query: There are a number of forcings which affect climate (eg - stratospheric aerosols, solar variations).

positive: Climate Climate is the statistics of weather , usually over a 30-year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of these variables in a given region .   A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere .   The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region .   Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming . Global warming results in redistributions . For example , `` a 3 ° C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 -- 400 km in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m in elevation . Therefore , species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones '' .

positive: Earth's energy budget Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things .   Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate .   Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable .   Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .

positive: Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\nThe energy moving through Earth\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of "internal variability", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.

positive: Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.

negative: Volcanic winter A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .

negative: Solar activity and climate Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .

negative: Cyclostratigraphy Cyclostratigraphy is the study of astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions . Astronomical cycles are variations of the Earth 's orbit around the sun due to the gravitational interaction with other masses within the solar system . Due to this cyclicity solar irradiation differs through time on different hemispheres and seasonality is affected . These insolation variations have influence on Earth 's climate and so on the deposition of sedimentary rocks .   The main orbital cycles are precession with at present main periods of 19 and 23 kyr , obliquity with at present main periods of 41 kyr , and 1.2 Myr , and eccentricity with at present main periods of around 100 kyr , 405 kyr , and 2.4 Myr .   Cyclostratigraphic studies of rock records can lead to accurate dating of events in the geological past , to increase understanding of cause and consequences of Earth 's ( climate ) history , and to more control on depositional mechanisms of sediments and the acting of sedimentary systems .

negative: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .

negative: Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are :  increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases  global changes to land surface , such as deforestation  increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols .   There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity .   According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence .   Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities :  A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established .  Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual .  Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included .  Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming .   The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .

negative: Upper-atmospheric models Upper-atmospheric models are simulations of the Earth 's atmosphere between 20 and 100 km ( 65,000 and 328,000 feet ) that comprises the stratosphere , mesosphere , and the lower thermosphere . Whereas most climate models simulate a region of the Earth 's atmosphere from the surface to the stratopause , there also exist numerical models which simulate the wind , temperature and composition of the Earth 's tenuous upper atmosphere , from the mesosphere to the exosphere , including the ionosphere . This region is affected strongly by the 11 year Solar cycle through variations in solar UV/EUV/Xray radiation and solar wind leading to high latitude particle precipitation and aurora . It has been proposed that these phenomena may have an effect on the lower atmosphere , and should therefore be included in simulations of climate change . For this reason there has been a drive in recent years to create whole atmosphere models to investigate whether or not this is the case .

negative: Climate sensitivity Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered .   Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so .   The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere .   For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter .   The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ .   It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .

negative: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects .   One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes .   It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − .   According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''

negative: Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE ) is a series of remote sensing satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth 's atmosphere . Specifically , SAGE has been used to study the Earth 's ozone layer and aerosols at the troposphere through the stratosphere . The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere . Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without atmospheric attenuation . This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit . Physically , the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via algorithms to determine chemical concentrations . SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols , ozone , water vapor , and other trace gases .

negative: Stratospheric sulfur aerosols Stratospheric sulfur aerosols are sulfur-rich particles which exist in the stratosphere region of the Earth 's atmosphere . The layer of the atmosphere in which they exist is known as the Junge layer , or simply the stratospheric aerosol layer . These particles consist of a mixture of sulfuric acid and water . They are created naturally , such as by photochemical decomposition of sulfur-containing gases , e.g. carbonyl sulfide . When present in high levels , e.g. after a strong volcanic eruption such as Mount Pinatubo , they produce a cooling effect , by reflecting sunlight , and by modifying clouds as they fall out of the stratosphere . This cooling may persist for a few years before the particles fall out .   An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas .  The sulfate particles or sulfuric acid droplets in the atmosphere are about 0.1 to 1.0 micrometer ( a millionth of a meter ) in diameter .   Sulfur aerosols are common in the troposphere as a result of pollution with sulfur dioxide from burning coal , and from natural processes . Volcanos are a major source of particles in the stratosphere as the force of the volcanic eruption propels sulfur-containing gases into the stratosphere . The relative influence of volcanoes on the Junge layer varies considerably according to the number and size of eruptions in any given time period , and also of quantities of sulfur compounds released . Only stratovolcanoes containing primarily granitic rocks are responsible for these fluxes , as basaltic rock erupted in shield volcanoes does n't result in plumes which reach the stratosphere .   Creating stratospheric sulfur aerosols deliberately is a proposed geoengineering technique which offers a possible solution to some of the problems caused by global warming . However , this will not be without side effects and it has been suggested that the cure may be worse than the disease .

negative: Solar radiation management Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .

negative: Marine cloud brightening Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .

negative: Arctic geoengineering Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release .   Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss .   In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .

negative: Solar variability Solar variability refers to changes in solar activity , such as :   Solar variation , the change in the amount of radiation emitted by the Sun ( see Solar radiation )  see also solar cycle , specifically for the 11-year cyclic variation in solar activity  Changes in the solar wind , i.e. , charged particles ( moving much slower than the speed of light )   Category : Solar phenomena

negative: Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering ( SPICE ) was a United Kingdom government-funded climate engineering ( geoengineering ) research project that aimed to assess the feasibility of injecting particles into the stratosphere from a tethered balloon for the purposes of solar radiation management .

negative: Nuclear winter Nuclear winter is the severe global-climatic-cooling-effect , hypothesized to occur after the ignition of a number of firestorms , from nuclear bomb detonations , or wide spread bombardments . Such fires , which can inject soot into the stratosphere , have historically occurred in a number of cities , with nuclear winter researchers using both Hamburg and the less ferocious Hiroshima firestorms as the principal examples . However , as firestorms are most frequently encountered in much larger area wildfires , these latter fires are the most significant today in assessing both the initial and present-day `` nuclear winter '' computer models .

negative: Robert Jay Charlson Robert Jay Charlson is an American atmospheric scientist , climate scientist , pioneer in the fields of climate forcing and climate change , and coauthor of the CLAW hypothesis . He is professor of Atmospheric Sciences , chemistry , and geophysics at the University of Washington in Seattle , Washington . Charlson earned his PhD from the University of Washington . He is a world expert in atmospheric chemistry , aerosol physics , aerosol/cloud/climate interaction , aerosol and cloud instrumentation .

negative: Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory The Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory ( CMDL ) was a climate laboratory in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) / Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) . In October 2005 , it was merged with five other NOAA labs to form the Earth System Research Laboratory .   CMDL 's mission was to observe and understand , through accurate , long-term records of atmospheric gases , aerosol particles , and solar radiation , the Earth 's atmospheric system controlling climate forcing , ozone depletion and baseline air quality , in order to develop products that will advance global and regional environmental information and services .

negative: Climate oscillation A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum .   A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide .   Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .

negative: Albrecht effect The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate .   Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect .   There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .

negative: Stratosphere The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .

negative: Solar phenomena Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots .   These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations .   The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth .   Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .

negative: Climate engineering Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation .   Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility .   Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy .   Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts .  Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .

negative: Season A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather , ecology and hours of daylight . Seasons result from the yearly orbit of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth 's rotational axis relative to the plane of the orbit . In temperate and polar regions , the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth 's surface , variations of which may cause animals to go into hibernation or to migrate , and plants to be dormant .   During May , June , and July , the northern hemisphere is exposed to more direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the sun . The same is true of the southern hemisphere in November , December , and January . It is the tilt of the Earth that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summer months which increases the solar flux . However , due to seasonal lag , June , July , and August are the hottest months in the northern hemisphere and December , January , and February are the hottest months in the southern hemisphere .   In temperate and subpolar regions , four calendar-based seasons are generally recognized : spring , autumn or fall , and winter . Ecologists often use a six-season model for temperate climate regions : prevernal , vernal , estival , serotinal , autumnal , and hibernal . Many tropical regions have two seasons : the rainy , wet , or monsoon season and the dry season . Some have a third cool , mild , or harmattan season . Seasons often held special significance for agrarian societies , whose lives revolved around planting and harvest times , and the change of seasons was often attended by ritual .   In some parts of the world , some other `` seasons '' capture the timing of important ecological events such as hurricane season , tornado season , and wildfire season . The most historically important of these are the three seasons -- flood , growth , and low water -- which were previously defined by the former annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt .

negative: The Cloud Mystery The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish .   This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .

negative: Climate pattern A climate pattern is any recurring characteristic of the climate . Climate patterns can last tens of thousands of years , like the glacial and interglacial periods within ice ages , or repeat each year , like monsoons .   A climate pattern may come in the form of a regular cycle , like the diurnal cycle or the seasonal cycle ; a quasi periodic event , like El Niño ; or a highly irregular event , such as a volcanic winter . The regular cycles are generally well understood and may be removed by normalization . For example , graphs which show trends of temperature change will usually have the effects of seasonal variation removed .

negative: Greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere .   If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains .   On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect .   Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming .   The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .

negative: Solar cycle The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is the nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun 's activity ( including changes in the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material ) and appearance ( changes in the number and size of sunspots , flares , and other manifestations ) .   They have been observed ( by changes in the sun 's appearance and by changes seen on Earth , such as auroras ) for centuries .   The changes on the sun cause effects in space , in the atmosphere , and on Earth 's surface . While it is the dominant variable in solar activity , aperiodic fluctuations also occur .

negative: Climate change and agriculture -RSB-   Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level .   Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor .   Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 .   There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .

negative: Cloud forcing Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .

negative: TOMCAT/SLIMCAT TOMCAT/SLIMCAT is an off-line chemical transport model ( CTM ) , which models the time-dependent distribution of chemical species in the troposphere and stratosphere . It can be used to study topics such as ozone depletion and tropospheric pollution , and was one of the models used the IPCC report on Aviation and the Global Atmosphere . It incorporates a choice of detailed chemistry schemes for the troposphere or stratosphere , and an optional chemical data assimilation scheme .   The original model code , called the Toulouse Off-line Model of Chemistry And Transport ( TOMCAT ) , was written by Martyn Chipperfield at Météo France . `` Off-line '' in this sense describes the fact that although the meteorological data ( wind components and other fields ) which are used as input to the CTM typically derive from a general circulation model ( GCM ) , the CTM is run as a separate program outside of a GCM ; this is as distinct from a chemistry simulation scheme which runs within a GCM , in which the simulated chemical distributions , e.g. of ozone , can provide feedback on the meteorology via the GCM 's radiation scheme .   A version called the Single Layer Isentropic Model of Chemistry And Transport ( SLIMCAT ) was developed in 1995 . This used a level of constant potential temperature ( or equivalently , of constant specific entropy , hence isentropic ) , exploiting the fact that due to approximate conservation of energy , atmospheric motions are approximately adiabatic and hence air parcels remain on isentropic levels on short timescales . A diabatic heating scheme was later added , to allow for multiple isentropic levels with transport between them on longer timescales , although the name `` SLIMCAT '' has remained despite the multiple levels .   The two programs are now maintained as a single code base , which runs in Fortran , and has been parallelised .   TOMCAT has been further extended to include a detailed treatment of aerosol . GLOMAP ( Global Model of Aerosol Processes ) simulates a wide range of aerosol species including black carbon , sulfate , sea spray , soil dust , and secondary organic aerosol . The primary purpose of TOMCAT/GLOMAP is to simulate aerosol radiative forcing and the impact of aerosol on climate .

negative: Regional effects of global warming Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores .   Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years .   There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .


query: Arctic icemelt is a natural cycle

positive: Arctic The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places .   The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .

positive: Arctic ice pack The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .

positive: Arctic oscillation The Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode/Northern Hemisphere Annular Mode ( NAM ) is an index ( which varies over time with no particular periodicity ) of the dominant pattern of non-seasonal sea-level pressure variations north of 20N latitude , and it is characterized by pressure anomalies of one sign in the Arctic with the opposite anomalies centered about 37 -- 45N . The AO is believed by climatologists to be causally related to , and thus partially predictive of , weather patterns in locations many thousands of miles away , including many of the major population centers of Europe and North America . NASA climatologist Dr. James E. Hansen explained the mechanism by which the AO affects weather at points so distant from the Arctic , as follows :  `` The degree to which Arctic air penetrates into middle latitudes is related to the AO index , which is defined by surface atmospheric pressure patterns . When the AO index is positive , surface pressure is low in the polar region . This helps the middle latitude jet stream to blow strongly and consistently from west to east , thus keeping cold Arctic air locked in the polar region . When the AO index is negative , there tends to be high pressure in the polar region , weaker zonal winds , and greater movement of frigid polar air into middle latitudes . ''  This zonally symmetric seesaw between sea level pressures in polar and temperate latitudes was first identified by Edward Lorenz and named in 1998 by David W.J. Thompson and John Michael Wallace .   The North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) is a close relative of the AO and there exist arguments about whether one or the other is more fundamentally representative of the atmosphere 's dynamics ; Ambaum et al. argue that the NAO can be identified in a more physically meaningful way .   Over most of the past century , the Arctic Oscillation alternated between its positive and negative phases . Starting in the 1970s the oscillation has trended to more of a positive phase when averaged using a 60-day running mean , though it has trended to a more neutral state in the last decade . The oscillation still fluctuates stochastically between negative and positive values on daily , monthly , seasonal and annual time scales , although , despite its stochastic nature , meteorologists have attained high levels of predictive accuracy in recent times , at least for the shorter term forecasts . ( The correlation between actual observations and the 7-day mean GFS ensemble AO forecasts is approximately 0.9 , a figure at the high end for that statistic . )   The National Snow and Ice Data Center describes the effects of the AO in some detail :   `` In the positive phase , higher pressure at midlatitudes drives ocean storms farther north , and changes in the circulation pattern bring wetter weather to Alaska , Scotland and Scandinavia , as well as drier conditions to the western United States and the Mediterranean . In the positive phase , frigid winter air does not extend as far into the middle of North America as it would during the negative phase of the oscillation . This keeps much of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains warmer than normal , but leaves Greenland and Newfoundland colder than usual . Weather patterns in the negative phase are in general `` opposite '' to those of the positive phase . ''   Climatologists are now routinely invoking the Arctic Oscillation in their official public explanations for extremes of weather . The following statement from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Climatic Data Center : State of the Climate December 2010 which uses the phrase `` negative Arctic Oscillation '' four times , is very representative of this increasing tendency :  `` Cold arctic air gripped western Europe in the first three weeks of December . Two major snowstorms , icy conditions , and frigid temperatures wreaked havoc across much of the region ... The harsh winter weather was attributed to a negative Arctic Oscillation , which is a climate pattern that influences weather in the Northern Hemisphere . A very persistent , strong ridge of high pressure , or ` blocking system ' , near Greenland allowed cold Arctic air to slide south into Europe . Europe was not the only region in the Northern Hemisphere affected by the Arctic Oscillation . A large snow storm and frigid temperatures affected much of the Midwest United States on December 10 -- 13 ... ''   A further , quite graphic illustration of the effects of the negative phase of the oscillation occurred in February 2010 . In that month , the Arctic Oscillation reached its most negative monthly mean value , − 4.266 , in the entire post-1950 era ( the period of accurate record-keeping ) . That month was characterized by three separate historic snowstorms that occurred in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States . The first storm dumped 25 in on Baltimore , Maryland , on February 5 -- 6 , and then a second storm dumped 19.5 in on February 9 -- 10 . In New York City , a separate storm deposited 20.9 in on February 25 -- 26 . This kind of snowstorm activity is as anomalous and extreme as the negative AO value itself . Similarly , the greatest negative value for the AO since 1950 in January was − 3.767 in 1977 , which coincided with the coldest mean January temperature in New York City , Washington , D.C. , Baltimore , and many other mid-Atlantic locations in that span of time . And though the January AO has been negative only 60.6 % of the time between 1950 and 2010 , 9 of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York City since 1950 have coincided with negative AOs .   However , the correlation between sharply negative Arctic Oscillations and excessive winter cold and snow in regions vulnerable in that way to these negative AOs should not be overstated . It is by no means a simple , one-to-one equivalence . An extreme Arctic Oscillation does not necessarily mean extreme weather will occur . For example , since 1950 , eight out of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York did not coincide with the 10 lowest January AO values . And the fourth warmest January there since 1950 coincided with one of those 10 most negative AOs . So , although many climatologists believe that the Arctic Oscillation affects the probability of certain weather events occurring in certain places , the heightened chance of a phenomenon by no means assures it , nor does the lessened likelihood exclude it . Further , the precise value of the AO index only imperfectly reflects the severity of the weather associated with it .

negative: Meteoric water Meteoric water is the water derived from precipitation ( snow and rain ) . This includes water from lakes , rivers , and icemelts , which all originate from precipitation indirectly . While the bulk of rainwater or meltwater from snow and ice reaches the sea through surface flow , a considerable portion of meteoric water gradually infiltrates into the ground . This infiltrating water continues its downward journey to the zone of saturation to become a part of the groundwater in aquifers .

negative: Arctic resources race The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) .   The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .

negative: Vertical distribution of ice in Arctic clouds Vertical Distribution of Ice in Arctic Clouds ( VERDI ) is the name of a German research project on the topic of Arctic clouds . Measurements within this project were conducted in April and May 2012 around Inuvik , Canada , organized by the University of Leipzig . The project aims at an improvement of knowledge about the effects of clouds in the Arctic climate system . The main question within VERDI is the distribution of ice crystals and liquid water droplets within the clouds . That distribution depends on various parameters , such as temperature and the cloud 's life cycle .

negative: Arctic realm The Arctic realm is one of the planet 's twelve marine realms , as designated by the WWF and Nature Conservancy . It includes the coastal regions and continental shelves of the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas , including the Arctic Archipelago , Hudson Bay , and the Labrador Sea of northern Canada , the seas surrounding Greenland , the northern and eastern coasts of Iceland , and the eastern Bering Sea .   The Arctic realm transitions to the Temperate Northern Atlantic realm in the Atlantic Basin , and the Temperate Northern Pacific realm in the Pacific Basin .

negative: Arctic methane emissions Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas .   The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits .   Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .

negative: Great Arctic State Nature Reserve The Great Arctic State Nature Reserve is a nature reserve in Krasnoyarsk Krai , Russia . With an area of 41692 km2 , it is the largest reserve of Russia and Eurasia , as well as one of the largest in the world .

negative: Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act The Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act ( 1970 , R.S.C. 1985 ) is a Government of Canada statute to prevent pollution of areas of the arctic waters adjacent to the mainland and islands of the Canadian arctic . The federal departments responsible for enforcing this Act is Natural Resources Canada , Transport Canada , Indian and Northern Affairs Canada .

negative: Banded gunnel The Banded Gunnel ( Pholis fasciata ) is the only species of gunnel that lives in the Arctic Ocean . Very little is known about its life cycle or reproduction .

negative: 2015 Arctic Race of Norway The 2015 Arctic Race of Norway was a four-stage cycling stage race that took place in Norway between 13 and 16 August . It was the third edition of the Arctic Race of Norway and is rated as a 2 . HC event as part of the UCI Europe Tour . The race is the northernmost race in the 2015 men 's cycling calendar . The champion of the 2014 edition was Steven Kruijswijk , though he was not present to defend his title .   The race was won by Rein Taaramäe on the final stage , ahead of Silvan Dillier and Ilnur Zakarin , after the three riders broke away from the pack on the finishing circuit . Alexander Kristoff won the first stage and the points classification , while the mountains classification was won by August Jensen ( Team Coop-Øster Hus ) . BMC won the teams classification .

negative: Putorana Nature Reserve Putoransky State Nature Reserve is a nature reserve in the northern part of Central Siberia , located about 100 km north of the Arctic Circle in Krasnoyarsk Krai . It was established in 1987 .

negative: Arctic geoengineering Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release .   Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss .   In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .

negative: Arctic Research Office The Arctic Research Office ( ARO ) a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) run under the auspices of the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) .   ARO is the focal point for NOAA 's research in the Arctic , Bering Sea , North Pacific and North Atlantic regions .   In 1996 , the Congress of the United States appropriated one million USD to support an Arctic Research Initiative within NOAA . In cooperation with the Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research , NOAA 's Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research used those funds to support research projects in two principal areas : natural variability of the Western Arctic/Bering Sea ecosystem , and anthropogenic influences on the Western Arctic/Bering Sea ecosystem . Support for the Arctic Research Initiative is ongoing .   The office administers the funds from the Arctic Research Initiative . It represents NOAA on the Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee , leads U.S. involvement in the Arctic Monitoring & Assessment Programme , and provides a point of contact between NOAA and the Cooperative Institute and Assessment Program and the International Arctic Research Center .

negative: Arctic Centre, University of Lapland The Arctic Centre , University of Lapland is Finland 's national institute for Arctic expertise . It is based at the University of Lapland , the northernmost university in Finland and the EU , and is located in the Arktikum building by the Ounasjoki river in Rovaniemi near the Arctic Circle .   The Centre conducts multidisciplinary and participatory research on impacts of the development and climate change in the Arctic . Besides research and science communications , it maintains a science exhibition , a library and provides education . The Northern Institute for Environmental and Minority Law ( NIEM ) is a part of the Centre .   The Centre is committed to research so as to better understand the natural and physical environment of the Arctic and its forms of life . Such research spans the arts , humanities and natural sciences and its products take many forms from scientific papers and monographs to books , exhibitions , audiovisual material , artworks and films . It is a place where researchers , planners and artists collaborate within and outside the university . The community of researchers at the centre comes with diverse scientific , national , cultural and linguistic backgrounds . The centre has strong local orientation and it provides an international research environment that allows and fosters the multidisciplinary approach . This includes participating in several IPY research projects including :  CAVIAR ( Community Adaptation and Vulnerability in Arctic Regions )  MOVE-INNOCOM ( Place , mobility and viability in INdustrial , NOrthern COmmunities )  DAMOCLES ( Developing Arctic Modeling and Observing Capabilities for Long-Term Environmental Studies )  CIGSAC ( The Capability of International Governance Systems in the Arctic to Contribute to the Mitigation of Climate Change and Adjust to its Consequences )  Greening of Arctic/Application of space based technologies to land use and cover change   The `` Arctic in Change '' , a science exhibition , promotes the natural beauty and the cultural richness of the Arctic , while it informs the visitors about the ongoing rapid social and environmental changes occurring in the fragile Arctic . Set up in a friendly environment , the exhibition combines multimedia shows , interactive stations , artefacts and photos . The exhibition revolves around the ongoing changes in the Arctic and illuminates the relationship between global and local issues .

negative: Natural cycle in vitro fertilization Natural Cycle IVF is in vitro fertilisation ( IVF ) using either of the following procedures :  IVF without the use any ovarian hyperstimulation drugs .  IVF using an ovarian hyperstimulation protocol with a GnRH antagonist for ovulation suppression , generally with gonadotropins as well . This procedure can be called modified natural cycle-IVF ( MNC-IVF ) .  Frozen embryo transfer ; IVF using ovarian hyperstimulation , followed by embryo cryopreservation , followed by embryo transfer in a later , natural , cycle .

negative: Ballantyne Strait The Ballantyne Strait is a natural waterway through the central Canadian Arctic Archipelago in the Northwest Territories of Canada . It separates Prince Patrick Island ( to the south-west ) and Brock Island ( to the north-east ) . It opens into the Arctic Ocean to the north-west .   Category : Straits of the Northwest Territories

negative: University of Copenhagen Arctic Station University of Copenhagen Arctic Station is a year-round , environmental research facility in central West Greenland . Located about 300 m northeast of Qeqertarsuaq , it faces Disko Bay and the Davis Strait on the south coast of Disko Island with the Blæsedalen valley to the north . The main building and the laboratory are within a nature sanctuary . Arctic Station is owned by the University of Copenhagen Faculty of Science . It was founded in 1906 by the botanist Morten Pedersen Porsild .

negative: Arctic policy of Finland Arctic Policy of Finland is Finland 's foreign relations with other Arctic countries , and Finland 's government policies on issues occurring within the geographic boundaries of `` the Arctic '' or related to the Arctic or its peoples . Since Finland is itself an Arctic nation , the Arctic Policy of Finland includes its domestic policies as regards the Finnish Arctic region .   Finland was integral in the creation of the Arctic Council and remains a member . Finland has also been involved in the Barents Euro-Arctic Council since its creation in 1993 .   Finland 's Strategy for the Arctic Region was released June 4 , 2010 and concentrates on seven priorities : security , environment , economy , infrastructure , indigenous peoples , institutions and the European Union .   Finland emphasizes the importance of the Arctic Council as a forum for discussion and decision making . Finland suggests strengthening the Council by installing better burden-sharing and a joint budget , establishing a permanent secretariat , expanding the normative role of the Council , enhancing interaction with non-Arctic actors and creating a Communications and Outreach Strategy for the Council . Finland also offers to host a high-level Arctic Summit to discuss the environmental concerns of natural resource exploitation , the legitimacy of different actors in the Arctic and the future of the Arctic Council .   Since Finland is an EU member , ( along with Sweden and Denmark ) the EU Arctic Policy will play a role in the Finnish Arctic strategy . Finland supports EU admittance as a permanent observer member of the Arctic Council .   In considering Finnish Chairmanship of the Arctic Council in 2017-18 , Finland is calling for making the Arctic Council a more robust treaty-making organization and for hosting a meeting of leaders of the eight Arctic nations during their Chairmanship .

negative: Natural Cycles Natural Cycles is an app for predicting the days on which a woman is fertile and so may be used for planning pregnancy and contraception . It was developed by CERN scientist Elina Berglund who founded the company with physicist Raoul Scherwitzl .

negative: Svalbard in fiction Novelists , screenwriters and filmmakers have set their works in Svalbard , an archipelago in the Arctic which constitutes the northernmost part of Norway . Fictional works about Svalbard often make reference to its Arctic climate , the isolation of the archipelago and the natural beauty of its vast glaciers , mountains and fjords .

negative: Arctic policy of the United States The Arctic policy of the United States refers to the foreign policy of the United States in regard to the Arctic region . In addition , the United States ' domestic policy toward Alaska is part of its Arctic policy .   Since March 30 , 1867 ( when the United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire ) , the United States of America has been one of the eight Arctic nations and one of the five Arctic Ocean littoral countries . The United States has been a member of the Arctic Council since its inception in 1996 and assumed the Chairmanship ( from Canada ) in April 2015 . 4 of the Arctic Council 's 6 Permanent Participant indigenous organizations have representatives in Alaska . The United States is also an observer of the Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region .   Since 1880 , the global temperature has risen 0.8 ° C ; but the temperature in the Arctic has warmed twice as much , leading to much less sea ice coverage and greater accessibility to natural resources , transport passages and fisheries .   The goals stated in the United States Arctic Policy released in NSPD-66 on January 9 , 2009 are as follows : Meet national security and homeland security needs relevant to the Arctic region ; Protect the Arctic environment and conserve its biological resources ; Ensure that natural resource management and economic development in the region are environmentally sustainable ; Strengthen institutions for cooperation among the eight Arctic nations ( the United States , Canada , Denmark , Finland , Iceland , Norway , the Russian Federation , and Sweden ) ; Involve the Arctic 's indigenous communities in decisions that affect them ; and Enhance scientific monitoring and research into local , regional , and global environmental issues .   On May 10 , 2013 , the Obama White House released the National Strategy for the Arctic Region , emphasizing three areas : advancing U.S. security interests , pursuing responsible Arctic region stewardship , and strengthening international cooperation .   Canada is the United States ' closest partner in Arctic affairs , due to geographic proximity and similar Arctic policy directives . The countries work together on scientific research , including mapping the Arctic sea floor . Two significant disagreements are the border dispute in the Beaufort Sea and the legal designation ( international or internal waters ) of the Northwest Passage .

negative: Ice sheet An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America .   Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery .   Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams .   The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .

negative: Mineral cycle The mineral cycle is a biogeochemical and ecological process that regulates the flow , distribution , and migration of mineral nutrients across the Earth 's surface .   Minerals are naturally occurring chemical compounds that are made up of elements . These elements undergo continual cycling within the environment and are influenced by a variety of factors .   There are four main types of mineral cycle . The oxygen cycle , the water cycle , the phosphorus cycle , and the sulfur cycle .

negative: Arctic Tale Arctic Tale is a 2007 documentary film from the National Geographic Society about the life cycle of a walrus and her calf , and a polar bear and her cubs , in a similar vein to the 2005 hit production March of the Penguins , also from National Geographic . It was directed by Adam Ravetch and Sarah Robertson and is narrated by Queen Latifah . The animal characters named in the movie , `` Nanu '' the female polar bear and `` Seela '' the female walrus , are based on composites of animals in their species , as noted at the end of the film .

negative: Adolph Murie Adolph Murie ( September 6 , 1899 -- August 16 , 1974 ) , the first scientist to study wolves in their natural habitat , was a naturalist , author , and Wildlife biologist who pioneered field research on wolves , bears , and other mammals and birds in Arctic and sub-Arctic Alaska . He was also instrumental in protecting wolves from eradication and in preserving the biological integrity of the Denali National Park and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge .

negative: Hugh M. Raup Hugh Miller Raup ( February 4 , 1901 -- August 10 , 1995 ) was an American botanist , ecologist and geographer working on natural history and natural resource management in diverse regions -- from tropical and temperate to arctic .

negative: Arctic Institute of North America The Arctic Institute of North America is a multi-disciplinary research institute and educational organization located in the University of Calgary . It is mandated to study the North American and circumpolar Arctic in the areas of natural science , social science , arts and the humanities . In addition , it acquires , preserves and disseminates information on environmental , physical , and social conditions in the North . The institute was created in 1945 by a Canadian Act of Parliament as a non-profit membership organization , and also incorporated in the State of New York .

negative: Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.

negative: Deglaciation Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene .   The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .

negative: Byrranga Mountains The Byrranga Mountains ( го́ры Бырра́нга Gory Byrranga ) are a mountain range in the middle of the Taymyr Peninsula , Siberia , Russia .   Even though they were first explored in 1736 , the Byrranga Mountains are one of the least known areas of the Arctic . The climate is continental and harsh , with frequent blizzards in the winter .   This mountain range falls into the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation and is part of the Great Arctic State Nature Reserve , the largest nature reserve in Russia . However , the area is very remote , there is almost no population , and access is very difficult for the lack of roads and settlements .

negative: Arctic Circle The Arctic Circle is the most northerly of the abstract five major circles of latitude as shown on maps of the Earth . It marks the northernmost point at which the noon sun is just visible on the northern winter solstice and the southernmost point at which the midnight sun is just visible on the northern summer solstice . The region north of this circle is known as the Arctic , and the zone just to the south is called the Northern Temperate Zone . North of the Arctic Circle , the sun is above the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore visible at midnight ) and below the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore not visible at noon ) ; this is also true within the equivalent polar circle in the Southern Hemisphere , the Antarctic Circle .   The position of the Arctic Circle is not fixed ; as of , it runs north of the Equator . Its latitude depends on the Earth 's axial tilt , which fluctuates within a margin of 2 ° over a 40,000-year period , due to tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon . Consequently , the Arctic Circle is currently drifting northwards at a speed of about 15 m per year .

negative: Arctic lemming The Arctic lemming ( Dicrostonyx torquatus ) is a species of rodents in the family Cricetidae .   Although generally classified as a `` least concern '' species , the Novaya Zemlya subspecies ( Dicrostonyx torquatus ungulatus ) is considered a vulnerable species under Russian nature conservation legislation ( included in Red Book of Russian Federation since 1998 ) .

negative: Arctic policy of Russia The Arctic policy of Russia is the domestic and foreign policy of the Russian Federation with respect to the Russian region of the Arctic . The Russian region of the Arctic is defined in the `` Russian Arctic Policy '' as all Russian possessions located north of the Arctic Circle . ( About one-fifth of Russia 's landmass is north of the Arctic Circle . ) Russia is one of five countries bordering the Arctic Ocean . In 2011 , out of 4 million inhabitants of the Arctic , roughly 2 million lived in arctic Russia , making it the largest arctic country by population . However , in recent years Russia 's Arctic population has been declining .   The main goals of Russia in its Arctic policy are to utilize its natural resources , protect its ecosystems , use the seas as a transportation system in Russia 's interests , and ensure that it remains a zone of peace and cooperation . Russia currently maintains a military presence in the Arctic and has plans to improve it , as well as strengthen the Border Guard/Coast Guard presence there . Using the Arctic for economic gain has been done by Russia for centuries for shipping and fishing . Russia has plans to exploit the large offshore resource deposits in the Arctic . The Northern Sea Route is of particular importance to Russia for transportation , and the Russian Security Council is considering projects for its development . The Security Council also stated a need for increasing investment in Arctic infrastructure .   Russia conducts extensive research in the Arctic region , notably the manned drifting ice stations and the Arktika 2007 expedition , which was the first to reach the seabed at the North Pole . The research is partly aimed to back up Russia 's territorial claims , in particular those related to Russia 's extended continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean .