query: climate models predict too much warming in the troposphere

positive: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements refers to temperature measurement using the Microwave Sounding Unit instrument and is one of several methods of measuring Earth atmospheric temperature from satellites. Microwave measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979, when they were included within NOAA weather satellites, starting with TIROS-N.  By comparison, the usable balloon (radiosonde) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform. Microwave brightness measurements do not directly measure temperature.  They measure radiances in various wavelength bands, which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature. The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances. As a result, different groups that have analyzed the satellite data  have obtained different temperature trends. Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems (RSS) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAH). The satellite series is not fully homogeneous – the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation. The sensors deteriorate over time, and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit. Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites, making intercalibration difficult.

positive: The Great Global Warming Swindle The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King .   The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols .   The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . ''   Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .

negative: Climate: Long range Investigation, Mapping, and Prediction Climate : Long range Investigation , Mapping , and Prediction , known as CLIMAP , was a major research project of the 1970s and 80s to produce a map of climate conditions during the Last Glacial Maximum . The project was funded by the National Science Foundation as part of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration ( 1970s ) and is based in large part of the collection and analysis of a very large number of sediment cores to create a snapshot of conditions across the oceans . The CLIMAP project also resulted in maps of vegetative zones across the continents and the estimated extent of glaciation at the time . Most CLIMAP results aim to describe the Earth as it was 18 thousand years ago , but there was also an analysis to look at conditions during the previous interglacial -- 120 thousand years ago ( CLIMAP 1981 ) .   CLIMAP has been a cornerstone of paleoclimate research and remains the most used sea surface temperature reconstruction of the global ocean during the last glacial maximum ( Yin and Battisti 2001 ) , but it has also been persistently controversial . CLIMAP resulted in estimates of global cooling of only 3.0 ± 0.6 ° C relative to the modern day ( Hoffert and Covey 1992 ) . The climate change during an ice age that occurs far from the continental ice sheets themselves is believed to be primarily controlled by changes in greenhouse gases , hence the conditions during the last glacial maximum provide a natural experiment for measuring the impact of changes in greenhouse gases on climate . The cited estimates of 3.0 ° C implies a climate sensitivity to carbon dioxide changes at the low end of the range proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .   However , CLIMAP also suggested that some of the tropics and in particular much of the Pacific Ocean were warmer than they are today . To date , no climate model has been able to reproduce the proposed warming in the Pacific ( Yin and Battisti 2001 ) , with most preferring a several degree cooling . Also , it appears that climate models which are forced to match the CLIMAP sea surface measurements are too warm to match estimates for changes at continental locations ( Pinot et al. 1999 ) . This suggests that either climate model design is missing some important unknown factor , or CLIMAP systematically overestimated the temperatures in the tropical oceans during the last glacial , though there is at present no consistent explanation for why or how this should have happened . Unfortunately cost and difficulty of collecting sediment cores from the open Pacific has limited the availability of samples that might help to confirm or disprove these observations . If the Pacific reconstruction is assumed to be in error , it would result in a larger climate sensitivity to changes in greenhouse gases .

negative: Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods .   Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system .   Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified .   Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .

negative: Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes .   GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future .   GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .

negative: Climate of Sochi Sochi , is a city in Krasnodar Krai , Russia , located on the Black Sea coast has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfa ) , with warm rainy winter and sunny warm summer .   The territory of Sochi contains many microclimates , the daytime temperatures can vary as much as 10 ° C between coastal areas in Adler and Lazarevsky and 20 ° C - Krasnaya Polyana .

negative: Lucia Liljegren Lucia Liljegren is an American mechanical engineer who has worked at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory ( on projects related to remediation and storage of radioactive waste ) and as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at Iowa State University . She is best known ( as Lucia ) for her global warming/climate change blog The Blackboard ( Where Climate Talk Gets Hot ! ) , online since 2007 . Professor Judith Curry , a climatologist at Georgia Tech , calls Lucia `` probably the least controversial person in the climate blogosphere , because of her cheerfulness and sense of humor , honesty , and open mindedness . ''   In the climate change debate , Lucia classifies herself as a `` lukewarmer '' : a person who recognizes global warming , but doubts the severity of the problem , and the certainty of climate science predictions .   The Blackboard was one of the first sites to post some of the CRU emails leaked in the 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy .

negative: WAsP WAsP ( Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program ) is a Windows program for predicting wind climates , wind resources , and energy yields from wind turbines and wind farms . The predictions are based on wind data measured at meteorological stations in the same region , or on generalized wind climates derived from mesoscale model results . The program includes a complex terrain flow model , a roughness change model , a model for sheltering obstacles , a wind turbine wake model and a model for the average atmospheric stability conditions at the site . The software package further contains a Climate Analyst for creating the wind-climatological inputs , a Map Editor for creating and editing the topographical inputs , and a Turbine Editor for creating the wind turbine inputs to WAsP . The fundamentals of WAsP and the wind atlas methodology are described in the European Wind Atlas . WAsP is developed and distributed by the Department of Wind Energy at the Technical University of Denmark , Denmark . Current version is WAsP 11.5 .   WAsP is used for :  Wind farm production  Wind farm efficiency  Micro-siting of wind turbines  Power production calculations  Wind resource mapping  Wind climate estimation  Wind atlas generation  Wind data analysis

negative: Stereotype content model The stereotype content model ( SCM ) is a psychological theory that hypothesizes that stereotypes possess two dimensions : warmth and competence . Social groups are perceived as warm if they do not compete with the ingroup for the same resources ( e.g. , college space ) and they are considered competent if they are high in status ( e.g. , economically or educationally successful ) . Thus , lack of competition predicts perceived warmth and status predicts perceived competence . The model was first proposed by social psychologist Susan Fiske and her colleagues Amy Cuddy , Peter Glick and Jun Xu .

negative: IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) .   The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established .   Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums  Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths  Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies   Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports .   The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes :   We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it .  We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ...  Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade .  There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets .  Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more .  under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .

negative: Sedum dendroideum Sedum dendroideum , commonly known as the tree stonecrop or the false hens-and-chickens , is a shrub-like perennial plant that looks much like its Sempervivum look-alike . Native to Mexico , Sedum dendroideum plant thrives in warm , arid climates , as well as in cooler climates . It has been naturalized to California , and Ohio .

negative: Ross McKitrick Ross McKitrick is a Canadian economist specializing in environmental economics and policy analysis . He is a professor of economics at the University of Guelph , and a senior fellow of the Fraser Institute . He is a member of the academic advisory boards of the John Deutsch Institute , the Global Warming Policy Foundation , and the Cornwall Alliance for the Stewardship of Creation .   He has authored works about climate change issues , including co-authoring the book Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming in 2003 . McKitrick produced a series of videos and articles for the Friends of Science in which he argued that there is a `` pause '' in global warming that reveals flaws in current climate change models . The Friends of Science argue that the sun -- not human emissions of GHG -- is the main driver of climate change .

negative: Climate of Valencia Valencia and its metropolitan area have a Mediterranean influenced steppe climate ( Köppen climate classification : BSk ) with very mild winters and long warm to hot summers . According to Troll-Paffen climate classification , Valencia has a warm-temperate subtropical climate ( Warmgemäßigt-subtropisches Zonenklima ) and according to Siegmund/Frankenberg climate classification , Valencia has subtropical climate .

negative: Wildlife of Gabon The wildlife of Gabon is composed of its flora and fauna . Gabon is a largely low-lying country with a warm , humid climate . Much of the country is still covered by tropical rainforest and there are also grasslands , savannas , large rivers and coastal lagoons .

negative: Boolean delay equation As a novel type of semi-discrete dynamical systems , Boolean delay equations ( BDEs ) are models with Boolean-valued variables that evolve in continuous time . Since at the present time , most phenomena are too complex to be modeled by partial differential equations ( as continuous infinite-dimensional systems ) , BDEs are intended as a ( heuristic ) first step on the challenging road to further understanding and modeling them . For instance , one can mention complex problems in fluid dynamics , climate dynamics , solid-earth geophysics , and many problems elsewhere in natural sciences where much of the discourse is still conceptual .

negative: Climate of Rome Rome and its metropolitan area has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa ) , with cool winters and warm to hot summers . According to Troll-Paffen climate classification , Rome has a warm-temperate subtropical climate ( Warmgemäßigt-subtropisches Zonenklima ) . According to Siegmund/Frankenberg climate classification , Rome has a subtropical climate .

negative: Climate of Lisbon Lisbon and its metropolitan area has a Subtropical-Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa ) , with short and very mild winters and warm summers . According to Troll-Paffen climate classification , Lisbon has a warm-temperate subtropical climate ( Warmgemäßigt-subtropisches Zonenklima ) . According to Siegmund/Frankenberg climate classification , Lisbon has a subtropical climate .

negative: Climate of California The climate of California varies widely , from hot desert to subarctic , depending on latitude , elevation , and proximity to the coast . California 's coastal regions , the Sierra Nevada foothills , and much of the Central Valley have a Mediterranean climate , with warm to hot , dry summers and mild , moderately wet winters . The influence of the ocean generally moderates temperature extremes , creating warmer winters and substantially cooler summers in coastal areas .

negative: Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally .   Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be .   Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .

negative: Accuracy paradox The accuracy paradox for predictive analytics states that predictive models with a given level of accuracy may have greater predictive power than models with higher accuracy . It may be better to avoid the accuracy metric in favor of other metrics such as precision and recall .   Accuracy is often the starting point for analyzing the quality of a predictive model , as well as an obvious criterion for prediction . Accuracy measures the ratio of correct predictions to the total number of cases evaluated . It may seem obvious that the ratio of correct predictions to cases should be a key metric . A predictive model may have high accuracy , but be useless .   In an example predictive model for an insurance fraud application , all cases that are predicted as high-risk by the model will be investigated . To evaluate the performance of the model , the insurance company has created a sample data set of 10,000 claims . All 10,000 cases in the validation sample have been carefully checked and it is known which cases are fraudulent . To analyze the quality of the model , the insurance uses the table of confusion . The definition of accuracy , the table of confusion for model M1Fraud , and the calculation of accuracy for model M1Fraud is shown below .   where  TN is the number of true negative cases  FP is the number of false positive cases  FN is the number of false negative cases  TP is the number of true positive cases   Formula 1 : Definition of Accuracy   Table 1 : Table of Confusion for Fraud Model M1Fraud .   Formula 2 : Accuracy for model M1Fraud   With an accuracy of 98.0 % model M1Fraud appears to perform fairly well . The paradox lies in the fact that accuracy can be easily improved to 98.5 % by always predicting `` no fraud '' . The table of confusion and the accuracy for this trivial `` always predict negative '' model M2Fraud and the accuracy of this model are shown below .   Table 2 : Table of Confusion for Fraud Model M2Fraud .   Formula 3 : Accuracy for model M2Fraud   Model M2Fraudreduces the rate of inaccurate predictions from 2 % to 1.5 % . This is an apparent improvement of 25 % . The new model M2Fraud shows fewer incorrect predictions and markedly improved accuracy , as compared to the original model M1Fraud , but is obviously useless .   The alternative model M2Fraud does not offer any value to the company for preventing fraud . The less accurate model is more useful than the more accurate model .   Model improvements should not be measured in terms of accuracy gains . It may be going too far to say that accuracy is irrelevant , but caution is advised when using accuracy in the evaluation of predictive models .

negative: Climate of Ghana The climate of Ghana is tropical . The eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry , the south-west corner of Ghana is hot and humid , and the north of Ghana is hot and dry . Ghana is located on the Gulf of Guinea , only a few degrees north of the Equator , giving it a warm climate .

negative: Frank Wentz Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .

negative: The Keys to the White House The Keys to the White House is a 1996 book about a historically based prediction system for determining the outcome of presidential elections in the United States . The system , inspired by earthquake research , was developed in 1981 by American historian Allan Lichtman and Russian scientist Vladimir Keilis-Borok , an authority on the mathematics of prediction models . The model has a record of accurate forecasts but has been criticised by some statisticians as including too many predictors to be a sound model and for forecasting only the winner of elections rather than the vote share of the winning party .

negative: Climate justice (disambiguation) Climate justice may refer to :  Climate justice , concept framing global warming as an ethical and political issue .  Climate Justice Now ! , coalition founded in 2007 .  Climate Justice Action , coalition founded in 2009 .  European Assembly for Climate Justice , organised in 2010 .

negative: Roman Warm Period The Roman Warm Period or the Roman climatic optimum has been proposed as a period of unusually warm weather in Europe and the North Atlantic that ran from approximately 250 BC to AD 400 .

negative: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: List of ministers of climate change A list of ministers of climate change or officials in charge of cabinet positions with portfolios dealing primarily with climate change and issues related to mitigation of global warming .

negative: Climate of Los Angeles The Los Angeles metropolitan area averages year-round mild-to-warm weather . The climate is classified as a Mediterranean climate , which is a type of dry subtropical climate , characterized by seasonal changes in rainfall -- with a dry summer and a winter rainy season -- but relatively modest transitions in temperature . Under the modified Köppen climate classification , the coast is classified as Csb and the inland areas as Csa . Some areas of the city may also be defined as a cold semi-arid climate due to the low annual rainfall in combination with high mean temperatures .   The Los Angeles area contains many microclimates , which means that the daytime temperatures can vary as much as 36 ° F ( 19 ° C ) between inland areas such as the San Fernando Valley or San Gabriel Valley and the coastal Los Angeles Basin .

negative: TerrSet TerrSet ( formerly IDRISI ) is an integrated geographic information system ( GIS ) and remote sensing software developed by Clark Labs at Clark University for the analysis and display of digital geospatial information . TerrSet is a PC grid-based system that offers tools for researchers and scientists engaged in analyzing earth system dynamics for effective and responsible decision making for environmental management , sustainable resource development and equitable resource allocation .   Key features of TerrSet include :   GIS analytical tools for basic and advanced spatial analysis , including tools for surface and statistical analysis , decision support , land change and prediction , and image time series analysis ;  an image processing system with multiple hard and soft classifers , including machine learning classifiers such as neural networks and classification tree analysis , as well as image segmentation for classification ;  Land Change Modeler , a land planning and decision support toolset that addresses the complexities of land change analysis and land change prediction .  Habitat and Biodiversity Modeler , a modeling environment for habitat assessment and biodiversity modeling .  Ecosystem Services Modeler , a spatial decision support system for assessing the value of natural capital .  Earth Trends Modeler , an integrated suite of tools for the analysis of image time series ( time series ) to assess climate trends and impacts .  Climate Change Adaptation Modeler , a facility for modeling future climate and its impacts .  GeOSIRIS-REDD , a national-level REDD planning tool to assess deforestation , carbon emissions , agricultural revenue and carbon payments .  GeoMod , a land change modeling tool based around modeling unidirectional transitions between two land cover categories

negative: Lennart Bengtsson Lennart Bengtsson ( , Trollhättan ) , is a Swedish meteorologist . His research interests include climate sensitivity , extreme events , climate variability and climate predictability .

negative: Porter's four corners model Porter 's four corners model is a predictive tool designed by Michael Porter that helps in determining a competitor 's course of action . Unlike other predictive models which predominantly rely on a firm 's current strategy and capabilities to determine future strategy , Porter 's model additionally calls for an understanding of what motivates the competitor . This added dimension of understanding a competitor 's internal culture , value system , mindset , and assumptions helps in determining a much more accurate and realistic reading of a competitor 's possible reactions in a given situation .

negative: Petar Gburčik Prof. Petar Gburčik ( Cyrillic : Петар Гбурчик )  ( 30 October 1931 - 29 October 2006 ) was a Serbian scientist and a Professor of Meteorology at the University of Belgrade . He was the author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather prediction , which were used operationally in the Weather Service of Yugoslavia from 1970 to 1977 . In the same period he began modeling of the atmospheric diffusion of air-pollution and created the first model of the spatial distribution of air-pollution . The output of this model was used for the elaboration of the urban plan of Pančevo . For the actual research of the three-dimensional distribution of wind energy ( on the territories of Belgrade and Serbia ) he applied the integration of classic models with GIS technology .   Special area of his engagements were the intentionally and inadvertently modified climates , as well as their impact on the sustainable development . These modifications destabilize the climate system and lead to big material and social damage , due to the lack of possibility of weather control . Petar Gburčik proved this with his scientific papers on weather modifications and climate change .

negative: Kii Peninsula The is the largest peninsula on the island of Honshū in Japan . It is named after the ancient Kii Province .   The area south of the `` Central Tectonic Line '' is called Nanki , and includes the most poleward living coral reefs in the world due to the presence of the warm Kuroshio Current , though these are threatened by global warming and human interference . Because of the Kuroshio 's strong influence , the climate of Nankii is the wettest in the Earth 's subtropics with rainfall in the southern mountains believed to reach 5 m per year and averaging 3.85 m in the southeastern town of Owase , comparable to Ketchikan , Alaska or Tortel in southern Chile . When typhoons hit Japan , the Kii Peninsula is typically the worst affected area and daily rainfalls as high as 940 mm are not unknown .   Most of the Kii Peninsula is dense temperate rainforest since the climate even in the very limited lowlands is too wet for agriculture , and much of the coast consists of networks of small rias into which flow very steep and rapid streams characterised by a large number of high waterfalls . Forestry and fishing were the traditional economic mainstays of the region and remain important even today despite a declining population and labour force .

negative: Climate of Grand Forks, North Dakota The Climate of Grand Forks , North Dakota is a warm summer continental ( Köppen Dfb ) typical of cities located in the Great Plains , with four very distinct seasons and great variation in temperatures over very short periods of time . The city 's climate is characterized by long , cold winters with moderate snowfall and warm summers which are typically humid .


query: Temperature errors in the Great Lakes region are not used in any global temperature records.

positive: Lake Superior Lake Superior ( Lac Supérieur ) is the largest of the Great Lakes of North America . The lake is shared by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north , the US state of Minnesota to the west , and Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to the south . It is generally considered the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area . It is the world 's third-largest freshwater lake by volume and the largest by volume in North America .

positive: Permafrost In geology , permafrost is ground , including rock or ( cryotic ) soil , at or below the freezing point of water 0 C for two or more years . Most permafrost is located in high latitudes ( in and around the Arctic and Antarctic regions ) , but alpine permafrost may exist at high altitudes in much lower latitudes . Ground ice is not always present , as may be in the case of nonporous bedrock , but it frequently occurs and it may be in amounts exceeding the potential hydraulic saturation of the ground material . Permafrost accounts for 0.022 % of total water on earth and exists in 24 % of exposed land in the Northern Hemisphere . It also occurs subsea on the continental shelves of the continents surrounding the Arctic Ocean , portions of which were exposed during the last glacial period , with global weather implications .   A global temperature rise of 1.5 C-change above current levels would be enough to start the thawing of permafrost in Siberia , according to one group of scientists .

positive: Little Ice Age The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions .   The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period .   Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .

positive: Precipitation In meteorology , precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity . The main forms of precipitation include drizzle , rain , sleet , snow , graupel and hail . Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor , so that the water condenses and `` precipitates '' . Thus , fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions , because the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate . Two processes , possibly acting together , can lead to air becoming saturated : cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air . Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud . Short , intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called `` showers . ''   Moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain . This process is typically active when freezing rain is occurring . A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain and serves as the foci for forcing and rising air . Provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content , the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds , namely stratus and cumulonimbus . Eventually , the cloud droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops and descend toward the Earth where they will freeze on contact with exposed objects . Where relatively warm water bodies are present , for example due to water evaporation from lakes , lake-effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside of extratropical cyclones . Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy . Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone 's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands . In mountainous areas , heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation . On the leeward side of mountains , desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating . The movement of the monsoon trough , or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes .   Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle , and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet . Approximately 505000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year ; 398000 km3 of it over the oceans and 107000 km3 over land . Given the Earth 's surface area , that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm , but over land it is only 715 mm . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes .   Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies , e.g. when it gets cold , Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost , rather than rain or snow .

negative: Temperature record of the past 1000 years For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods .   Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models .   During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .

negative: Global temperature In its AR4 , WG1 report , Chapter3 , the IPCC explains global temperature in these words :

negative: Medicine Lake, Montana Medicine Lake is a town in Sheridan County , Montana , United States . The population was 225 at the 2010 census .   On July 5 , 1937 , Medicine Lake recorded a temperature of 117 ° F ( 47 ° C ) , setting the record for the highest temperature ever recorded in Montana .

negative: Highest temperature recorded on Earth The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air , 1.5 meters above the ground , and shielded from direct sunlight . The highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 C in Furnace Creek Ranch , California , located in the Death Valley desert in the United States , on July 10 , 1913 .   The former highest official temperature on Earth , held for 90 years by ` Aziziya , Libya , was de-certified by the WMO ( World Meteorological Organization ) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature ( this temperature of 57.8 ° C ( 136 ° F ) , registered on 13 September 1922 , is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error ) . Christopher C. Burt , the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification , believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is `` a myth '' , and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high , as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid . Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley , but is instead 53.9 C recorded five times : 20 July 1960 , 18 July 1998 , 20 July 2005 , 7 July 2007 , and 30 June 2013 .   Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C . A ground temperature of 84 ° C ( 183.2 ° F ) has been recorded in Port Sudan , Sudan . A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C ( 201 ° F ) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972 ; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded . The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C for dry , darkish soils of low thermal conductivity .   Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers . There is a satellite record of 66.8 C measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008 . Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009 , taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite , found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C ( 159.3 ° F ) , which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert , Iran . The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured ( 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2009 ) . These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature .

negative: List of extreme temperatures in France Here is a list of the hottest and coldest temperatures ever recorded in various locations in the metropolitan regions of France since 1870 , as well as of the extreme maximum and minimum temperature recorded in its overseas departments and territories .

negative: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 .   Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting .   The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .

negative: Time temperature indicator A time temperature indicator ( TTI ) is a device or smart label that shows the accumulated time-temperature history of a product . Time temperature indicators are commonly used on food , pharmaceutical , and medical products to indicate exposure to excessive temperature ( and time at temperature ) .   In contrast , a Temperature data logger measures and records the temperatures for a specified time period . The digital data can be downloaded and analyzed .

negative: Frigorific mixture A frigorific mixture is a mixture of two or more components that reaches an equilibrium temperature that is independent of the temperature of any of its components before they are mixed . The temperature is also independent of the quantity of components used as long as sufficient amounts of each are present .

negative: List of extreme temperatures in Italy The following table lists the highest and lowest temperatures recorded in each region in Italy , in both Fahrenheit and Celsius .   * Also on earlier date or dates in that region or city .

negative: Laboratory bath A laboratory bath could refer to any of the following :   Cooling bath : a laboratory device that lowers the temperature of the bath or improves heat conduction  Heated bath : a laboratory device that raises the temperature of the bath to enhance a chemical reaction  Laboratory water bath : a laboratory device that maintains the temperature of the bath  Oil bath : a laboratory device that uses oil an oil to regulate the temperature of a sample

negative: Setpoint (control system) In cybernetics and control theory , a setpoint ( also set point , set-point ) is the desired or target value for an essential variable of a system , often used to describe a standard configuration or norm for the system . Departure of a variable from its setpoint is one basis for error-controlled regulation , that is , the use of feedback to return the system to its norm , as in homeostasis . For example , a boiler might have a temperature setpoint , which is the temperature the boiler control system aims to maintain .

negative: Closure temperature In radiometric dating , closure temperature or blocking temperature refers to the temperature of a system , such as a mineral , at the time given by its radiometric date . In physical terms , the closure temperature is the temperature at which a system has cooled so that there is no longer any significant diffusion of the parent or daughter isotopes out of the system and into the external environment . The concept 's initial mathematical formulation was presented in a seminal paper by Martin H. Dodson ,  `` Closure temperature in cooling geochronological and petrological systems '' in the journal Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology , 1973 , with refinements to a usable experimental formulation by other scientists in later years . This temperature varies broadly among different minerals and also differs depending on the parent and daughter atoms being considered . It is specific to a particular material and isotopic system .   The closure temperature of a system can be experimentally determined in the lab by artificially resetting sample minerals using a high-temperature furnace . As the mineral cools , the crystal structure begins to form and diffusion of isotopes slows . At a certain temperature , the crystal structure has formed sufficiently to prevent diffusion of isotopes . This temperature is what is known as blocking temperature and represents the temperature below which the mineral is a closed system to measurable diffusion of isotopes . The age that can be calculated by radiometric dating is thus the time at which the rock or mineral cooled to blocking temperature .   These temperatures can also be determined in the field by comparing them to the dates of other minerals with well-known closure temperatures .   Closure temperatures are used in geochronology and thermochronology to date events and determine rates of processes in the geologic past .

negative: Infrared thermometer An infrared thermometer is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted by the object being measured . They are sometimes called laser thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer , or non-contact thermometers or temperature guns , to describe the device 's ability to measure temperature from a distance . By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity , the object 's temperature can often be determined . Infrared thermometers are a subset of devices known as `` thermal radiation thermometers '' .   Sometimes , especially near ambient temperatures , readings may be subject to error due to the reflection of radiation from a hotter body -- even the person holding the instrument -- rather than radiated by the object being measured , and to an incorrect assumed emissivity .   The design essentially consists of a lens to focus the infrared thermal radiation on to a detector , which converts the radiant power to an electrical signal that can be displayed in units of temperature after being compensated for ambient temperature . This permits temperature measurement from a distance without contact with the object to be measured . A non-contact infrared thermometer is useful for measuring temperature under circumstances where thermocouples or other probe-type sensors can not be used or do not produce accurate data for a variety of reasons .

negative: Shortening Shortening is any fat that is a solid at room temperature and used to make crumbly pastry and other food products . Shortening is used in pastries that should not be elastic , such as cake . Although butter is solid at room temperature and is frequently used in making pastry , the term `` shortening '' seldom refers to butter , but is more closely related to margarine .

negative: Adiabatic flame temperature In the study of combustion , there are two types of adiabatic flame temperature depending on how the process is completed , constant volume and constant pressure , describing the temperature , the combustion products theoretically reach if no energy is lost to the outside environment .   The constant volume adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature that results from a complete combustion process that occurs without any work , heat transfer or changes in kinetic or potential energy . The constant pressure adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature that results from a complete combustion process that occurs without any heat transfer or changes in kinetic or potential energy . Its temperature is lower than the constant volume process because some of the energy is utilized to change the volume of the system ( i.e. , generate work ) .

negative: Early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave The early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave was a heat wave that commenced in late January and led to record-breaking prolonged high temperatures in the region . The heat wave is considered one of the , if not the , most extreme in the region 's history . During the heat wave , fifty separate locations set various records for consecutive , highest daytime and overnight temperatures . The highest temperature recorded during the heat wave was 48.8 ° C in Hopetoun , Victoria , a record for the state . Many locations through the region recorded all-time high temperatures including capital cities Adelaide , which reached its third-highest temperature , 45.7 ° C , and Melbourne , which recorded its highest-ever temperature on record , 46.4 ° C. Both cities broke records for the most consecutive days over 40 ° C , while Mildura , Victoria recorded an all-time record twelve consecutive days over 43 ° C.   The exceptional heat wave was caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that settled over the Tasman Sea , with a combination of an intense tropical low located off the North West Australian coast and a monsoon trough over Northern Australia , which produced ideal conditions for hot tropical air to be directed down over southeastern Australia . The heat began in South Australia on 25 January but became more widespread over southeast Australia by 27 January . A weak cool change moved over the southern coastal areas bringing some relief on 30 January , including Melbourne , where the change arrived that evening , dropping temperatures to an average of 30.8 ° C. Higher temperatures returned on the following weekend with Melbourne recording its hottest day since records began in 1855 , 46.4 ° C , also the highest temperature ever recorded in an Australian capital city .   The heat wave generated extreme fire conditions during the peak of the 2008 -- 09 Australian bushfire season , causing many bushfires in the affected region , contributing to the extreme bushfire conditions on 7 February , also known as the Black Saturday bushfires , which claimed 173 lives in Victoria .   Ten months after this heat wave , a second struck the same region in November 2009 .

negative: 1906 United Kingdom heat wave The 1906 United Kingdom heat wave occurred all over the country from August to September . This was unusual as the highest temperatures were recorded in early September and the intense heat began in late August , whereas most heat waves in the UK begin in June and July . Even so , the heatwave had a comparable intensity to the 1990 heat wave , and it has been described as the most intense September heat wave in the 20th century . From 31 August to 3 September , the temperature in the UK exceeded 32 C consecutively over most of the UK on these four days . In September , CET Central England and Birmingham recorded a highest temperature of 31.5 C , and Oxford recorded a highest temperature of 33.1 C ; however , this record for September in Oxford was broken in 1911 with a temperature of 33.4 C. 2 September was the hottest day of the month as temperatures reached 35.6 C in Bawtry . This day was also the hottest over the most of the UK , again unusual because of its late occurrence . This remains the hottest September temperature of any day in the UK and the eighth-hottest day overall in the 20th century . Scotland also had temperatures reaching 32.2 C at Gordon Castle , Moray , and Northern Ireland had temperatures reaching 27.8 C in Armagh , County Armagh both recorded on 1 September 1906 .

negative: Thermostat A thermostat is a component which senses the temperature of a system so that the system 's temperature is maintained near a desired setpoint .   A thermostat can often be the main control unit for a heating or cooling system , in applications ranging from ambient air control , to such as automotive coolant control , but is also used in many other applications , such as an electric clothes iron .   It is a `` closed loop '' control device , as it seeks to reduce the error between the desired and measured temperatures . Sometimes a thermostat combines both the sensing and control action elements of a controlled system , such as in an automotive thermostat .

negative: Hockey stick graph Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures .   The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science .   Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 .   In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 .   A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result .   More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .

negative: Silicon bandgap temperature sensor The silicon bandgap temperature sensor is an extremely common form of temperature sensor ( thermometer ) used in electronic equipment . Its main advantage is that it can be included in a silicon integrated circuit at very low cost . The principle of the sensor is that the forward voltage of a silicon diode , which may be the base-emitter junction of a bipolar junction transistor ( BJT ) , is temperature-dependent , according to the following equation :   where  T = temperature in kelvins ,  T0 = reference temperature ,  VG0 = bandgap voltage at absolute zero ,  VBE0 = junction voltage at temperature T0 and current IC0 ,  K = Boltzmann 's constant ,  q = charge on an electron ,  n = a device-dependent constant .   By comparing the voltages of two junctions at the same temperature , but at two different currents , IC1 and IC2 , many of the variables in the above equation can be eliminated , resulting in the relationship :   Note that the junction voltage is a function of current density , i.e. current/junction area , and a similar output voltage can be obtained by operating the two junctions at the same current , if one is of a different area to the other .   A circuit that forces IC1 and IC2 to have a fixed N :1 ratio ,  gives the relationship :   An electronic circuit , such as the Brokaw bandgap reference , that measures ΔVBE can therefore be used to calculate the temperature of the diode . The result remains valid up to about 200 ° C to 250 ° C , when leakage currents become large enough to corrupt the measurement . Above these temperatures , materials such as silicon carbide can be used instead of silicon .   The voltage difference between two p-n junctions ( e.g. diodes ) , operated at different current densities , is proportional to absolute temperature ( PTAT ) .   PTAT circuits using either BJT or CMOS transistors are widely used in temperature sensors ( where we want the output to vary with temperature ) , and also in bandgap voltage references and other temperature-compensating circuits ( where we want the same output at every temperature ) .   If high precision is not required it is enough to bias a diode with any constant low current and use its − 2 mV / ˚C thermal coefficient for temperature calculation , however this requires calibration for each diode type . This method is common in monolithic temperature sensors . -LSB- citation required -RSB-

negative: Phosphor thermometry Phosphor thermometry is an optical method for surface temperature measurement . The method exploits luminescence emitted by phosphor material . Phosphors are fine white or pastel-colored inorganic powders which may be stimulated by any of a variety of means to luminesce , i.e. emit light . Certain characteristics of the emitted light change with temperature , including brightness , color , and afterglow duration . The latter is most commonly used for temperature measurement .

negative: March 2012 North American heat wave In March 2012 , one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America . Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region , and subsequently spread eastward . The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin . Once this warm surge inundated the area , a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued .   NOAA 's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March . In some places the temperature exceeded 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . For instance , in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the highest temperature recorded was 87 ° F on March 21 ; in Chicago a high of 87 ° F was also recorded on that same day . Records were broken in unusual ways . Chicago , for example , saw temperatures above 80 ° F every day between March 14 -- 18 , breaking records on all five days . Chicago would go on to record eight days at or above 80 ° F during the month , with many suburban areas recording an additional day in the 80s on March 19 ( that day , the city only tied its record high of 78 ° F ) . In context , the National Weather Service 's Chicago branch noted that Chicago typically averages only one day in the 80 's in April . And only once in 140 years of weather observations has April produced as many 80 ° F days as this March . In Traverse City , Michigan one day began with a low temperature ( 67 ° F ) higher than the previous record high for the day .   Temperature records across much of southern Canada also were shattered . Some of the most impressive readings came from Nova Scotia on March 22 , when the mercury climbed to 30.0 C at a climate station in Lake Major , making it the highest March temperature recorded in Nova Scotia , and the third highest March temperature recorded in Canada . That same day , the temperature hit 29.2 C at Western Head , Nova Scotia . The heat reached as far east as Cape Breton Island , with the temperature climbing to 24.0 C at Sydney , Nova Scotia on March 22 , a place historically surrounded by ice-jammed waters , frigid winds , and snow in March . The week of March 18 also set record temperatures in Manitoba and much of Ontario as well as into the Maritime Provinces . Non-severe thunderstorms were reported on the evening hours of March 21 , through to the early morning hours March 22 into northern Ontario .   In addition , NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data show that the atmospheric pattern was so persistent that much of the Midwest and Northeast , and up into Ontario , had temperature departures over periods of several days to a week or more of magnitudes which would be unusual even for a single day . Averaged over the seven-day period from March 16 to March 22 inclusive , nearly the entire area of the Midwest and Northeast U.S. and most of Ontario and Quebec had temperatures 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) or more above the 1981-2010 average . Even more dramatically , most of Iowa and Minnesota , all of Wisconsin and Michigan , and most of southeastern Ontario had seven-day mean temperatures more than 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) above the climatological average for the same period .   An 84 ° F high at Madison , WI in early March was 43 ° F above average and followed an overnight low of 60 ° F , 35 degrees above normal the daily high being more than seven standard deviations above the mean . The absolute temperature and departure statistically would be equivalent to a mid-July high at that station in excess of 125 ° F or more ; the highest temperature recorded there was 107 ° at least once during the heat waves of the middle 1930s .   This mild warm spell brought out spring peepers in northern Ontario on 23 March , which are usually not heard until mid-to-late April , or sometimes early May .   The warm weather was also responsible for several early-season tornado touchdowns , such as the EF3 that struck Dexter , Michigan , near Ann Arbor .

negative: Temperature coefficient A temperature coefficient describes the relative change of a physical property that is associated with a given change in temperature . For a property R that changes by dR when the temperature changes by dT , the temperature coefficient α is defined by   Here α has the dimension of an inverse temperature and can be expressed e.g. in 1/K or K − 1 .   If the temperature coefficient itself does not vary too much with temperature , a linear approximation can be used to determine the value R of a property at a temperature T , given its value R0 at a reference temperature T0 :   where ΔT is the difference between T and T0 .  For strongly temperature-dependent α , this approximation is only useful for small temperature differences ΔT .   Temperature coefficients are specified for various applications , including electric and magnetic properties of materials as well as reactivity . The temperature coefficient of most of the reactions lies between - 2 & 3

negative: Global warming in Antarctica The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .

negative: Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods .   Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system .   Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified .   Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .

negative: Peter Sinks Peter Sinks is a natural sinkhole in northern Utah that is one of the coldest places in the contiguous United States .   Peter Sinks is located 8100 ft above sea level , in the Bear River Mountains east of Logan , within the Wasatch-Cache National Forest . Due to temperature inversions that trap cold nocturnal air , it routinely produces the coldest temperatures in the state . Even in the summer , the bottom of the sinkhole rarely goes four consecutive days without freezing . It is so cold near the bottom of the hole that trees are unable to grow .   On 1 February 1985 , a temperature of -69.3 ° F was recorded there , the lowest recorded temperature in Utah , and the second coldest temperature ever recorded in the continental United States .   Peter Sinks was discovered meteorologically by Utah State University student Zane Stephens in 1983 . Stephens , along with the Utah Climate Center , placed measuring instruments in the valley in the winter of 1984 . On February 1 , 1985 , Peter Sinks dropped to -69.3 ° F , while another nearby valley , Middle Sink , located 3 mi to the north-east , dropped to -64 ° F. Stephens hiked into Middle Sink to record the temperature personally . He then flew into Peter Sinks in a KUTV television station helicopter with broadcasting Meteorologist Mark Eubank . State Climatologist Gayle Bingham also traveled to the area and confirmed the temperature . The alcohol thermometer being used was retrieved and sent to the Bureau of Standards in Washington , D.C. to confirm the temperature .   Since 1985 , Peter Sinks and Middle Sink have been studied extensively by Stephens and Tim Wright with the use of Campbell Scientific weather equipment . On January 29 , 2002 , the temperature dropped to -62 ° F at Middle Sink . Stephens and Wright 's main study is the change in temperature through the inversion at these sites . The valleys act like a dam trapping cold air . The coldest of the air settles to the bottom of the valley . Stephens and Wright have found that temperatures between the cold air `` lake '' and the warmer air above the valley can be different by as much as 70 ° F-change .

negative: Vibrational temperature The vibrational temperature is commonly used in thermodynamics , to simplify certain equations . It has units of temperature and is defined as   where is Boltzmann 's constant   The vibrational temperature is used commonly when finding the vibrational partition function .

negative: Supercritical adsorption Supercritical Adsorption also referred to as the adsorption of supercritical fluids , is the adsorption at above-critical temperatures . There are different tacit understandings of supercritical fluids . For example , `` a fluid is considered to be ` supercritical ' when its temperature and pressure exceed the temperature and pressure at the critical point '' . In the studies of supercritical extraction , however , `` supercritical fluid '' is applied for a narrow temperature region of 1-1 .2 or to +10 K , which is called the supercritical region . ( is the critical temperature )

negative: Aral Karakum Desert Aral Karakum ( Арал қарақұмы -LSB- Приара́льские Караку́мы , p = prʲɪjɐˈralʲskʲɪjə kərɐˈkumɨ -RSB- ) is a desert in Kazakhstan , situated northeast of the Aral Sea . It borders on the Syr Darya river to the south . The desert covers an area of 40000 km2 .   The landscape in the region is quite flat , with a height that varies from 55 to AMSL . The dunes can reach heights of around 25 meters . The area is very dry , and the dried-out riverbeds usually only carry water during springtime , when the winter snow melts . Annual precipitation is around 120 mm .   The winter lasts from mid-November to mid-March , with varying cloud cover and frequent fog . Mean temperature during daytime is minus 5 - , and at night around -25 ° C . The lowest recorded temperature is -42 ° C. However , at any time during winter , mild weather is possible . Precipitation falls mostly in the winter as snow . Snow cover is usually around 15 cm deep , but can reach 30 cm .   Summer lasts from May to mid-September . Daytime temperatures normally range 30 - , but temperatures up to 43 ° C have been recorded . At night the temperature drops to 15 - . During summer there are often dry winds and dust storms .   The Aral Karakum has some vegetation , mainly grasses , and it is being used for grazing of sheep .   Category : Deserts of Central Asia  Category : Deserts of Kazakhstan

negative: Film temperature In heat transfer and fluid dynamics , the film temperature is an approximation to the temperature of a fluid inside a convection boundary layer . It is calculated as the arithmetic mean of the temperature at the surface of the solid boundary wall and the free-stream temperature :   The film temperature is often used as the temperature at which fluid properties are calculated when using Prandtl number , Nusselt number , Reynolds number or Grashof number to calculate a heat transfer coefficient , because it is a reasonable first approximation to the temperature within the convection boundary layer .   Somewhat confusing terminology may be encountered in relation to boilers and heat exchangers , where the same term is used to refer to the limit ( hot ) temperature of a fluid in contact with a hot surface .

negative: List of extreme weather records in Pakistan The weather extremes in Pakistan include high and low temperatures , Heaviest rainfall and flooding . The highest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan is 54 ° C which was recorded in Turbat , Balochistan 30 May 2017 It was not only the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan but also the hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded on the continent of Asia . and the fourth-highest temperature ever recorded on earth . The second-highest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan is 53 C which was recorded in Larkana , Sindh on 26 May 2010 . It is hottest city in Pakistan , as well as the second hottest city in the world , but it is second-hottest place in Pakistan and fifth-hottest place of world . It is fifth-highest temperature ever recorded on Earth . The highest rainfall of 620 mm was recorded in Islamabad during 24 hours on 23 July 2001 . The record-breaking rain fell in just 10 hours .

negative: Temperature measurement Temperature measurement ( or thermometry ) describes the process of measuring a current local temperature for immediate or later evaluation . Datasets consisting of repeated standardized measurements can be used to assess temperature trends .