query: Weather and climate are different; climate predictions do not need weather detail.

positive: Met Office The Met Office ( officially the Meteorological Office until 2000 ) is the United Kingdom 's national weather service . It is an executive agency and trading fund of the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy led by CEO , Rob Varley and chief scientist , Professor Stephen Belcher . The Met Office makes meteorological predictions across all timescales from weather forecasts to climate change .

positive: Climate Climate is the statistics of weather , usually over a 30-year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of these variables in a given region .   A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere .   The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region .   Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming . Global warming results in redistributions . For example , `` a 3 ° C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 -- 400 km in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m in elevation . Therefore , species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones '' .

positive: Chaos theory Chaos theory is a branch of mathematics focused on the behavior of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions . ` Chaos ' is an interdisciplinary theory stating that within the apparent randomness of chaotic complex systems , there are underlying patterns , constant feedback loops , repetition , self-similarity , fractals , self-organization , and reliance on programming at the initial point known as sensitive dependence on initial conditions . The butterfly effect describes how a small change in one state of a deterministic nonlinear system can result in large differences in a later state , e.g. a butterfly flapping its wings in Brazil can cause a tornado in Texas .   Small differences in initial conditions ( such as those due to rounding errors in numerical computation ) yield widely diverging outcomes for such dynamical systems -- a response popularly referred to as the butterfly effect - rendering long-term prediction of their behavior impossible in general . This happens even though these systems are deterministic , meaning that their future behavior is fully determined by their initial conditions , with no random elements involved . In other words , the deterministic nature of these systems does not make them predictable . This behavior is known as deterministic chaos , or simply chaos . The theory was summarized by Edward Lorenz as :   Chaotic behavior exists in many natural systems , such as weather and climate . It also occurs spontaneously in some systems with artificial components , such as road traffic . This behavior can be studied through analysis of a chaotic mathematical model , or through analytical techniques such as recurrence plots and Poincaré maps . Chaos theory has applications in several disciplines , including meteorology , sociology , physics , environmental science , computer science , engineering , economics , biology , ecology , and philosophy .  The theory formed the basis for such fields of study as complex dynamical systems , edge of chaos theory , self-assembly process .

positive: Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.  Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.

positive: European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts The European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts , ECMWF , is an independent intergovernmental organisation supported by most of the nations of Europe and is based at Shinfield Park , Reading , United Kingdom .  It operates one of the largest supercomputer complexes in Europe and the world 's largest archive of numerical weather prediction data .  The Centre is considering an offer from the Italian Government to move ECMWF 's data centre to Bologna , Italy . The new site , a former tobacco factory , would be redesigned by the architecture firm gmp .

negative: Climate ensemble A climate ensemble involves slightly different models of the climate system . There are at least four different types , to be described below . For the equivalent in numerical weather prediction , see ensemble forecasting .

negative: Climate Forecast System __ NOTOC __  The Climate Forecast System or Coupled Forecast System ( both names abbreviated CFS ) is a medium to long range numerical weather prediction and a climate model run by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) to bridge weather and climate timescales . Version 2 became operational as CFSv2 in 2011 .

negative: Numerical weather prediction Numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions . Though first attempted in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results . A number of global and regional forecast models are run in different countries worldwide , using current weather observations relayed from radiosondes , weather satellites and other observing systems as inputs .   Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions ; the latter are widely applied for understanding and projecting climate change . The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts ; however , atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area , such as wildfires .   Manipulating the vast datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to only about six days . Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts , along with deficiencies in the numerical models themselves . Post-processing techniques such as model output statistics ( MOS ) have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions .   A more fundamental problem lies in the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations that govern the atmosphere . It is impossible to solve these equations exactly , and small errors grow with time ( doubling about every five days ) . Present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to about 14 days even with perfectly accurate input data and a flawless model . In addition , the partial differential equations used in the model need to be supplemented with parameterizations for solar radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , and the effects of terrain . In an effort to quantify the large amount of inherent uncertainty remaining in numerical predictions , ensemble forecasts have been used since the 1990s to help gauge the confidence in the forecast , and to obtain useful results farther into the future than otherwise possible . This approach analyzes multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model or multiple models .

negative: Climate Prediction Center The Climate Prediction Center ( CPC ) is one of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction , which are a part of NOAA 's National Weather Service . It is located in College Park , Maryland . Its roots trace back to the late 18th century , with the United States Army Signal Corp taking over responsibility of the climate program in the late 19th century . Once it became part of the United States Weather Bureau , it was known as the Weather Bureau Climate and Crop Services . From 1957 through 1966 , the United States Weather Bureau 's Office of Climatology , located in Washington , D.C. and then Suitland , Maryland , published the Mariners Weather Log publication . Late in the 20th century , it was known as the Climate Analysis Center for a time , before evolving into CPC in 1995 . CPC issues climate forecasts valid weeks and months in advance .

negative: National Centers for Environmental Prediction The United States National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) delivers national and global weather , water , climate and space weather guidance , forecasts , warnings and analyses to its Partners and External User Communities . These products and services are based on a service-science legacy and respond to user needs to protect life and property , enhance that nation 's economy and support the nation 's growing need for environmental information . The centers form part of the National Weather Service .   There are nine centers :   Aviation Weather Center provides aviation warnings and forecasts of hazardous flight conditions at all levels within domestic and international air space .  Climate Prediction Center monitors and forecasts short-term climate fluctuations and provides information on the effects climate patterns can have on the nation .  Environmental Modeling Center develops and improves numerical weather , climate , hydrological and ocean prediction through a broad program in partnership with the research community .  National Hurricane Center provides forecasts of the movement and strength of tropical weather systems and issues watches and warnings for the North Atlantic and the Eastern Pacific Ocean .  NCEP Central Operations sustains and executes the operational suite of numerical analyses and forecast models and prepares NCEP products for dissemination .  Ocean Prediction Center issues weather warnings and forecasts out to five days for the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans north of 30 degrees North .  Space Weather Prediction Center provides space weather alerts and warnings for disturbances that can affect people and equipment working in space and on earth .  Storm Prediction Center provides tornado and severe weather watches for the contiguous United States along with a suite of hazardous weather forecasts .  Weather Prediction Center provides nationwide analysis and forecast guidance products out through seven days .

negative: Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\nThe energy moving through Earth\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of "internal variability", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.

negative: Meteorological Service Singapore Meteorological Service Singapore ( MSS ) is a division of the National Environment Agency , Singapore . MSS 's mission is to observe and understand the weather and climate affecting Singapore and to provide services in support of national needs and international co-operation . It collects and maintain reliable long-term national weather records , provides reliable weather and climate services . It also  conducts research to advance understanding and prediction of the weather and climate of Singapore and the region . It does risk and impact assessment of natural environmental hazards .

negative: Centro de Previsão do Tempo e Estudos Climáticos Centro de Previsão do Tempo e Estudos Climáticos ( CPTEC ) is the numerical weather prediction agency of Brazil , part of INPE ( National Institute for Space Research ) . Its mission is to provide the country with weather and climate forecasts . CPTEC is the most advanced center for numerical weather prediction and climate in Latin America , providing forecasts for short and medium-term climate and high precision , since the beginning of 1995 . CPTEC uses supercomputers and knowledge of its staff to achieve the same level as forecasting centers in more developed countries .

negative: Parametrization (atmospheric modeling) Parameterization in a weather or climate model within numerical weather prediction is a method of replacing processes that are too small-scale or complex to be physically represented in the model by a simplified process . This can be contrasted with other processes -- e.g. , large-scale flow of the atmosphere -- that are explicitly resolved within the models . Associated with these parameterizations are various parameters used in the simplified processes . Examples include the descent rate of raindrops , convective clouds , simplifications of the atmospheric radiative transfer on the basis of atmospheric radiative transfer codes , and cloud microphysics . Radiative parameterizations are important to both atmospheric and oceanic modeling alike . Atmospheric emissions from different sources within individual grid boxes also need to be parameterized to determine their impact on air quality .

negative: Climate (disambiguation) Climate refers to the weather of a region according to periodic norms .   Climate may also refer to :   Clime , a notion of dividing the Earth into zones in Classical Antiquity based on their inclination or latitude  a tympan or climate , an interchangeable part of an astrolabe , corresponding to each clime  Climates ( film ) , a 2006 film by Turkish filmmaker Nuri Bilge Ceylan  Social climate , in sociology  Organisation climate  Political climate , in politics  Climates ( band ) , a British melodic hardcore band formed in 2011   de : Klima ( Begriffsklärung )

negative: Tim Palmer (physicist) Timothy Noel Palmer CBE FRS ( born 31 December 1952 ) is a mathematical physicist by training . He has spent most of his career working on the dynamics and predictability of weather and climate . Amongst various research achievements , he pioneered the development of probabilistic ensemble forecasting techniques for weather and climate prediction ( at the Met Office and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ) . These techniques are now standard in operational weather and climate prediction around the world , and are central for reliable decision making for many commercial and humanitarian applications .

negative: Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction The Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis and Prediction , also known as RAMA , is a system of moored observation buoys in the Indian Ocean that collects meteorological and oceanographic data . The data collected by RAMA will greatly enhance the ability of scientists to understand climatic events and predict monsoon events . Climatic and oceanic events in the Indian Ocean affect weather and climate throughout the rest of the world ( such as El Niño , hurricanes , and United States weather ) , so RAMA will support weather forecasting and climate research worldwide . Although widely supported internationally , the system has only been partially implemented due to pirate activity off the coast of Somalia .

negative: The Signal and the Noise The Signal and the Noise : Why Most Predictions Fail -- but Some Do n't ( alternatively stylized as The Signal and the Noise : Why So Many Predictions Fail -- but Some Do n't ) is a 2012 book by Nate Silver detailing the art of using probability and statistics as applied to real-world circumstances . The book includes richly detailed case studies from baseball , elections , climate change , the financial crash , poker , and weather forecasting .

negative: Climate graph A climate graph is a chart that shows average weather for a certain period of time , for a certain location . The precipitation is usually shown using a bar graph and the temperature is usually shown as a line graph .

negative: Atmospheric thermodynamics Atmospheric thermodynamics is the study of heat-to-work transformations ( and their reverse ) that take place in the earth 's atmosphere and manifest as weather or climate . Atmospheric thermodynamics use the laws of classical thermodynamics , to describe and explain such phenomena as the properties of moist air , the formation of clouds , atmospheric convection , boundary layer meteorology , and vertical instabilities in the atmosphere . Atmospheric thermodynamic diagrams are used as tools in the forecasting of storm development . Atmospheric thermodynamics forms a basis for cloud microphysics and convection parameterizations used in numerical weather models and is used in many climate considerations , including convective-equilibrium climate models .

negative: Alpine climate Alpine climate is the average weather ( climate ) for the regions above the tree line . This climate is also referred to as a mountain climate or highland climate .

negative: Weather and climate effects on Lyme disease exposure Lyme disease is spread to humans through the bite of infected ticks . The tick population is affected by weather and climate . Many factors determine tick population densities as well as diseased population densities of ticks so that no single factor can determine likelihood of exposure to tick-borne disease . Overall climate and primary host population determine the localities where ticks will thrive . However , studies have been conducted which correlate tick population to climate change and their behavior to weather patterns . Ticks are parasites which carry a myriad of infectious diseases that depend on the species of tick . Overall climate is more determinate of tick population and daily weather has a subtle effect on the spread of tick-borne disease . Being mindful of daily weather patterns and vigilantly avoiding exposure to ticks reduces human exposure to Lyme disease .

negative: MetVUW Metvuw Weather and Climate service is run by James McGregor . Much of the weather content and forecast material is available directly from the website , free . A range of different weather information is available , as different pages , under the following headings .

negative: Deutscher Wetterdienst The Deutscher Wetterdienst , -LSB- ˌdɔʏ̯ʧɐ ˈvɛtɐdiːnst -RSB- , or DWD for short , is the German Meteorological Office , based in Offenbach am Main , Germany , which monitors weather and meteorological conditions over Germany and provides weather services for the general public and for nautical , aviational or agricultural purposes . It is attached to the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure . The DWDs principal tasks include warning against weather-related dangers and monitoring and rating climate changes affecting Germany . The organization runs atmospheric models on their supercomputer for precise weather forecasting . The DWD also manages the national climate archive and one of the largest specialized libraries on weather and climate worldwide .

negative: David H. Bromwich David H. Bromwich is a member of the Byrd Polar Research Center and a professor at the Department of Geography , The Ohio State University . His work has involved the evaluation and diagnosis of polar weather and climate variability .   He received his Ph.D. in meteorology from the University of Wisconsin , Madison . In 1979 he joined Ohio State 's Byrd Polar Research Center as a research scientist .   His research has focused on the variability of precipitation over Antarctica , Greenland , and the Arctic Ocean , thus contributing to the understanding of climate and potential sea level changes . He has made contributions to defining aspects of U.S. science policy .   Having helped identify the need to improve numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) for the Antarctic , Bromwich has been influential in the development and evaluation of the Antarctic Mesoscale Prediction System ( AMPS ) .   In April 2001 AMPS was one of four weather models used to predict a window of opportunity for the emergency medical evacuation of Ronald Shemenski from the Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station . Flights to the base are normally halted from late February until November because of the extreme winter cold and darkness . But the airlift was successfully completed and pilot Sean Loutitt confirmed the reliance on the forecasts , stating `` The weather was the biggest concern '' .

negative: Probabilistic forecasting Probabilistic forecasting summarizes what is known about , or opinions about , future events . In contrast to single-valued forecasts ( such as forecasting that the maximum temperature at given site on a given day will be 23 degrees Celsius , or that the result in a given football match will be a no-score draw ) , probabilistic forecasts assign a probability to each of a number of different outcomes , and the complete set of probabilities represents a probability forecast . Thus , probabilistic forecasting is a type of probabilistic classification .   Weather forecasting represents a service in which probability forecasts are sometimes published for public consumption , although it may also be used by weather forecasters as the basis of a simpler type of forecast . For example forecasters may combine their own experience together with computer-generated probability forecasts to construct a forecast of the type `` we expect heavy rainfall '' .   Sports betting is another field of application where probabilistic forecasting can play a role . The pre-race odds published for a horse race can be considered to correspond to a summary of bettors ' opinions about the likely outcome of a race , although this needs to be tempered with caution as bookmakers ' profits needs to be taken into account . In sports betting , probability forecasts may not be published as such , but may underlie bookmakers ' activities in setting pay-off rates , etc. .

negative: Marine weather forecasting Marine weather forecasting is the process by which mariners and meteorological organizations have attempted to forecast future weather conditions over the Earth 's oceans . Mariners have had rules of thumb regarding the navigation around tropical cyclones for many years , dividing a storm into halves and sailing through the normally weaker and more navigable half of their circulation . Marine weather forecasts by various weather organizations can be traced back to the sinking of the Royal Charter in 1859 and the RMS Titanic in 1912 .   The wind is the driving force of weather at sea , as wind generates local wind waves , long ocean swells , and its flow around the subtropical ridge helps maintain warm water currents such as the Gulf Stream . The importance of weather over the ocean during World War II led to delayed or secret weather reports , in order to maintain a competitive advantage . Weather ships were established by various nations during World War II for forecasting purposes , and were maintained through 1985 to help with transoceanic plane navigation .   Voluntary observations from ships , weather buoys , weather satellites , and numerical weather prediction have been used to diagnose and help forecast weather over the Earth 's ocean areas . Since the 1960s , numerical weather prediction 's role over the Earth 's seas has taken a greater role in the forecast process . Weather elements such as sea state , surface winds , tide levels , and sea surface temperature are tackled by organizations tasked with forecasting weather over open oceans and seas . Currently , the Japan Meteorological Agency , the United States National Weather Service , and the United Kingdom Met Office create marine weather forecasts for the Northern Hemisphere .

negative: Climate of San Diego The climate of San Diego , California is categorized as a semi-arid Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification BSh ) . It enjoys mild , sunny weather throughout the year .

negative: Weather media in the United States The weather media in the United States includes coverage of weather and weather forecasting by farmers ' almanacs , newspapers , radio , television stations , and the internet . Farmers ' Almanacs have taken a stab at forecasting for the following year or so for around two centuries . At first , weather media included reporting on past events , with forecasting playing a role from the late 19th century onward . Weather-related information proliferated to near real-time after the invention of the telegraph . Radio and satellite broadcasts made weather-related communication ever quicker , with the World Wide Web making broadcasting and reporting nearly instantaneous . By the 1990s , sensationalism played a role in weather coverage .

negative: National Weather Center The National Weather Center ( NWC ) , located on the campus of the University of Oklahoma , is a confederation of federal , state , and academic organizations that work together in partnership to improve understanding of events occurring in Earth 's atmosphere over a wide range of time and space scales . The NWC partners give equal attention to applying that understanding to the development of improved observation , analysis , assimilation , display , and prediction systems . The National Weather Center also has expertise in local and regional climate , numerical modeling , hydrology , and weather radar . Members of the NWC work with a wide range of federal , state , and local government agencies to help reduce loss of life and property to hazardous weather , ensure wise use of water resources , and enhance agricultural production . They also work with private sector partners to develop new applications of weather and regional climate information that provide competitive advantage in the marketplace .

negative: History of climate change science The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .   Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .

negative: Climate of Albania Albania has a variety of climate systems . With its coastline facing the Adriatic and Ionian seas , its highlands backed upon the elevated Balkan landmass , and the entire country lying at a latitude subject to a variety of weather patterns during the winter and summer seasons , Albania has a high number of climatic regions for such a small area . The coastal lowlands have typically mediterranean climate ; the highlands have a continental climate . In both the lowlands and the interior , the weather varies markedly from north to south .   Under the Köppen climate classification , the country has Hot Mediterranean climate , Warm Mediterranean climate , Subtropical climate , Oceanic climate , Continental climate and Subartic climate .

negative: Climate pattern A climate pattern is any recurring characteristic of the climate . Climate patterns can last tens of thousands of years , like the glacial and interglacial periods within ice ages , or repeat each year , like monsoons .   A climate pattern may come in the form of a regular cycle , like the diurnal cycle or the seasonal cycle ; a quasi periodic event , like El Niño ; or a highly irregular event , such as a volcanic winter . The regular cycles are generally well understood and may be removed by normalization . For example , graphs which show trends of temperature change will usually have the effects of seasonal variation removed .

negative: Earth's energy budget Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things .   Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate .   Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable .   Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .

negative: Meteorological Service of Canada The Meteorological Service of Canada ( MSC ) is a division of Environment and Climate Change Canada , which primarily provides public meteorological information and weather forecasts and warnings of severe weather and other environmental hazards . MSC also monitors and conducts research on climate , atmospheric science , air quality , water quantities , ice and other environmental issues . MSC operates a network of radio stations throughout Canada transmitting weather and environmental information 24 hours per day called Weatheradio Canada .   There are currently five public weather forecast offices :   Pacific and Yukon Storm Prediction Centre in Vancouver , British Columbia  Prairie and Arctic Storm Prediction Centre , split between an office in Edmonton , Alberta and Winnipeg , Manitoba  Ontario Storm Prediction Centre ( Downsview , Ontario )  Quebec Storm Prediction Centre ( Montreal , Quebec )  Atlantic Storm Prediction Centre ( Dartmouth , Nova Scotia ) . The Atlantic Storm Prediction Centre also houses the Canadian Hurricane Centre plus manages the Newfoundland and Labrador Weather Office Gander , Newfoundland and Labrador .   There are two centres dedicated to aviation weather forecasting : Canadian Meteorological Aviation Centre-East , located in Montreal , and Canadian Meteorological Aviation Centre-West , located in Edmonton .   MSC also operates the Canadian Meteorological Centre , which is tasked with providing forecast guidance , and the Canadian Ice Service , which provides ice observations and forecasts for mariners . In support of Canada 's military , some MSC meteorologists are seconded to the Department of National Defence ( Canada ) .   The Meteorological Service of Canada was ISO9001 :2000 Certified .

negative: Weather and Forecasting Weather and Forecasting is a scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society .  Articles on forecasting and analysis techniques , forecast verification studies , and case studies useful to forecasters . In addition , submissions that report on changes to the suite of operational numerical models and statistical post-processing techniques , and articles that demonstrate the transfer of research results to the forecasting community .

negative: Sea surface temperature Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans .   Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .


query: Scientists retracted claim that sea levels are rising.

positive: Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly .   Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. .  Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century .   Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: Ice2sea Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level .   The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' .   Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections .   The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .

negative: Raised shoreline A raised shoreline is an ancient shoreline exposed above current water level . These landforms are formed by a relative change in sea level due to global sea level rise , isostatic rebound , and/or tectonic uplift . These surfaces are usually exposed above modern sea level when a heavily glaciated area experiences a glacial retreat , causing water levels to rise . This area will then experience post-glacial rebound , effectively  raising the shoreline surface .  Examples of raised shorelines can be found along the coasts of formerly glaciated areas in Ireland and Scotland , as well as in North America . Raised shorelines are exposed at various locations around the Puget Sound of Washington State .

negative: Sea level Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location .   Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming .   The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .

negative: James O'Brien (oceanographer) James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''

negative: Marine transgression A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load .   During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean .   The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .

negative: Past sea level Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence .   Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago .   Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .

negative: Nils-Axel Mörner Nils-Axel Mörner ( born 1938 ) , is the former head of the paleogeophysics and geodynamics department at Stockholm University . He retired in 2005 . He was president of the International Union for Quaternary Research ( INQUA ) Commission on Neotectonics ( 1981 -- 1989 ) . He headed the INTAS ( International Association for the promotion of cooperation with scientists from the New Independent States of the former Soviet Union ) Project on Geomagnetism and Climate ( 1997 -- 2003 ) . He is a critic of the IPCC and the notion that the global sea level is rising . He was formerly the Chairman of INQUA Commission on Sea Level Changes and Coastal Evolution , and led the Maldives Sea Level Project .

negative: Meltwater pulse 1A Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .

negative: Josh Willis Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .

negative: Managed retreat In the context of coastal erosion , managed retreat ( also managed realignment ) allows an area that was not previously exposed to flooding by the sea to become flooded by removing coastal protection . This process is usually in low-lying estuarine areas and almost always involves flooding of land that has at some point in the past been claimed from the sea .   In the UK , managed retreat is often a response to sea level rise exacerbated by local subsidence of the land surface due to post-glacial isostatic rebound in the north .

negative: History of climate change science The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .   Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .

negative: Environmental skepticism Environmental skepticism is the belief that claims by environmentalists , and the environmental scientists who support them , are false or exaggerated . The term is also applied to those who are critical of environmentalism in general . Environmental skepticism is closely linked with anti-environmentalism and climate change denial .   Environmental skeptics have argued that the extent of harm coming from human activities is less certain than some scientists and scientific bodies claim , or that it is too soon to be introducing curbs in these activities on the basis of existing evidence , or that further discussion is needed regarding who should pay for such environmental initiatives . One of the focus themes in the environmental skeptics movement is the idea that environmentalism is a growing threat to social and economic progress and the civil liberties .   The popularity of the term was enhanced by Bjørn Lomborg 's book The Skeptical Environmentalist . Lomborg approached environmental claims from a statistical and economic standpoint , and concluded that often the claims made by environmentalists were overstated . Lomborg argued , on the basis of cost -- benefit analysis , that few environmentalist claims warranted serious concern . However , in 2010 , Lomborg stated that he believes in the need for `` tens of billions of dollars a year to be invested in tackling climate change '' and declared global warming to be `` undoubtedly one of the chief concerns facing the world today '' and `` a challenge humanity must confront '' . He summarized his position , saying `` Global warming is real - it is man-made and it is an important problem . But it is not the end of the world . ''

negative: Antarctica cooling controversy An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .

negative: Global cooling Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .

negative: Gjesværstappan Gjesværstappan is a group of high , steep-sided , grass-covered islands which are located north of the village of Gjesvær in Nordkapp Municipality in Finnmark county , Norway . The three main islands are Storstappen , Kjerkestappen , and Bukkstappen .   Storstappan rises to a height of 283 m above sea level and has a peninsula called Stauren that rises to 165 m. Kjerkestappen rises to an elevation of 166 m above sea level and Bukkstappen rises to 92 m above sea level . Historically , there were people that lived on the islands and there was a church on Kjerkestappen .

negative: Copenhagen Diagnosis The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date .   The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 .   In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are :   Surging Greenhouse gas emissions  Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % .  Human-induced warming  Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun .  Acceleration of melting ice caps  Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise .  Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline  According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 .  Underestimation of changing sea levels  In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted .  Damage due to inaction  A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more .  Turning point must come soon  The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . ''  The Future  By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .

negative: Sea-level curve The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history .   The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration .   The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data .   In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq .

negative: Ieodo Ocean Research Station Ieodo Ocean Research Station is an ocean platform constructed by South Korea and placed on the submerged Socotra Rock in the East China Sea . The stated purpose of the platform is the collection of meteorological data , provision for maritime safety , and fisheries monitoring . However , as South Korea and China both claim that Socotra Rock lies in their respective Exclusive Economic Zones , the platform does have strategic implications .   The platform was officially opened in June 2003 . The platform has a helipad a couple of lower decks for equipment and workspace . Although the station has residential facilities that can comfortably accommodate 8 people for 15 days , the station is typically uninhabited and operated remotely .   While Socotra Rock rises to a maximum of 4.6 m below sea level , the platform is founded on a portion of the rock that is substantially deeper at 40m below sea level . As a result , the platform is approximately 700m from the rock 's `` peak . '' The platform rises approximately 36m from sea level .

negative: Expanding Earth The expanding Earth or growing Earth hypothesis asserts that the position and relative movement of continents is at least partially due to the volume of Earth increasing . Conversely , geophysical global cooling was the hypothesis that various features could be explained by Earth contracting .   Although it was suggested historically , since the recognition of plate tectonics in the 1970s , scientific consensus has rejected any significant expansion or contraction of Earth .

negative: Campbell Plateau The Campbell Plateau is a large oceanic plateau south of New Zealand and the Chatham Rise . It originated in the Gondwanan breakup and is part of Zealandia , a largely submerged continent . The above sea level parts of the plateau -- the Bounty Islands , Antipodes Islands , Auckland Islands and Campbell Island -- form part of the New Zealand Subantarctic Islands which were declared a World Heritage Site in 1998 .  Large parts of the Campbell Plateau lies less than 1000 m below sea level . It rises to 500 m at the Pukaki Rise and emerges above sea level at the Auckland and Campbell Islands .   Covering an area of 800000 km2 , the Campbell Plateau has a gently undulating bathymetry with major rises trending east-west : Campbell Island Rise , Pukaki Rise , and Bounty Island Ridge . There are two near-parallel rises on the western margin : Stewart Island -- Snare Island Rise and Auckland Island platform . The continental slopes are steep on western and southern margins while the northern margin slowly falls into the Bounty Trough .

negative: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .

negative: Global warming in Tuvalu Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .

negative: Argyrodes chionus Argyrodes chionus is a species of tangle-web spider that is endemic to Aldabra in the Seychelles . It is found in dry shrubland at sea level . It is threatened by habitat deterioration due to sea level rise .

negative: Duncan Wingham Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission .   In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' .   In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''

negative: Jaegyu Knoll Jaegyu Knoll is an undersea knoll ( a submarine volcano ) 5.5 nmi northwest of Rosamel Island in the Antarctic Sound . It rises c. 700 m above the sea floor to c. 200 m below sea level . It was first mapped by swath bathymetry during a United States Antarctic Program cruise by Nathaniel B. Palmer , in January 2007 ( Eugene Domack , chief scientist ; M. Terminal , ship 's master ) . Named by the US-Advisory Committee for Undersea Features in 2007 after Jeon Jaegyu , a young scientist at King Sejong Station on King George Island , with the Korean Antarctic Program during the 2003 field season . He participated in a rescue attempt for an overturned boat in Maxwell Bay but was himself thrown into the sea by heavy seas , and succumbed to hypothermia while making his way along the shore toward Marsh Station .

negative: I'm not a scientist `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report .   President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying :   I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe .   Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates .   Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .

negative: Jonathan M. Gregory Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre .   A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more .   He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change .   In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change .   In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .

negative: Tide Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth .   The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible .   Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level .   While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts .   Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .

negative: Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are :  increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases  global changes to land surface , such as deforestation  increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols .   There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity .   According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence .   Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities :  A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established .  Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual .  Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included .  Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming .   The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .

negative: Global warming conspiracy theory A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus .  Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .

negative: Deglaciation Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene .   The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .

negative: Coastal management Coastal management is defense against flooding and erosion , and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands .   Coastal zones occupy less than 15 % of the Earth 's land area , while they host more than 40 % of the world population . Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 km of a shoreline and 100 m of sea level , with an average density nearly 3 times higher than the global average for population . With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025 , human activities originating from this small land area will impose heavy pressure on coasts . Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities .   In the European Union , almost half of the population lives within 50 kilometres of the sea and coastal resources produce much of the Union 's economic wealth . The fishing , shipping and tourism industries all compete for space along Europe 's estimated 89,000 km of coastline and coastal zones contain some of Europe 's most fragile and valuable natural habitats .   Protection against sea level rise in the 21st century will be especially important , as sea level rise accelerates . Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems . Coastal sediments are disturbed and suspended by wave and tide energy .