query: CO2 changes are closely related to temperature.

positive: Carbon capture and storage Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique .   An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 .   Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology .  Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today .   Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere .

positive: Climate sensitivity Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered .   Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so .   The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere .   For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter .   The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ .   It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .

negative: Dilatometer A dilatometer is a scientific instrument that measures volume changes caused by a physical or chemical process . A familiar application of a dilatometer is the mercury-in-glass thermometer , in which the change in volume of the liquid column is read from a graduated scale . Because mercury has a fairly constant rate of expansion over ambient temperature ranges , the volume changes are directly related to temperature .

negative: Fundamental thermodynamic relation In thermodynamics , the fundamental thermodynamic relation is generally expressed as an microscopic change in internal energy in terms of microscopic changes in entropy , and volume for a closed system in thermal equilibrium in the following way .   Here , U is internal energy , T is absolute temperature , S is entropy , P is pressure , and V is volume . This relation applies to a reversible change , or to a change in a closed system of uniform temperature and pressure at constant composition .   This is only one expression of the fundamental thermodynamic relation . It may be expressed in other ways , using different variables ( e.g. using thermodynamic potentials ) . For example , the fundamental relation may be expressed in terms of the enthalpy as   in terms of the Helmholtz free energy ( F ) as   and in terms of the Gibbs free energy ( G ) as   .

negative: Lime kiln A lime kiln is a kiln used for the calcination of limestone ( calcium carbonate ) to produce the form of lime called quicklime ( calcium oxide ) . The chemical equation for this reaction is   CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2   This reaction takes place at 900 ° C ( 1650 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 1 atmosphere ) , but a temperature around 1000 ° C ( 1800 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 3.8 atmospheres ) is usually used to make the reaction proceed quickly . Excessive temperature is avoided because it produces unreactive , `` dead-burned '' lime .   Slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ) can be formed by mixing water with quicklime .

negative: Temperature (disambiguation) Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold .   Closely related are :  Thermodynamic temperature  Color temperature  Effective temperature  Normal human body temperature   The term may also refer to :  Noise temperature , a measure of the noise of an electronic component .  Temperature ( game theory ) , a measure of the value of a game to its players .  Temperature ( meat ) , or doneness , a description of how thoroughly cooked a cut of meat is  Fever , pyrexia , or having a temperature , the elevation of the body temperature .

negative: Clausius–Clapeyron relation The Clausius -- Clapeyron relation , named after Rudolf Clausius and Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron , is a way of characterizing a discontinuous phase transition between two phases of matter of a single constituent . On a pressure -- temperature ( P -- T ) diagram , the line separating the two phases is known as the coexistence curve . The Clausius -- Clapeyron relation gives the slope of the tangents to this curve . Mathematically ,   where is the slope of the tangent to the coexistence curve at any point , is the specific latent heat , is the temperature , is the specific volume change of the phase transition , and is the specific entropy change of the phase transition .

negative: Shortening Shortening is any fat that is a solid at room temperature and used to make crumbly pastry and other food products . Shortening is used in pastries that should not be elastic , such as cake . Although butter is solid at room temperature and is frequently used in making pastry , the term `` shortening '' seldom refers to butter , but is more closely related to margarine .

negative: Archaeoglobus profundus Archaeoglobus profundus is a sulphate-reducing archaea . Archaeoglobus can be found in high-temperature oil fields where it may contribute to oil field souring . A. profundus grows lithotrophically , and while it needs acetate and CO2 for biosynthesis it is heterotrophic .

negative: Time–temperature superposition The time -- temperature superposition principle is a concept in polymer physics and in the physics of glass-forming liquids .  This superposition principle is used to determine temperature-dependent mechanical properties of linear viscoelastic materials from known properties at a reference temperature . The elastic moduli of typical amorphous polymers increase with loading rate but decrease when the temperature is increased . Fortunately , curves of the instantaneous modulus as a function of time do not change shape as the temperature is changed but appear only to shift left or right . This implies that a master curve at a given temperature can be used as the reference to predict curves at various temperatures by applying a shift operation . The time-temperature superposition principle of linear viscoelasticity is based on the above observation .   The application of the principle typically involves the following steps :  experimental determination of frequency-dependent curves of isothermal viscoelastic mechanical properties at several temperatures and for a small range of frequencies  computation of a translation factor to correlate these properties for the temperature and frequency range  experimental determination of a master curve showing the effect of frequency for a wide range of frequencies  application of the translation factor to determine temperature-dependent moduli over the whole range of frequencies in the master curve .   The translation factor is often computed using an empirical relation first established by Malcolm L. Williams , Robert F. Landel and John D. Ferry ( also called the Williams-Landel-Ferry or WLF model ) . An alternative model suggested by Arrhenius is also used . The WLF model is related to macroscopic motion of the bulk material , while the Arrhenius model considers local motion of polymer chains .   Some materials , polymers in particular , show a strong dependence of viscoelastic properties on the temperature at which they are measured . If you plot the elastic modulus of a noncrystallizing crosslinked polymer against the temperature at which you measured it , you will get a curve which can be divided up into distinct regions of physical behavior . At very low temperatures , the polymer will behave like a glass and exhibit a high modulus . As you increase the temperature , the polymer will undergo a transition from a hard `` glassy '' state to a soft `` rubbery '' state in which the modulus can be several orders of magnitude lower than it was in the glassy state . The transition from glassy to rubbery behavior is continuous and the transition zone is often referred to as the leathery zone . The onset temperature of the transition zone , moving from glassy to rubbery , is known as the glass transition temperature , or Tg .   In the 1940s Andrews and Tobolsky showed that there was a simple relationship between temperature and time for the mechanical response of a polymer . Modulus measurements are made by stretching or compressing a sample at a prescribed rate of deformation . For polymers , changing the rate of deformation will cause the curve described above to be shifted along the temperature axis . Increasing the rate of deformation will shift the curve to higher temperatures so that the transition from a glassy to a rubbery state will happen at higher temperatures .   It has been shown experimentally that the elastic modulus ( E ) of a polymer is influenced by the load and the response time . Time -- temperature superposition implies that the response time function of the elastic modulus at a certain temperature resembles the shape of the same functions of adjacent temperatures . Curves of E vs. log ( response time ) at one temperature can be shifted to overlap with adjacent curves , as long as the data sets did not suffer from ageing effects during the test time ( see Williams-Landel-Ferry equation ) .   The Deborah number is closely related to the concept of Time-Temperature Superposition .

negative: Mesopause The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . )   Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation .   In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .

negative: Schuetze reagent Schuetze reagent also written as Schütze reagent is made up of Iodine pentoxide I2O5 on granular silica gel . It is used to convert Carbon monoxide CO into Carbon dioxide CO2 at room temperature .

negative: Recycled fuel Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel .   For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .

negative: Temperature coefficient A temperature coefficient describes the relative change of a physical property that is associated with a given change in temperature . For a property R that changes by dR when the temperature changes by dT , the temperature coefficient α is defined by   Here α has the dimension of an inverse temperature and can be expressed e.g. in 1/K or K − 1 .   If the temperature coefficient itself does not vary too much with temperature , a linear approximation can be used to determine the value R of a property at a temperature T , given its value R0 at a reference temperature T0 :   where ΔT is the difference between T and T0 .  For strongly temperature-dependent α , this approximation is only useful for small temperature differences ΔT .   Temperature coefficients are specified for various applications , including electric and magnetic properties of materials as well as reactivity . The temperature coefficient of most of the reactions lies between - 2 & 3

negative: Exergonic reaction An exergonic reaction is a chemical reaction where the change in the free energy is negative ( there is a net release of free energy ) , indicating a spontaneous reaction . For processes that take place under constant pressure and temperature conditions , the Gibbs free energy is used whereas the Helmholtz energy is used for processes that take place under constant volume and temperature conditions .   Symbolically , the release of free energy , G , in an exergonic reaction ( at constant pressure and temperature ) is denoted as   Although exergonic reactions are said to occur spontaneously , this does not imply that the reaction will take place at an observable rate . For instance , the disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide is very slow in the absence of a suitable catalyst . It has been suggested that eager would be a more intuitive term in this context .   More generally , the terms exergonic and endergonic relate to the free energy change in any process , not just chemical reactions . An example of an exergonic reaction is cellular respiration . This relates to the degrees of freedom as a consequence of entropy , the temperature , and the difference in heat released or absorbed .   By contrast , the terms exothermic and endothermic relate to the overall exchange of heat during a process .

negative: Incubator (culture) In biology , an incubator is a device used to grow and maintain microbiological cultures or cell cultures . The incubator maintains optimal temperature , humidity and other conditions such as the carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and oxygen content of the atmosphere inside . Incubators are essential for a lot of experimental work in cell biology , microbiology and molecular biology and are used to culture both bacterial as well as eukaryotic cells .   Louis Pasteur used the small opening underneath his staircase as an incubator . Incubators are also used in the poultry industry to act as a substitute for hens . This often results in higher hatch rates due to the ability to control both temperature and humidity . Various brands of incubators are commercially available to breeders .   The simplest incubators are insulated boxes with an adjustable heater , typically going up to 60 to 65 ° C ( 140 to 150 ° F ) , though some can go slightly higher ( generally to no more than 100 ° C ) . The most commonly used temperature both for bacteria such as the frequently used E. coli as well as for mammalian cells is approximately 37 ° C , as these organisms grow well under such conditions . For other organisms used in biological experiments , such as the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a growth temperature of 30 ° C is optimal .   More elaborate incubators can also include the ability to lower the temperature ( via refrigeration ) , or the ability to control humidity or CO2 levels . This is important in the cultivation of mammalian cells , where the relative humidity is typically > 80 % to prevent evaporation and a slightly acidic pH is achieved by maintaining a CO2 level of 5 % .

negative: Absolute temperature scale Absolute temperature scale can refer to :  Kelvin scale , an absolute-temperature scale related to the Celsius scale  Rankine scale , an absolute-temperature scale related to the Fahrenheit scale   For a type of measuring system that begins at an absolute minimum ( not necessarily a temperature scale ) see :   Absolute scale

negative: Total inorganic carbon The total inorganic carbon ( CT , or TIC ) or dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) is the sum of inorganic carbon species in a solution . The inorganic carbon species include carbon dioxide , carbonic acid , bicarbonate anion , and carbonate . It is customary to express carbon dioxide and carbonic acid simultaneously as CO2 * . CT is a key parameter when making measurements related to the pH of natural aqueous systems , and carbon dioxide flux estimates .   CT = -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- + -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- + -LSB- CO32 − -RSB-   where ,   CT is the total inorganic carbon  -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- is the sum of carbon dioxide and carbonic acid concentrations ( -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- = -LSB- CO2 -RSB- + -LSB- H2CO3 -RSB- )  -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- is the bicarbonate concentration  -LSB- CO32 − -RSB- is the carbonate concentration   Each of these species are related by the following pH-driven chemical equilibria :   CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H + + HCO3 − 2H + + CO32 −   The concentrations of the different species of DIC ( and which species is dominant ) depends on the pH of the solution , as shown by a Bjerrum plot .   Total inorganic carbon is typically measured by the acidification of the sample which drives the equilibria to CO2 . This gas is then sparged from solution and trapped , and the quantity trapped is then measured , usually by infrared spectroscopy .

negative: Viscosity index Viscosity index ( VI ) is an arbitrary measure for the change of viscosity with variations in temperature . The lower the VI , the greater the change of viscosity of the oil with temperature and vice versa . It is used to characterize viscosity changes with relation to temperature in lubricating oil .   The viscosity of liquids decreases as temperature increases . The viscosity of a lubricant is closely related to its ability to reduce friction . Generally , the least viscous lubricant which still forces the two moving surfaces apart is desired . If the lubricant is too viscous , it will require a large amount of energy to move ( as in honey ) ; if it is too thin , the surfaces will come in contact and friction will increase .   Many lubricant applications require the lubricant to perform across a wide range of conditions , for example , automotive lubricants are required to reduce friction between engine components when the engine is started from cold ( relative to the engine 's operating temperatures ) up to 200 ° C when it is running . The best oils with the highest VI will remain stable and not vary much in viscosity over the temperature range . This allows for consistent engine performance within the normal working conditions .   The VI scale was set up by the Society of Automotive Engineers ( SAE ) . The temperatures chosen arbitrarily for reference are 100 and . The original scale only stretched between 0 ( lowest VI oil , naphthenic ) and 100 ( best oil , paraffinnic ) but since the conception of the scale better oils have also been produced , leading to VIs greater than 100 ( see below ) .   VI improving additives and higher quality base oils are widely used nowadays which increase the VIs attainable beyond the value of 100 . The Viscosity Index of synthetic oils ranges from 80 to over 400 .   The viscosity index can be calculated using the following formula :   where U is the oil 's kinematic viscosity at 40 ° C , and L and H are values based on the oil 's kinematic viscosity at 100 ° C. L and H are the values of viscosity at 40 ° C for oils of VI 0 and 100 respectively , having the same viscosity at 100 ° C as the oil whose VI we are trying to determine . These L and H values can be found in ASTM D2270 .

negative: Scale of temperature Scale of temperature is a way to measure temperature quantitatively . Empirical scales measure the quantity of heat in a system in relation to a fixed parameter , a thermometer . They are not absolute measures , that is why scales vary . Absolute temperature is thermodynamic temperature because it is directly related to thermodynamics . It is the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics that leads to a formal definition of thermodynamic temperature .

negative: Temperature lag Temperature lag is when change in temperature lags change in radiation ( heating or cooling ) . Meteorological examples include :   Diurnal temperature variation -- e.g. , peak daily temperature typically occurs after noon  Seasonal lag -- e.g. , peak annual temperature typically occurs after the summer solstice

negative: Bulk temperature In thermofluids dynamics , the bulk temperature , or the average bulk temperature in the thermal fluid , is a convenient reference point for evaluating properties related to convective heat transfer , particularly in applications related to flow in pipes and ducts .   The concept of the bulk temperature is that adiabatic mixing of the fluid from a given cross section of the duct will result in some equilibrium temperature that accurately reflects the average temperature of the moving fluid , more so than a simple average like the film temperature .

negative: Degree (temperature) The term degree is used in several scales of temperature . The symbol ° is usually used , followed by the initial letter of the unit , for example `` ° C '' for degree ( s ) Celsius . A degree can be defined as a set change in temperature measured against a given scale , for example , one degree Celsius is one hundredth of the temperature change between the point at which water starts to change state from solid to liquid state and the point at which it starts to change from its gaseous state to liquid .

negative: Antiferroelectricity Antiferroelectricity is a physical property of certain materials . It is closely related to ferroelectricity ; the relation between antiferroelectricity and ferroelectricity is analogous to the relation between antiferromagnetism and ferromagnetism .   An antiferroelectric material consists of an ordered ( crystalline ) array of electric dipoles ( from the ions and electrons in the material ) , but with adjacent dipoles oriented in opposite ( antiparallel ) directions ( the dipoles of each orientation form interpenetrating sublattices , loosely analogous to a checkerboard pattern ) . This can be contrasted with a ferroelectric , in which the dipoles all point in the same direction .   In an antiferroelectric , unlike a ferroelectric , the total , macroscopic spontaneous polarization is zero , since the adjacent dipoles cancel each other out .   Antiferroelectricity is a property of a material , and it can appear or disappear ( more generally , strengthen or weaken ) depending on temperature , pressure , external electric field , growth method , and other parameters . In particular , at a high enough temperature , antiferroelectricity disappears ; this temperature is called the antiferroelectric Curie point , even though in the analogous antiferromagnetism this transition occurs at the Neel temperature

negative: Adiabatic flame temperature In the study of combustion , there are two types of adiabatic flame temperature depending on how the process is completed , constant volume and constant pressure , describing the temperature , the combustion products theoretically reach if no energy is lost to the outside environment .   The constant volume adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature that results from a complete combustion process that occurs without any work , heat transfer or changes in kinetic or potential energy . The constant pressure adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature that results from a complete combustion process that occurs without any heat transfer or changes in kinetic or potential energy . Its temperature is lower than the constant volume process because some of the energy is utilized to change the volume of the system ( i.e. , generate work ) .

negative: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: Kramers' opacity law Kramers ' opacity law describes the opacity of a medium in terms of the ambient density and temperature , assuming that the opacity is dominated by bound-free absorption ( the absorption of light during ionization of a bound electron ) or free-free absorption ( the absorption of light when scattering a free ion , also called bremsstrahlung ) . It is often used to model radiative transfer , particularly in stellar atmospheres . The relation is named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Kramers , who first derived the form in 1923 .   The general functional form of the opacity law is   where is the resulting average opacity , is the density and the temperature of the medium . Often the overall opacity is inferred from observations , and this form of the relation describes how changes in the density or temperature will affect the opacity .

negative: Fuel temperature coefficient of reactivity Fuel temperature coefficient of reactivity is the change in reactivity of the nuclear fuel per degree change in the fuel temperature . The coefficient quantifies the amount of neutrons that the nuclear fuel ( uranium-238 ) absorbs from the fission process as the fuel temperature increases . It is a measure of the stability of the reactor operations . This coefficient is also known as the Doppler coefficient .

negative: Loss on ignition Loss on ignition is a test used in inorganic analytical chemistry , particularly in the analysis of minerals . It consists of strongly heating ( `` igniting '' ) a sample of the material at a specified temperature , allowing volatile substances to escape , until its mass ceases to change . This may be done in air , or in some other reactive or inert atmosphere . The simple test typically consists of placing a few grams of the material in a tared , pre-ignited crucible and determining its mass , placing it in a temperature-controlled furnace for a set time , cooling it in a controlled ( e.g. water-free , CO2-free ) atmosphere , and redetermining the mass . The process may be repeated to show that mass-change is complete . A variant of the test in which mass-change is continually monitored as temperature is changed , is thermogravimetry .   The loss on ignition is reported as part of an elemental or oxide analysis of a mineral . The volatile materials lost usually consist of `` combined water '' ( hydrates and labile hydroxy-compounds ) and carbon dioxide from carbonates . It may be used as a quality test , commonly carried out for minerals such as iron ore . For example , the loss on ignition of a fly ash consists of contaminant unburnt fuel .   In pyroprocessing industries such as lime , calcined bauxite , refractories or cement manufacture , the loss on ignition of the raw material is roughly equivalent to the loss in mass that it will undergo in a kiln . Similarly for minerals the loss on ignition represents the actual material lost during smelting or refining in a furnace or smelter . The loss on ignition of the product indicates the extent to which the pyroprocessing was incomplete . ASTM tests are defined for limestone and lime and cement among others .

negative: Carbonate–silicate cycle The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere .   The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) .   The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature .   The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .

negative: United States temperature extremes For the United States , the extremes are 134 F in Death Valley , California in 1913 and -79.8 F recorded in Prospect Creek , Alaska in 1971 .   The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15 , 1972 in Loma , Montana , when the temperature rose from -54 to .   The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds . For example , the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 F-change occurred in Spearfish , South Dakota , a rise from -4 to .

negative: Transition temperature Transition temperature is the temperature at which a material changes from one crystal state ( allotrope ) to another . For example , when rhombic sulfur is heated above 95.6 ° C it changes form into monoclinic sulfur . When cooled below 95.6 ° C it reverts to rhombic sulfur .   In the case of ferroelectric or ferromagnetic crystals a transition temperature may be known as the Curie temperature .

negative: Desulfobacter hydrogenophilus Desulfobacter hydrogenophilus is a strictly anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacterium . It was isolated and characterized in 1987 by Friedrich Widdel of the University of Konstanz ( Germany ) . Like most sulfate-reducing bacteria ( SRB ) , D. hydrogenophilus is capable of completely oxidizing organic compounds ( specifically acetate , pyruvate and ethanol ) to CO2 , and therefore plays a key role in biomineralization in anaerobic marine environments . However , unlike many SRB , D. hydrogenophilus is a facultative lithoautotroph , and can grow using H2 as an electron donor and CO2 as a carbon source . D. hydrogenophilus is also unique because it is psychrophilic ( and has been shown to grow at temperatures as low as 0 C ) . It is also diazotrophic , or capable of fixing nitrogen .

negative: Melting temperature Melting temperature may refer to :   Melting point , the temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid state  Melting temperature , the temperature at which a DNA double helix dissociates into single strands ( see Nucleic acid thermodynamics )


query: "Many people think the science of climate change is settled.

positive: Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally .   Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be .   Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .

positive: Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\nThe energy moving through Earth\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of "internal variability", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.

positive: Climate change denial Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism .   Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming .   Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none .   Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks .  The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation .   Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .

positive: Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.  Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.

positive: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP .  The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . ''   The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources .   Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries .   The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .

negative: International Conference on Climate Change The International Conference on Climate Change is a conference series organized and sponsored by The Heartland Institute which aims to bring together global warming skeptics who `` dispute that the science is settled on the causes , consequences , and policy implications of climate change . ''  The first conference took place in 2008 . As at 2017 there have been twelve conferences . Most of the events have been held in the United States , but there has been one in Australia and two in Germany .

negative: Climate ethics Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice .   Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects .   Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .

negative: Political economy of climate change Political economy of climate change is an approach that applies the political economy thinking of collective or political processes to study the critical issues surrounding the decision-making on climate change .   As the issue of climate change reaching the top of international agenda , the complexity of the environmental problems in combination with various other social political challenges have put great pressures on the scholars to explore a better understanding of the multiple actors and influencing factors that affect the climate change negotiation and to seek more effective solutions to tackle climate change . Analyzing these issues from a political economy perspective helps to explain the complex interactions between different stakeholders in respond to climate change impacts and provides broader opportunities to achieve better implementation of climate change policies .

negative: Scott Denning A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .

negative: Alliance for Climate Education Alliance for Climate Education , or ACE , educates young people on the science of climate change and empowers them to take action . ACE is a 501 ( c ) 3 nonprofit that provides educational resources on climate science and justice , as well training for young climate leaders . Since 2008 , ACE has reached more than 2,000,000 students nationwide .

negative: Woods Hole Research Center The Woods Hole Research Center ( WHRC ) is a scientific research organization that studies climate change , land use change , soils , wetlands , and forests . WHRC was named the world 's top climate change think tank for 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 by the International Center for Climate Governance .   The Center conducts research throughout the Amazon , the Arctic , central Africa , and North America . WHRC collaborates with a wide variety of partners to understand the causes and impacts of climate change and to implement more science-based policies .

negative: Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study .   The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .

negative: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil .   The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri .   This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world .   Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and

negative: Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand is a non-fiction book about climate change denial , coauthored by Haydn Washington and John Cook , with a foreword by Naomi Oreskes . Washington had a background in environmental science prior to authoring the work , and Cook was educated in physics and founded the website Skeptical Science which compiles peer-reviewed evidence of global warming . The book was first published in hardcover and paperback formats in 2011 by Earthscan , a division of Routledge .   The book presents an in-depth analysis and refutation of climate change denial , going over several arguments point-by-point and disproving them with peer-reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus for climate change . The authors assert that those denying climate change engage in tactics including cherry picking data purported to support their specific viewpoints , and attacking the integrity of climate scientists . They use social science theory to examine the phenomenon of climate change denial in the wider public , and call this phenomenon a form of pathology .   The book traces financial support for climate change denial to the fossil fuel industry , asserting these companies have attempted to influence public opinion on the matter . Washington and Cook write that politicians have a tendency to use weasel words as part of a propaganda tactic through use of spin , as a way to deflect public interest away from climate change and remain passive on the issue . The authors conclude that if the public ceased engaging in denial , the problem of climate change could be realistically addressed .   For his research on the book , and efforts in communicating the essence of climate change science to the general public , John Cook won the 2011 Australian Museum Eureka Prize for Advancement of Climate Change Knowledge . Climate Change Denial received a positive reception in reviews from publications including : The Ecologist , ECOS magazine , academic journal Natures Sciences Sociétés , the journal Education published by the New South Wales Teachers Federation , . An article in The New American was critical , describing the labels of `` deniers '' and `` denialists '' as cruel and forms of character assassination .

negative: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology .   In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .

negative: Joseph J. Romm Joseph J. Romm ( born June 27 , 1960 ) is an American author , blogger , physicist and climate expert who advocates reducing greenhouse gas emissions and global warming and increasing energy security through energy efficiency , green energy technologies and green transportation technologies . Romm is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science . In 2009 , Rolling Stone magazine named Romm to its list of `` 100 People Who Are Changing America '' , and Time magazine named him one of its `` Heroes of the Environment ( 2009 ) '' , calling him `` The Web 's most influential climate-change blogger '' .   Romm is a Senior Fellow at the Center for American Progress , where he founded their climate blog , Climate Progress , part of their Think Progress website . In 2008 , Time magazine named Romm 's blog one of the `` Top 15 Green Websites '' . In 2009 , Thomas L. Friedman , in The New York Times , called Climate Progress `` the indispensable blog '' , and in 2010 , Time included it in a list of the 25 `` Best Blogs of 2010 '' . Romm has also written for other energy and news sources .   In the 1990s , Romm served as Acting Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Energy . He has published several books on global warming and energy technology . His 2006 book , Hell and High Water summarized observations and forecasts of climate change , discussed technology and policy solutions , and criticized political disinformation used to undermine climate science . Romm 's 2012 book , Language Intelligence , concerns persuasion and the effective use of rhetoric . He is the Chief Science Advisor for documentary series Years of Living Dangerously , which won the 2014 Emmy Award for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series . His 2015 book , Climate Change : What Everyone Needs to Know , covers basic climate science in a Q&A format .

negative: Climatic Change (journal) Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .

negative: Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity .   Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option .   Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .

negative: Economists' Statement on Climate Change The Economists ' Statement on Climate Change was published in 1997 , prior to the Kyoto Protocol negotiated that same year , to promote market-based solutions to climate change . It was signed by more than 2,600 economists , including 18 Nobel Prize laureates , and remains the largest public statement in the history of the economics profession .   The statement was coordinated by Redefining Progress , an environmental economics think tank founded by Ted Halstead .

negative: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration The Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration was created as part of the Clear Skies Initiative in February 2002 by George W. Bush , as a Cabinet-level effort to coordinate climate change science and technology research .   The White House says :  `` The Secretary of Commerce and Secretary of Energy will lead the effort , in close coordination with the President 's Science Advisor . The research effort will continue to be coordinated through the National Science and Technology Council in accordance with the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . ''

negative: Global cooling Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .

negative: Judith Curry Judith A. Curry is an American climatologist and former chair of the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the Georgia Institute of Technology . Her research interests include hurricanes , remote sensing , atmospheric modeling , polar climates , air-sea interactions , and the use of unmanned aerial vehicles for atmospheric research . She is a member of the National Research Council 's Climate Research Committee . As of 2017 , she has retired from academia .   Curry is the co-author of Thermodynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans ( 1999 ) , and co-editor of Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences ( 2002 ) , as well as over 140 scientific papers . Among her awards is the Henry G. Houghton Research Award from the American Meteorological Society in 1992 .   Regarding climate change , she thinks that the IPCC reports typically neglect what she calls the `` Uncertainty Monster '' in projecting future climate trends , which she calls a `` wicked problem . '' Curry also hosts a popular science blog in which she writes on topics related to climate science and the science-policy interface .

negative: Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency was an Australian Government department . Its role was to serve the people of Australia by developing a more prosperous and sustainable Australia by leading and coordinating the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions , promotion of energy efficiency , adaptation to climate change and shaping of global solutions .   The Department was led by its Secretary , Blair Comley PSM who was responsible to the Minister for Climate Change and Energy Efficiency , the Honourable Greg Combet AM MP . The minister was assisted by the Parliamentary  Secretary for Climate Change and Energy Efficiency , the Honourable Mark Dreyfus QC MP .   On 25 March 2013 , responsibility for Climate Change passed to the newly formed Department of Industry , Innovation , Climate Change , Science , Research and Tertiary Education .

negative: Global warming conspiracy theory A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus .  Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .

negative: Climate Change Science Program The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .

negative: George Marshall (environmentalist) George Marshall ( born 1964 ) is a British environmental campaigner , communications specialist and writer . He is the founder of Climate Outreach and is a specialist in climate change communications . He is the author of Carbon Detox ( 2007 ) and Do n't Even Think About It : Why Our Brains Are Wired to Ignore Climate Change ( 2014 ) . He lives in mid-Wales .

negative: Cape Farewell, UK Cape Farewell is an artist led organisation that works to create an urgent cultural response to climate change . Launched by David Buckland in 2001 with a series of ground-breaking artist and scientist manned expeditions to the Arctic , Cape Farewell has become an international not-for-profit programme based at the University of the Arts London : Chelsea .   Cape Farewell aims to change the way people think about climate change , and to widely communicate , educate and inspire action on the need for urgent , and achievable , change . Cape Farewell engages with our greatest creative , scientific and visionary minds to work together with clean technology entrepreneurs , sociologists and universities to achieve the non-carbon society we must all aspire to .   In 15 years Cape Farewell have supported over 300 artists in the research and creation of artworks . For example , Marcus Coates ' ` The Sound of Others ' opened the Manchester Science Festival in partnership with The Museum of Science and Industry ( MOSI ) in 2014 ; Guy Martin installed Forcey 's Tower , Dorset , 2014 ; Sabrina Mahfouz completed her poetry residency with performances at the London School of Economics and the Southbank Centre ; and SWITCH showcased young climate poets in partnership with the Royal Shakespeare Company , Stratford .   Cape Farewell is a partner organisation , working with major cultural institutions -- such as the Natural History Museum , Science Museum , Tidal Lagoon Swansea , Tate , Eden Project , Royal Academy , Maritime Museum and Southbank Centre - to create new and challenging artworks that explore and highlight the urgency of climate change and bring the vital conversation around environmental sustainability into the public domain .

negative: Views on the Kyoto Protocol This article is about certain views on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change .   A 2007 study by Gupta et al. assessed the literature on climate change policy which showed no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol , that assert these agreements have , or will , succeed in fully solving the climate problem . It was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed . The Framework Convention and its Protocol , include provisions for future policy actions to be taken .   Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is `` the only game in town , '' and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions ( Aldy et al. . , 2003 , p. 9 ) . Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 5 ) . On the other hand , many economists think that the commitments are stronger than is justified . Particularly in the US , many economists have also been critical of the failure to include quantified commitments for developing countries ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 31 ) .

negative: Department of Industry, Innovation, Climate Change, Science, Research and Tertiary Education The Department of Industry , Innovation , Climate Change , Science , Research and Tertiary Education ( DIICSRTE ) was a department of the Australian Government charged with further developing growth in Australian industries and advancements in science and research .

negative: Environmental skepticism Environmental skepticism is the belief that claims by environmentalists , and the environmental scientists who support them , are false or exaggerated . The term is also applied to those who are critical of environmentalism in general . Environmental skepticism is closely linked with anti-environmentalism and climate change denial .   Environmental skeptics have argued that the extent of harm coming from human activities is less certain than some scientists and scientific bodies claim , or that it is too soon to be introducing curbs in these activities on the basis of existing evidence , or that further discussion is needed regarding who should pay for such environmental initiatives . One of the focus themes in the environmental skeptics movement is the idea that environmentalism is a growing threat to social and economic progress and the civil liberties .   The popularity of the term was enhanced by Bjørn Lomborg 's book The Skeptical Environmentalist . Lomborg approached environmental claims from a statistical and economic standpoint , and concluded that often the claims made by environmentalists were overstated . Lomborg argued , on the basis of cost -- benefit analysis , that few environmentalist claims warranted serious concern . However , in 2010 , Lomborg stated that he believes in the need for `` tens of billions of dollars a year to be invested in tackling climate change '' and declared global warming to be `` undoubtedly one of the chief concerns facing the world today '' and `` a challenge humanity must confront '' . He summarized his position , saying `` Global warming is real - it is man-made and it is an important problem . But it is not the end of the world . ''

negative: Andrew Dessler Andrew Emory Dessler ( born 1964 ) is a climate scientist and Professor of Atmospheric Sciences at Texas A&M University . His research subject areas are atmospheric chemistry , climate change and climate change policy .

negative: Antarctica cooling controversy An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .

negative: Climate change opinion by country Climate change opinion is the aggregate of public opinion held by the adult population . Cost constraints often restrict surveys to sample only one or two countries from each continent or focus on only one region . Because of differences among questions , wording , and methods -- it is difficult to reliably compare results or to generalize them to opinions held worldwide .   In 2007 -- 2008 , the Gallup Poll surveyed individuals from 128 countries in the first comprehensive study of global opinions . The Gallup Organization aggregated opinion from the adult population fifteen years of age and older , either through the telephone or personal interviews , and in both rural and urban areas except in areas where the safety of interviewer was threatened and in scarcely populated islands . Personal interviews were stratified by population size or geography and cluster sampling was achieved through one or more stages . Although error bounds vary , they were all below ± 6 % with 95 % confidence .   Weighting countries to a 2008 World Bank population estimate , sixty-one percent of individuals worldwide were aware of global warming , developed countries more aware than developing , with Africa the least aware . The median of people perceiving it as a threat was 47 % . Latin America and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change was a result of human activities , while Africa , parts of Asia and the Middle East , and countries from the Former Soviet Union led in the opposite . Awareness often translates to concern , although of those aware , individuals in Europe and developed countries in Asia perceived global warming as a greater threat than others .

negative: Migration and global environmental change (Report) Migration and Global Environmental Change was a report about the influence of climate change on patterns of human migration and displacement published in 2011 . The report was produced by the Foresight unit at the UK 's Government Office of Science . It became known colloquially as ` The Foresight Report ' among people working in the field of climate-linked migration . The report was led by Professor Richard Black of Sussex University .   The report was one of the first assessments of all the existing evidence and research on the connections between climate change and migration . The report authors also commissioned a number of new peer reviewed articles on migration and climate change , significant adding to the evidence base of the topic . The report attracted significant media attention on its release .   The report was critical of previous predictions of the number of people who could be forced to move by climate change . It argued that making such numerical predictions was impossible because attributing climate change as the sole cause of someone 's migration was difficult .   The report popularized the idea of trapped populations . The report argued that as well as being forced to move by climate change impacts , people might also be forced to stay where they are . The report drew on evidence showing that as people become poorer as a result of a degraded environment , they become less able to migrate . The idea of trapped populations had been present in the academic literature for sometime , however the media attention results from the release of the report brought the idea to a wider public for the first time .   The report also popularized the idea of migration as climate change adaptation . Again , the authors drew on existing academic literature on the topic . They made the case that migration should be seen as a legitimate and empowering way for some people to adapt to the impacts of climate change .

negative: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years .   The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 .   The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .

negative: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .

negative: An Appeal to Reason An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .


query: It “certainly puts the kibosh on everyone saying that Antarctica’s ice is just going up and up,” Meier said.

positive: Antarctica Antarctica ( UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑːktɪkə -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈtɑːtɪkə -RSB- , US English -LSB- æntˈɑːrktɪkə -RSB- ) is Earth 's southernmost continent . It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14000000 km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula .   Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89.2 ° C ( − 128.6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra .   Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( `` Southern Land '' ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica is noted as the last region on Earth in recorded history to be discovered and colonised by humans , being only first sighted in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of easily accessible resources , and isolation . In 1895 , the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians .   Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty-eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations .

negative: Golden Lion (novel) Golden Lion is a 2015 novel by Wilbur Smith ad Giles Kristian . It is part of the Courtney series of novels .   It was the first of six novels Smith did with a co-writer .   Smith says he sketched out the storyline and characters but another person wrote it . He said , `` I have a particular way of writing , and they have their way . I take their sentences or chapters and I put the Wilbur Smith gloss on them ... It 's spelled m. . . a. . . g. . . i. . . c. Magic ! Everyone has their own magic and I have my particular magic that I have developed very carefully over the past 50 years . ''

negative: Taj Mahal Bangladesh Taj Mahal Bangladesh is a scaled copy of the original Taj Mahal ( a Mughal mausoleum located in Agra , India ) located 10 miles east of the Bangladeshi capital , Dhaka in Sonargaon . Unlike the original , work on the building took only five years . Ahsanullah Moni , a wealthy Bangladeshi film-maker , announced his ` Copycat version of Taj Mahal ' project in December 2008 . The project cost about USD$ 56 Million , and was built 20 miles northeast of Capital Dhaka . Moni has explained that he built a replica of the Taj Mahal so that the poor of his nation can realise their dream of seeing neighbouring India 's famed monument . This caused complaints from Indian officials , `` You ca n't just go and copy historical monuments '' an official of Indian High Commission in Dhaka told press .   Construction began in 2003 , but Mr Moni says that he came up with the idea in 1980 when he first visited the real Taj in Agra , India . He said that his homage had been built because most people living in Bangladesh - where nearly half of the population exist below the poverty line - can not afford to travel to India to see the real thing . `` Everyone dreams about seeing the Taj Mahal but very few Bangladeshis can make the trip because it 's too expensive for them , '' he said . Mr Moni first visited the original in 1980 and has made six return trips . So enamoured was he of the site that he hired a group of architects and sent them to India to measure it . He said : `` I used the same marble and stone as in the original Taj . We used machinery , which is why it took less time . Otherwise it would have taken 20 years and 22,000 workers to complete it . '' Last night Mr Mittal , at the Indian High Commission , did concede that the replica was unlikely to detract from the magnificence of the original . He also admitted that visitors were unlikely to mix up one with the other . `` A copy is a form of flattery , I suppose , '' he said .

negative: Bhringi According to Hindu mythology , Bhringi was an ancient sage ( rishi ) , and a great devotee of Shiva , the Hindu God of destruction and rejuvenation . According to mythology , all the rishis paid homage to both Shiva and Parvati , consort of Shiva , but Bhringi would not worship Parvati and dedicated himself solely to Shiva .   The story goes that Bhringi one day , came to Mount Kailash , the abode of Shiva , and expressed his desire to go around Shiva . As he was going around , Shiva 's consort , Shakti , said , `` You can not just go around him . You have to go around me too . We are two halves of the same truth . ''   Bhringi , however , was so focussed on Shiva that he had no desire to go around Shakti . Seeing this , Shakti sat on Shiva 's lap making it difficult for Bhringi to go around Shiva alone . Bhringi , determined to go around Shiva took the form of a Bhring ( Black Bee ) and tried to slip in between the two .   Amused by this , Shiva made Shakti one half of his body -- the famous Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva . This was God whose one half is the Goddess . But Bhringi was adamant . He would go around Shiva alone . So he took the form of a rat , some say a bee , and tried to gnaw his way between the two .   This annoyed the Goddess so much that she said , `` May Bhringi lose all parts of the body that come from the mother . '' In Tantra , the Indian school of alchemy , it is believed that the tough and rigid parts of the body such as nerves and bones come from the father while the soft and fluid parts of the body such as flesh and blood come from the mother . Instantly , Bhringi lost all flesh and blood and he became a bag of bones . He collapsed on the floor , unable to get up .   Bhringi realized his folly . Shiva and Shakti make up the whole . They are not independent entities . One can not exist without the other . Without either there is neither . He apologized .   So the world never forgets this lesson . Bhringi was denied flesh and blood forever . To enable him to stand upright he was given a third leg , so that his legs served as a tripod .

negative: Drive (charity) In charitable organizations , a drive is a collection of items for people who need them , such as clothing , used items , books , canned food , cars , etc. . Some drives are that people go through their inventory , bag the items up , and put them in a giveaway bin , or charitable organizations such as Big Brothers Big Sisters , The Salvation Army come to the house and pick them up . They then put the items in their thrift stores or , if they do n't have any , sell them to thrift stores to raise money for their organization .

negative: Street Dreams (film) Street Dreams is an American film directed by Chris Zamoscianyk , produced by Rob Dyrdek , Jason Bergh and Sal Masekela and written by Elisa Delson , Rob Dyrdek , and Nino Scalia .   Derrick Cabrera ( Paul Rodriguez ) has a dream of being sponsored and one day going pro . He is an up-and-coming street skateboarder from Chicago with all the talent but has the world against him . Parents , friends and schoolmates ca n't understand how Derrick has so much passion for something that has no future in their eyes . As everyone pushes him around , including his own father , girlfriend , and even one of his closest friends , he does n't give up on both achieving his dreams , and proving everyone wrong .