query: The climate-change agreement between the United States and China "requires the Chinese to do nothing at all for 16 years."

positive: China China , officially the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the world 's most populous country , with a population of over 1.381 billion . Covering approximately 9.6 e6km2 , China is the world 's second-largest state by land area and third - or fourth-largest by total area . Governed by the Communist Party of China , it exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces , five autonomous regions , four direct-controlled municipalities ( Beijing , Tianjin , Shanghai and Chongqing ) and the Special Administrative Regions Hong Kong and Macau , also claiming sovereignty over Taiwan . China is a great power and a major regional power within Asia , and has been characterized as a potential superpower .   China emerged as one of the world 's earliest civilizations in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain . For millennia , China 's political system was based on hereditary monarchies , or dynasties , beginning with the legendary Xia dynasty . Since 221 , when the Qin dynasty conquered the other largest six states to form the first unified Chinese empire , China has then expanded , fractured and re-unified numerous times in the following millennia . In 1912 , the Republic of China ( ROC ) replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949 , when it was defeated by the communist People 's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War . The Communist Party established the People 's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949 , while the ROC government relocated to Taiwan with its present de facto temporary capital in Taipei . Both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China , though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory .   China has had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two thousand years , during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline . Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978 , China has become one of the world 's fastest-growing major economies . , it is the world 's second-largest economy by nominal GDP and largest by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . China is also the world 's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods . China is a recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world 's largest standing army and second-largest defense budget . The PRC is a member of the United Nations , as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council in 1971 . China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations , including the WTO , APEC , BRICS , the Shanghai Cooperation Organization ( SCO ) , the BCIM and the G-20 .

positive: 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference , commonly known as the Copenhagen Summit , was held at the Bella Center in Copenhagen , Denmark , between 7 and 18 December . The conference included the 15th Conference of the Parties ( COP 15 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 5th Meeting of the Parties ( MOP 5 ) to the Kyoto Protocol . According to the Bali Road Map , a framework for climate change mitigation beyond 2012 was to be agreed there .   On Friday 18 December , the final day of the conference , international media reported that the climate talks were `` in disarray '' . Media also reported that in lieu of a summit collapse , only a `` weak political statement '' was anticipated at the conclusion of the conference . The Copenhagen Accord was drafted by the United States , China , India , Brazil and South Africa on 18 December , and judged a `` meaningful agreement '' by the United States government . It was `` taken note of '' , but not `` adopted '' , in a debate of all the participating countries the next day , and it was not passed unanimously . The document recognised that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of the present day and that actions should be taken to keep any temperature increases to below 2 ° C . The document is not legally binding and does not contain any legally binding commitments for reducing emissions .   In January 2014 , documents leaked by Edward Snowden and published by Dagbladet Information revealed that the US government negotiators were in receipt of information during the conference that was being obtained by spying against other conference delegations . The US National Security Agency provided US delegates with advance details other delegations ' positions , including the Danish plan to `` rescue '' the talks should they flounder . Members of the Danish negotiating team said that both the US and Chinese delegations were `` peculiarly well-informed '' about closed-door discussions : `` They simply sat back , just as we had feared they would if they knew about our document . ''

positive: United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement On June 1, 2017, United States President Donald Trump announced that the U.S. would cease all participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation, and begin negotiations to re-enter the agreement "on terms that are fair to the United States, its businesses, its workers, its people, its taxpayers," or form a new agreement. In withdrawing from the agreement, Trump stated that "The Paris accord will undermine (the U.S.) economy," and "puts (the U.S.) at a permanent disadvantage." Trump stated that the withdrawal would be in accordance with his America First policy. In accordance with Article 28 of the Paris Agreement, a country cannot give notice of withdrawal from the agreement before three years of its start date in the relevant country, which was on November 4, 2016 in the case of the United States. The White House later clarified that the U.S. will abide by the four-year exit process. On November 4, 2019, the administration gave a formal notice of intention to withdraw, which takes 12 months to take effect.  Until the withdrawal took effect, the United States was obligated to maintain its commitments under the Agreement, such as the requirement to continue reporting its emissions to the United Nations. The withdrawal took effect on November 4, 2020, one day after the 2020 U.S. presidential election.While celebrated by some members of the Republican Party, international reactions to the withdrawal were overwhelmingly negative from across the political spectrum, and the decision received substantial criticism from religious organizations, businesses, political leaders of all parties, environmentalists, and scientists and citizens from the United States and internationally.Following Trump's announcement, the governors of several U.S. states formed the United States Climate Alliance to continue to advance the objectives of the Paris Agreement at the state level despite the federal withdrawal. As of July 1, 2019, 24 states, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico have joined the alliance, and similar commitments have also been expressed by other state governors, mayors, and businesses.Trump's withdrawal from the Paris agreement will impact other countries by reducing its financial aid to the Green Climate fund. The termination of the $3 billion U.S. funding will ultimately impact climate change research and decrease society's chance of reaching the Paris Agreement goals, as well as omit U.S. contributions to the future IPCC reports. Trump's decision will also affect the carbon emission space as well as the carbon price. The U.S.'s withdrawal will also mean that the spot to take over the global climate regime will be obtainable for China and the EU.President-elect Joe Biden vowed to rejoin the Paris Agreement on his first day in office.

positive: Donald Trump Donald John Trump ( born June 14 , 1946 ) is the 45th and current President of the United States . Before entering politics , he was a businessman and television personality .   Trump was born and raised in Queens , New York City , and earned an economics degree from the Wharton School . He then took charge of The Trump Organization , the real estate and construction firm founded by his paternal grandmother , which he ran for 45 years until 2016 . During his real estate career , Trump built , renovated , and managed numerous office towers , hotels , casinos , and golf courses . Besides real estate , he started several side ventures and has licensed the use of his name for the branding of various products and properties , including Trump Entertainment Resorts , Trump Steaks , and Trump Vodka . He was the founder of Trump University . He owned the Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants from 1996 to 2015 , and he produced and hosted The Apprentice , a reality television series on NBC , from 2004 to 2015 . His net worth was estimated to be $ 3.5 billion , making him the 544th richest person in the world .   Trump first publicly expressed interest in running for political office in 1987 . He won two Reform Party presidential primaries in 2000 , but withdrew his candidacy early on . In June 2015 , he launched his campaign for the 2016 presidential election and quickly emerged as the front-runner among seventeen candidates in the Republican primaries . His remaining opponents all suspended their campaigns by the end of May 2016 , and in July he was formally nominated at the Republican National Convention along with Indiana governor Mike Pence as his running mate . Many of his campaign statements were controversial or false , generating much free media coverage .   Trump won the general election on November 8 , 2016 , in a surprise victory against Democratic opponent Hillary Clinton and commenced his presidency on January 20 , 2017 . He became the oldest and wealthiest person ever to assume the presidency , the first without prior military or government service , and the fifth to have won the election while losing the popular vote . His political positions have been described by scholars and commentators as populist , protectionist , and nationalist .

negative: Tsao Chang Tsao Chang ( Chinese : 张操 born 1942 in Shanghai , China ) is a Chinese-American physicist .   Chang has taught physics and conducted research on the theory of space and time more than 40 years in China and the United States .

negative: Chinese Taipei at the 1994 Winter Olympics Due to the political status of Taiwan , the Republic of China ( ROC ) competed as Chinese Taipei at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer , Norway . The International Olympic Committee mandates that the Chinese Taipei Olympic Committee flag is used , and not the flag of the Republic of China .  In the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , the team is known as Zhongguo Taibei or , Taipei , China , where China implies the PRC . China 's doing so violates a treaty signed by both countries , Taiwan and China , in which the agreement states that the official name for Taiwan in sporting events is `` Chinese Taipei '' and not `` Taipei , China '' .

negative: Chang Jen-Hu Chang Jen-Hu ( Traditional Chinese : 張鏡湖 ) , or J.H.Chang , 1927 - , is a Taiwanese educator , geographer specialized in ancient climate change , and the agricultural development of China and Taiwan . Chang is the Chairman of the Board of Directors of Chinese Culture University .

negative: Virginia v. Tennessee Virginia v. Tennessee , 148 U.S. 503 ( 1893 ) , was a decision of the United States Supreme Court , which had two questions : ( 1 ) What is the correct boundary between the two states and , if the boundary was inaccurately set , can the state ask the court to change it ? ( 2 ) Does an agreement setting the boundary between two states require approval of Congress under the Compact Clause of the Constitution of the United States ?   When two states have a controversy between each other , the case is filed for original jurisdiction with the United States Supreme Court . This is one of the very limited circumstances where the court acts as original jurisdiction ( i.e. a trial court ) although as the suit was at equity rather than law , no jury was impaneled ( if either side had even wanted one in the first place ) . In all other cases , the court acts as the highest level appellate court in the United States .   The court decided that if a prior agreement between the two states set the boundary , and both states ratify that agreement , if one of them discovers later that the boundary was wrong ( e.g. the other state received a larger share of territory than originally planned ) in the absence of the other state agreeing to change it , then the original agreement stands .   As to what represents a compact requiring approval from Congress , it is those types of agreements that would , in some fashion , increase the power of a state . If a state , for example , wanted to send an exhibit to a World 's Fair in another state , it would not have to have approval of Congress to contract to use a canal owned by another state that its exhibit or its people had to pass through along the way .   Where a compact or agreement between two states does require congressional approval , such approval may be implied , such as if a state sends information to Congress about an agreement , and Congress accepts and records the details . Approval may be requested in advance , or , for a type of compact where the details could not be known before the compact was ratified , after the compact is created .   The court decided that because the states informed Congress of the original survey that both states hired people to carefully establish , and subsequently enacted as legislation by the two states , the agreement was implicitly approved by Congress , and the border between the two states was that which was set forth in the survey .

negative: Doha conference Doha conference can refer to several meetings held in Doha , Qatar :  WTO Ministerial Conference of 2001 ,  leading to the Doha Development Round  the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health  The 2008 follow-up conference to the Monterrey Consensus .  the 2008 Doha Agreement between rival Lebanese factions  The 2012 Hamas -- Fatah Doha agreement  The 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference

negative: NZ Climate Party The NZ Climate Party is an unregistered political party in New Zealand . The party is focused on highlighting and addressing the threat of climate change . The party was launched in August 2014 , and is led by Peter Whitmore .   The party did not register to contest the party vote in the 2014 election , but stood two electorate candidates , in Auckland Central and Rongotai . A representative from the party , Aaron Carter , attended a candidates meeting in Newtown , Wellington dressed in an elephant costume and bearing a sign which said `` climate change '' . His main messages were : `` Do n't vote for me , vote thinking about the climate '' , `` It 's all rearranging furniture on the Titanic as it 's sinking '' , and `` Learn to swim '' . Whitmore and Carter received 50 and 66 electoral votes respectively .   Climate Party member Rob Painting contested the 2015 Northland by-election with the stated goal of `` raising awareness of climate and coastal issues affecting the Far North '' . He received 39 votes ( 0.13 % of votes cast ) .   The party is opposed to the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , arguing that it is doing nothing to stop New Zealand 's emissions from increasing .

negative: China–Philippines relations The China -- Philippines relations ( ; Ugnayang Tsina at Pilipinas ) refers to the bilateral relations between the China and the Philippines . Relations between the two countries gradually improved over the years since the initiative of Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos . However , relations between the two countries have suffered due to the worsening South China Sea dispute . The current president of the Philippines , Rodrigo Duterte , aims at remedying relations between the Philippines and China at the expense of the former 's relationship with the United States .   Several major bilateral agreements were signed between the two countries over the years , such as : Joint Trade Agreement ( 1975 ) ; Scientific and Technological Cooperation Agreement ( 1978 ) ; Postal Agreement ( 1978 ) ; Air Services Agreement ( 1979 ) ; Visiting Forces Agreement ( 1999 ) ; Cultural Agreement ( 1979 ) ; Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement ( 1992 ) ; Agreement on Agricultural Cooperation ( 1999 ) ; Tax Agreement ( 1999 ) ; and Treaty on Mutual Judicial Assistance on Criminal Matters ( 2000 ) . In May 2000 , on the eve of the 25th anniversary of their diplomatic relations , the two countries signed a Joint Statement defining the framework of bilateral relations in the 21st century .  Bilateral relations between the Philippines and China have significantly progressed in recent years . The growing bilateral relations were highlighted by the state visit to China of Philippine President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on 29 -- 31 October 2001 . During the visit , President Arroyo held bilateral talks with top Chinese leaders , namely President Jiang Zemin , NPC Chairman Li Peng , and Premier Zhu Rongji . President Arroyo also attended the 9th APEC Economic Leaders Meeting held in Shanghai on October 20 -- 21 , 2001 , where she also had bilateral talks with President Jiang .  During President Arroyo 's visit , eight important bilateral agreements were signed .   A 2014 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center showed 93 % of Filipinos were concerned that territorial disputes between China and neighbouring countries could lead to a military conflict .

negative: Chinese Cultural Fever Chinese Cultural Fever - ( Chinese , trad . 文化熱 , simpl . 文化热 , pinyin Wénhuàrè ) was a cultural tendency in China in the late 1980s , started with economic reforms . It can be considered the first independent cultural initiative in China since 1949 . After a period of isolation , China opened to Western Thought . This tendency ended in 1989 due to the sudden change of political climate .

negative: Global Change Research Act of 1990 The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change .   According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act :   `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts .   Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations .   Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program .   Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change .   Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments .   Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change .   Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . ''   Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .

negative: Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia ( Indonesian : Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia abbreviated SBKRI ) was an identity card establishing citizenship in the Republic of Indonesia employed to discriminate against Indonesians of Chinese descent . The card was a required identity card ( KTP ) to enter academia , obtain a passport , to register for an election , and to get married . The requirement was eventually abolished although local bureaucracies have continued to engage in abuses .   The legal bases for SBKRI legal was established with the Law no. 62 in 1958 issued by the Ministry of Justice G.A. Maengkom and approved by President Soekarno . It came in the wake of Mao Zedong 's government decree in Communist China that all Chinese people around the world are citizens of the People 's Republic of China based on the principle of jus sanguinis ( blood descendants ) . This was followed with the Dual Nationality Agreement between Indonesia and China between Chou En-lai and Soenario in 1955 .

negative: Stephen S. Chang Stephen S. Chang ( 15 August 1918 -- 16 December 1996 ) was a Chinese-born , American food scientist who was involved in the research of lipid and flavors in food , including the development of technology transfer between the United States and Taiwan .

negative: U.S. immigration policy toward the People's Republic of China With the establishment of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , American immigration policy towards Chinese emigrants and the highly controversial subject of foreign policy with regard to the PRC became invariably connected . The United States government was presented with the dilemma of what to do with two separate `` Chinas '' . Both the People 's Republic of China and the Republic of China wanted be seen as the legitimate government and both parties believed that immigration would assist them in doing so .   During the 1940s and 1950s , the United States , the Republic of China , and eventually the PRC consistently used the movement of people , their laws controlling their borders , citizen services , and their interactions with the Chinese diaspora to promote the legitimacy and positive image of their respective governments internationally . Overseas Chinese were seen as extremely pertinent to either side claiming legitimacy , as both the Republic of China and the People 's Republic of China realized the political and social clout held by those overseas Chinese Americans .   Furthermore , the United States also realized that it had to be very careful in choosing the right policies with regard to the status of Chinese immigrants . On the one hand the United States had to come to terms with the fact that mainland China was `` lost '' to Communism and on the other it had to ensure its interests in Taiwan were not compromised . US immigration policy for the next thirty years was implemented with a notion of duality . The United States government would open its doors to Chinese immigrants from both sides of the strait , however ; American public opinion was not so welcoming ( see Chinese American history ) .

negative: History of Chinese Americans The History of Chinese Americans or the history of ethnic Chinese in the United States relates to the three major waves of Chinese immigration to the United States with the first beginning in the 19th century . Chinese immigrants in the 19th century worked as laborers , particularly on the transcontinental railroad , such as the Central Pacific Railroad . They also worked as laborers in the mining industry , and suffered racial discrimination at every level of society . While industrial employers were eager to get this new and cheap labor , the ordinary white public was stirred to anger by the presence of this `` yellow peril '' . Despite the provisions for equal treatment of Chinese immigrants in the 1868 Burlingame Treaty , political and labor organizations rallied against the immigration of what they regarded as a degraded race and `` cheap Chinese labor '' . Newspapers condemned the policies of employers , and even church leaders denounced the entrance of these aliens into what was regarded as a land for whites only . So hostile was the opposition that in 1882 the United States Congress eventually passed the Chinese Exclusion Act , which prohibited immigration from China for the next ten years . This law was then extended by the Geary Act in 1892 . The Chinese Exclusion Act was the only U.S. law ever to prevent immigration and naturalization on the basis of race . These laws not only prevented new immigration but also brought additional suffering as they prevented the reunion of the families of thousands of Chinese men already living in the United States ( that is , men who had left China without their wives and children ) ; anti-miscegenation laws in many states prohibited Chinese men from marrying white women .   In 1924 the law barred further entries of Chinese ; those already in the United States had been ineligible for citizenship since the previous year . Also by 1924 , all Asian immigrants ( except people from the Philippines , which had been annexed by the United States in 1898 ) were utterly excluded by law , denied citizenship and naturalization , and prevented from marrying Caucasians or owning land .   Only since the 1940s when the United States and China became allies during World War II , did the situation for Chinese Americans begin to improve , as restrictions on entry into the country , naturalization and mixed marriage were being lessened . In 1943 , Chinese immigration to the United States was once again permitted -- by way of the Magnuson Act -- thereby repealing 61 years of official racial discrimination against the Chinese . Large-scale Chinese immigration did not occur until 1965 when the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 lifted national origin quotas . After World War II , anti-Asian prejudice began to decrease , and Chinese immigrants , along with other Asians ( such as Japanese , Koreans , Indians and Vietnamese ) , have adapted and advanced . Currently , the Chinese constitute the largest ethnic group of Asian Americans ( about 22 % ) , and have confounded earlier expectations that they would form an indigestible mass in American society . For example , many Chinese Americans of American birth may know little or nothing about traditional Chinese culture , just as European Americans and African Americans may know little or nothing about the original cultures of their ancestors .   , there are more than 3.3 million Chinese in the United States , about 1 % of the total population . The influx continues , where each year ethnic Chinese people from the People 's Republic of China , Taiwan and to a lesser extent Southeast Asia move to the United States , surpassing Hispanic and Latino immigration by 2012 .

negative: China and the World Trade Organization China became a member of the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) on 11 December 2001 . The admission of China to the WTO was preceded by a lengthy process of negotiations and required significant changes to the Chinese economy . It signified China 's deeper integration into the world economy .

negative: Armstrong Redwoods State Natural Reserve Armstrong Redwoods State Natural Reserve is a state park of California in the United States established to preserve 805 acre of coast redwoods ( Sequoia sempervirens ) . The reserve is located in Sonoma County , just north of Guerneville .   The reserve is in a temperate rainforest . The climate is mild and wet . The park receives an average of 55 in of rainfall per year , almost all between September and June . Abundant fog during the summer months helps to maintain the moist conditions required by the coast redwoods .

negative: History of trade of the People's Republic of China Trade has been a very significant factor of the People 's Republic of China 's economy . In the twenty-five years that followed the founding of the Republic in 1949 , China 's trade institutions developed into a partially modern but somewhat inefficient system . The drive to modernize the economy that began in 1978 required a sharp acceleration in commodity flows and greatly improved efficiency in economic transactions . In the ensuing years economic reforms were adopted by the government to develop a socialist market economy . This type of economy combined central planning with market mechanisms . The changes resulted in the decentralization and expansion of domestic and foreign trade institutions , as well as a greatly enlarged role for free markets in the distribution of goods , and a prominent role for foreign trade and investment in economic development .   In 2013 China surpassed the United States as the largest trading nation in the world and plays a vital role in international trade , and has increasingly engaged in trade organizations and treaties in recent years . China became a member of the World Trade Organization in 2001 . China also has free trade agreements with several nations , including China -- Australia Free Trade Agreement , China -- South Korea Free Trade Agreement , ASEAN -- China Free Trade Area , Switzerland and Pakistan .

negative: Beijing–Washington hotline On 5 November 2007 China and the United States announced that they will set up a military hotline between Beijing and Washington D.C. to avoid misunderstanding during any moments of crisis in the Pacific .   On this day Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates told reporters that he and Chinese Defense Minister Cao Gangchuan formally agreed to set up the dedicated 24-hour phone line in Beijing .   According to a report China 's Defense Ministry long resisted the idea of such a direct line until June 2007 when General Zhang Qinsheng stated that China was ready to proceed with the establishment at the Shangri-La Dialogue security conference in Singapore .   According to the Chinese Defense Ministry China and the United States officially signed an agreement on setting up a military hotline between the two defense departments in Shanghai on February 2008 after a working meeting between the two defense departments .   The hotline was set up on 10 April 2008 .   Earlier in March 2007 Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Peter Pace announced that Beijing and Washington were considering an emergency hotline between leaders of the US and China during a visit in China .   Discussions on such a hotline have ongoing on since a meeting between President Hu Jintao and US President George W. Bush in April 2006 .   An April 2013 report notes that the telephone line between the PLA and the US military is far from the hotline established between Washington and Moscow after the Cuban missile crisis . It says that the 2008 agreement with China merely arranges a call to be put through to the Zhongnanhai telecommunications directorate , which has discretion on whether to forward the call to the foreign affairs section of the Department of Defence or the PLA 's command headquarters in West Beijing . Furthermore , it states that in protest against US actions the Chinese have cut off the hotline twice for extensive periods at times when it might be needed most .   In September 2015 Chinese President Xi Jinping and US President Barack Obama announced agreements on a military hotline to reduce the risks of miscalculations between the militaries .

negative: Abagaitu Islet Abagaitu Islet ( ; , Bolshoy Ostrov ) is an islet in the Argun River ( Asia ) divided between the People 's Republic of China ( Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region ) and Russia ( Chita Oblast ) . Area 58 km ² .   The island was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1929 , a move not accepted by China , resulting in a border dispute that lasted more than seventy years .   On October 14 , 2004 , the Complementary Agreement between the People 's Republic of China and the Russian Federation on the Eastern Section of the China -- Russia Boundary was signed , in which Russia agreed to relinquish control over a part of Abagaitu Islet . In 2005 , the Russian Duma and the Chinese National People 's Congress approved the agreement .

negative: Chang'an (disambiguation) __ NOTOC __  Chang ` an is the capital of several historical dynasties , located on the site of present-day Xi'an , Shaanxi .   Chang ` an could also refer to :  Chang ` an Avenue , a major east-west thoroughfare in Beijing , China  Chang ` an Automobile Group , a Chinese automobile manufacturer  Chang An Airlines , a former Chinese airline that operated between 1993 and 2007  Chang ` an University , a university in Xi'an , Shaanxi , China  Baicheng Chang ` an Airport , an airport in Baicheng , Jilin , China

negative: P. F. Chang's China Bistro P. F. Chang 's China Bistro is an Asian-themed US casual dining restaurant chain founded in 1993 by Paul Fleming and Philip Chiang , owned and operated by Centerbridge Partners , and headquartered in Scottsdale , Arizona . As of October 2014 , P. F. Chang 's operated 204 restaurants in the United States and 56 in international markets under licensee agreements . Countries include Canada , Puerto Rico , Mexico , Argentina , Chile , Brazil , Colombia , Costa Rica , Panama , Turkey , Lebanon , Philippines , South Korea , Dominican Republic and the Middle East . It is the largest full service , casual dining Chinese restaurant chain in the United States with locations across the country .   `` P. F. Chang 's '' is the namesake of Paul Fleming ( P. F. ) and Philip Chiang ( whose surname is shortened to Chang ) .   Opening in London UK with Diverse Dining ( arm of Alshaya Kuwait ) in 2017 .

negative: Hong Yen Chang Hong Yen Chang ( 张康仁 ; birth year unknown , estimated between 1859 and 1860 ) was reportedly the first Chinese immigrant licensed to practice law in the United States . Though admitted to the New York State Bar , he was denied admission to the California State Bar in 1890 . He remained a prominent member of the Chinese community and went on to lead a distinguished career in banking and diplomacy .   Alternate names and variant spellings : Chang Hon Yen , Zhang Kangren , Kang Jen Chang , Chang Kang-jen , Chang Hong Yin , and Harry Chang .

negative: Climate Finance Climate finance refers to financing channeled by national , regional and international entities for climate change mitigation and adaptation projects and programs . They include climate specific support mechanisms and financial aid for mitigation and adaptation activities to spur and enable the transition towards low-carbon , climate-resilient growth and development through capacity building , R&D and economic development . The term has been used in a narrow sense to refer to transfers of public resources from developed to developing countries , in light of their UN Climate Convention obligations to provide `` new and additional financial resources , '' and in a wider sense to refer to all financial flows relating to climate change mitigation and adaptation .   Finance is sourced from public , private and public-private sectors and can be channelled through various intermediaries , notably BFIs , MFIs , development cooperation agencies , the UNFCCC ( various funds including those managed by the Global Environment Facility ) , non-governmental organisations and the private sector . The financials flows can flow from developed to developing countries ( North-South ) , from developing to developing countries ( South-South ) , from developed to developed countries ( North-North ) and domestic climate finance flows in developed and developing countries .   According to the Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment Report 2011 , investments in renewable energy in 2010 reached a record of USD 211 billion ( not including large hydropower ) . These amounts far exceed existing dedicated resources and those proposed under the developed world at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) Cancún Agreements .   The estimations for the needed financing for climate change vary according to the geographic , sectorial and activity coverage , timescale and phasing , target and the underlying assumptions . The 2010 the World Development Report preliminary estimates of financing needs for mitigation and adaptation activities in developing countries range from USD 140-175 billion per year for mitigation over the next 20 years with associated financing needs of USD 265-565 billion and USD30 -- 100 billion a year over the period 2010 - 2050 for adaptation .  The International Energy Agency 's 2011 World Energy Outlook ( WEO ) estimates that in order to meet growing demand for energy through 2035 , USD 16.9 trillion in new investment for new power generation is projected , with renewable energy ( RE ) comprising 60 % of the total . The capital required to meet projected energy demand through 2030 amounts to $ 1.1 trillion per year on average , distributed ( almost evenly ) between the large emerging economies ( China , India , Brazil , etc. ) and including the remaining developing countries .

negative: Restrictive Practices Court The Restrictive Trade Practices Act 1956 was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom intended to enforce competition . It required that any agreement between companies that restricted trading should be placed on a public register unless granted exemption by the Secretary of State . Changes to an agreement , including its ending , were required to be notified and no agreement could be brought into force before appearing on the register .   The registrar could refer any agreements which appeared to operate against the public interest to the Restrictive Practices Court , a senior court of record in the United Kingdom . Though the Court was overhauled in 1976 , by the end of the century , the legislation was perceived as increasingly out of line with Articles 81 and 82 of the Treaty of Rome . The Court was gradually replaced by a new judicial regime under the Competition Act 1998 and Enterprise Act 2002 and was ultimately disestablished on 10 March 2013 .

negative: Climate change in Australia Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change .   Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer .   A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 .   The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia .  The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq .   The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .

negative: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1359 United Nations Security Council resolution 1359 , adopted unanimously on 29 June 2001 , after recalling all previous resolutions on Western Sahara , in particular Resolution 1108 ( 1997 ) , the Council extended the mandate of the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara ( MINURSO ) until 30 November 2001 .   The Security Council reiterated its support for efforts by MINURSO and the United Nations and agreements adopted by Morocco and the Polisario Front to hold a free and fair referendum on self-determination for the people of Western Sahara in accordance with the Settlement Plan . It noted proposals by the Polisario Front to overcome obstacles between the two parties and also took a memorandum by Algeria into account .   Extending MINURSO 's mandate , the resolution supported the efforts of the Secretary-General Kofi Annan to invite all parties to talks to discuss a framework agreement and negotiate any changes . It emphasised that nothing overall would be agreed until everything had been agreed between the parties . The parties were urged to resolve the issue of missing people and release those detained since the start of the conflict in compliance with international humanitarian law .   Finally , the Secretary-General was required to provide an assessment at the end of its current mandate and on the future of MINURSO .

negative: China Image Film Festival The China Image Film Festival is the largest Chinese film festival in Europe . Hosted in London , the festival aims to promote Chinese films and cultures across the world .   China Image Film Festival was established in 2009 . This year 's celebration of Chinese films is organised by China UK Culture and Creative Industry Association . As a platform for cultural exchange between the UK and China , the festival has gained support from The State Administration of Radio Film and China Television ( SARFT ) in addition to the Chinese embassy 's cultural affairs office . The festival has generated support from  the United Kingdom 's Cultural Affairs Bureau , British Council , as well as other agencies , associations , businesses , and institutions .   The difference between the previous few years and this year is the establishment of the British professional short film section . This segment shows famous  short English films to both Chinese and British audiences . British professional films of the same calibre will be screened in both the UK and China . In  turn , well-known short film directors will be meeting the audiences during this particular time .

negative: Climate change and poverty In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .

negative: Feizi Feizi ( died 858 BC ) , also known by the title Qin Ying , was the founder of the ancient Chinese state of Qin , predecessor of the Qin Dynasty that would conquer all other Chinese states and unite China in 221 BC .

negative: Chinese Chemistry Olympiad Chinese Chemistry Olympiad is an annual academic competition held by Chinese Chemical Society . CAS changed its official Chinese name in February 2014 , though its English translation remains the same .   The first CChO was held in 1984 , 16 years after IChO . The event has been held every year since then . China has selected excellent high school students to take part in IChO through the competition since 1987 .

negative: Chinese Consulate-General, Chennai The agreement for establishing the Consulate General of People 's Republic of China in Chennai , the capital city of the state of Tamil Nadu had been signed by the prime minister of India Narendra Modi and Chinese premier Li Keqiang , during Modi 's three-day visit to China in May 2015 This desire of China for a consulate in Chennai had been expressed by the Chinese Ambassador to India , Le Yucheng earlier . This consulate would help a large number of tourists from China to the interesting city of Chennai which boasts with its heritage tourism locations . It also helps in improving business and cultural relations between China and Tamil Nadu . Moreover , there are 600 Chinese students in Tamil Nadu , which is even more than in Delhi along with 6 Chinese industrial firms .

negative: Climate adaptive building shell Climate adaptive building shell ( CABS ) is a term in building engineering that describes the group of facades and roofs that interact with the variability in their environment in a dynamic way . Conventional buildings have static building envelopes , and can therefore not act in response to changing weather conditions and occupant requirements . Climate adaptive building shells , on the other hand do have the ability to change with time . Well-designed CABS have two main functions : they contribute to energy-saving for heating , cooling , ventilation and lighting ; and they induce a positive impact on the indoor environmental quality of buildings .

negative: Timeline of Chinese history __ NOTOC __  This is a timeline of Chinese history , comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in China and its predecessor states . To read about the background to these events , see History of China . See also the list of rulers of China , Chinese emperors family tree , dynasties in Chinese history and years in China .   Dates prior to 841 BC , the beginning of the Gonghe Regency , are provisional and subject to dispute .   Prehistory / Millennia : 3rd BC2nd BC -- 1st BC1st -- 2nd3rdSee alsoFurther readingExternal links


query: Maximum warming occurs over the surface during winter while less surface warming is found in summer when heat is being used to melt sea ice.

positive: Climate of the Arctic The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer .   The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .

positive: Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .

positive: Sea ice Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .

positive: Cryosphere The cryosphere ( from the Greek κρύος kryos , `` cold '' , `` frost '' or `` ice '' and σφαῖρα sphaira , `` globe , ball '' ) is those portions of Earth 's surface where water is in solid form , including sea ice , lake ice , river ice , snow cover , glaciers , ice caps , ice sheets , and frozen ground ( which includes permafrost ) . Thus , there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere . The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes , clouds , precipitation , hydrology , atmospheric and oceanic circulation . Through these feedback processes , the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes . The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features . Cryology is the study of cryospheres .

negative: Thermal low Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau .   Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .

negative: Dimictic lake Dimictic lakes mix from the surface to bottom twice each year . Dimictic lakes are holomictic , a category which includes all lakes which mix one or more times per year . During winter , they are covered by ice . During summer , they are thermally stratified , with temperature-derived density differences separating the warm surface waters ( the epilimnion ) , from the colder bottom waters ( the hypolimnion ) .   Mixing ( overturning ) typically occurs during the spring and autumn , when the lake is `` isothermal '' ( i.e. at the same temperature from the top to the bottom ) . At this time , the water throughout the lake is about 4 ° C , and , in the absence of any temperature or density differences , the lake readily mixes from top to bottom . These lakes are common in regions with temperate climates .

negative: Warm front A warm front is a density discontinuity located at the leading edge of a homogeneous warm air mass , and is typically located on the equator-facing edge of an isotherm gradient . Warm fronts lie within broader troughs of low pressure than cold fronts , and move more slowly than the cold fronts which usually follow because cold air is denser and less easy to remove from the Earth 's surface . This also forces temperature differences across warm fronts to be broader in scale .  Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform , and rainfall gradually increases as the front approaches . Fog can also occur preceding a warm frontal passage . Clearing and warming is usually rapid after frontal passage . If the warm air mass is unstable , thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front , and after frontal passage thundershowers may continue . On weather maps , the surface location of a warm front is marked with a red line of semicircles pointing in the direction of travel .

negative: Glaze (ice) Glaze or glaze ice , also called glazed frost , is a smooth , transparent and homogeneous ice coating occurring when freezing rain or drizzle hits a surface . It is similar in appearance to clear ice , which forms from supercooled water droplets . It is a relatively common occurrence in temperate climates in the winter when precipitation forms in warm air aloft and falls into below-freezing temperature at the surface .

negative: Capping inversion A capping inversion is an elevated inversion layer that caps a convective boundary layer .   The boundary layer is the part of the atmosphere which is closest to the ground . Normally , the sun heats the ground , which in turn heats the air just above it . Thermals form when this warm air rises into the cold air ( warm air is less dense than cold air ) , a process described by convection . A convective layer such as this has the potential for cloud formation , since condensation occurs as the warm air rises and cools .   An inversion occurs when the normal temperature ( warm air below , cold air above ) profile is reversed , creating a stable configuration of dense , cold air sitting below lighter , warm air . An elevated inversion layer is thus a region of warm air above a region of cold air , but higher in the atmosphere ( generally not touching the surface ) .   A capping inversion occurs when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile ( warm air rising into cooler air ) and the layer above that is an inversion layer ( cooler air below warm air ) . Cloud formation from the lower layer is `` capped '' by the inversion layer . If the capping inversion layer or `` cap '' is too strong ( too close to the surface ) , it will prevent thunderstorms from developing . A strong cap can result in foggy conditions .   However , if the air at the surface is unstable enough , strong updrafts can be forced through the capping inversion . This selective process of only allowing the strongest updrafts to form thunderstorms often results in outbreaks of severe weather .

negative: Retrogradation Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common :  during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets .  with extremely low sediment input .

negative: Occluded front An occluded front is formed during the process of cyclogenesis when a cold front overtakes a warm front . When this occurs , the warm air is separated ( occluded ) from the cyclone center at the Earth 's surface . The point where the warm front and the occluded front meet ( and consequently the nearest location of warm air to the center of the cyclone ) is called the triple point .   The trowal ( short for TROugh of Warm air ALoft ) is the projection on the Earth 's surface of the trough of warm air aloft formed during the occlusion process of the depression .

negative: Western Hemisphere Warm Pool The Western Hemisphere Warm Pool ( WHWP ) is a region of sea surface temperatures ( SST ) warmer than 28.5 ° C that develops west of Central America in the spring , then expands to the tropical waters to the east .   The WHWP includes the tropical Atlantic Ocean ( TNA ) east of the Lesser Antilles , Caribbean Sea , Gulf of Mexico , and eastern north Pacific Ocean ( ENP ) .   A WHWP heating cycle begins with warmth in the eastern North Pacific in the spring . A dipole pattern off Central America appears due to surges of cooler , drier air through the gap at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . During spring , the warm pools grow and merge . Their warmth and moisture feed the Mexican monsoon . By summer , the warmth spreads across the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean areas .

negative: Decoupling (meteorology) In weather forecasting , decoupling is boundary-layer decoupling of atmospheric layers over land at night . During the day when the sun shines and warms the land , air at the surface of the earth is heated and rises . This rising air mixes the atmosphere near the earth . At night this process stops and air near the surface cools as the land loses heat by radiating in the infrared . If winds are light , air near the surface of the earth can become much colder , compared to the air above it , than if more mixing of air layers occurred .   Category : Weather forecasting

negative: Pacific decadal oscillation The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California .   During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 .   The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .

negative: Dew Dew is water in the form of droplets that appears on thin , exposed objects in the morning or evening due to condensation . As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat , atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that at which it can evaporate , resulting in the formation of water droplets .   When temperatures are low enough , dew takes the form of ice ; this form is called frost .   Because dew is related to the temperature of surfaces , in late summer it forms most easily on surfaces that are not warmed by conducted heat from deep ground , such as grass , leaves , railings , car roofs , and bridges .   Dew should not be confused with guttation , which is the process by which plants release excess water from the tips of their leaves .

negative: Cold blob (North Atlantic) The cold blob in the North Atlantic describes a cold temperature anomaly of ocean surface waters , affecting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation ( AMOC ) which is part of the thermohaline circulation , possibly related to global warming-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet .

negative: Mud season Mud season is a period in late winter/early spring when dirt paths such as roads and hiking trails become muddy from melting snow and rain . Mud season happens in rural New England and a similar thing , rasputitsa , happens in Russia and other Eastern European countries .   Mud season occurs only in places where the ground freezes deeply in winter , is covered by snow , and thaws in spring . Dirt roads and paths become muddy because the deeply frozen ground thaws from the surface down as the air temperature warms above freezing . The snow melts but the frozen lower layers of ground prevent water from percolating into the soil so the surface layers of soil become saturated with water and turn to mud .   It is also characterized by giant puddles on the side of paved roads , from large piles of snow melting , with no place to drain off to .

negative: Ocean surface topography The ocean surface has highs and lows , similar to the hills and valleys of Earth 's land surface depicted on a topographic map . These variations , called ocean surface topography ( or sea surface topography ) , also dynamic topography , are mapped using direct ( usually satellite-based ) or indirect measurements of sea surface height relative to Earth 's geoid . Earth 's geoid is a calculated surface of equal gravitational potential energy and represents the shape the sea surface would be if the ocean were not in motion . The main purpose of measuring ocean surface topography is to understand the large-scale circulation of the ocean .   On a daily basis , SSH is most obviously affected by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting on the Earth . Over longer timescales , SSH is influenced by ocean circulation . Typically , SSH anomalies resulting from these forces differ from the mean by less than ± 1 m at the global scale . Other influences include temperature , salinity , tides , waves , and the loading of atmospheric pressure . The slowest and largest variations are due to changes in the Earth 's gravitational field ( geoid ) due to the rearrangement of continents , formation of sea mounts and other redistribution of rock .   Since the Earth 's gravitational field is relatively stable on decadal to centennial timescales , ocean circulation plays a more significant role in the observed variation of SSH . Across the seasonal cycle changes in patterns of warming , cooling and surface wind forcing affect circulation and influence SSH . Variations in SSH can be measured by satellite altimetry ( e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon ) and used to calculate determine sea level rise and properties such as ocean heat storage .

negative: Amictic lake Amictic lakes are `` perennially sealed off by ice from most of the annual seasonal variations in temperature . '' Amictic lakes exhibit inverse cold water stratification whereby water temperature increases with depth below the ice surface 0 ° C ( less-dense ) up to a theoretical maximum of 4 ° C ( at which the density of water is highest ) .   Hutchinson -- Löffler ( 1956 ) classified amictic and other types of lakes based on physical/thermal processes . These processes are influenced by solar radiation and wind . They are strongly tied with seasonality and thus associated with latitude and altitude . Amictic lakes occur in Arctic , Antarctic , and alpine regions and due to permanent ice-cover , these physical/thermal influences have a limited effect on circulation in the water column . For this reason , amictic lakes are commonly referred to as lakes that never mix .   `` Mixing '' in this context , however , refers to homogenization of the water column and so the term `` amictic '' is not meant to imply that the lake water is stagnant . With the rare exception of lakes near the edges of the permanent icecaps in Greenland and Antarctica , amictic lakes do experience melting around the lake 's perimeter during summer , resulting in a `` moat '' of water surrounding a thick pan of ice that remains in the centre of the lake . This melting occurs as a result of heat absorbed by water and sediments below the ice , particularly in the shallow-water areas , when snow does not cover the ice , and also by heat flow and meltwater runoff from the surrounding land . Mixing below the ice occurs due to density currents generated by heat from direct solar radiation and from meltwater runoff which may differ in density from the lake water due to both temperature and suspended sediment content , depending on its source and flow path . Despite these processes , the effects of wind at the lake surface are highly reduced due to the ice cover , and so vertical mixing of the water column may be incomplete . This may result in anoxic conditions , which has implications for biogeochemical processes within the lake .

negative: Interstitial condensation Interstitial condensation is a form of structural damping that occurs when warm , moist air penetrates inside a wall , roof or floor structure , reaches the dew point and condenses into liquid water . Interstitial condensation is differentiated from surface condensation in buildings sometimes called `` cold-bridge condensation '' or `` warm front condensation '' where the condensation forms on the interior or exterior surfaces of a building rather than inside the wall or roof cavities . The warm , damp air may penetrate a wall from the inside of a heated building in a cold climate or from the exterior of an air-conditioned building in a warm climate . This condensation may allow mold growth , rotting of timber , corrosion of metal components and/or a reduction in the thermal insulation 's effectiveness . The resulting structural damage may occur without visible indications until significant damage has occurred . Most building materials are permeable so the common method of controlling interstitial condensation is to control indoor moisture at its sources or through dehumidification and/or ventilation and add an impermeable barrier on the warm side of the wall .

negative: Coudersport Ice Mine The Coudersport Ice Mine is an ice cave located in Sweden Township , Pennsylvania ( east of Coudersport ) that forms icicles in the spring and summer but not in the winter . Ice formations appear in the shaft during the spring of the year , continue through the hot weather , and disappear in winter . Ice appears in various shapes and forms , often as huge icicles measuring from 1 to 3 ft in thickness , and from 15 to 25 ft in length ; the ice is generally clear and sparkling .   A theory about the origin of this mine states that during the winter , cold air over the hilltop sinks into rock openings in the Lock Haven Formation ( Devonian age ) and slowly expels the warm air that had penetrated these openings during the preceding summer . Ordinarily this process takes place locally , but here the interconnection of the rock crevices tends to be so arranged that the air circulation over a wide region is focused on one spot . Thus , from April or May to September , cold air comes in contact with percolating groundwater , forming ice during the hot months of the year ; from September to late spring , warm air trapped in the rocks from the preceding summer , escapes and melts the ice .   Discovered in 1894 , the cave is about 40 ft deep , about 8 ft wide , and 10 ft long . The cave was open to the public for many decades   The ice mine property was purchased by new owners who began a restoration in 2013 . After being closed for nearly a quarter of a century , the Coudersport Ice Mine was re-opened in 2014 .

negative: Piper (fish) Piper is a fish of the halfbeak family found in warm seas mostly along the shore . It belongs to the genus Esox .   It swims at the surface , occasionally leaping into the air . It is named from the noise it makes when taken out of the water .

negative: Polar climate The polar climate regions are characterized by a lack of warm summers . Every month in a polar climate has an average temperature of less than 10 C. Regions with polar climate cover more than 20 % of the Earth . The sun shines for long hours in the summer , and for many fewer hours in the winter . A polar climate results in treeless tundra , glaciers , or a permanent or semi-permanent layer of ice . It has cool summers and very cold winters .

negative: Subtropical Countercurrent The subtropical countercurrent ( STCC ) is a narrow eastward ocean current in the central North Pacific Ocean ( 20 -- 30 ° N ) where the Sverdrup theory predicts a broad westward flow . It originates in the western North Pacific around 20 ° N , and flows eastward against the northeast trade winds and stretches northeastward to the north of Hawaii .   It is accompanied by a subsurface temperature and density front called the subtropical front , in thermal wind relation with the STCC . Furthermore , the STCC maintains a sea surface temperature front during winter and spring . During April and May when the SST front is still strong , the seasonal warming makes the region conductive to atmospheric convection , and surface wind stress curls turn weakly positive along the front on the background of negative curls that drive the subtropical gyre .   On the weather timescale , positive wind curls are related to low-pressure systems of a subsynoptic scale in space , energized by surface baroclinicity and latent heat release along the STF front . The SST front also anchors a meridional maximum in column-integrated water vapor , indicating a deep structure of the atmosphere response .

negative: Emissivity The emissivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation . Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation and it may include both visible radiation ( light ) and infrared radiation , which is not visible to human eyes . The thermal radiation from very hot objects ( see photograph ) is easily visible to the eye . Quantitatively , emissivity is the ratio of the thermal radiation from a surface to the radiation from an ideal black surface at the same temperature as given by the Stefan -- Boltzmann law . The ratio varies from 0 to 1 . The surface of a black object emits thermal radiation at the rate of approximately 448 watts per square meter at room temperature ( 25 ° C , 298.15 K ) ; real objects with emissivities less than 1.0 emit radiation at correspondingly lower rates .   Emissivities are important in several contexts :  insulated windows . -- Warm surfaces are usually cooled directly by air , but they also cool themselves by emitting thermal radiation . This second cooling mechanism is important for simple glass windows , which have emissivities close to the maximum possible value of 1.0 . `` Low-E windows '' with transparent low emissivity coatings emit less thermal radiation than ordinary windows . In winter , these coatings can halve the rate at which a window loses heat compared to an uncoated glass window .   solar heat collectors . -- Similarly , solar heat collectors lose heat by emitting thermal radiation . Advanced solar collectors incorporate selective surfaces that have very low emissivities . These collectors waste very little of the solar energy through emission of thermal radiation .  planetary temperatures . -- The planets are solar thermal collectors on a large scale . The temperature of a planet 's surface is determined by the balance between the heat absorbed by the planet from sunlight , heat emitted from its core , and thermal radiation emitted back into space . Emissivity of a planet is determined by the nature of its surface and atmosphere .  temperature measurements . -- Pyrometers and infrared cameras are instruments used to measure the temperature of an object by using its thermal radiation ; no actual contact with the object is needed . The calibration of these instruments involves the emissivity of the surface that 's being measured .

negative: Ice shelf An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters .   In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica .   Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss .   Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf .   The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica .   The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .

negative: Effects of global warming on oceans Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .

negative: Thermal fracturing in glass Thermal fracturing in glass occurs when sufficient temperature differential is created within glass .  As a warmed area expands or a cooled area contracts , stress forces develop potentially leading to fracture . A temperature differential may be created in many ways including solar heating , space heating devices , fire , hot and cold liquids . Sloping glass surfaces are subject to greater solar radiation than vertical surfaces and so are more prone to solar thermal fracture . In framed window glass the edges are relatively cooler than the exposed areas so space heating devices in very close proximity may cause thermal fracture .

negative: Climate variability Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of "internal variability", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.

negative: Caumasee Caumasee ( Romansh : Lag la Cauma or Lai da Cauma ) is a lake near Flims , in the Grisons , Switzerland . It is one of the lakes on the Flims Rockslide deposits . The lake is fed from underground sources . Its surface area is 10.3194 ha .   The level of the lake varies by approximately 4 to 5 meters along with the varying underground water flow during the year , hence reaches its minimum by the end of April when snow melting in the mountains increases . A maximum level is reached by mid July but may be topped in August even after previous falling due to summer rain . The very western bay never freezes in winter , probably showing a maximum water flow in this area .   When the lake is at a low level , with a small volume of water , it warms up sooner than most lakes in the region , so people can be seen starting to swim the lake in April while bigger lakes even in lower areas of Switzerland remain rather cool . Water temperature in summer is at an average 21 Celsius , with a maximum around 24 Celsius .   The lake is located in a huge Forest that was allowed to remain on the agriculturally useless debris area of the biggest prehistoric rockslide in the alps region and can only be reached by a footpath ( wheelchair accessible ) , possibly using a funicular built in 1939 , refurbished in 1988 on its original tracks ( running May to October only ) . The walk from the edge of town to the funicular takes about 10 minutes .

negative: Rotten ice Rotten ice is a loose term for ice that is melting , disintegrating , or otherwise formed , having water , air , or contaminants between ice grains , causing the ice to be honeycombed . It forms on open water , when snowpack and ice are mixed together and other conditions . It may be transparent , causing it to look like new black ice . Though it may appear strong , rotten ice is weak -- even several feet thick may not hold a person 's weight ( although it may hold a dog sled 's weight ) . On land , it is difficult or impossible to climb . It melts more quickly than solid ice . Candle ice is a form of rotten ice .  One way to tell that ice is rotting would be the grey , splotchy color . Also , the thickness of ice can not determine how safe it is , because water from underneath the ice can erode the ice and cause it to be thinner without a sign on the surface . Even thick ice may be weak , especially if it has frozen and thawed repeatedly or if it contains layers of snow . Minerals in the water make vertical veins in the ice . These veins melt much faster than the rest of the ice causing vertical channels and the ice to weaken along those channels . Many people tend to question if snow actually warms up ice , making it more likely to crack and break , or if snow actually causes ice to freeze faster . Snow will actually act like an insulating blanket . The ice under the snow will be thinner and weaker . A new snowfall can also warm-up and melt existing ice . Rotten ice is becoming more commonly found in the Beaufort Sea , near Alaska , due to different climate changes . This is concerning , because it is a sign that the amount of multiyear ice is declining , and it is being replaced with heavily decayed ice .

negative: Annual cycle of sea level height The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .

negative: Regional effects of global warming Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores .   Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years .   There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .

negative: Ice sheet An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America .   Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery .   Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams .   The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .

negative: Arctic sea ice ecology and history The Arctic sea ice covers less area in the summer than in the winter . The multi-year ( i.e. perennial ) sea ice covers nearly all of the central deep basins . The Arctic sea ice and its related biota are unique , and the year-round persistence of the ice has allowed the development of ice endemic species , meaning species not found anywhere else .   There are differing scientific opinions about how long perennial sea ice has existed in the Arctic . Estimates range from 120,000 , 700,000 or 4 million years ago .

negative: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature .   We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions :  The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house .  The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room .  Heat transfer by convection is not considered .  The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature .  For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature .  We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature :  Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 )  Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. .   In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts .  ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇   In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts .  ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇  Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature .  It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .