query: there is no relationship between temperature and carbon dioxide emissions by Âhumans[...]

positive: Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.  Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: Coptodon spongotroktis Coptodon spongotroktis is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family . It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon . It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas .

negative: Boudouard reaction The Boudouard reaction , named after Octave Leopold Boudouard , is the redox reaction of a chemical equilibrium mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide at a given temperature . It is the disproportionation of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide and graphite or its reverse :  2CO + C   The Boudouard Reaction to form carbon dioxide and carbon is exothermic at all temperatures . However , the standard enthalpy of the Boudouard reaction becomes less negative with increasing temperature , as shown to the side .   While the formation enthalpy of is higher than that of , the formation entropy is much lower . Consequently , the standard free energy of formation of from its component elements is almost constant and independent of the temperature , while the free energy of formation of decreases with temperature . At high temperatures , the forward reaction is therefore endergonic , favoring the ( exergonic ) reverse reaction toward CO , even though the forward reaction is still exothermic .   The effect of temperature on the extent of the Boudouard reaction is indicated better by the value of the equilibrium constant than by the standard free energy of reaction . The value of log10 ( Keq ) for the reaction ( valid between 500 -- ) is :   has a value of zero at .   The implication of the change in Keq with temperature is that a gas containing may form elemental carbon if the mixture cools below a certain temperature . The thermodynamic activity of carbon may be calculated for a / mixture by knowing the partial pressure of each species and the value of Keq . For instance , in a high temperature reducing environment , such as that created for the reduction of iron oxide in a blast furnace or the preparation of carburizing atmospheres , carbon monoxide is the stable oxide of carbon . When a gas rich in is cooled to the point where the activity of carbon exceeds one , the Boudouard Reaction can take place . Carbon monoxide then tends to disproportionate into carbon dioxide and graphite , which forms soot .   In industrial catalysis , this is not just an eyesore ; sooting ( also called coking ) can cause serious and even irreversible damage to catalysts and catalyst beds . This is a problem in the catalytic reforming of petroleum and the steam reforming of natural gas .   The reaction is named after the French chemist , Octave Leopold Boudouard ( 1872 -- 1923 ) , who investigated this equilibrium in 1905 .

negative: Coptodon imbriferna Coptodon imbriferna is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family . It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon . It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas .

negative: Tropical peat Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres .   Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan .   The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions .   The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .

negative: Coptodon gutturosa Coptodon gutturosa is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family . It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon . It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas .

negative: Coptodon flava Coptodon flava is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family . It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon . It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas .

negative: Coptodon bythobates Coptodon bythobates is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family . It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon . It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas .

negative: Coptodon snyderae Coptodon snyderae is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family . It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon . It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas .

negative: Coptodon thysi Coptodon thysi is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family . It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon . It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas .

negative: Environmental issues in Austria The Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection of Austria , established in 1972 , is responsible for the coordination at the national level of all environmental protection efforts , addressing its efforts toward problems including waste disposal , pollution , noise , sulfur dioxide , and carbon monoxide levels , as well as emissions by the iron , steel , and ceramics industries . A toxic waste law enacted in 1984 established strict regulations for the collection , transport , and disposal of dangerous substances .   The Austrian government has imposed strict regulations on gas emissions , which helped to reduce sulfur dioxide by two-thirds over an eight-year period beginning in 1980 . In 1992 Austria was among the 50 countries with the highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emissions , producing 56.6 million metric tons of emissions , or 7.29 m tons per capita . In 1996 , the level rose to 59.3 million metric tons . In 2000 , the total was 60.8 million metric tons .

negative: Carbonate–silicate cycle The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere .   The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) .   The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature .   The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .

negative: Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas .   As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product .   Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas .   It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting .   Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .

negative: Paser A PASER ( from the acronym of Particle Acceleration by Stimulated Emission of Radiation ) is a device that accelerates a coherent beam of electrons . This process was demonstrated for the first time in 2006 at the Brookhaven National Lab by a team of physicists from the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology .   Relativistic electrons from a conventional particle accelerator pass through a vibrationally excited carbon dioxide medium in which the electrons undergo millions of collisions with excited carbon dioxide molecules and are accelerated in a coherent fashion . No heat is generated in this quantum energy transfer , thus all the energy transferred to the electrons is used in accelerating the electrons . The electron beam created from this process may result in electrons that are highly collimated in velocity in comparison to other acceleration methods .   The vibrationally excited carbon dioxide is the same medium used in a carbon dioxide laser . This medium resonantly amplifies light with a wavelength near 10.6 or 9.4 micrometers , corresponding to a frequency of approximately 30 terahertz . In order to be accelerated , incident electrons must be microbunched at this frequency . An appropriately bunched electron beam strikes excited carbon dioxide molecules resonantly in order to efficiently stimulate energy emission .

negative: Konye The konye ( Konia eisentrauti ) is a critically endangered species of fish in the family Cichlidae . It is endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo , a crater lake in western Cameroon . It is threatened because of pollution and sedimentation due to human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) . This species can reach a length of 9.3 cm TL .

negative: Fissi The fissi ( Sarotherodon caroli ) is a species of cichlid endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo in western Cameroon . This species can reach a length of 18.6 cm SL . It is threatened because of pollution and sedimentation due to human activities . It is potentially also threatened by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although studies indicate that Barombo Mbo lacks excess amounts of this gas .   Adults mainly feed on phytoplankton .

negative: Clarias maclareni Clarias maclareni is a critically endangered species of catfish in the Clariidae family . It is endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo in western Cameroon . It is threatened because of pollution and sedimentation due to human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) . It is known to grow to 36 cm TL . Large individuals feed mainly on other fishes ( especially cichlids ) , while smaller mainly feed on insects .

negative: Talc carbonate Talc carbonates are a suite of rock and mineral compositions found in metamorphic ultramafic rocks .   The term refers to the two most common end-member minerals found within ultramafic rocks which have undergone talc-carbonation or carbonation reactions , talc and the carbonate mineral magnesite .   Talc carbonate mineral assemblages are controlled by temperature and pressure of metamorphism and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide within metamorphic fluids , as well as by the composition of the host rock .

negative: Plant factory A plant factory is a closed growing system which enables a farmer ( agrotechnician ) to achieve constant production of vegetables all year around . The facility utilizes artificial control of light , temperature , moisture , and carbon dioxide concentrations .

negative: Pulmonary gas pressures The factors that determine the values for alveolar pO2 and pCO2 are :  The pressure of outside air  The partial pressures of inspired oxygen and carbon dioxide  The rates of total body oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production  The rates of alveolar ventilation and perfusion   Following is a list of average partial pressures ( in torr ) for a human at rest :

negative: John Tierney (journalist) John Marion Tierney ( born March 25 , 1953 ) is an American journalist and author who has worked for the New York Times since 1990 . A self-described contrarian , Tierney is a critic of environmentalism , the `` science establishment '' , big government , and calls for limiting emissions of carbon dioxide .

negative: Carbonic anhydrase II Carbonic anhydrase II ( gene name CA2 ) , is one of fourteen forms of human α carbonic anhydrases . Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes reversible hydration of carbon dioxide . Defects in this enzyme are associated with osteopetrosis and renal tubular acidosis .  Renal carbonic anhydrase allows the reabsorption of bicarbonate ions in the proximal tubule .

negative: Kululu The kululu ( Sarotherodon steinbachi ) is a species of cichlid endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo in western Cameroon . This species can reach a length of 11.3 cm SL . It is threatened because of pollution and sedimentation due to human activities . It is potentially also threatened by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although studies indicate that Barombo Mbo lacks excess amounts of this gas .   It feeds on tiny organisms such as rotifers , diatoms and sponge spicules , and organic debris .

negative: Electricity sector in Luxembourg Electricity sector in Luxembourg describes electricity issues in Luxembourg . Luxembourg is a member of OECD and European Union . Luxembourg imports most of its energy . Luxembourg is the EU country with the second smallest forecast of renewables in 2020 . Luxembourg has one of the highest emissions of carbon dioxide per person in Europe .

negative: Polymer-based battery A polymer-based battery uses organic materials instead of bulk metals to form a battery .   Organic polymers can be processed at relatively low temperatures , lowering costs . They also produce less carbon dioxide .

negative: Individual action on climate change Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change .   A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes .  A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution .  Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest .  Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy .  Travel :  In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 .  Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide .  Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level .  Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle .  Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running .  Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .

negative: Energy efficiency in British housing Domestic housing in the United Kingdom presents a possible opportunity for achieving the 20 % overall cut in UK carbon dioxide emissions targeted by the Government for 2010 . However , the process of achieving that drop is proving problematic given the very wide range of age and condition of the UK housing stock .

negative: Mongstad Power Station Mongstad Power Station is a natural gas-fired thermal power plant under construction at the industrial site of Mongstad in Norway .   The station is owned by a consortium of Statoil and DONG Energy , and will be operated by the latter . Construction costs are estimated at NOK 4 billion .  The power station will have an installed effect of 280 MW in electricity production and 350 MW in heat . The energy will be used to operate the Mongstad Refinery as well to supply the Troll Gas Field with power . The plant will use 0.7 billion normal cubic meter ( BCM ) of gas per year . Emissions of carbon dioxide will be 1.2 million tonnes .   The power station has been subject to controversy in Norway , based upon the potential increase in emission of greenhouse gases . Statoil has entered into an implementation agreement in cooperation with Gassnova which representing the Norwegian government in matters relating to Carbon capture and storage , to develop solutions for carbon dioxide capture at Mongstad . Early in 2009 , Statoil delivered a master plan for full scale CO2 capture at Mongstad .

negative: Ammonium carbamate Ammonium carbamate is the inorganic compound -RSB- -RSB- with the formula NH4 -LSB- H2NCO2 -RSB- . This salt formed by the reaction of ammonia with carbon dioxide . This compound is a white solid that is extremely soluble in water , less so in alcohol . It is unusual in degrading at room temperature .


query: Water levels correlate with sunspots

positive: Sun The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System . It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma , with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process . It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth . Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth , and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth , accounting for about 99.86 % of the total mass of the Solar System .  About three quarters of the Sun 's mass consists of hydrogen ( ~ 73 % ) ; the rest is mostly helium ( ~ 25 % ) , with much smaller quantities of heavier elements , including oxygen , carbon , neon , and iron .   The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star ( G2V ) based on its spectral class . As such , it is informally referred to as a yellow dwarf . It formed approximately 4.6 billionAll numbers in this article are short scale . One billion is 109 , or 1,000,000,000 . years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud . Most of this matter gathered in the center , whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System . The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core . It is thought that almost all stars form by this process .   The Sun is roughly middle-aged ; it has not changed dramatically for more than four billion years , and will remain fairly stable for more than another five billion years . After hydrogen fusion in its core has diminished to the point at which it is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium , the core of the Sun will experience a marked increase in density and temperature while its outer layers expand to eventually become a red giant . It is calculated that the Sun will become sufficiently large to engulf the current orbits of Mercury and Venus , and render Earth uninhabitable .   The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times , and the Sun has been regarded by some cultures as a deity . The synodic rotation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis of the solar calendar , which is the predominant calendar in use today .

positive: Solar phenomena Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots .   These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations .   The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth .   Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .

positive: Sunspot Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the photosphere of the Sun that appear as dark spots compared with surrounding regions . They are areas of reduced surface temperature caused by concentrations of magnetic field flux that inhibit convection . Sunspots usually appear in pairs of opposite magnetic polarity . Their number varies according to the approximately 11-year solar cycle .   Individual sunspots may endure anywhere from a few days to a few months , but eventually decay . Sunspots expand and contract as they move across the surface of the Sun with sizes ranging from 16 km to 160000 km in diameter . The larger variety are visible from Earth without the aid of a telescope . They may travel at relative speeds , or proper motions of a few hundred meters per second when they first emerge .   Indicating intense magnetic activity , sunspots accompany secondary phenomena such as coronal loops ( prominences ) and reconnection events . Most solar flares and coronal mass ejections originate in magnetically active regions around visible sunspot groupings . Similar phenomena indirectly observed on stars other than the sun are commonly called starspots and both light and dark spots have been measured .

negative: Solar minimum Solar minimum is the period of least solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the sun . During this time , sunspot and solar flare activity diminishes , and often does not occur for days at a time . The date of the minimum is described by a smoothed average over 12 months of sunspot activity , so identifying the date of the solar minimum usually can only happen 6 months after the minimum takes place . Solar minima are not generally correlated with changes in climate but recent studies have shown a correlation with regional weather patterns .   Solar minimum is contrasted with the solar maximum , where there may be hundreds of sunspots .

negative: Sunspots (economics) In economics , the term sunspots ( or sometimes `` a sunspot '' ) usually refers to an extrinsic random variable , that is , a random variable that does not affect economic fundamentals ( such as endowments , preferences , or technology ) . Sunspots can also refer to the related concept of extrinsic uncertainty , that is , economic uncertainty that does not come from variation in economic fundamentals . David Cass and Karl Shell coined the term sunspots as a suggestive and less technical way of saying `` extrinsic random variable '' .

negative: Sunspots (TV series) Sunspots is a Canadian travel television series which aired on CBC Television in 1974 and 1975 .

negative: Spörer Minimum The Spörer Minimum is a hypothesized 90-year span of low solar activity , from about 1460 until 1550 , which was identified and named by John A. Eddy in a landmark 1976 paper published in Science titled `` The Maunder Minimum '' . It occurred before sunspots had been directly observed and was discovered instead by analysis of the proportion of carbon-14 in tree rings , which is strongly correlated with solar activity . It is named for the German astronomer Gustav Spörer .

negative: Wilson effect In 1769 , during solar cycle 2 , a Scottish astronomer named Alexander Wilson , working at the Macfarlane Observatory , noticed that the shape of sunspots noticeably flattened as they approached the Sun 's  limb due to the solar rotation . These observations showed that sunspots were features on the solar surface , as opposed to minor planets or objects above it . Moreover , he observed what is now termed the Wilson effect : the penumbra and umbra vary in the manner expected by perspective effects if the umbrae of the spots are in fact slight depressions in the surface of the photosphere . The magnitude of the depression is difficult to determine but may be as large as 1,000 km .   While the surface-depression interpretation of the Wilson effect is widespread , Bray and Loughhead ( 1965 ) contended that `` the true explanation of the Wilson effect lies in the higher transparency of the spot material compared to the photosphere '' . They develop this idea on pages 93 to 99 of their book . A similar interpretation was expressed by C.H. Tong in 2005 .   Sunspots result from the blockage of convective heat transport by intense magnetic fields . Sunspots are cooler than the rest of the photosphere , with effective temperatures of about 4000 ° C ( about 7000 ° F ) . Sunspot occurrence follows an approximately 11-year period known as the solar cycle , discovered by Heinrich Schwabe in the 19th century .

negative: List of articles related to the Sun Articles related to the Sun include :  Corona  Solar wind  Coronal mass ejection  Solar eclipse  total eclipse  annular eclipse  hybrid eclipse  partial eclipse  Magnitude of eclipse  Saros ( astronomy )  Sunspot , where most solar flares and coronal mass ejections originate  Wolf number , counts sunspots  Maunder Minimum , the period roughly spanning 1645 to 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare  Solar flare  Solar cycle , periodic change in the amount of irradiation from the Sun that is experienced on Earth  List of solar cycles  Solar maximum - large numbers of sunspots appear  Solar minimum - sunspot and solar flare activity diminishes  Dalton Minimum , lasting from about 1790 to 1830  Modern Maximum , period of relatively high solar activity that began circa 1900  Solar variation , change in the amount of solar radiation emitted  Solar System  Solar and celestial effects on climate ( Earth 's climate , that is )

negative: Starspot Starspots are stellar phenomena . On the Sun , they are called sunspots . Spots the size of sunspots are very hard to detect on other stars because they are too small to cause detectable fluctuations in brightness . Observed starspots are in general much larger than those on the Sun : up to about 30 % of the stellar surface may be covered , corresponding to starspots 100 times larger than those on the Sun .

negative: Rotational correlation time Rotational correlation time is the time it takes for a molecule to rotate one radian , on average . Rotational correlation times are in the order of picoseconds , for example 1.7 picoseconds for water or in the tens to hundreds range for small organic molecules . Rotational correlation times are employed in the measurement of microviscosity ( viscosity at the molecular level ) and in protein characterization .   Rotational correlation times may be measured by rotational ( microwave ) or dielectric spectroscopy . Rotational correlation times of probe molecules in media have been measured by fluorescence lifetime or for radicals , from the linewidths of electron spin resonances .

negative: Ecological correlation In statistics , an ecological correlation is a correlation between two variables that are group means , in contrast to a correlation between two variables that describe individuals . For example , one might study the correlation between physical activity and weight among sixth-grade children . A study at the individual level might make use of 100 children , then measure both physical activity and weight ; the correlation between the two variables would be at the individual level . By contrast , another study might make use of 100 classes of sixth-grade students , then measure the mean physical activity and the mean weight of each of the 100 classes . A correlation between these group means would be an example of an ecological correlation .   Because a correlation describes the measured strength of a relationship , correlations at the group level can be much higher than those at the individual level . Thinking both are equal is an example of ecological fallacy .

negative: Solar cycle 2 Solar cycle 2 was the second solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9 years , beginning in June 1766 and ending in June 1775 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 193.0 ( September 1769 ) , and the starting minimum was 18.6 .   Sunspot observations by Alexander Wilson during this period established the Wilson effect .

negative: Coronal loop Coronal loops form the basic structure of the lower corona and transition region of the Sun . These highly structured loops are a direct consequence of the twisted solar magnetic flux within the solar body . The population of coronal loops can be directly linked with the solar cycle ; it is for this reason coronal loops are often found with sunspots at their footpoints . The upwelling magnetic flux pushes through the photosphere , exposing the cooler plasma below . The contrast between the photosphere and the solar interior gives the impression of dark spots , or sunspots .

negative: Sunspots (song) `` Sunspots '' is a song by the English singer-songwriter Julian Cope . It is the only single released in support of his second album Fried .

negative: Tide Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth .   The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible .   Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level .   While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts .   Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .

negative: METEOR METEOR ( Metric for Evaluation of Translation with Explicit ORdering ) is a metric for the evaluation of machine translation output . The metric is based on the harmonic mean of unigram precision and recall , with recall weighted higher than precision . It also has several features that are not found in other metrics , such as stemming and synonymy matching , along with the standard exact word matching . The metric was designed to fix some of the problems found in the more popular BLEU metric , and also produce good correlation with human judgement at the sentence or segment level . This differs from the BLEU metric in that BLEU seeks correlation at the corpus level .   Results have been presented which give correlation of up to 0.964 with human judgement at the corpus level , compared to BLEU 's achievement of 0.817 on the same data set . At the sentence level , the maximum correlation with human judgement achieved was 0.403 .

negative: Solar cycle 18 Solar cycle 18 was the eighteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.2 years , beginning in February 1944 and ending in April 1954 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 218.7 ( May 1947 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.9 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 18 to 19 , there were a total of 446 days with no sunspots .   Cycle 18 was characterized by `` giant '' sunspots . The recording of the 10.7 cm ( 2800 MHz ) solar radio flux began partway during this cycle , and values of the solar flux during this cycle turned out to be particularly high .

negative: Religiosity and intelligence The debate on religiosity and intelligence explores the link between religiosity and issues related to intelligence and educational level ( by country and on the individual level ) . Religiosity and intelligence are both complex topics that include diverse variables , and the interactions among variables are not always well understood . For instance , intelligence is often defined differently by different researchers and also all scores from intelligence tests are only estimates of intelligence because concrete measurements , like those of mass or distance , can not be achieved given the abstract nature of the concept of `` intelligence '' . In terms of religiosity , it involves wide variations of interactions of religious beliefs , practices , behaviors , and affiliations in diverse cultures .   A meta-analysis found a negative correlation between intelligence quotient ( IQ ) and religiosity for western societies . The correlation was suggested to be a result of nonconformity , more cognitive and less intuitive thinking styles among the less religious , and less of a need for religion as a coping mechanism . Some studies have shown a correlation between national average IQ and levels of atheism in society , although others have questioned whether any correlations are due to a complex range of social , economic and historical factors , which interact with religion and IQ in different ways . Others argue that any differences in national IQ and levels of atheism are not necessarily due to levels of religiosity or nonreligiosity , but are correlated with economic , educational , environmental , and social factors . Less developed and poorer countries tend to be more religious , perhaps because religions play a more active social , moral and cultural role in those countries .   In terms of thinking styles , one study suggests that intuitive thinking may be one out of many sources that affect levels of religiosity and that analytical thinking may be one out of many sources that affect disbelief . However , others who have reviewed studies on analytic thinking and nonbelievers , suggest that analytical thinking does not imply better reflection on religious matters or disbelief .   A global study found that some Western religious traditions and the nonreligious correlate with high levels of education . On the individual level , one study observed that education level is positively correlated with a belief in a god in African countries , and negatively correlated in Western countries . The frequency of church visits is however positively correlated with education level in English-speaking countries as well as in Protestant Europe .

negative: Water sky Water sky is a phenomenon that is closely related to ice blink . It forms in regions with large areas of ice and low-lying clouds and so is limited mostly to the extreme northern and southern sections of earth , in Antarctica and in the Arctic .   When light hits the blue oceans or seas , some of it bounces back and enables the observer to physically see the water . However , some of the light also is reflected back up on to the bottoms of low-lying clouds and causes a dark spot to appear underneath some clouds . These clouds may be visible when the seas are not and can show alert and knowledgeable travelers the general direction of water . The dark clouds over open water have long been used by polar explorers and scientists to navigate in sea ice . For example , Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his assistant Hjalmar Johansen used the phenomenon to find lanes of water in their failed expedition to the North Pole as did Bernacchi and Sir Douglas Mawson in the Antarctica .

negative: Gustav Spörer Friederich Wilhelm Gustav Spörer ( 23 October 1822 -- 7 July 1895 ) was a German astronomer .   He is noted for his studies of sunspots and sunspot cycles . In this regard he is often mentioned together with Edward Maunder . Spörer was the first to note a prolonged period of low sunspot activity from 1645 to 1715 . This period is known as the Maunder Minimum .   Spörer was a contemporary of Richard Christopher Carrington , an English astronomer . Carrington is generally credited with discovering Spörer 's law , which governs the variation of sunspot latitudes during the course of a solar cycle . Spörer added to Carrington 's observations of sunspot drift and is sometimes credited with the discovery .   The Spörer minimum was a period of low sunspot activity from roughly 1420 to 1570 .

negative: Water level (device) A water level is a device used for matching elevations of locations that are too far apart for a spirit level to span . The simplest water level is a section of clear tubing , partially filled with water . Water is easily procured for use , and easily discarded after use . The ends are held vertical , and the rest of the tubing lies on the ground or floor . The water level at each end of the tube will be at the same elevation , whether the two ends are adjacent or far apart . Water levels have been used for many years . The water level is lower-tech than the laser level , but it can be more accurate over long distances . To avoid error , all of the water should be at the same temperature . Other sources of error include difficulty reading due to meniscus .   If the water level is used often , dye can be added to the water to make it easier to see . If the water level is used outdoors in winter , antifreeze can be added to the water .   Automotive window washer fluid can also be used for antifreeze and increased visibility . Additionally it inhibits the formation of error causing bubbles .

negative: Solar cycle 8 Solar cycle 8 was the eighth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 9.7 years , beginning in November 1833 and ending in July 1843 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 244.9 ( March 1837 ) , and the starting minimum was 12.2 .   Solar cycle # 8 ended in 1843 , the year that Heinrich Schwabe discovered the sunspot cycle .

negative: Joy's Law (astronomy) In astronomy , Joy 's Law describes sunspots and states that their tendency to be `` tilted '' ( with the leading spot closer to the equator than the following spots ) grows with the heliographic latitude of these regions . Joy 's Law provides observational support for the operation of the `` alpha effect '' in solar dynamo action . It is named after Alfred Harrison Joy .

negative: Sunspot Records Sunspot Records was a small independent record label from the Washington D.C. area that existed in the early nineties . The Sunspot roster featured bands primarily from the east coast of the U.S. . Several of these bands such as Avail , Shades Apart , 1.6 Band , and Fly ( pre Trans-Am ) went on to have successful music careers . The label was founded , owned , and operated by Bryan Wassom until it closed shop in 1994 .

negative: Solar cycle 23 Solar cycle 23 was the 23rd solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 12.3 years , beginning in August 1996 and ending in December 2008 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 180.3 ( November 2001 ) , and the starting minimum was 11.2 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 23 to 24 , there were a total of 817 days with no sunspots .

negative: Sunlight Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun , in particular infrared , visible , and ultraviolet light . On Earth , sunlight is filtered through Earth 's atmosphere , and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon . When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds , it is experienced as sunshine , a combination of bright light and radiant heat . When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects , it is experienced as diffused light . The World Meteorological Organization uses the term `` sunshine duration '' to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter . Other sources indicate an `` Average over the entire earth '' of `` 164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day '' .   The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects , as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen .   Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun . A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface .   Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis , the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy , normally from the Sun , into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms ' activities .

negative: Water vapor Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds .   Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution .   Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects .

negative: Solar cycle 4 Solar cycle 4 was the fourth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 13.6 years , beginning in September 1784 and ending in April 1798 ( thus overlapping the Dalton Minimum ) . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 235.3 ( in February 1788 ) , and the starting minimum was 15.9 .   There are some recent speculations that cycle 4 , the longest solar cycle since 1755 , was actually two cycles , based on the appearance of new sunspots at high solar latitudes in 1793-1796 and a reconstruction of the sunspot butterfly diagram for cycles 3 and 4 , although total sunspot numbers only show a single-peaked distribution .

negative: Hypsometry Hypsometry ( from Greek ὕψος , hupsos , `` height '' and μέτρον , metron , `` measure '' ) is the measurement of land elevation relative to sea level . Bathymetry is the underwater equivalent . A hypsometer is an instrument used in hypsometry , which estimates the elevation by boiling water -- water boils at different temperatures depending on the air pressure , and thus altitude .   On Earth , the elevations can take on either positive or negative ( below sea level ) values , and are bimodal due to the contrast between the continents and oceans . On other planets within this solar system , elevations are typically unimodal , owing to the lack of oceans on those bodies .

negative: Alert correlation Alert correlation is a type of long analysis . It focuses on the process of clustering alerts ( events ) , generated by NIDS and HIDS computer systems , to form higher-level pieces of information .   Example of simple alert correlation is grouping invalid login attempts to report single incident like `` 10000 invalid login attempts on host X '' .

negative: Maunder Minimum The Maunder Minimum , also known as the `` prolonged sunspot minimum '' , is the name used for the period starting in about 1645 and continuing to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare , as noted by solar observers of the time .   The term was introduced after John A. Eddy published a landmark 1976 paper in Science . Astronomers before Eddy had also named the period after the solar astronomers Annie Russell Maunder ( 1868 -- 1947 ) and E. Walter Maunder ( 1851 -- 1928 ) , who studied how sunspot latitudes changed with time . The period which the husband and wife team examined included the second half of the 17th century .   Two papers were published in Edward Maunder 's name in 1890 and 1894 , and he cited earlier papers written by Gustav Spörer . Because Annie Maunder had not received a university degree ( due to restrictions at the time ) , her contribution was not publicly recognized .   Spörer noted that , during a 28-year period ( 1672 -- 1699 ) within the Maunder Minimum , observations revealed fewer than 50 sunspots . This contrasts with the typical 40,000 -- 50,000 sunspots seen in modern times .   Like the Dalton Minimum and Spörer Minimum , the Maunder Minimum coincided with a period of lower-than-average European temperatures .

negative: Sunspot (comics) Sunspot ( Roberto `` Bobby '' da Costa ) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The character is most commonly associated with X-Men-related groups the New Mutants and X-Force .   A Brazilian mutant , Sunspot possesses the ability to absorb and channel solar power . He is idealistic and impulsive , but is considered a close friend of many of his teammates . He was an important member of the X-Men 's 1980s-era junior team and its reincarnation X-Force .   Sunspot made his cinematic debut in the 2014 feature film X-Men : Days of Future Past , played by Adan Canto .

negative: Extraterrestrial liquid water Extraterrestrial liquid water ( from the Latin words : extra -LSB- `` outside of , beyond '' -RSB- and terrestris -LSB- `` of or belonging to Earth '' -RSB- ) is water in its liquid state that is found beyond Earth . It is a subject of wide interest because it is recognised as one of the key prerequisites for life as we know it and thus surmised as essential for extraterrestrial life .   With oceanic water covering 71 % of its surface , Earth is the only planet known to have stable bodies of liquid water on its surface , and liquid water is essential to all known life forms on Earth . The presence of water on the surface of Earth is a product of its atmospheric pressure and a stable orbit in the Sun 's circumstellar habitable zone , though the origin of Earth 's water remains unknown .   The main methods currently used for confirmation are absorption spectroscopy and geochemistry . These techniques have proven effective for atmospheric water vapour and ice . However , using current methods of astronomical spectroscopy it is substantially more difficult to detect liquid water on terrestrial planets , especially in the case of subsurface water . Due to this , astronomers , astrobiologists and planetary scientists use habitable zone , gravitational and tidal theory , models of planetary differentiation and radiometry to determine potential for liquid water . Water observed in volcanic activity can provide more compelling indirect evidence , as can fluvial features and the presence of antifreeze agents , such as salts or ammonia .   Using such methods , many scientists infer that liquid water once covered large areas of Mars and Venus . Water is thought to exist as liquid beneath the surface of some planetary bodies , similar to groundwater on Earth . Water vapour is sometimes considered conclusive evidence for the presence of liquid water , although atmospheric water vapour may be found to exist in many places where liquid water does not . Similar indirect evidence , however , supports the existence of liquids below the surface of several moons and dwarf planets elsewhere in the Solar System . Some are speculated to be large extraterrestrial `` oceans '' . Liquid water is thought to be common in other planetary systems , despite the lack of conclusive evidence , and there is a growing list of extrasolar candidates for liquid water .

negative: Sea surface temperature Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans .   Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .