 1,250-ppm males and 625- and 1,250-ppm females were significantly greater than those in the control groups. The incidence of alveolar epithelial hyperplasia was significantly increased in the 1,250-ppm females. 4MI is carcinogenic inducing alveolar/bronchiolar adenoma and carcinoma in male and female mice. 4MI may also induce mononuclear cell leukemia in female rats.

positive: Does 4-methylimidazole have tumor preventive activity in the rat? 4-Methylimidazole (4-MEI) is found in a wide array of food products. The National Toxicology Program (NTP) recently conducted a two-year feeding cancer bioassay of 4-MEI in B6C3F(1) mice and F344/N rats. In rats, NTP found "equivocal evidence of carcinogenic activity" in females based on increased incidences of mononuclear cell leukemia and "no evidence of carcinogenic activity" in males. However, dose-related, statistically significant decreases in multiple tumors were observed in both male and female rats exposed to 4-MEI in the NTP bioassay. For example, 4-MEI was associated with a 25-fold decrease in the incidence of mammary tumors among high dose females. NTP noted briefly that the decreases in certain tumors, including mammary tumors, were greater than could be attributed to body weight alone. The present paper provides a more detailed evaluation of the evidence that 4-MEI exhibits tumor preventive activity in the rat based upon the results of the NTP bioassay. Reduced body weight offers a partial explanation for the reduction in tumors, but does not appear to be the primary cause of the decreased tumor incidences, indicating that 4-MEI itself may possess an ability to prevent tumor formation. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

positive: Carcinogenicity and regulation of caramel colorings. 2- and 4-methylimidazoles are present as contaminants in caramel colorings manufactured with ammonia catalysts. Both contaminants have been shown to induce cancer in animals and may be present in caramel colorings in amounts that exceed federal guidelines. California requires warning notices on products that could lead to consumption of more than 30 micrograms per day. The US Food and Drug Administration should bar the use of excessively contaminated caramel coloring in food.

positive: The urban rise and fall of air lead (Pb) and the latent surge and retreat of societal violence. We evaluate air Pb emissions and latent aggravated assault behavior at the scale of the city. We accomplish this by regressing annual Federal Bureau of Investigation aggravated assault rate records against the rise and fall of annual vehicle Pb emissions in Chicago (Illinois), Indianapolis (Indiana), Minneapolis (Minnesota), San Diego (California), Atlanta (Georgia), and New Orleans (Louisiana). Other things held equal, a 1% increase in tonnages of air Pb released 22 years prior raises the present period aggravated assault rate by 0.46% (95% CI, 0.28 to 0.64). Overall our model explains 90% of the variation in aggravated assault across the cities examined. In the case of New Orleans, 85% of temporal variation in the aggravated assault rate is explained by the annual rise and fall of air Pb (total=10,179 metric tons) released on the population of New Orleans 22 years earlier. For every metric ton of Pb released 22 years prior, a latent increase of 1.59 (95% CI, 1.36 to 1.83, p<0.001) aggravated assaults per 100,000 were reported. Vehicles consuming fuel containing Pb additives contributed much larger quantities of Pb dust than generally recognized. Our findings along with others predict that prevention of children's lead exposure from lead dust now will realize numerous societal benefits two decades into the future, including lower rates of aggravated assault. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

positive: Synthetic Food Colors and Neurobehavioral Hazards: The View from Environmental Health Research Background: The proposition that synthetic food colors can induce adverse behavioral effects in children was first enunciated in 1975 by Feingold [Why Your Child Is Hyperactive. New York:Random House (1975)], who asserted that elevated sensitivity to food additives underlies the signs of hyperactivity observed in some children. Although the evidence suggested that some unknown proportion of children did respond to synthetic food colors, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) interpreted the evidence as inconclusive. A study published in 2007 [McCann et al. Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 370:1560–1567 (2007)] drew renewed attention to the hypothesis because of the study’s size and scope. It led the FDA to review the evidence, hold a public hearing, and seek the advice of its Food Advisory Committee. In preparation for the hearing, the FDA reviewed the available evidence and concluded that it did not warrant further agency action. Objectives: In this commentary I examine the basis of the FDA’s position, the elements of the review that led to its decision and that of the Food Advisory Committee, and the reasons that this is an environmental health issue. Discussion: The FDA review confined itself, in essence, to the clinical diagnosis of hyperactivity, as did the charge to the committee, rather than asking the broader environmental question of behavioral effects in the general population; it failed to recognize the significance of vulnerable subpopulations; and it misinterpreted the meaning of effect size as a criterion of risk. The FDA’s response would have benefited from adopting the viewpoints and perspectives common to environmental health research. At the same time, the food color debate offers a lesson to environmental health researchers; namely, too narrow a focus on a single outcome or criterion can be misleading.

negative: You Are What You Eat: Within-Subject Increases in Fruit and Vegetable Consumption Confer Beneficial Skin-Color Changes Background Fruit and vegetable consumption and ingestion of carotenoids have been found to be associated with human skin-color (yellowness) in a recent cross-sectional study. This carotenoid-based coloration contributes beneficially to the appearance of health in humans and is held to be a sexually selected cue of condition in other species. Methodology and Principal Findings Here we investigate the effects of fruit and vegetable consumption on skin-color longitudinally to determine the magnitude and duration of diet change required to change skin-color perceptibly. Diet and skin-color were recorded at baseline and after three and six weeks, in a group of 35 individuals who were without makeup, self-tanning agents and/or recent intensive UV exposure. Six-week changes in fruit and vegetable consumption were significantly correlated with changes in skin redness and yellowness over this period, and diet-linked skin reflectance changes were significantly associated with the spectral absorption of carotenoids and not melanin. We also used psychophysical methods to investigate the minimum color change required to confer perceptibly healthier and more attractive skin-coloration. Modest dietary changes are required to enhance apparent health (2.91 portions per day) and attractiveness (3.30 portions). Conclusions Increased fruit and vegetable consumption confers measurable and perceptibly beneficial effects on Caucasian skin appearance within six weeks. This effect could potentially be used as a motivational tool in dietary intervention.

negative: The potential toxicity of artificial sweeteners. Since their discovery, the safety of artificial sweeteners has been controversial. Artificial sweeteners provide the sweetness of sugar without the calories. As public health attention has turned to reversing the obesity epidemic in the United States, more individuals of all ages are choosing to use these products. These choices may be beneficial for those who cannot tolerate sugar in their diets (e.g., diabetics). However, scientists disagree about the relationships between sweeteners and lymphomas, leukemias, cancers of the bladder and brain, chronic fatigue syndrome, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, autism, and systemic lupus. Recently these substances have received increased attention due to their effects on glucose regulation. Occupational health nurses need accurate and timely information to counsel individuals regarding the use of these substances. This article provides an overview of types of artificial sweeteners, sweetener history, chemical structure, biological fate, physiological effects, published animal and human studies, and current standards and regulations.

negative: Facial Skin Coloration Affects Perceived Health of Human Faces Numerous researchers have examined the effects of skin condition, including texture and color, on the perception of health, age, and attractiveness in human faces. They have focused on facial color distribution, homogeneity of pigmentation, or skin quality. We here investigate the role of overall skin color in determining perceptions of health from faces by allowing participants to manipulate the skin portions of color-calibrated Caucasian face photographs along CIELab color axes. To enhance healthy appearance, participants increased skin redness (a*), providing additional support for previous findings that skin blood color enhances the healthy appearance of faces. Participants also increased skin yellowness (b*) and lightness (L*), suggesting a role for high carotenoid and low melanin coloration in the healthy appearance of faces. The color preferences described here resemble the red and yellow color cues to health displayed by many species of nonhuman animals.

negative: Sugar substitutes: Health controversy over perceived benefits Sugar is an inseparable part of the food we consume. But too much sugar is not ideal for our teeth and waistline. There have been some controversial suggestions that excessive sugar may play an important role in certain degenerative diseases. So artificial sweeteners or artificially sweetened products continue to attract consumers. A sugar substitute (artificial sweetener) is a food additive that duplicates the effect of sugar in taste, but usually has less food energy. Besides its benefits, animal studies have convincingly proven that artificial sweeteners cause weight gain, brain tumors, bladder cancer and many other health hazards. Some kind of health related side effects including carcinogenicity are also noted in humans. A large number of studies have been carried out on these substances with conclusions ranging from “safe under all conditions” to “unsafe at any dose”. Scientists are divided in their views on the issue of artificial sweetener safety. In scientific as well as in lay publications, supporting studies are often widely referenced while the opposing results are de-emphasized or dismissed. So this review aims to explore the health controversy over perceived benefits of sugar substitutes.

negative: The color red reduces snack food and soft drink intake. Based on evidence that the color red elicits avoidance motivation across contexts (Mehta & Zhu, 2009), two studies investigated the effect of the color red on snack food and soft drink consumption. In line with our hypothesis, participants drank less from a red labeled cup than from a blue labeled cup (Study 1), and ate less snack food from a red plate than from a blue or white plate (Study 2). The results suggest that red functions as a subtle stop signal that works outside of focused awareness and thereby reduces incidental food and drink intake. Copyright Â© 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

negative: Consumption of artificial sweetener– and sugar-containing soda and risk of lymphoma and leukemia in men and women Background: Despite safety reports of the artificial sweetener aspartame, health-related concerns remain. Objective: We prospectively evaluated whether the consumption of aspartame- and sugar-containing soda is associated with risk of hematopoetic cancers. Design: We repeatedly assessed diet in the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS) and Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (HPFS). Over 22 y, we identified 1324 non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHLs), 285 multiple myelomas, and 339 leukemias. We calculated incidence RRs and 95% CIs by using Cox proportional hazards models. Results: When the 2 cohorts were combined, there was no significant association between soda intake and risks of NHL and multiple myeloma. However, in men, ≥1 daily serving of diet soda increased risks of NHL (RR: 1.31; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.72) and multiple myeloma (RR: 2.02; 95% CI: 1.20, 3.40) in comparison with men who did not consume diet soda. We observed no increased risks of NHL and multiple myeloma in women. We also observed an unexpected elevated risk of NHL (RR: 1.66; 95% CI: 1.10, 2.51) with a higher consumption of regular, sugar-sweetened soda in men but not in women. In contrast, when sexes were analyzed separately with limited power, neither regular nor diet soda increased risk of leukemia but were associated with increased leukemia risk when data for men and women were combined (RR for consumption of ≥1 serving of diet soda/d when the 2 cohorts were pooled: 1.42; 95% CI: 1.00, 2.02). Conclusion: Although our findings preserve the possibility of a detrimental effect of a constituent of diet soda, such as aspartame, on select cancers, the inconsistent sex effects and occurrence of an apparent cancer risk in individuals who consume regular soda do not permit the ruling out of chance as an explanation.

negative: Storage elevates phenolic content and antioxidant activity but suppresses antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic properties of colored-flesh potatoes ... Colored-flesh potatoes are an excellent source of health-benefiting dietary polyphenols, but are stored for up to 3-6 months before consumption. This study investigated the effect of simulated commercial storage conditions on antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS), phenolic content (FCR) and composition (UPLC-MS), and anticancer properties (early, HCT-116 and advanced stage, HT-29 human colon cancer cell lines) of potato bioactive compounds. Extracts from seven potato clones of differing flesh colors (white, yellow, and purple) before and after 90 days of storage were used in this study. The antioxidant activity of all clones increased with storage; however, an increase in total phenolic content was observed only in purple-fleshed clones. Advanced purple-fleshed selection CO97227-2P/PW had greater levels of total phenolics, monomeric anthocyanins, antioxidant activity and a diverse anthocyanin composition as compared with Purple Majesty. Purple-fleshed potatoes were more potent in suppressing proliferation and elevating apoptosis of colon cancer cells compared with white- and yellow-fleshed potatoes. The extracts from both fresh and stored potatoes (10-30 μg/mL) suppressed cancer cell proliferation and elevated apoptosis compared with the solvent control, but these anticancer effects were more pronounced with the fresh potatoes. Storage duration had a strong positive correlation with antioxidant activity and percentage of viable cancer cells and a negative correlation with apoptosis induction. These results suggest that although the antioxidant activity and phenolic content of potatoes were increased with storage, the antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic activities were suppressed. Thus, in the assessment of the effects of farm to fork operations on the health-benefiting properties of plant foods, it is critical to use quantitative analytical techniques in conjunction with in vitro and/or in vivo biological assays.

negative: Appealing to Vanity: Could Potential Appearance Improvement Motivate Fruit and Vegetable Consumption? Fruit and vegetable consumption is inadequate among adults in the United States; this contributes to preventable morbidity and mortality. More effective dietary intervention strategies are needed. Recently, interventions that advertise the consequences of behavior for appearance have been successful in modifying sun-exposure habits and tobacco use. Such an approach might also facilitate dietary improvement. Consumption of carotenoid-rich fruit and vegetables positively affects skin color, which influences perceptions of health and attractiveness, and promoting such an effect may motivate target audiences to increase consumption of this important food group. This approach represents a novel direction for the field and is potentially suitable for cost-effective, population-level dissemination through the visual media.

negative: Artificial sweetener consumption and urinary tract tumors in Cordoba, Argentina. OBJECTIVE: To determine the role of the habitual use of the most common artificial sweeteners (AS) in the development of urinary tract tumors (UTT) in Argentina. METHODS: Case-control study of 197 patients with histologically confirmed UTT of transitional varieties, and 397 controls with acute, non-neoplastic, and non-urinary tract diseases, admitted to the same hospitals in Córdoba (Argentina) between 1999 and 2006. All subjects were interviewed about their use of AS and their exposure to other known or suspected risk factors for UTT. RESULTS: Fifty-one UTT patients (26%) and 87 controls (22%) used AS. The risk of UTT was significantly increased in long-term (> or =10 years) AS users compared with none-AS users. The OR (95% CI) for long-term consumers was 2.18 (1.22-3.89) and for short-term users was 1.10 (0.61-2.00) after adjustment for age, gender, BMI, social status. and years of tobacco use. CONCLUSION: Regular use of AS for 10 years or more was positively associated with UTT.

negative: Anaphylaxis to annatto dye: a case report. Annatto dye is an orange-yellow food coloring extracted from the seeds of the tree Bixa orellana. It is commonly used in cheeses, snack foods, beverages, and cereals. Previously reported adverse reactions associated with annatto dye have included urticaria and angioedema. We present a patient who developed urticaria, angioedema, and severe hypotension within 20 minutes following ingestion of milk and Fiber One cereal, which contained annatto dye. Subsequent skin tests to milk, wheat, and corn were negative. The patient had a strong positive skin test to annatto dye, while controls had no response. The nondialyzable fraction of annatto dye on SDS-PAGE demonstrated two protein staining bands in the range of 50 kD. Immunoblotting demonstrated patient IgE-specific for one of these bands, while controls showed no binding. Annatto dye may contain contaminating or residual seed proteins to which our patient developed IgE hypersensitivity. Annatto dye is a potential rare cause of anaphylaxis.

negative: Blueberry anthocyanins: protection against ageing and light-induced damage in retinal pigment epithelial cells. Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells are vital for retinal health. However, they are susceptible to injury with ageing and exposure to excessive light, including UV (100-380 nm) and visible (380-760 nm) radiation. To evaluate the protective effect of blueberry anthocyanins on RPE cells, in vitro cell models of replicative senescent and light-induced damage were established in the present study. After purification and fractionation, blueberry anthocyanin extracts (BAE) were yielded with total anthocyanin contents of 31·0 (SD 0·5) % and were used in this study. Replicative senescence of RPE cells was induced by repeatedly passaging cells from the fourth passage to the tenth. From the fifth passage, cultured RPE cells began to enter a replicative senescence, exhibiting reduced cell proliferation along with an increase in the number of β-galactosidase-positive cells. RPE cells maintained high cell viability (P < 0·01) and a low (P < 0·01) percentage of β-galactosidase-positive cells when treated with 0·1 μg/ml BAE. In contrast, after exposure to 2500 (SD 500) lx light (420-800 nm) for 12 h, RPE cells in the positive control (light exposure, no BAE treatment) exhibited premature senescence, low (P < 0·01) cell viability and increased (P < 0·01) vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) release compared with negative control cells, which were not subjected to light irradiation and BAE exposure. Correspondingly, BAE is beneficial to RPE cells by protecting these cells against light-induced damage through the suppression of ageing and apoptosis as well as the down-regulation of the over-expressed VEGF to normal level. These results demonstrate that BAE is efficacious against senescence and light-induced damage of RPE cells.

negative: Iris color and macular pigment optical density. The present study was designed to assess the relationship between iris color and macular pigment optical density. Both melanin and carotenoids (responsible for iris color and macular pigment composition, respectively) appear to protect the retina through similar mechanisms and higher concentrations may reduce the incidence of retinal degenerations. To evaluate this relationship, 95 subjects were examined and the following variables were measured: iris color; macular pigment optical density (MP); plasma concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin and beta-carotene; dietary intake of lutein and zeaxanthin and beta-carotene; and total fat intake. Iris color was determined by self assessment and classified as blue or gray (group I), green or hazel (group II) or brown or black (group III). MP density was measured psychophysically by measuring foveal and parafoveal sensitivities to lights of 460 and 550 nm, using the method of heterochromatic flicker photometry. Plasma carotenoid concentrations were measured using reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Dietary intake was determined by a detailed food-frequency questionnaire. Despite similarities in diet and in blood concentrations of carotenoids, significant differences in macular pigment density (P < 0.02) were found for different colored irises (group I, n = 38, MP = 0.25; group II, n = 26, MP = 0.32; group III, n = 31, MP = 0.38). The covariation of iris color and MP indicates that past epidemiologic studies have not adequately determined the independent effects of either factor. The relationship of MP and iris color may be the result of one or two factors: the evolution of a shared tendency to accumulate melanin and carotenoids due to similar environmental pressures (e.g. light and oxygen); and/or MP might be depleted due to the tendency for eyes with light irises to transmit more light than eyes with dark irises, thus causing increased oxidative stress.

negative: Arterial function of carotid and brachial arteries in postmenopausal vegetarians Background: Vegetarianism is associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease. However, studies of arterial function in vegetarians are limited. Methods: This study investigated arterial function in vegetarianism by comparing 49 healthy postmenopausal vegetarians with 41 age-matched omnivores. The arterial function of the common carotid artery was assessed by carotid duplex, while the pulse dynamics method was used to measure brachial artery distensibility (BAD), compliance (BAC), and resistance (BAR). Fasting blood levels of glucose, lipids, lipoprotein (a), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, homocysteine, and vitamin B12 were also measured. Results: Vegetarians had significantly lower serum cholesterol, high-density and low-density lipoprotein, and glucose compared with omnivores. They also had lower vitamin B12 but higher homocysteine levels. Serum levels of lipoprotein (a) and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein were no different between the two groups. There were no significant differences in carotid beta stiffness index, BAC, and BAD between the two groups even after adjustment for associated covariates. However, BAR was significantly lower in vegetarians than in omnivores. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that age and pulse pressure were two important determinants of carotid beta stiffness index and BAD. Vegetarianism is not associated with better arterial elasticity. Conclusion: Apparently healthy postmenopausal vegetarians are not significantly better in terms of carotid beta stiffness index, BAC, and BAD, but have significantly decreased BAR than omnivores. Prevention of vitamin B12 deficiency might be beneficial for cardiovascular health in vegetarians.

negative: You AhR what you eat: linking diet and immunity. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is responsible for the toxic effects of environmental pollutants such as dioxin, but little is known about its normal physiological functions. Li et al. (2011) now show that specific dietary compounds present in cruciferous vegetables act through the AhR to promote intestinal immune function, revealing AhR as a critical link between diet and immunity. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

negative: Two-year randomized, placebo-controlled study of black currant anthocyanins on visual field in glaucoma. AIM: To examine the influence of the black currant anthocyanins (BCACs) on the disease progression of open-angle glaucoma (OAG), a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-masked trial was made in 38 patients with OAG treated by antiglaucoma drops. METHODS: BCACs (50 mg/day, n = 19) or their placebos (n = 19) were orally administered once daily for a 24-month period. Systemic blood pressure, pulse rates, intraocular pressure (IOP), ocular blood circulation by laser-speckle flowgraphy, and Humphrey visual field mean deviation (MD) were measured during the 24-month period. RESULTS: As a main outcome measurement, we evaluated the difference between the groups in MD deterioration in the eye with a better MD from the trial's baseline through 24 months. A statistically significant difference was observed between the treatment groups in mean change from baseline in MD 24 months after therapy (p = 0.039, unpaired t test). Upon administration of BCACs, the ocular blood flows during the 24-month observational period increased in comparison with placebo-treated patients. However, no significant changes were observed in systemic and ocular conditions including IOP during the 24-month period. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that oral administration of BCACs may be a safe and promising supplement for patients with OAG in addition to antiglaucoma medication. Copyright © 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel.

negative: Skin Blood Perfusion and Oxygenation Colour Affect Perceived Human Health Skin blood perfusion and oxygenation depends upon cardiovascular, hormonal and circulatory health in humans and provides socio-sexual signals of underlying physiology, dominance and reproductive status in some primates. We allowed participants to manipulate colour calibrated facial photographs along empirically-measured oxygenated and deoxygenated blood colour axes both separately and simultaneously, to optimise healthy appearance. Participants increased skin blood colour, particularly oxygenated, above basal levels to optimise healthy appearance. We show, therefore, that skin blood perfusion and oxygenation influence perceived health in a way that may be important to mate choice.

negative: An open label, randomized, fixed-dose, crossover study comparing efficacy and safety of sildenafil citrate and saffron (Crocus sativus Linn.) for t... Saffron (Crocus sativus Linn.) have been perceived by the public as a strong aphrodisiac herbal product. However, studies addressing the potential beneficial effects of saffron on erectile function (EF) in men with ED are lacking. Our aim was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of saffron administration on EF in men with ED. After a 4-week baseline assessment, 346 men with ED (mean age 46.6+/-8.4 years) were randomized to receive on-demand sildenafil for 12 weeks followed by 30 mg saffron twice daily for another 12 weeks or vice versa, separated by a 2-week washout period. To determine the type of ED, penile color duplex Doppler ultrasonography before and after intracavernosal injection with 20 microg prostaglandin E(1), pudendal nerve conduction tests and impaired sensory-evoked potential studies were performed. Subjects were assessed with an International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF) questionnaire, Sexual Encounter Profile (SEP) diary questions, patient and partner versions of the Erectile Dysfunction Inventory of Treatment Satisfaction (EDITS) questionnaire and the Global Efficacy Question (GEQ) 'Has the medication you have been taking improved your erections?' No significant improvements were observed with regard to the IIEF sexual function domains, SEP questions and EDITS scores with saffron administration. The mean changes from baseline values in IIEF-EF domain were +87.6% and +9.8% in sildenafil and placebo groups, respectively (P=0.08). We did not observe any improvement in 15 individual IIEF questions in patients while taking saffron. Treatment satisfaction as assessed by partner versions of EDITS was found to be very low in saffron patients (72.4 vs 25.4, P=0.001). Mean per patient 'yes' responses to GEQ was 91.2 and 4.2% for sildenafil and saffron, respectively (P=0.0001). These findings do not support a beneficial effect of saffron administration in men with ED.

negative: The comet assay with 8 mouse organs: results with 39 currently used food additives. We determined the genotoxicity of 39 chemicals currently in use as food additives. They fell into six categories-dyes, color fixatives and preservatives, preservatives, antioxidants, fungicides, and sweeteners. We tested groups of four male ddY mice once orally with each additive at up to 0.5xLD(50) or the limit dose (2000mg/kg) and performed the comet assay on the glandular stomach, colon, liver, kidney, urinary bladder, lung, brain, and bone marrow 3 and 24h after treatment. Of all the additives, dyes were the most genotoxic. Amaranth, Allura Red, New Coccine, Tartrazine, Erythrosine, Phloxine, and Rose Bengal induced dose-related DNA damage in the glandular stomach, colon, and/or urinary bladder. All seven dyes induced DNA damage in the gastrointestinal organs at a low dose (10 or 100mg/kg). Among them, Amaranth, Allura Red, New Coccine, and Tartrazine induced DNA damage in the colon at close to the acceptable daily intakes (ADIs). Two antioxidants (butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)), three fungicides (biphenyl, sodium o-phenylphenol, and thiabendazole), and four sweeteners (sodium cyclamate, saccharin, sodium saccharin, and sucralose) also induced DNA damage in gastrointestinal organs. Based on these results, we believe that more extensive assessment of food additives in current use is warranted.

negative: Black rice anthocyanins inhibit cancer cells invasion via repressions of MMPs and u-PA expression. Tumor metastasis is the most important cause of cancer death and various treatment strategies have targeted on preventing the occurrence of metastasis. Anthocyanins are natural colorants belonging to the flavonoid family, and are wildly used for their antioxidant properties. Here, we provided molecular evidence associated with the anti-metastatic effects of peonidin 3-glucoside and cyanidin 3-glucoside, major anthocyanins extracted from black rice (Oryza sativa L. indica), by showing a marked inhibition on the invasion and motility of SKHep-1 cells. This effect was associated with a reduced expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (u-PA). Peonidin 3-glucoside and cyanidin 3-glucoside also exerted an inhibitory effect on the DNA binding activity and the nuclear translocation of AP-1. Furthermore, these compounds also exerted an inhibitory effect of cell invasion on various cancer cells (SCC-4, Huh-7, and HeLa). Finally, anthocyanins from O. sativa L. indica (OAs) were evidenced by its inhibition on the growth of SKHep-1 cells in vivo.

negative: Macular pigment and risk for age-related macular degeneration in subjects from a Northern European population. PURPOSE: Age and advanced disease in the fellow eye are the two most important risk factors for age-related macular degeneration (AMD). In this study, the authors investigated the relationship between these variables and the optical density of macular pigment (MP) in a group of subjects from a northern European population. METHODS: The optical density of MP was measured psychophysically in 46 subjects ranging in age from 21 to 81 years with healthy maculae and in 9 healthy eyes known to be at high-risk of AMD because of advanced disease in the fellow eye. Each eye in the latter group was matched with a control eye on the basis of variables believed to be associated with the optical density of MP (iris color, gender, smoking habits, age, and lens density). RESULTS: There was an age-related decline in the optical density of macular pigment among volunteers with no ocular disease (right eye: r(2) = 0.29, P = 0.0006; left eye: r(2) = 0.29, P < 0.0001). Healthy eyes predisposed to AMD had significantly less MP than healthy eyes at no such risk (Wilcoxon's signed rank test: P = 0.015). CONCLUSIONS: The two most important risk factors for AMD are associated with a relative absence of MP. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that supplemental lutein and zeaxanthin may delay, avert, or modify the course of this disease.

negative: Sucrose activates human taste pathways differently from artificial sweetener. Animal models suggest that sucrose activates taste afferents differently than non-caloric sweeteners. Little information exists how artificial sweeteners engage central taste pathways in the human brain. We assessed sucrose and sucralose taste pleasantness across a concentration gradient in 12 healthy control women and applied 10% sucrose and matched sucralose during functional magnet resonance imaging. The results indicate that (1) both sucrose and sucralose activate functionally connected primary taste pathways; (2) taste pleasantness predicts left insula response; (3) sucrose elicits a stronger brain response in the anterior insula, frontal operculum, striatum and anterior cingulate, compared to sucralose; (4) only sucrose, but not sucralose, stimulation engages dopaminergic midbrain areas in relation to the behavioral pleasantness response. Thus, brain response distinguishes the caloric from the non-caloric sweetener, although the conscious mind could not. This could have important implications on how effective artificial sweeteners are in their ability to substitute sugar intake.

negative: Goji berry effects on macular characteristics and plasma antioxidant levels. PURPOSE: Goji berry (Lycium barbarum L.) is purported to benefit vision because of its high antioxidant (especially zeaxanthin) content, although this effect has not been demonstrated in high-quality human studies. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of daily supplementation with a proprietary milk-based formulation of goji berry, Lacto-Wolfberry (LWB), on macular characteristics and plasma zeaxanthin and antioxidant capacity levels in elderly subjects. METHODS: This was a double-masked, randomized, placebo-controlled trial in healthy elderly subjects (range, 65 to 70 years) receiving 13.7 g/d of LWB (n = 75) or placebo (n = 75) for 90 days. Subjects underwent direct ophthalmic examination to assess pigmentation and soft drusen count in the macula and a blood draw to measure plasma zeaxanthin level and total antioxidant capacity. RESULTS: The placebo group demonstrated hypopigmentation and soft drusen accumulation in the macula, whereas the LWB group remained stable. Both plasma zeaxanthin level and antioxidant capacity increased significantly in the LWB group, by 26% and 57%, respectively, but did not change in the placebo group. No product-related adverse events were reported in either group. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, daily dietary supplementation with goji berry for 90 days increases plasma zeaxanthin and antioxidant levels as well as protects from hypopigmentation and soft drusen accumulation in the macula of elderly subjects. However, the mechanism of action is unclear, given the lack of relationship between change in plasma zeaxanthin and change in macular characteristics.

negative: Antioxidants as potential therapeutics for neuropsychiatric disorders Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathophysiology of many neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression etc. Both genetic and nongenetic factors have been found to cause increased cellular levels of reactive oxygen species beyond the capacity of antioxidant defense mechanism in patients of psychiatric disorders. These factors trigger oxidative cellular damage to lipids, proteins and DNA, leading to abnormal neural growth and differentiation. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies such as supplementation with antioxidants can be effective for long-term treatment management of neuropsychiatric disorders. The use of antioxidants and PUFAs as supplements in the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders has provided some promising results. At the same time, one should be cautious with the use of antioxidants since excessive antioxidants could dangerously interfere with some of the protective functions of reactive oxygen species. The present article will give an overview of the potential strategies and outcomes of using antioxidants as therapeutics in psychiatric disorders.

negative: Formaldehyde, aspartame, and migraines: a possible connection. Aspartame is a widely used artificial sweetener that has been linked to pediatric and adolescent migraines. Upon ingestion, aspartame is broken, converted, and oxidized into formaldehyde in various tissues. We present the first case series of aspartame-associated migraines related to clinically relevant positive reactions to formaldehyde on patch testing.

negative: Does having a drink help you think? 6-7-Year-old children show improvements in cognitive performance from baseline to test after having a drink of ... Little research has examined the effect of water consumption on cognition in children. We examined whether drinking water improves performance from baseline to test in twenty-three 6-7-year-old children. There were significant interactions between time of test and water group (water/no water), with improvements in the water group on thirst and happiness ratings, visual attention and visual search, but not visual memory or visuomotor performance. These results indicate that even under conditions of mild dehydration, not as a result of exercise, intentional water deprivation or heat exposure, children's cognitive performance can be improved by having a drink of water.

negative: Direct and indirect cellular effects of aspartame on the brain. The use of the artificial sweetener, aspartame, has long been contemplated and studied by various researchers, and people are concerned about its negative effects. Aspartame is composed of phenylalanine (50%), aspartic acid (40%) and methanol (10%). Phenylalanine plays an important role in neurotransmitter regulation, whereas aspartic acid is also thought to play a role as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Glutamate, asparagines and glutamine are formed from their precursor, aspartic acid. Methanol, which forms 10% of the broken down product, is converted in the body to formate, which can either be excreted or can give rise to formaldehyde, diketopiperazine (a carcinogen) and a number of other highly toxic derivatives. Previously, it has been reported that consumption of aspartame could cause neurological and behavioural disturbances in sensitive individuals. Headaches, insomnia and seizures are also some of the neurological effects that have been encountered, and these may be accredited to changes in regional brain concentrations of catecholamines, which include norepinephrine, epinephrine and dopamine. The aim of this study was to discuss the direct and indirect cellular effects of aspartame on the brain, and we propose that excessive aspartame ingestion might be involved in the pathogenesis of certain mental disorders (DSM-IV-TR 2000) and also in compromised learning and emotional functioning.

negative: The risks of copper toxicity contributing to cognitive decline in the aging population and to Alzheimer's disease. It is a pleasure and an honor to contribute a paper to a special issue of the Journal of the American College of Nutrition honoring Stanley Wallach and Pearl Small. In this brief review I advance the hypothesis that copper toxicity is the major cause of the epidemic of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease engulfing our aging population. This epidemic is recent, exploding in the last 50-60 years. The disease was virtually unknown 100 years ago. And it involves only developed countries that use copper plumbing. Something in our environment associated with development is poisoning the minds of our aged. The epidemic is associated with the use of copper plumbing, and the taking of copper in multi-mineral supplements. Food copper (organic copper) is processed by the liver and is transported and sequestered in a safe manner. Inorganic copper, such as that in drinking water and copper supplements, largely bypasses the liver and enters the free copper pool of the blood directly. This copper is potentially toxic because it may penetrate the blood/brain barrier. I review a web of animal and human data that tightens the noose around the hypothesis that copper toxicity is causing the epidemic of Alzeimer's disease and loss of cognition in our aging population.

negative: Beta-casomorphins-7 in infants on different type of feeding and different levels of psychomotor development. Casomorphins are the most important during the first year of life, when postnatal formation is most active and milk is the main source of both nutritive and biologically active material for infants. This study was conducted on a total of 90 infants, of which 37 were fed with breast milk and 53 were fed with formula containing cow milk. The study has firstly indicated substances with immunoreactivity of human (irHCM) and bovine (irBCM) beta-casomorphins-7 in blood plasma of naturally and artificially fed infants, respectively. irHCM and irBCM were detected both in the morning before feeding (basal level), and 3h after feeding. Elevation of irHCM and irBCM levels after feeding was detected mainly in infants in the first 3 months of life. Chromatographic characterization of the material with irBCM has demonstrated that it has the same molecular mass and polarity as synthetic bovine beta-casomorphin-7. The highest basal irHCM was observed in breast-fed infants with normal psychomotor development and muscle tone. In contrast, elevated basal irBCM was found in formula-fed infants showing delay in psychomotor development and heightened muscle tone. Among formula-fed infants with normal development, the rate of this parameter directly correlated to basal irBCM. The data indicate that breast feeding has an advantage over artificial feeding for infants' development during the first year of life and support the hypothesis for deterioration of bovine casomorphin elimination as a risk factor for delay in psychomotor development and other diseases such as autism.

negative: A hospital based study of prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in an urban population of India. OBJECTIVE: A cross-sectional institutional-based study was undertaken to know the prevalence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) among Indian pregnant women. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: 325 pregnant women were screened for evidence of diabetes who were previously not known to be diabetic. They underwent 75 g, 2 hour, oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Chi-square test was done for statistically association of variables in GDM. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study indicate that bad obstetrics history, obese patient on high calorie diet especially non vegetarian diet with less physical activity are highly prone to develop GDM.

negative: Jam processing and storage effects on blueberry polyphenolics and antioxidant capacity. Fresh blueberries were processed into sugar and sugar-free jams and stored for 6 months at 4 and 25 degrees C. The jams were analyzed immediately after processing and over 6 months of storage for polyphenolic content, percent polymeric color, and antioxidant capacity. Processing resulted in losses of anthocyanins, procyanidins, chlorogenic acid, and ORAC in both jam types, but flavonols were well retained. Marked losses of anthocyanins and procyanidins occurred over 6 months of storage and were accompanied by increased polymeric color values. Chlorogenic acid levels also declined during storage, but flavonols and ORAC changed little. Jams stored at 4 degrees C retained higher levels of anthocyanins, procyanidins, and ORAC and had lower polymeric color values than jams stored at 25 degrees C. Sugar-free jams retained higher levels of anthocyanins and had lower polymeric color values than sugar jams late during storage. Blueberry jams should be refrigerated to better retain polyphenolics and antioxidant capacity.

negative: How trustworthy are bowel histories? Comparison of recalled and recorded information. One hundred and fifty hospital outpatients were questioned about their bowel habits and then asked to record these in diary booklets for two weeks. Overall, recalled and recorded figures for frequency of defecation agreed fairly closely, but in 16% of patients there was a discrepancy of three or more bowel actions per week. This was usually an exaggeration of the difference from the norm of one a day. Patients were bad at predicting episodes of changed bowel frequency. These findings cast doubt on the value of population surveys of bowel habit based solely on questionnaires. They also suggest that the irritable bowel syndrome might be correctly diagnosed more often if patients were routinely asked to record their bowel actions.

negative: Primum Non Nocere: An Evolutionary Analysis of Whether Antidepressants Do More Harm than Good Antidepressant medications are the first-line treatment for people meeting current diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Most antidepressants are designed to perturb the mechanisms that regulate the neurotransmitter serotonin – an evolutionarily ancient biochemical found in plants, animals, and fungi. Many adaptive processes evolved to be regulated by serotonin, including emotion, development, neuronal growth and death, platelet activation and the clotting process, attention, electrolyte balance, and reproduction. It is a principle of evolutionary medicine that the disruption of evolved adaptations will degrade biological functioning. Because serotonin regulates many adaptive processes, antidepressants could have many adverse health effects. For instance, while antidepressants are modestly effective in reducing depressive symptoms, they increase the brain’s susceptibility to future episodes after they have been discontinued. Contrary to a widely held belief in psychiatry, studies that purport to show that antidepressants promote neurogenesis are flawed because they all use a method that cannot, by itself, distinguish between neurogenesis and neuronal death. In fact, antidepressants cause neuronal damage and mature neurons to revert to an immature state, both of which may explain why antidepressants also cause neurons to undergo apoptosis (programmed death). Antidepressants can also cause developmental problems, they have adverse effects on sexual and romantic life, and they increase the risk of hyponatremia (low sodium in the blood plasma), bleeding, stroke, and death in the elderly. Our review supports the conclusion that antidepressants generally do more harm than good by disrupting a number of adaptive processes regulated by serotonin. However, there may be specific conditions for which their use is warranted (e.g., cancer, recovery from stroke). We conclude that altered informed consent practices and greater caution in the prescription of antidepressants are warranted.