query: Rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations are causing ocean acidification, which is catastrophically harming marine life.

positive: Ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean .   Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level .   While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins .   Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .

positive: Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas .   As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product .   Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas .   It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting .   Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .

positive: Pollution Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change . Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy , such as noise , heat or light . Pollutants , the components of pollution , can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants . Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: Oceanic carbon cycle The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) .   At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) .  Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean .  In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) .  The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink .  The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 .  The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide .  Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers .  The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere .  Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them .  The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .

negative: NYC: Tornado Terror NYC : Tornado Terror is a 2008 Canadian made for TV disaster film . It stars Nicole de Boer , Sebastian Spence , and Jerry Wasserman . It premiered on Syfy on October 4 , 2008 , and is directed by Tibor Takács .   The film is about global warming which causes the upper and lower atmosphere to separate so that their different movements generate huge electrical charges which causes huge electrical tornadoes to drop on New York City causing destruction and loss of life . Dr. Cassie Lawrence tries to stop the twisters as chaos ensues . NASA ignores the mayor who recommends following Dr. Lawrence 's advice and use silver iodide on the atmosphere instead , which makes things worse , so it is down to our heroes to use a rebel scientist with his own makeshift rockets to use dry ice ( frozen CO2 ) . The problem is solved , but before the film ends , the same storm effects begin in Paris .

negative: Global Census of Marine Life on Seamounts Global Census of Marine Life on Seamounts ( commonly CenSeam ) is a global scientific initiative , launched in 2005 , that is designed to expand the knowledge base of marine life at seamounts . Seamounts are underwater mountains , not necessarily volcanic in origin , which often form subsurface archipelagoes and are found throughout the world 's ocean basins , with almost half in the Pacific . There are estimated to be as many as 100,000 seamounts at least one kilometer in height , and more if lower rises are included . However , they have not been explored very much -- in fact , only about half of one percent have been sampled -- and almost every expedition to a seamount discovers new species and new information . There is evidence that seamounts can host concentrations of biologic diversity , each with its own unique local ecosystem ; they seem to affect oceanic currents , resulting among other things in local concentration of plankton which in turn attracts species that graze on it , and indeed are probably a significant overall factor in biogeography of the oceans . They also may serve as way stations in the migration of whales and other pelagic species . Despite being poorly studied , they are heavily targeted by commercial fishing , including dredging . In addition they are of interest to potential seabed mining .   The overall goal of CenSeam is `` to determine the role of seamounts in the biogeography , biodiversity , productivity , and evolution of marine organisms , and to evaluate the effects of human exploitation on seamounts . '' To this effect , the group organizes and contributes to various research efforts about seamount biodiversity . Specifically , the project aims to act as a standardized scaffold for future studies and samplings , citing inefficiency and incompatibility between individual research efforts in the past . To give a scale of their mission , there are an estimated 100,000 seamounts in the ocean , but only 350 of them have been sampled , and only about 100 sampled thoroughly . Although sampling all 100,000 seamounts is infeasible , major seamounts can be sampled in such a way .   CenSeam is a subdivision of the Census of Marine Life program . Organisationally , the components of CenSeam consist of a secretariat ( Malcolm Clark , Mireille Consalvey , Ashley Rowden and Karen Stocks ) which is hosted by the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research in Wellington , New Zealand ; an international steering committee ; a taxonomic advisory panel ; and two working groups , Data Analysis and Standardisation .   In 2008 CenSeam began collaborating with the International Seabed Authority to study effects of seabed mining on seamount ecosystems .

negative: Great Oxygenation Event The Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE , also called the Oxygen Catastrophe , Oxygen Crisis , Oxygen Holocaust , Oxygen Revolution , or Great Oxidation ) was the biologically induced appearance of dioxygen ( O2 ) in Earth 's atmosphere . Although geological , isotopic , and chemical evidence suggest that this major environmental change happened around 2.45 billion years ago ( 2.45 Ga ) , ( during the Siderian period ) the actual causes and the exact date of the event are not clear . The current geochemical and biomarker evidence for the development of oxygenic photosynthesis before the Great Oxidation Event has been mostly inconclusive .   Oceanic cyanobacteria , which evolved into multicellular forms more than 2.3 billion years ago ( approximately 200 million years before the GOE ) , are believed to have become the first microbes to produce oxygen by photosynthesis . Before the GOE , any free oxygen they produced was chemically captured by dissolved iron or organic matter . The GOE was the point in time when these oxygen sinks became saturated , at which point oxygen , produced by the cyanobacteria , was free to escape into the atmosphere .   The increased production of oxygen set Earth 's original atmosphere off balance . Free oxygen is toxic to obligate anaerobic organisms , and the rising concentrations may have destroyed most such organisms at the time . Cyanobacteria were therefore responsible for one of the most significant extinction events in Earth 's history . Besides marine cyanobacteria , there is also evidence of cyanobacteria on land .   A spike in chromium contained in ancient rock deposits formed underwater shows they had accumulated chromium washed off from continental shelves . Chromium is not easily dissolved and its release from rocks would have required the presence of a powerful acid . One such acid , sulfuric acid , might have been created through bacterial reactions with pyrite . Mats of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria can produce a thin layer , one or two millimeters thick , of oxygenated water in an otherwise anoxic environment even under thick ice , and before oxygen started accumulating in the atmosphere , these organisms would already be adapted to oxygen . Additionally , the free oxygen would have reacted with atmospheric methane , a greenhouse gas , greatly reducing its concentration and triggering the Huronian glaciation , possibly the longest episode of glaciation in Earth 's history and called snowball Earth .   Eventually , the evolution of aerobic organisms that consumed oxygen established an equilibrium in its availability . Free oxygen has been an important constituent of the atmosphere ever since .

negative: Recycled fuel Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel .   For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .

negative: Soil guideline value Soil Guideline Values ( SGVs ) are figures which are used in non-statutory technical guidance for assessors carrying out risk assessments to determine whether land is considered ` contaminated ' under United Kingdom law , that is `` land which appears to ... be in such a condition , by reason of substances in , on or under the land , that ( a ) significant harm is being caused or there is a significant possibility of such harm being caused ... ''   This guidance stipulates three stages in such risk assessments :   Preliminary qualitative assessment including development of conceptual site model  Generic Quantitative Risk Assessment ( GQRA )  Detailed Quantitative Risk Assessment ( DQRA )   Soil Guideline Values are used in the second stage , GQRA , to determine whether harm caused by long-term exposure to a given soil concentration of chemicals may present an unacceptable risk to human health in some generic land-use scenario . The SGVs are therefore conservative estimates for a given scenario . Exceedance of a SGV does not confirm that there is a ` significant possibility of significant harm ' , merely that the possibility exists and therefore more detailed , site-specific investigation of contaminants present , pathways and receptors is required .

negative: Burkholderia endofungorum Burkholderia endofungorum is a gram-negative , catalase and oxidase-positive , motile bacterium which is able to grow under aerobic and microaerophilic conditions without CO2 atmosphere , from the genus of Burkholderia and the family of Burkholderiaceae .

negative: Parathyroid adenoma A parathyroid adenoma is a benign tumor of the parathyroid gland . It generally causes hyperparathyroidism ; there are very few reports of parathyroid adenomas that were not associated with hyperparathyroidism .   A human being usually has four parathyroid glands located on the back surface of the thyroid in the neck . The parathyroids secrete parathyroid hormone ( PTH ) , which increases the concentration of calcium in the blood by inducing the bones to release calcium into the blood and the kidneys to reabsorb it from the urine into the blood . When a parathyroid adenoma causes hyperparathyroidism , more parathyroid hormone is secreted , causing the calcium concentration of the blood to rise , resulting in hypercalcemia .

negative: Evaporite Evaporite ( -LSB- pronᵻˈvæpəraɪt -RSB- ) is a name for a water-soluble mineral sediment that results from concentration and crystallization by evaporation from an aqueous solution . There are two types of evaporite deposits : marine , which can also be described as ocean deposits , and non-marine , which are found in standing bodies of water such as lakes . Evaporites are considered sedimentary rocks and are formed by chemical sediments .

negative: Future of Earth The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes .   Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° .   During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth .   In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .

negative: Ethanol from coal Ethanol from coal is the ethanol produced using coal as its carbon source . The anaerobic bacterium Clostridium ljungdahlii produces ethanol and acetic acid from CO , CO2 , and H2 in synthesis gas . Early studies with C. ljungdahlii showed that relatively high concentrations of ethanol were produced . This process involves three main steps :  Gasification : Thermal gasification at temperatures of up to 2,200 ° F in a reducing , very low oxygen atmosphere transforms organic materials into simple CO , CO2 and H2 gases .  Fermentation : The acetogenic C. ljungdahlii convert the carbon monoxide into ethanol .  Distillation : Ethanol is separated from hydrogen and water .

negative: Hope Canal The East Demerara Water Conservancy-Northern Relief Channel , better known locally as the Hope Canal , is one of Guyana 's largest drainage projects .   During periods of extended rainfalls , the water level in the EDWC tends to rise above the maximum safe storage level .   This excess volume of water in the conservancy causes an increase in lateral pressure acting on the earthen embankment . This will eventually create failure ; which will result in catastrophic floods , causing damages to both Agricultural and Residential areas .   In the year 2005 , there was a breach in the embankment which resulted in floods to almost the entire East Coast of Demerara . This was caused by the excess water in the EDWC .   The EDWC NRC ( Hope Canal ) project was designed in response to this great 2005 floods .  This canal serves as a medium to release excess water from the EDWC directly to the Atlantic Ocean , during periods of extended rainfall in order to prevent overtopping of conservancy embankment .   Construction of the Northern Relief Channel and Associated Drainage Structures Started on May 4 , 2011 and concluded on November 9 , 2013

negative: Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument is a group of unorganized , mostly unincorporated United States Pacific Island territories managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States Department of Commerce . These remote refuges are `` the most widespread collection of marine - and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country 's jurisdiction '' . They protect many endemic species including corals , fish , shellfish , marine mammals , seabirds , water birds , land birds , insects , and vegetation not found elsewhere .

negative: Mesopause The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . )   Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation .   In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .

negative: Plastiki The Plastiki is a 60 ft catamaran made out of 12,500 reclaimed plastic bottles and other recycled PET plastic and waste products . The craft was built using cradle to cradle design philosophies and features many renewable energy systems , including solar panels , wind and trailing propeller turbines , and bicycle generators . The frame was designed by Australian naval architect Andrew Dovell . The boat 's name is a play on the 1947 Kon-Tiki raft used to sail across the Pacific by Norwegian explorer Thor Heyerdahl , and its voyage roughly followed the same route .   On March 20 , 2010 , the sailing vessel set off from San Francisco , California to cross the Pacific Ocean with a crew of six : British skipper Jo Royle , co-skipper David Thompson , expedition diver Olav Heyerdahl , filmmakers Max Jourdan and Vern Moen , and expedition leader David de Rothschild . The expedition projected landfall in Sydney , Australia and included plans to visit several sites en route of ecological importance or which were susceptible to environmental issues caused by global warming , for instance the current sea level rise , ocean acidification and marine pollution .   Plastiki arrived in Sydney Harbour on July 26 , 2010 , accompanied by a small flotilla of boats . Shortly afterwards , it was towed to the Australian National Maritime Museum in Darling Harbour , where it was on display until late August .

negative: Abyssal plain An abyssal plain is an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor , usually found at depths between 3000 m and 6000 m. Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a mid-ocean ridge , abyssal plains cover more than 50 % of the Earth 's surface . They are among the flattest , smoothest and least explored regions on Earth . Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of oceanic basins ( the other elements being an elevated mid-ocean ridge and flanking abyssal hills ) . In addition to these elements , active oceanic basins ( those that are associated with a moving plate tectonic boundary ) also typically include an oceanic trench and a subduction zone .   Abyssal plains were not recognized as distinct physiographic features of the sea floor until the late 1940s and , until very recently , none had been studied on a systematic basis . They are poorly preserved in the sedimentary record , because they tend to be consumed by the subduction process . The creation of the abyssal plain is the end result of spreading of the seafloor ( plate tectonics ) and melting of the lower oceanic crust . Magma rises from above the asthenosphere ( a layer of the upper mantle ) and as this basaltic material reaches the surface at mid-ocean ridges it forms new oceanic crust . This is constantly pulled sideways by spreading of the seafloor . Abyssal plains result from the blanketing of an originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine-grained sediments , mainly clay and silt . Much of this sediment is deposited by turbidity currents that have been channelled from the continental margins along submarine canyons down into deeper water . The remainder of the sediment is composed chiefly of pelagic sediments . Metallic nodules are common in some areas of the plains , with varying concentrations of metals , including manganese , iron , nickel , cobalt , and copper . These nodules may provide a significant resource for future mining ventures .   Owing in part to their vast size , abyssal plains are currently believed to be a major reservoir of biodiversity . The abyss also exerts significant influence upon ocean carbon cycling , dissolution of calcium carbonate , and atmospheric CO2 concentrations over timescales of 100 -- 1000 years . The structure and function of abyssal ecosystems are strongly influenced by the rate of flux of food to the seafloor and the composition of the material that settles . Factors such as climate change , fishing practices , and ocean fertilization are expected to have a substantial effect on patterns of primary production in the euphotic zone . This will undoubtedly impact the flux of organic material to the abyss in a similar manner and thus have a profound effect on the structure , function and diversity of abyssal ecosystems .


query: “The global reef crisis does not necessarily mean extinction for coral species.

positive: Water scarcity Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet water needs within a region . It affects every continent and around 2.8 billion people around the world at least one month out of every year . More than 1.2 billion people lack access to clean drinking water .   Water scarcity involves water shortage , water stress or deficits , and water crisis . The relatively new concept of water stress is difficulty in obtaining sources of fresh water for use during a period of time ; it may result in further depletion and deterioration of available water resources . Water shortages may be caused by climate change , such as altered weather-patterns ( including droughts or floods ) , increased pollution , and increased human demand and overuse of water . The term water crisis labels a situation where the available potable , unpolluted water within a region is less than that region 's demand . Two converging phenomena drive water scarcity : growing freshwater use and depletion of usable freshwater resources .   Water scarcity can result from two mechanisms :   physical ( absolute ) water scarcity  economic water scarcity   Physical water scarcity results from inadequate natural water resources to supply a region 's demand , and economic water scarcity results from poor management of the sufficient available water resources . According to the United Nations Development Programme , the latter is found more often to be the cause of countries or regions experiencing water scarcity , as most countries or regions have enough water to meet household , industrial , agricultural , and environmental needs , but lack the means to provide it in an accessible manner .   Many countries and governments aim to reduce water scarcity . The UN recognizes the importance of reducing the number of people without sustainable access to clean water and sanitation . The Millennium Development Goals within the United Nations Millennium Declaration aimed by 2015 to `` halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water . ''

positive: Conservation biology Conservation biology is the management of nature and of Earth 's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species , their habitats , and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions . It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences , and the practice of natural resource management .   The conservation ethic is based on the findings of conservation biology .

positive: Extinction risk from global warming The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .

positive: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event The Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) extinction event , also known as the Cretaceous -- Tertiary ( K -- T ) extinction , was a mass extinction of some three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth that occurred over a geologically short period of time approximately 65 million years ago . With the exception of some ectothermic species like the leatherback sea turtle and crocodiles , no tetrapods weighing more than 25 kg survived . It marked the end of the Cretaceous period and with it , the entire Mesozoic Era , opening the Cenozoic Era that continues today .   In the geologic record , the K -- Pg event is marked by a thin layer of sediment called the K -- Pg boundary , which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks . The boundary clay shows high levels of the metal iridium , which is rare in the Earth 's crust but abundant in asteroids .   As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by Luis Alvarez , it is now generally thought that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by a massive comet or asteroid impact , estimated to be 10 km wide , 66 million years ago and its catastrophic effects on the global environment , including a lingering impact winter that made it impossible for plants and plankton to carry out photosynthesis . The impact hypothesis , also known as the Alvarez hypothesis , was bolstered by the discovery of the 180 km Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico in the early 1990s , which provided conclusive evidence that the K -- Pg boundary clay represented debris from an asteroid impact . The fact that the extinctions occurred at the same time as the impact provides strong situational evidence that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by the asteroid . It was possibly accelerated by the creation of the Deccan Traps . However , some scientists maintain the extinction was caused or exacerbated by other factors , such as volcanic eruptions , climate change , or sea level change , separately or together .   A wide range of species perished in the K -- Pg extinction . The best-known victims are the non-avian dinosaurs . However , the extinction also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms , including certain mammals , pterosaurs , birds , lizards , insects , and plants . In the oceans , the K -- Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards ( Mosasauridae ) and devastated fish , sharks , mollusks ( especially ammonites , which became extinct ) and many species of plankton . It is estimated that 75 % or more of all species on Earth vanished . Yet the devastation caused by the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities . In the wake of the extinction , many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiations -- a sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches resulting from the event . Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene , producing new forms such as horses , whales , bats , and primates . Birds , fish and perhaps lizards also radiated .

negative: Pinctada margaritifera Pinctada margaritifera , commonly known as the black-lip pearl oyster , is a species of pearl oyster , a saltwater clam , a marine bivalve mollusk in the family Pteriidae . This species is common in the Indo-Pacific within tropical coral reefs .   The ability of P. margaritifera to produce pearls means that the species is a valuable resource to humans . The oysters are harvested wild from coral reefs and are also commonly grown in aquaculture , both primarily taking place in the Indo-Pacific region .

negative: Acropora Acropora is a genus of small polyp stony coral in the phylum Cnidaria . Some of its species are known as table coral , elkhorn coral , and staghorn coral . Over 149 species are described . Acropora species are some of the major reef corals responsible for building the immense calcium carbonate substructure that supports the thin living skin of a reef .

negative: Thomas J. Goreau Thomas J. Goreau ( Tom Goreau , * in Jamaica ) is a biogeochemist and marine biologist ; son of Thomas F. Goreau and Nora I. Goreau .   After studying in Jamaican primary and secondary schools , he earned degrees in planetary physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , in planetary astronomy at the California Institute of Technology , and in biogeochemistry at Harvard University ( Ph.D. ) . With his parents he researched the coral reefs of Jamaica , and continues to conduct research on the impacts of global climate change , pollution , and new diseases in reefs all across the Caribbean , Indian Ocean , and Pacific . His current work focuses on coral reef restoration , fisheries restoration , shore line protection , renewable energy , community based coral reef management , mariculture , soil metabolism , and stabilization of global carbon dioxide . He was formerly Senior Scientific Affairs Officer at the United Nations Centre for Science and Technology for Development . He is currently President of the Global Coral Reef Alliance .

negative: Bar Reef The Bar Reef is a system of coral reefs just offshore from Sri Lanka 's Kalpitiya peninsula . It has the greatest biodiversity of any coral reef in the waters around India and is one of the few pristine coral reef systems in Sri Lanka .   It is a complex of reefs which stretch parallel to the coast from the northern end of the Kalpitiya peninsula to the islands which separate Portugal Bay from the Gulf of Mannar .  It has high ecological , biological and aesthetic significance , being home to 156 species of coral and 283 species of fish .   The Bar Reef was declared a marine sanctuary in 1992 . The reserve covers 306.7 km2 .

negative: Elphinstone Reef Elphinstone Reef ( also known as Sha'ab Abu Hamra ) is a standalone reef in the Egyptian Red Sea situated about 30 kilometers north from the town of Marsa Alam in Egypt . The coral community in this reef is primarily composed of soft corals such as Dendronephthya species .

negative: Maui Ocean Center The Maui Ocean Center is an aquarium and oceanography center located in Maalaea , Hawaii on the island of Maui . Opened on March 18 , 1998 by Coral World International , the 3 acre facility is the largest tropical reef aquarium in the Western Hemisphere . It includes exhibits on coral reef habitats , sea turtles , sharks , and humpback whales , among others .   It is the largest public aquarium on Maui , and undertakes projects to grow artificial coral reefs to later introduce to the wild , due to the recent rapid decline in coral populations in Hawaii due to heavy tourism and global warming .

negative: Tylerichthys Tylerichthys is an extinct genus of prehistoric surgeonfish that lived in a coral reef during the Lutetian epoch of what is now Monte Bolca , Italy .

negative: Tubbataha Reef The Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park ( Bahurang Tubbataha ) is a protected area of the Philippines located in the middle of the Sulu Sea . The marine and bird sanctuary consists of two huge atolls ( named the North Atoll and South Atoll ) and the smaller Jessie Beazley Reef covering a total area of 97030 ha . It is located 150 km southeast of Puerto Princesa City , the capital of Palawan province . The uninhabited islands and reefs are part of the island municipality of Cagayancillo , Palawan , located roughly 130 km to the northeast of the reef .   In December 1993 , the UNESCO declared the Tubbataha Reefs National Park as a World Heritage Site as a unique example of an atoll reef with a very high density of marine species ; the North Islet serving as a nesting site for birds and marine turtles . The site is an excellent example of a pristine coral reef with a spectacular 100-m perpendicular wall , extensive lagoons and two coral islands . In 1999 , Ramsar listed Tubbataha as one of the Wetlands of International Importance . In 2008 , the reef was nominated at the New 7 Wonders of Nature .   The national park and the rest of the Philippine archipelago is part of the Coral Triangle , recognized as a center of marine biodiversity containing 75 % of the described coral species and 40 % of the world 's reef fish . The area is under a grave threat due to overfishing and destructive fishing practices . Research of scientists visiting the reefs since the 1980s revealed that the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park contains no less than 600 fish species , 360 coral species , 11 shark species , 13 dolphin and whale species , and 100 bird species . The reefs also serve as a nesting ground for Hawksbill and Green sea turtles .

negative: Flinders Reef Flinders Reef is a small isolated reef near Moreton Island , 5 km north-east of Cape Moreton in South East Queensland , Australia . It has the highest number of coral species of any subtropical reef system along Australia 's east coast and is the nearest true coral reef to Brisbane . Flinders Reef is one of Queensland 's most popular dive sites . The reef is protected within the Moreton Bay Marine Park and is monitored by the Reef Check conservation program .   There is a second Flinders Reef in the Coral Sea 120 nmi north-east of Townsville . A weather station there is monitored by the Australian Government . A third Flinders Reef exists offshore from the town of 1770 .

negative: Porolithon Porolithon is a genus of red alga comprising 15 species . The Porolithon are the primary reef building algae . When coral reefs reach sea level , the corals break under the high energy impact of the waves , while the coralline red algae , primarily Porolithon , continuing building and cementing the reef structure .

negative: Acroporidae Acroporidae is a family of small polyped stony corals in the phylum Cnidaria . The name is derived from the Greek `` akron '' meaning `` summit '' and refers to the presence of a corallite at the tip of each branch of coral . They are commonly known as staghorn corals and are grown in aquaria by reef hobbyists .

negative: Pulley Ridge Pulley Ridge is a mesophotic coral reef system off the shores of the continental United States . The reef lies 100 miles west of the Tortugas Ecological Reserve and stretches north about 60 miles at depths ranging from 60 -- 80 meters . Pulley Ridge was originally discovered in 1950 during a dredging operation conducted by an academic group from Texas . While well known to fishermen , this remarkable habitat remained undiscovered by scientists until 1999 when the U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) and graduate students from the University of South Florida happened upon it . This reef system , like other mesophotic ecosystems , is inhabited by photosynthesizing corals and algae that are adapted to low-light environments . It is habitat for numerous species of bottom fish including Epinephelus morio ( red grouper ) spawning area .   `` Although deeper-water corals form reefs in the dark of ocean depths , Pulley Ridge is the deepest photosynthetic coral reef that we know of today , '' said Robert Halley , former US Geological Survey marine geologist . '' Other reefs lie about 46 meters below sea level .  Once established on the seabed , the corals help create hard bottom habitat that becomes home to a diverse community of algae and animals that includes some species that are unique to these communities , and others species that are also found in shallower reef habitats . Understanding the factors that determine where mesophotic reefs are located and distances over which species living within such environments disperse and therefore ` connect ' populations are of great interest to marine scientists and resource managers alike . Despite this interest , the deep depths of such reefs hinders both their discovery and their exploration .   Coral reefs struggle to survive in the world today . `` In the past 10 years the world has lost 25 % of the known living coral reefs '' . Coral reefs are particularly damaged by `` ... climate change , over fishing and coastal pollution '' . Scientists hope that through the exploration of Pulley Ridge , they can gain new insight of how reefs function in order to better preserve other reefs .

negative: Mopsella Mopsella is a genus of corals in the family Melithaeidae . Members of the genus are commonly known as sea fans . They are found in the tropical parts of the Indo-Pacific region growing on coral reefs and reef slopes , often in deep water . The type species is Mopsella textiformis .

negative: Mussa angulosa Mussa angulosa , the spiny flower coral or large flower coral , is a species of stony coral in the family Mussidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow waters in the Caribbean Sea , the Bahamas and the Gulf of Mexico .

negative: Atergatis subdentatus Atergatis subdentatus , also known as the red reef crab , dark-finger coral crab or eyed coral crab , is a species of crab in the family Xanthidae .

negative: Meiacanthus phaeus Meiacanthus phaeus is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the western Pacific ocean .

negative: Melithaea ochracea Melithaea ochracea is a species of colonial soft coral in the family Melithaeidae , commonly known as knotted fan coral . It grows in tree-like fans on coral reefs in the South China Sea . It is used in the jewellery industry under the name red spongy coral .

negative: Halysites Halysites ( meaning chain coral ) is an extinct genus of tabulate coral . Colonies range from less than one to tens of centimeters in diameter , and they fed upon plankton .   These tabulate corals lived from Ordovician to Silurian ( from 449.5 to 412.3 Ma ) . Fossils of Halysites species have been found in the sediments of Canada , United States , Poland and Australia .

negative: Kimbe Bay Kimbe Bay is a large bay in West New Britain Province , off the northern coast of New Britain , Papua New Guinea , at . Kimbe Bay is an important biodiversity hotspot . 60 percent of the coral species of the entire Indo-Pacific region live here . Kimbe Bay is the home of more than 860 coral reef fish species . Because of a massive die-off of coral worldwide due to pollution , human activities , and global warming , Kimbe Bay has become increasingly important , since it is seen as one of the last holdouts for coral should the degradation continue . Efforts are currently underway to limit the human impact on the bay . Due to its beauty it is also a popular diving site .

negative: Praealticus bilineatus Praealticus bilineatus is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the western Pacific ocean .

negative: Zhongzhou Reef Zhongzhou Reef ( ; Bãi Bàn Than ) is a small coral reef within the Tizard Bank of the Spratly Islands . It lies 5 km east of ROC-occupied Taiping Island , 5 km west of Vietnamese-occupied Sand Cay , and has an exposed area of approximately 0.2 ha during high tide , and 0.6 ha during low tide . It consists of an accumulation of seashells , sand , coral reefs and debris which forms a circular coral reef plate , surrounding the reef under the water , with a diameter of approximately 1.3 km .   The reef is currently controlled by Taiwan ( ROC ) , under the administration of Cijin District , Kaohsiung . It is also claimed by PRC , Vietnam and the Philippines .   As many as 51 species of migratory birds inhabit the reef for short stays . The surrounding waters contain a rich marine ecosystem with plentiful staghorn coral . Shellfish species such as Harpago chiragra and Cassis cornuta can be found on the reef , and the surrounding waters contain various common tropical fish and coral reef fish . The reef geology is not suitable for plant growth .   The reef has no groundwater source . Though currently uninhabited by humans , the ROC Coast Guard sends regular patrols via M8 speedboats from nearby Taiping Island . These patrols circle the reef , in addition to landing , making inspections and carrying out ecological surveys .

negative: Eusmilia Eusmilia is a genus of stony coral ( Scleractinia ) in the family Meandrinidae . It is a monotypic genus : the only species is Eusmilia fastigiata , the smooth flower coral . It is found on reefs in the Caribbean area .

negative: Mycetophyllia Mycetophyllia is a genus of stony corals in the family Mussidae , commonly known as ridged cactus corals . Members of this genus are native to the Caribbean area . They are zooxanthellate species and are sometimes kept in reef aquaria .

negative: Maro Reef Maro Reef ( Hawaiian : Nalukākala - `` surf that arrives in combers '' ) is a largely submerged coral atoll located in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands . It was discovered in 1820 by Captain Joseph Allen of the ship Maro , after whose ship the reef was named . With a total area of 747 sqmi , it is the largest coral reef in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands . It contains 37 species of stony coral . Unlike most atolls , the coral extends out from the center like spokes on a wheel . Located about 850 mi northwest of Honolulu , Hawaii , Maro Reef contains about 1 acre of dry land which itself can be submerged depending on the tides . Some scientists believe that it `` may be on the verge of drowning '' because the reefs are detached and are vulnerable to strong storm waves .   USNS Mission San Miguel ( T-AO-129 ) ran aground on the reef , while running at full speed and in ballast , and sank on October 8 , 1957 .

negative: Priolepis nocturna Priolepis nocturna , the Blackbarred reefgoby , is a species of goby native to the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean where it occurs at depths of from 8 to on coral reefs . It inhabits crevices in the reef . This species can reach a length of 3.9 cm SL .

negative: Cirripectes alboapicalis Cirripectes alboapicalis is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the Pacific ocean . This species reaches a maximum length of 15.5 cm .

negative: Oplopomus Oplopomus is a genus of gobies found in coral reefs of the Indo-Pacific region . It contains two species .

negative: Salarias luctuosus Salarias luctuosus is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the northwest Pacific ocean . This species reaches a length of 5 cm SL .

negative: Coral trout The coral trout , leopard coral grouper , or leopard coral trout ( Plectropomus leopardus ) is a species of fish in the Serranidae family . Native to the western Pacific Ocean , its natural habitat includes open seas and coral reefs . Coral trout are piscivorous ; juveniles mostly eat crustaceans , especially prawns , and adults feed upon a variety of reef fish , particularly damselfish .   Coral trout are the favourite target fish for all sectors of the fishery because they are a good food fish and command high market prices locally and overseas . The total commercial catch of coral trout was reported at over 1500 tonnes in 1998 .

negative: Salarias sibogai Salarias sibogai is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the western central Pacific ocean .

negative: Scolymia lacera Scolymia lacera , the fleshy disk coral , is a species of stony coral in the family Mussidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow waters in the Caribbean Sea , the Gulf of Mexico , the Bahamas , Bermuda and southern Florida .

negative: Turbinaria irregularis Turbinaria irregularis , commonly known as disc coral , is a species of colonial stony coral in the family Dendrophylliidae . It is native to the Indo-Pacific region and is rated as a least-concern species . It is a zooxanthellate coral that houses symbiont dinoflagellates in its tissues . It was described by Bernard in 1896 and is found at depths of 5 to in shallow rocky areas and reefs .