query: In reality, gas produced by fracking is worse for the climate than coal.

positive: Coal Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams . The harder forms , such as anthracite coal , can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure . Coal is composed primarily of carbon , along with variable quantities of other elements , chiefly hydrogen , sulfur , oxygen , and nitrogen . A fossil fuel , coal forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat , which in turn is converted into lignite , then sub-bituminous coal , after that bituminous coal , and lastly anthracite . This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time .   Throughout human history , coal has been used as an energy resource , primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat , and is also used for industrial purposes , such as refining metals . Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide , as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases . The extraction of coal , its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change .   Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining . Since 1983 , the world 's top coal producer has been China . In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal -- 47.7 % of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production . In 2015 other large producers were United States ( 813 million tonnes ) , India ( 678 ) , European Union ( 539 ) and Australia ( 503 ) . In 2010 the largest exporters were Australia with 328 million tonnes ( 27.1 % of world coal export ) and Indonesia with 316 million tonnes ( 26.1 % ) , while the largest importers were Japan with 207 million tonnes ( 17.5 % of world coal import ) , China with 195 million tonnes ( 16.6 % ) and South Korea with 126 million tonnes ( 10.7 % ) .

positive: Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect .   Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture .   It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .

positive: Natural gas Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane , but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes , and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide , nitrogen , hydrogen sulfide , or helium . It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years . The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in the gas .   Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating , cooking , and electricity generation . It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals . Fossil fuel based natural gas is a non-renewable resource .   Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds and as methane clathrates . Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in close proximity to and with natural gas . Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms : biogenic and thermogenic . Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes , bogs , landfills , and shallow sediments . Deeper in the earth , at greater temperature and pressure , thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material .   In petroleum production gas is often burnt as flare gas . The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of natural gas are flared or vented annually . Before natural gas can be used as a fuel , most , but not all , must be processed to remove impurities , including water , to meet the specifications of marketable natural gas . The by-products of this processing include : ethane , propane , butanes , pentanes , and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons , hydrogen sulfide ( which may be converted into pure sulfur ) , carbon dioxide , water vapor , and sometimes helium and nitrogen .   Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as `` gas '' , especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal . However , it is not to be confused with gasoline , especially in North America , where the term gasoline is often shortened in colloquial usage to gas .   Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE ( possibly even 1000 BCE ) . They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt , in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan . The world 's first industrial extraction of natural gas started at Fredonia , New York , United States in 1825 . By 2009 , 66 000 km ³ ( or 8 % ) had been used out of the total 850 000 km ³ of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas . Based on an estimated 2015 world consumption rate of about 3400 km ³ of gas per year , the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of natural gas would last 250 years at current consumption rates . An annual increase in usage of 2 -- 3 % could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less , perhaps as few as 80 to 100 years .

positive: Shale gas Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas .   Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves .   The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low .   A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) .   Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' .

negative: Refracktion Refracktion is a British group concerned with the environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing ( fracking ) for gas on the Fylde Coast of Lancashire , England . They believe fracking will have inevitable negative effects on the local environment and its amenity value .   Refracktion referred the fracking company Cuadrilla Resources to the Advertising Standards Authority over a brochure published by the company that claimed fracking was safe . Six of 18 specific complaints were upheld , however , 11 of the 18 controversial passages were deemed to be acceptable .

negative: Hydraulic fracturing in New Zealand Hydraulic fracturing ( fracking ) has been carried out in New Zealand for over 27 years , mostly in Taranaki and also in coal seams in Waikato and Southland . Concerns have been raised about its negative effects and some local government jurisdictions have called for a moratorium on fracking but this has been rejected by the government . The environmental effects of fracking are regulated by the Resource Management Act ( RMA ) through the requirement for resource consents .

negative: Carbon diet A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .

negative: Coal gas Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system . Town gas is a more general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers and municipalities .   Coal gas contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen , carbon monoxide , methane and volatile hydrocarbons together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen .   Prior to the development of natural gas supply and transmissionduring the 1940s and 1950s in the United States and during the late 1960s and 1970s in Great Britainvirtually all gas for fuel and lighting was manufactured from coal . Town gas was supplied to households via municipally-owned piped distribution systems .   Originally created as a by-product of the coking process , its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the industrial revolution and urbanization . By-products from the production process included coal tars and ammonia , which were important chemical feedstock for the dye and chemical industry with a wide range of artificial dyes being made from coal gas and coal tar . Facilities where the gas was produced were often known as a manufactured gas plant ( MGP ) or a gasworks .   The discovery of large reserves of natural gas in the North Sea off the Scottish coast during the early 1960s led to the expensive conversion or replacement of most of the UK 's gas cookers and gas heaters , except in Northern Ireland , from the late 1960s onwards .   The production process is distinct , both physically and chemically , from that used to create a range of gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas , syngas , hygas , Dowson gas , and producer gas . These gases are made by partial combustion of a wide variety of feed stocks in some mixture of air , oxygen , or steam , to reduce the latter to hydrogen and carbon dioxide although some destructive distillation may also occur .

negative: Frack Frack may refer to :   Frack , to use hydraulic fracturing , a method for extracting oil and natural gas  Frack , former spelling of Frak ( expletive ) , a profanity from Battlestar Galactica  Frack , a character in `` The Eclipse '' , an episode of the American sci-fi TV series Heroes  `` Frack '' , nickname for Hans Rudolf Mauch ( 1919 -- 1979 ) , one of the ice skating duo Frick and Frack  Frack , a German word for frock coat  , a Russian ship sunk in 1915 by a German submarine

negative: FrackNation FrackNation is a feature documentary created by Phelim McAleer and Ann McElhinney , the directors of Not Evil Just Wrong and Mine Your Own Business , and Magdalena Segieda , that aims to address what the filmmakers say is misinformation about the process of hydraulic fracturing , commonly called fracking .   The film looks at the process of fracking for natural gas and seeks to address the concerns surrounding the process that were highlighted in the fracking-critical film Gasland . The film interviews many individuals directly affected by fracking , most of whom support the process .

negative: Coal mining in Wyoming Coal mining in Wyoming has long been a significant part of the state 's economy . Wyoming has been the largest producer of coal in the United States since 1988 . In 2013 , there were 17 active coal mines in Wyoming , which produced 388 million short tons , 39 percent of all the coal mined in the US , and more than three times the production of second-place West Virginia . Market forces , including the low price of natural gas from the fracking boom -- coal 's main competition -- contributed to the steep drop in coal production in the 2000s as electricity generation switched from coal to gas .

negative: Desalination facilities Estimates vary widely between 15,000 -- 20,000 desalination plants producing more than 20,000 m3/day . Micro desalination plants operate near almost every natural gas or fracking facility in the United States .

negative: Dayne Pratzky Dayne Pratzky is an Australian anti-fracking activist known colloquially as the Frackman . He is also the subject of a 2015 feature-length documentary film of the same name produced by Smith & Nasht .   A former tunnel-digger and resident of Sydney , Pratzky moved to Queensland in his thirties . He describes himself as an `` accidental '' activist who only started campaigning against fracking after seeing the encroachment of the coal seam gas industry on rural farming communities . Pratsky is not affiliated with any political party and has said that he will work with anyone who gets results .   Pratzky believes that the unconventional gas industry puts clean air and water resources in Australia at risk , and argues that exporting gas puts upwards pressure on domestic gas prices . He also believes that employment opportunities have been overstated by the industry and by Government and that payments made to landholders have not been equitable , given that affected properties have in some cases been rendered unsaleable .

negative: Hydraulic fracturing and radionuclides Hydraulic fracturing is the propagation of fractures in a rock layer by pressurized fluid . Induced hydraulic fracturing or hydrofracking , commonly known as fracking , is a technique used to release petroleum , natural gas ( including shale gas , tight gas and coal seam gas ) , or other substances for extraction . Radionuclides are associated with hydraulic fracturing in two main ways . Injection of man-made radioactive tracers , along with the other substances in hydraulic-fracturing fluid , is often used to determine the injection profile and location of fractures created by hydraulic fracturing . In addition , hydraulic fracturing releases naturally occurring heavy metals and radioactive materials from shale deposits , and these substances return to the surface with flowback , also referred to as wastewater .

negative: Coalbed methane Coalbed methane ( CBM or coal-bed methane ) , coalbed gas , coal seam gas ( CSG ) , or coal-mine methane ( CMM ) is a form of natural gas extracted from coal beds . In recent decades it has become an important source of energy in United States , Canada , Australia , and other countries .   The term refers to methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of the coal . It is called ` sweet gas ' because of its lack of hydrogen sulfide . The presence of this gas is well known from its occurrence in underground coal mining , where it presents a serious safety risk . Coalbed methane is distinct from a typical sandstone or other conventional gas reservoir , as the methane is stored within the coal by a process called adsorption . The methane is in a near-liquid state , lining the inside of pores within the coal ( called the matrix ) . The open fractures in the coal ( called the cleats ) can also contain free gas or can be saturated with water .   Unlike much natural gas from conventional reservoirs , coalbed methane contains very little heavier hydrocarbons such as propane or butane , and no natural-gas condensate . It often contains up to a few percent carbon dioxide .

negative: Kate Richard Katherine ` Kate ' Taaffe Richard is an American businesswoman who specializes in investing in energy assets , particularly upstream oil and gas . In 2010 , she founded Warwick Energy Group , an energy and infrastructure focused private equity firm with more than $ 1.5 billion in managed assets and interests in more than 5,000 energy wells in 13 states .   Richard was dubbed `` Miss Fracking '' by German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung for her industry leadership in advocating for natural gas as a solution to U.S. energy independence . `` Energy is still an industry of old men , especially the oil and gas industry . This is changing - thanks to people like Richard ... She is one of the most important experts on gas promotion in America - yes , also for controversial fracking . She is one of the youngest bosses of an oil and gas company with a value of more than 750 million dollars . ''

negative: Shale gas in the United Kingdom Shale gas in the United Kingdom has attracted increasing attention since 2007 , when onshore shale gas production was proposed . The first shale gas well in England was drilled in 1875 . A number of wells have been drilled , and favourable tax treatment has been offered to shale gas producers .   In July 2013 UK Prime Minister David Cameron had claimed that , `` fracking has real potential to drive energy bills down '' . However , in November 2013 representatives from industry and government , such as former BP Chief Executive and government advisor Lord Browne , Energy Secretary Ed Davey and economist Lord Stern said that fracking in the UK alone will not lower prices as the UK is part of a well connected European market .  , there has been no commercial production of shale gas in the UK .

negative: Powder River Basin The Powder River Basin is a geologic structural basin in southeast Montana and northeast Wyoming , about 120 mi east to west and 200 mi north to south , known for its coal deposits . The region supplies about 40 percent of coal in the United States . It is both a topographic drainage and geologic structural basin . The basin is so named because it is drained by the Powder River , although it is also drained in part by the Cheyenne River , Tongue River , Bighorn River , Little Missouri River , Platte River , and their tributaries .   While the Powder River Basin is unified geologically , residents of areas distant from the Powder River proper do not think of themselves as living in a single geographic region . For example , residents of the Crow Reservation in the Big Horn River watershed , or of Sheridan in the Tongue River watershed , would locate the Powder River Basin as the region east of the Big Horn Mountains , using a definition based on watershed and topography .   Major cities in the area include Gillette and Sheridan , Wyoming and Miles City , Montana . Outside of these main towns , the area is very sparsely populated and is known for its rolling grasslands and semiarid climate . It is the single largest source of coal mined in the United States , and contains one of the largest deposits of coal in the world . Most of the active coal mining in the Powder River Basin actually takes place in drainages of the Cheyenne River . Because of the Powder River Basin , Wyoming has been the top coal-producing state in the United States since 1988 . In 2007 , the Powder River Basin alone produced 436 million short tons ( 396 million tonnes ) of coal , more than twice the production of second-place West Virginia , and more than the entire Appalachian region . The Powder River Basin is the largest coal producing region in the United States . The Black Thunder Coal Mine is one of the most productive coal mines in the United States ; in 2006 this single mine produced 84 million metric tons of coal , more than any state except Wyoming , West Virginia , and Kentucky . The region is also a major producer of natural gas , both conventional natural gas and coal-bed methane .

negative: Fossil fuel power station A fossil fuel power station is a power station which burns fossil fuel such as coal , natural gas , or petroleum to produce electricity . Central station fossil fuel power plants are designed on a large scale for continuous operation . In many countries , such plants provide most of the electrical energy used . Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the heat energy of combustion into mechanical energy , which then operates an electrical generator . The prime mover may be a steam turbine , a gas turbine or , in small plants , a reciprocating internal combustion engine . All plants use the energy extracted from expanding gas , either steam or combustion gases . Very few MHD generators have been built which directly convert the energy of hot , moving water into electricity . MHD means Magnetohydrodynamics , which is the study of the magnetic properties of electrically conducting fluids . Examples of such magnetofluids include plasmas , liquid metals , salt water and electrolytes .   By-products of thermal power plant operation must be considered in their design and operation . Waste heat energy , which remains due to the finite efficiency of the Carnot , Rankine , or Diesel power cycle , is released directly to the atmosphere or river/lake water , or indirectly to the atmosphere using a cooling tower with river or lake water used as a cooling medium . The flue gas from combustion of the fossil fuels is discharged to the air . This gas contains carbon dioxide and water vapor , as well as other substances such as nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur oxides ( SOx ) , mercury , traces of other metals , and , for coal-fired plants , fly ash . Solid waste ash from coal-fired boilers must also be removed . Some coal ash can be recycled for building materials .   Fossil fueled power stations are major emitters of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , a greenhouse gas which according to a consensus opinion of scientific organisations is a contributor to global warming . The results of a recent study show that the net income available to shareholders of large companies could see a significant reduction from the greenhouse gas emissions liability related to only natural disasters in the U.S. from a single coal-fired power plant . However , as of 2015 , no such cases have awarded damages in the U.S. Per unit of electric energy , brown coal emits nearly two times as much CO2 as natural gas , and black coal emits somewhat less than brown . Carbon capture and storage of emissions is not currently available .

negative: Coal in Australia Coal in Australia is mined primarily in Queensland , New South Wales and Victoria . Coal is used to generate electricity and most of the coal mined in Australia is exported , mostly to eastern Asia . In fiscal year 2013/14 , 430.9 million tonnes of coal was mined , and 375.1 million tonnes was exported . Coal provides about 69 % of Australia 's electricity production . In fiscal year 2008/09 , 487 million tonnes of coal was mined , and 261 million tonnes was exported . In 2013 , Australia was the world 's fifth-largest coal producer , after China , the United States , India , and Indonesia . However , in terms of proportion of production exported , Australia was the world 's second largest coal exporter , with exports accounting for roughly 73 % of coal production . Indonesia exports about 87 % of its coal production .   Coal mining in Australia has been criticised by members of the environmental movement , due to carbon dioxide emissions during combustion . This criticism is primarily directed at thermal coal , for its connection to coal-fired power stations as a major source of carbon dioxide emissions , and the link to climate change and the effects of global warming on Australia . The burning of coal for electricity produces 29 % of Australia 's total greenhouse gas emissions , based on 2013-2014 Clean Energy Regulator data .   Both Greenpeace Australia Pacific ( Energy -LSB- R -RSB- evolution ) and Beyond Zero Emissions ( Zero Carbon Australia 2020 ) have produced reports claiming a transition can be made to renewable energy and Greenpeace has called for a just transition for coal based communities , but others argue at present there is no strong evidence of a viable alternative for the vast majority of Australia 's electricity generation , or for the significant economic and social benefits coal mining delivers to regional communities . Many of these arguments specifically ignore the differentiation between thermal and metallurgical coal , and the different application they play in modern society . Coal Seam Gas , methane-based gas associated with deposits of coal has historically been flared , however over the past 10 years has been recovered and used to generate further electricity .   The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme , which followed the draft report of the Garnaut Climate Change Review , has placed a price on carbon emissions through a reducing cap and trade emissions trading scheme and this would be likely to impact most heavily on brown coal usage within Australia ( particularly in the Latrobe Valley in Victoria ) for power generation .

negative: Consol Energy Consol Energy Inc. . -LSB- konˈsɒl -RSB- is an American energy company with interests in coal and natural gas production headquartered in the suburb of Cecil Township , in the Southpointe complex , just outside Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . In April 2017 , Consol Energy had divested all of its coal operations , except for the Pennsylvania mine which it was in the process of spinning off into an independent company . In 2010 Consol was the leading producer of high-BTU bituminous coal in the United States and the U.S. 's largest underground coal mining company .   The company has natural gas reserves totaling 3.7 trillion cu . ft. as of 2011 and employs more than 8,800 people .

negative: Walter Energy Walter Energy , Inc. , with its corporate and U.S. headquarters in Birmingham , Alabama , and its Canadian & UK headquarters in Vancouver , British Columbia , is the world 's leading , publicly traded `` pure play '' metallurgical coal producer for the global steel industry . The Company also produces natural gas , steam coal and industrial coal , anthracite , metallurgical coke , and coal bed methane gas .

negative: Energy in Australia Energy in Australia includes energy and electricity production , consumption and export in Australia . Energy policy of Australia describes the politics of Australia as it relates to energy .   Australia is a net energy exporter , and was the fourth-highest coal producer in the world in 2009 .   Historically -- and until recent times -- energy in Australia was sourced largely from coal and natural gas , however due to the increasing effects of global warming and human-induced climate change on the global environment , there has been a greater shift towards renewable energy such as solar power and wind power both in Australia and abroad . This in turn has led to a decrease in the demand of coal worldwide .

negative: Shale gas in Romania Shale gas in Romania has been prospected , licenses were given to several companies , but no exploitation has yet started . The current government led by Victor Ponta supports extraction of shale gas through fracking , but there have been protests against it . Romgaz discovered non-conventional gas resources ( including shale gas ) in 1994-1995 in Transylvania ; however , they were only accidentally exploited .

negative: R (Frack Free Balcombe Residents Association) v West Sussex CC R ( Frack Free Balcombe Residents Association ) v West Sussex CC -LSB- 2014 -RSB- EWHC 4108 ( Admin ) is a UK enterprise law case , concerning oil and gas . It held that advice to a council , granting permission to explore an existing hydrocarbon lateral borehole , was not wrong .

negative: 21st-century fossil fuel regulations in the United States Fossil fuel regulations are part of the energy policy in the United States and have gained major significance with the strong dependence on fossil fuel based energy . Regulatory processes are established at the federal and state level due to the immense economic , socio-political and environmental impact of fossil fuel extraction and production . Over 80 % of the United States ' energy comes from fossil fuels such as coal , natural gas , and oil . The Bush administration was marked by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , which provided a monetary incentive for renewable energy adoption and addressed the issue of climate change . The Obama administration was made up of advocates for renewable energy and natural gas , while Donald Trump built his campaign on promises to revive the coal industry .   Oil , gas , and coal companies have been at odds with policy makers who have supported a wider implementation of renewable energy , with the former often spending millions of dollars to lobby against cleaner energy . The Washington Post reported on February 22 , 2017 Scott Pruitt 's potential special interests with the fossil fuel industry as he began his term as the appointed head of the EPA under the Trump administration . Fossil fuel emission disproportionately affects working class , poor and minority populations . The people most adversely affected also have the least political influence and least access to health care .

negative: Producer gas Producer gas is fuel gas that is manufactured from material such as coal , as opposed to natural gas . In this respect it is similar to other types of `` manufactured '' gas , such as coal gas , coke oven gas , water gas and carburetted water gas . Producer gas was used primarily as an industrial fuel for iron and steel manufacturing , such as firing coke ovens and blast furnaces , cement and ceramic kilns , or for mechanical power through gas engines . It was characteristically low in heating value but cheap to make , so that large amounts could be made and burnt .   In the USA , producer gas may be wood gas produced in a gasifier and used to power cars , town gas , originally produced from coal , for sale to consumers , and syngas , used as a fuel source or as an intermediate for the production of other chemicals .   In the United Kingdom , producer gas , also called suction gas , specifically means a fuel gas made from coke , anthracite or other carbonaceous material . Air is passed over the red-hot carbonaceous fuel and carbon monoxide is produced . The reaction is exothermic and proceeds as follows :   2C + O2 + 3.73 N2 → 2CO + 3.73 N2   The nitrogen in the air remains unchanged and dilutes the gas , giving it a very low calorific value . The concentration of carbon monoxide in the `` ideal '' producer gas was considered to be 34.7 % carbon monoxide ( carbonic oxide ) and 65.3 % nitrogen . After `` scrubbing '' , to remove tar , the gas may be used to power gas turbines ( which are well-suited to fuels of low calorific value ) , spark ignited engines ( where 100 % petrol fuel replacement is possible ) or diesel internal combustion engines ( where 15 % to 40 % of the original diesel fuel requirement is still used to ignite the gas ) . During World War II in Britain , plants were built in the form of trailers for towing behind commercial vehicles , especially buses , to supply gas as a replacement for petrol ( gasoline ) fuel . A range of about 80 miles for every charge of anthracite was achieved .   In old movies and stories , when describing suicide by `` turning on the gas '' and leaving an oven door open without lighting the flame , the reference was to coal gas or town gas . As this gas contained a significant amount of carbon monoxide , it was quite toxic . Most town gas was also odorized , if it did not have its own odor . Modern ` natural gas ' used in homes is far less toxic , and has a gassy odor added to it for identifying leaks .

negative: Dakota Gasification Company The Dakota Gasification Company is a synthetic natural gas producing company founded in 1984 in Beulah , North Dakota , United States . It is an operator of the Great Plains Synfuels Plant . The plant is located at . The plant uses lignite coal to produce synthetic natural gas utilizing a coal gasification process . The plant processes 16 thousand tons of coal daily . Coal is oxidized to coal gas , which is then converted from a mixture of carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide and hydrogen to methane , by hydrogenation over a nickel catalyst . The synthetic natural gas ( 95 % methane , 975 BTU per cubic foot ) is pipelined to the Northern Border Pipeline which transports gas from Canada , Montana and North Dakota to the Ventura , Iowa area , where the pipeline interconnects with many pipelines supplying the eastern United States . The Dakota Gasification Company is a subsidiary of the Basin Electric Power Cooperative which is located in Bismarck , North Dakota .   The company ships generated byproduct carbon dioxide via a high pressure pipeline to an oilfield in Saskatchewan in Canada where it is used for enhanced oil recovery from the Weyburn oil field near Weyburn , Saskatchewan ( Canada ) .   The plant also produces ammonium sulfate , anhydrous ammonia , phenol , cresylic acid , methanol , and naphtha . These materials are by-products of coal gasification . The plant also produces liquid nitrogen , krypton and xenon as a by-product of liquid oxygen production . Oxygen is utilized in the initial oxidation of coal .

negative: The Climate Reality Project The Climate Reality Project is a non-profit organization involved in education and advocacy related to climate change . The project was established in July 2011 after the joining of two environmental groups , The Alliance for Climate Protection and The Climate Project , which were both founded in 2006 by Al Gore . Among its activities , The Climate Reality Project hosts an annual event called 24 Hours of Reality and , in 2013 , launched Reality Drop , a social media tool .

negative: Ozone depletion and climate change Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books .   There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided .   There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .

negative: Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels .   Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .

negative: Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing Hydraulic fracturing has the potential to cause fugitive methane emissions , air emissions , water contamination , and noise pollution . Water and air pollution are the biggest risks to human health from hydraulic fracturing . Research is underway to determine if human health has been affected , and adherence to regulation and safety procedures is required to avoid negative impacts .   Hydraulic fracturing fluids include proppants and other substances , which may include toxic chemicals . In the United States , such additives may be treated as trade secrets by companies who use them . Lack of knowledge about specific chemicals has complicated efforts to develop risk management policies and to study health effects . In other jurisdictions , such as the United Kingdom , these chemicals must be made public and their applications are required to be nonhazardous .   Water usage by hydraulic fracturing can be a problem in areas that experience water shortage . Surface water may be contaminated through spillage and improperly built and maintained waste pits , in jurisdictions where these are permitted . Further , ground water can be contaminated if fluid is able to escape during fracking . Produced water , the water that returns to the surface after fracking , is managed by underground injection , municipal and commercial wastewater treatment , and reuse in future wells . There is potential for methane to leak into ground water and the air , though escape of methane is a bigger problem in older wells than in those built under more recent legislation .   Hydraulic fracturing causes induced seismicity called microseismic events or microearthquakes . The magnitude of these events is too small to be detected at the surface , being of magnitude M-3 to M-1 usually . However , fluid disposal wells ( which are often used in the US to dispose of polluted waste from several industries ) have been responsible for earthquakes up to 5.6 M in Oklahoma and other states .   Governments worldwide are developing regulatory frameworks to assess and manage environmental and associated health risks , working under pressure from industry on the one hand , and from anti-fracking groups on the other . In some countries like France a precautionary approach has been favored and hydraulic fracturing has been banned . Some countries such as the United States have adopted the approach of identifying risks before regulating . The United Kingdom 's regulatory framework is based on the conclusion that the risks associated with hydraulic fracturing are manageable if carried out under effective regulation and if operational best practices are implemented .

negative: Syngas Syngas , or synthesis gas , is a fuel gas mixture consisting primarily of hydrogen , carbon monoxide , and very often some carbon dioxide . The name comes from its use as intermediates in creating synthetic natural gas ( SNG ) and for producing ammonia or methanol . Syngas is usually a product of gasification and the main application is electricity generation . Syngas is combustible and often used as a fuel of internal combustion engines . It has less than half the energy density of natural gas .   Syngas can be produced from many sources , including natural gas , coal , biomass , or virtually any hydrocarbon feedstock , by reaction with steam ( steam reforming ) , carbon dioxide ( dry reforming ) or oxygen ( partial oxidation ) . Syngas is a crucial intermediate resource for production of hydrogen , ammonia , methanol , and synthetic hydrocarbon fuels . Syngas is also used as an intermediate in producing synthetic petroleum for use as a fuel or lubricant via the Fischer -- Tropsch process and previously the Mobil methanol to gasoline process .   Production methods include steam reforming of natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons to produce hydrogen , the gasification of coal , biomass , and in some types of waste-to-energy gasification facilities .

negative: Liquefied natural gas Liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) is natural gas ( predominantly methane , CH4 , with some mixture of ethane C2H6 ) that has been converted to liquid form for ease of storage or transport . It takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state . It is odorless , colorless , non-toxic and non-corrosive . Hazards include flammability after vaporization into a gaseous state , freezing and asphyxia . The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components , such as dust , acid gases , helium , water , and heavy hydrocarbons , which could cause difficulty downstream . The natural gas is then condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure by cooling it to approximately -162 ° C ; maximum transport pressure is set at around 25 kPa .   LNG achieves a higher reduction in volume than compressed natural gas ( CNG ) so that the ( volumetric ) energy density of LNG is 2.4 times greater than that of CNG or 60 percent that of diesel fuel . This makes LNG cost efficient to transport over long distances where pipelines do not exist . Specially designed cryogenic sea vessels ( LNG carriers ) or cryogenic road tankers are used for its transport . LNG is principally used for transporting natural gas to markets , where it is regasified and distributed as pipeline natural gas . It can be used in natural gas vehicles , although it is more common to design vehicles to use compressed natural gas . Its relatively high cost of production and the need to store it in expensive cryogenic tanks have hindered widespread commercial use . Despite these drawbacks , on energy basis LNG production is expected to hit 10 % of the global crude production by 2020 . ( see LNG Trade )

negative: Hydraulic fracturing in South Africa Hydraulic fracturing in South Africa is an energy creation strategy in early stages of development using high-pressure drilling techniques to release natural gas trapped in shale rock . After initially imposing a moratorium on hydraulic fracturing ( also known as `` fracking '' ) in April 2011 , the South African government lifted the moratorium in September 2012 after an initial investigation by an interdepartmental task team . Several energy companies were subsequently granted exploration licenses . Fracking in South Africa is a current topic of debate , with proponents pointing to substantial economic and energy benefits and opponents voicing concerns about potentially adverse environmental impacts .

negative: Coke (fuel) Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a high carbon content , usually made from coal . It is the solid carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash , low-sulphur bituminous coal . Cokes made from coal are grey , hard , and porous . While coke can be formed naturally , the commonly used form is man-made . The form known as petroleum coke , or pet coke , is derived from oil refinery coker units or other cracking processes .   Coke is used in preparation of producer gas which is a mixture of carbon monoxide ( CO ) and nitrogen ( N2 ) . Producer gas is produced by passing air over red-hot coke . Coke is also used to manufacture water gas .


query: nothing we can do to stop the Earth’s naturally occurring climate cycles.

positive: Earth Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets .   According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation .   Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics .   Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states .

positive: Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .

positive: Natural environment The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally , meaning in this case not artificial . The term is most often applied to the Earth or some parts of Earth . This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species , climate , weather , and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity .   The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished by components :  Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive civilized human intervention , including all vegetation , microorganisms , soil , rocks , atmosphere , and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their nature  Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries , such as air , water , and climate , as well as energy , radiation , electric charge , and magnetism , not originating from civilized human activity   In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment . In such areas where man has fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion , the natural environment is greatly modified into a simplified human environment . Even acts which seem less extreme , such as building a mud hut or a photovoltaic system in the desert , modify the natural environment into an artificial one . Though many animals build things to provide a better environment for themselves , they are not human , hence beaver dams and the works of Mound-building termites are thought of as natural .   People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth , and naturalness usually varies in a continuum , from 100 % natural in one extreme to 0 % natural in the other . More precisely , we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment , and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform . If , for instance , in an agricultural field , the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil , but the structure is quite different .   Natural environment is often used as a synonym for habitat . For instance , when we say that the natural environment of giraffes is the savanna .

positive: John D. Hamaker John D. Hamaker ( 1914 -- 1994 ) , was an American mechanical engineer , ecologist , agronomist and science writer in the fields of soil regeneration , rock dusting , mineral cycles , climate cycles and glaciology .

negative: Milutin Milanković Milutin Milanković ( Милутин Миланковић , pronounced -LSB- milǔtin milǎːnkɔʋitɕ -RSB- 28 May 1879 -- 12 December 1958 ) was a Serbian mathematician , astronomer , climatologist , geophysicist , civil engineer , doctor of technology , university professor and popularizer of science . Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science . The first contribution is the `` Canon of the Earth 's Insolation '' , which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the Solar system . The second contribution is the explanation of Earth 's long-term climate changes caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun , now known as Milankovitch cycles . This explained the ice ages occurring in the geological past of the Earth , as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future . He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth 's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system , Mercury , Venus , Mars , and the Moon , as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets . He demonstrated the interrelatedness of celestial mechanics and the Earth sciences , and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of descriptive sciences into exact ones .

negative: Clinton Doctrine The Clinton Doctrine is not a clear statement in the way that many other United States Presidential doctrines were . However , in a February 26 , 1999 , speech , President Bill Clinton said the following , which was generally considered to summarize the Clinton Doctrine :   It 's easy ... to say that we really have no interests in who lives in this or that valley in Bosnia , or who owns a strip of brushland in the Horn of Africa , or some piece of parched earth by the Jordan River . But the true measure of our interests lies not in how small or distant these places are , or in whether we have trouble pronouncing their names . The question we must ask is , what are the consequences to our security of letting conflicts fester and spread . We can not , indeed , we should not , do everything or be everywhere . But where our values and our interests are at stake , and where we can make a difference , we must be prepared to do so .   Clinton later made statements that augmented the doctrine of interventionism :   `` Genocide is in and of itself a national interest where we should act '' and `` we can say to the people of the world , whether you live in Africa , or Central Europe , or any other place , if somebody comes after innocent civilians and tries to kill them en masse because of their race , their ethnic background or their religion , and it 's within our power to stop it , we will stop it . ''   The Clinton Doctrine was used to justify the American involvement in the Yugoslav Wars . President Clinton was criticized for not intervening to stop the Rwandan Genocide of 1994 . Other observers viewed Operation Gothic Serpent in Somalia as a mistake .

negative: North African climate cycles North African climate cycles have a unique history that can be traced back millions of years . The cyclic climate pattern of the Sahara is characterized by significant shifts in the strength of the North African Monsoon . When the North African Monsoon is at its strongest annual precipitation and subsequent vegetation in the Sahara region increase , resulting in conditions commonly referred to as the `` green Sahara '' . For a relatively weak North African Monsoon the opposite is true , with decreased annual precipitation and less vegetation resulting in a phase of the Sahara climate cycle known as the `` desert Sahara '' .   Variations in the climate of the Sahara region can at the simplest level be attributed to the changes in insolation due to slow shifts in Earth 's orbital parameters . These parameters include the precession of the equinoxes , obliquity , and eccentricity as put forth by Milankovitch theory . The precession of the equinoxes is regarded as the most important orbital parameter in the formation of the `` green Sahara '' and `` desert Sahara '' cycle .

negative: Berkeley Earth Berkeley Earth is a Berkeley , California based independent 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit focused on land temperature data analysis for climate science . Berkeley Earth was founded in early 2010 ( originally called the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature project ) with the goal of addressing the major concerns from outside the scientific community regarding global warming and the instrumental temperature record . The project 's stated aim was a `` transparent approach , based on data analysis . '' In February 2013 , Berkeley Earth became an independent non-profit . In August 2013 , Berkeley Earth was granted 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) tax-exempt status by the US government . The primary product is air temperatures over land , but they also produce a global dataset resulting from a merge of their land data with HadSST .   Berkeley Earth founder Richard A. Muller told The Guardian  '' ... we are bringing the spirit of science back to a subject that has become too argumentative and too contentious , ... we are an independent , non-political , non-partisan group . We will gather the data , do the analysis , present the results and make all of it available . There will be no spin , whatever we find . We are doing this because it is the most important project in the world today . Nothing else comes close . ''   Berkeley Earth has been funded by unrestricted educational grants totaling ( as of December 2013 ) about $ 1,394,500 . Large donors include Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , the Charles G. Koch Foundation , the Fund for Innovative Climate and Energy Research ( FICER ) , and the William K. Bowes , Jr. . Foundation . The donors have no control over how Berkeley Earth conducts the research or what they publish .   The team 's preliminary findings , data sets and programs were published in journals operated by OMICS Group , a predatory open access publisher beginning in December 2012 . The study addressed scientific concerns including urban heat island effect , poor station quality , and the risk of data selection bias . The Berkeley Earth group concluded that the warming trend is real , that over the past 50 years ( between the decades of the 1950s and 2000s ) the land surface warmed by 0.91 ± 0.05 ° C , and their results mirror those obtained from earlier studies carried out by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the Hadley Centre , NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) Surface Temperature Analysis , and the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia . The study also found that the urban heat island effect and poor station quality did not bias the results obtained from these earlier studies .

negative: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes .   GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future .   GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .

negative: Nothing Can Stop Us (album) Nothing Can Stop Us is a compilation album by Robert Wyatt released in 1982 .

negative: Do Not Say We Have Nothing Do Not Say We Have Nothing is a novel by Madeleine Thien published in 2016 . It follows a 10-year-old girl and her mother who invite a Chinese refugee into their home .

negative: Climate Code Red Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen .   The key themes of Climate Code Red are :  `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . ''  `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . ''  `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . ''  `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . ''  `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' .   Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network .   The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .

negative: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles .   Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) .   Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction .   Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) .   Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) .   One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .

negative: Chemical oceanography Chemical oceanography is the study of ocean chemistry : the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth 's oceans . The ocean is unique in that it contains - in greater or lesser quantities - nearly every element in the periodic table .   Much of chemical oceanography describes the cycling of these elements both within the ocean and with the other spheres of the Earth system ( see biogeochemical cycle ) . These cycles are usually characterised as quantitative fluxes between constituent reservoirs defined within the ocean system and as residence times within the ocean . Of particular global and climatic significance are the cycles of the biologically active elements such as carbon , nitrogen , and phosphorus as well as those of some important trace elements such as iron .   Another important area of study in chemical oceanography is the behaviour of isotopes ( see isotope geochemistry ) and how they can be used as tracers of past and present oceanographic and climatic processes . For example , the incidence of 18O ( the heavy isotope of oxygen ) can be used as an indicator of polar ice sheet extent , and boron isotopes are key indicators of the pH and CO2 content of oceans in the geologic past .

negative: Ice Ice is water frozen into a solid state . Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air , it can appear transparent or a more or less opaque bluish-white color .   In the Solar System , ice is abundant and occurs naturally from as close to the Sun as Mercury to as far away as the Oort cloud objects . Beyond the Solar System , it occurs as interstellar ice . It is abundant on Earth 's surfaceparticularly in the polar regions and above the snow lineand , as a common form of precipitation and deposition , plays a key role in Earth 's water cycle and climate . It falls as snowflakes and hail or occurs as frost , icicles or ice spikes .   Ice molecules can exhibit seventeen or more different phases ( packing geometries ) that depend on temperature and pressure . When water is cooled rapidly ( quenching ) , up to three different types of amorphous ice can form depending on the history of its pressure and temperature . When cooled slowly correlated proton tunneling occurs below 20 K giving rise to macroscopic quantum phenomena . Virtually all the ice on Earth 's surface and in its atmosphere is of a hexagonal crystalline structure denoted as ice I ( spoken as `` ice one h '' ) with minute traces of cubic ice denoted as ice I . The most common phase transition to ice I occurs when liquid water is cooled below at standard atmospheric pressure . It may also be deposited directly by water vapor , as happens in the formation of frost . The transition from ice to water is melting and from ice directly to water vapor is sublimation .   Ice is used in a variety of ways , including cooling , winter sports and ice sculpture .

negative: NZ Climate Party The NZ Climate Party is an unregistered political party in New Zealand . The party is focused on highlighting and addressing the threat of climate change . The party was launched in August 2014 , and is led by Peter Whitmore .   The party did not register to contest the party vote in the 2014 election , but stood two electorate candidates , in Auckland Central and Rongotai . A representative from the party , Aaron Carter , attended a candidates meeting in Newtown , Wellington dressed in an elephant costume and bearing a sign which said `` climate change '' . His main messages were : `` Do n't vote for me , vote thinking about the climate '' , `` It 's all rearranging furniture on the Titanic as it 's sinking '' , and `` Learn to swim '' . Whitmore and Carter received 50 and 66 electoral votes respectively .   Climate Party member Rob Painting contested the 2015 Northland by-election with the stated goal of `` raising awareness of climate and coastal issues affecting the Far North '' . He received 39 votes ( 0.13 % of votes cast ) .   The party is opposed to the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , arguing that it is doing nothing to stop New Zealand 's emissions from increasing .

negative: Solar eclipse of October 24, 2098 A partial solar eclipse will occur on October 24 , 2098 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth .   This minor eclipse is the first solar eclipse of Saros cycle 164 .

negative: Milankovitch cycles Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth .   The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer .   Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important .   Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain .

negative: Ice Warrior Project The Ice Warrior Project is an organisation founded in 2001 by the explorer Jim McNeill . Its remit is to develop people from all walks of life and echelons of society into modern-day explorers ; to discover change in the world 's most remote regions under the guidance of partner leading scientific authorities ; and deliver these discoveries in an engaging , human manner to audiences around the globe .   The organisation provides raw , scientific data for others to go on and interpret . Its rationale for doing so is that if we do not monitor these regions , which were described by Nobel peace prize nominee Sheila Watt-Cloutier as `` clearly one of the most important regions when it comes to climate change . '' , then how will we know that any action to mitigate the human impact on our Earth is actually working ?   The project 's founder Jim McNeill maintains that without such knowledge how can we be true guardians of the planet on which we live ? And if we are not , then this ultimately affects our chances of survival as a species .   As an organisation it has an altruistic project side which relies on corporate sponsorship and involves charitable work and also an underpinning commercial side .

negative: Environmental philosophy Environmental philosophy is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with the natural environment and humans ' place within it . It asks crucial questions about human environmental relations such as `` What do we mean when we talk about nature ? '' `` What is the value of the natural , that is non-human environment to us , or in itself ? '' `` How should we respond to environmental challenges such as environmental degradation , pollution and climate change ? '' `` How can we best understand the relationship between the natural world and human technology and development ? '' and `` What is our place in the natural world ? '' As such , it uniquely positions itself as a field set to deal with the challenges of the 21st Century . Environmental philosophy includes environmental ethics , environmental aesthetics , ecofeminism , environmental hermeneutics , and environmental theology . Some of the main areas of interest for environmental philosophers are :   Defining environment and nature  How to value the environment  Moral status of animals and plants  Endangered species  Environmentalism and Deep Ecology  Aesthetic value of nature  Restoration of nature  Consideration of future generations

negative: Nothing Can Stop the Juggernaut! `` Nothing Can Stop the Juggernaut ! '' is a two-issue Spider-Man story arc written by Roger Stern with art by John Romita , Jr. . and published by Marvel Comics . The arc appears in The Amazing Spider-Man # 229 -- 230 .

negative: We Can Do It (disambiguation) We Can Do It ! is a World War II inspirational artwork by J. Howard Miller .   We Can Do It may also refer to :  `` We Can Do It '' ( Carboo song ) , covered by September  `` We Can Do It '' ( Liverpool F.C. song ) , 1977  `` Kaya Natin Ito ! '' or `` We Can Do It ! '' , a song by Ogie Alcasid  `` We Can Do It '' , a song from the musical The Producers  We Can Do It ( album ) , an album by The Rubettes

negative: Examples of refugia The northern and southern hemispheres of the earth have a dynamic history of advancing and retreating ice sheets . The glacial and interglacial periods are linked to regular eccentricities in the Earth 's orbit and correspond to approximately 100 kyr cycles . The advancing , or glacial periods can cause a massive displacement of flora and fauna as it drives them away from the poles , with the most recent glacial maximum having occurred about 20,000 years ago. ,

negative: James Hays James D. Hays is a professor of Earth and environmental sciences at Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory . Hays founded and led the CLIMAP project , which collected sea floor sediment data to study surface sea temperatures and paleoclimatological conditions 18,000 years ago .   Hays is probably best known as a co-author of the 1976 paper in Science , `` Variations in the Earth 's orbit : Pacemaker of the ice ages . '' Using ocean sediment cores , the Science paper verified the theories of Milutin Milanković that oscillations in climate can be correlated with Earth 's orbital variations of eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession around the Sun ( see Milankovitch cycles ) .

negative: Solar eclipse of November 9, 1855 A partial solar eclipse occurred on November 9 , 1855 during spring . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth . It was the eighth solar saros 150 cycle of eclipses

negative: Community Earth System Model The Community Earth System Model ( CESM ) is a fully coupled numerical simulation of the Earth system consisting of atmospheric , ocean , ice , land surface , carbon cycle , and other components . CESM includes a climate model providing state-of-art simulations of the Earth 's past , present , and future . It is the successor of the Community Climate System Model ( CCSM ) , specifically version 4 ( CCSMv4 ) , which provided the initial atmospheric component for CESM . Strong ensemble forecasting capabilities , CESM-LE ( CESM-Large Scale ) , were developed at the onset to control for error and biases across different model runs ( realizations ) . Simulations from the Earth 's surface through the thermosphere are generated utilizing the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model ( WACCM ) . CESM1 was released in 2010 with primary development by the Climate and Global Dynamics Division ( CGD ) of the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) , and significant funding by the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) and the Department of Energy ( DoE ) .

negative: We Don't Stop `` We Do n't Stop '' is a song and second single by South Korean girl group , Fiestar . The single was released on November 9 , 2012 by LOEN Entertainment .

negative: We Were Dancing We Were Dancing is a short comic play in two scenes by Noël Coward . It concerns a married woman who falls in love with another man at a dance on a south Pacific island . They plan to go to Australia , but in the cold light of morning , they realise that they have nothing in common .   It is one of ten short plays that make up Tonight at 8:30 , a cycle written to be performed in alternating groups of three plays across three evenings . In the introduction to a published edition of the plays , Coward explained that the cycle was an attempt to revive the popularity of short plays : `` A short play , having a great advantage over a long one in that it can sustain a mood without technical creaking or over padding , deserves a better fate , and if , by careful writing , acting and producing I can do a little towards reinstating it in its rightful pride , I shall have achieved one of my more sentimental ambitions . '' Four of the plays in the cycle , including We Were Dancing , `` break into spontaneous song ... in the most unexpected places '' . We Were Dancing includes a song of the same name .   The piece was first produced in Manchester in 1935 and then played in London ( 1936 ) , New York ( 1936 -- 1937 ) and Canada ( 1938 ) . The Manchester Guardian described the play as `` a witty little piece '' , and it was later seen as one of the more durable of the Tonight at 8:30 cycle . It has enjoyed several major revivals .

negative: Explorers We Explorers We is a science fiction short story by Philip K. Dick . First published in Fantasy and Science Fiction magazine , January 1959 .   In this story some aliens come to Earth as perfect replicas of a group of astronauts who died during a mission to Mars . The astronauts seem to be utterly convinced they are humans and they do not understand why the FBI chases them after they have ` come back ' to Earth . Humans only know that these astronauts are not the same as those who originally left for Mars , and nothing more . The original astronauts could have been saved and/or cloned by the aliens . The disguise could be a way to try to communicate more easily with the earthlings . Still other factors could explain these perfect copies of human beings , but the earthlings have no intention of investigating them . Above all , the possible threat must be eliminated , and only then questions can be asked . At the end of the story , Wilks , an FBI agent , poses the central question raised by the story :   `` If it was up to me , Wilks asked himself , what would I do ? Try to find out what they want ? Anything that looks so human , behaves in such a human way , must feel human ... and if they - whatever they are - feel human , might they not become human , in time ? ''   After this brief meditation Wilks goes on to kill the last of the six astronauts , but he soon realizes that he did it only because he was afraid of an alien invasion : `` That 's what we are told ... they are plotting against us , are inhuman , and will never be more than that '' . He also realizes that the cycle will only continue . At the end of Explorers We the beginning is repeated . Another spaceship with the same six astronauts aboard lands on Earth .   Explorers We is a thematic precursor to A Little Something For Us Tempunauts , and was reprinted as a limited edition booklet to commemorate Dick 's appearance at the Second International Festival of Science Fiction at Metz , France , September 1977 . It was written in 1958 , one of only two short stories that Dick wrote in the seven years between 1956 and 1962 .

negative: Earth materials Earth materials is a general term that includes minerals , rocks , soil and water . These are the naturally occurring materials found on Earth that constitute the raw materials upon which our global society exists . Earth materials are vital resources that provide the basic components for life , agriculture and industry .   Earth materials can also include metals and precious rocks .

negative: Nothing's Gonna Stop Me Now Nothing 's Gon na Stop Me Now may refer to :  `` Nothing 's Gon na Stop Me Now '' ( Samantha Fox song ) , 1987  `` Nothing 's Gon na Stop Me Now '' ( Perfect Strangers song ) , the theme song of Perfect Strangers , U.S. TV series , sung by David Pomeranz  `` Nothing 's Gon na Stop Me Now '' , interlude from P. Diddy 's album , The Saga Continues ... , featuring Faith Evans and Mario Winans

negative: Earth Trust Centre Earth Trust Centre , formerly known as Project Timescape , is Earth Trust 's visitor and education centre near the Wittenham Clumps , Little Wittenham , Oxfordshire , England .   The centre 's aim is to educate and engage people in their local landscape and inspire them to take action to protect it . It includes a café , the Fison Barn and the Timescape Exhibition .   Visitors can learn about the archaeology of the Wittenham Clumps , geology of the South Oxfordshire area , wildlife on the Little Wittenham Nature Reserve , the Trust 's conservation farm and the effects climate change will have on our landscape in the future .   The Earth Trust Centre is open to school groups and the general public for special events .

negative: NASA Earth Science NASA Earth Science , formerly called the NASA Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) , formerly called Mission To Planet Earth ( MTPE ) , is a NASA research program `` to develop a scientific understanding of the Earth system and its response to natural and human-induced changes to enable improved prediction of climate , weather , and natural hazards for present and future generations '' .

negative: List of environmental protests This is a list of notable environmental protests and campaigns :   2010 Xinfa aluminum plant protest  Anti-WAAhnsinns Festival  Camp for Climate Action  Campaign against Climate Change  Climate Rush  Earth Day ( continuing from 1970 )  Earth First !  Earthlife Africa  Global Day of Action  Gurindji Strike  Hands off our Forest  Homes before Roads  Kupa Piti Kungka Tjuta  Love Canal protests  March Against Monsanto  March for Science ( 2017 )  March for Science Portland  Nevada Desert Experience  People 's Climate March ( 2014 )  People 's Climate March ( 2017 ) ( planned )  Plane Mad  Plane Stupid  Qidong protest  Roșia Montană protests  Save Manapouri Campaign  Say Yes demonstrations  Shifang protest  Stop Climate Chaos  Standing Rock Indian Reservation vs. DAPL

negative: We Can Do Anything We Can Do Anything is the ninth studio album by Violent Femmes , that was released March 4 , 2016 . It is the band 's first studio album since 2000 's Freak Magnet .

negative: The Big Splash (book) The Big Splash ( subtitled A Scientific Discovery That Revolutionizes the Way We View the Origin of Life , the Water We Drink , the Death of the Dinosaurs , the Creation of the Oceans , the Nature of the Cosmos , and the Very Future of the Earth Itself ) is a 1990 book written by Louis A. Frank with Patrick Huyghe . In the book , Frank claims to have found scientific evidence that every year , millions of small comets ( made of ice and water ) strike the Earth 's atmosphere , and that these comets created Earth 's lakes , rivers and oceans .   While many scientists disputed Frank 's hypothesis , he continued to argue that there are tests which can be performed which would either rule it out or confirm it .