query: That’s because as Antarctica’s mass shrinks, the ice sheet’s gravitational pull on the ocean relaxes somewhat, and the seas travel back across the globe to pile up far away — with U.S. coasts being one prime destination.”

positive: Post-glacial rebound Post-glacial rebound ( also called either isostatic rebound or crustal rebound ) is the rise of land masses that were depressed by the huge weight of ice sheets during the last glacial period , through a process known as isostatic depression . Post-glacial rebound and isostatic depression are different parts of a process known as either glacial isostasy , glacial isostatic adjustment , or glacioisostasy . Glacioisostasy is the solid Earth deformation associated with changes in ice mass distribution . The most obvious and direct effects of post-glacial rebound are readily apparent in parts of Northern Eurasia , Northern America , Patagonia , and Antarctica . However , through processes known as ocean siphoning and continental levering , the effects of post-glacial rebound on sea level are felt globally far from the locations of current and former ice sheets .

positive: Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly .   Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. .  Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century .   Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .

positive: Antarctica Antarctica ( UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑːktɪkə -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈtɑːtɪkə -RSB- , US English -LSB- æntˈɑːrktɪkə -RSB- ) is Earth 's southernmost continent . It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14000000 km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula .   Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89.2 ° C ( − 128.6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra .   Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( `` Southern Land '' ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica is noted as the last region on Earth in recorded history to be discovered and colonised by humans , being only first sighted in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of easily accessible resources , and isolation . In 1895 , the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians .   Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty-eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations .

negative: Metamood Metamood is a term used by psychologists to refers to an individual 's awareness of their emotions . It can be described as being caught up in any emotion and then becoming aware that you are being swept away by it . Being able to pull back in the midst of an emotion and in that moment recognize what you are feeling is a phenomenal skill . Also , it is a difficult one to acquire because quite often , emotions can be disguised by another .

negative: Drift ice Drift ice is any sea ice other than fast ice , the latter being attached ( `` fastened '' ) to the shoreline or other fixed objects ( shoals , grounded icebergs , etc. ) . Drift ice is carried along by winds and sea currents , hence its name . When drift ice is driven together into a large single mass ( > 70 % coverage ) , it is called pack ice . Wind and currents can pile up that ice to form ridges up to several metres in height . These represent a challenge for icebreakers and offshore structures operating in cold oceans and seas .   Drift ice consists of floes , individual pieces of sea ice 20 m or more across . There are names for various floe sizes : small -- 20 m to 100 m ; medium -- 100 m to 500 m ; big -- 500 m to 2000 m ; vast -- 2 km to 10 km ; and giant -- more than 10 km .   Seasonal ice drift in the Sea of Okhotsk by the northern coast of Hokkaidō , Japan has become a tourist attraction of this area with harsh climate , and is one of the 100 Soundscapes of Japan . The Sea of Okhotsk is the southernmost area in the Northern hemisphere where drift ice may be observed .   Drift ice affects :  Security of navigation  Climatic impact ( see Polar ice packs )  Geological impact  Biosphere influence ( see Ecology of sea ice )   The two major ice packs are the Arctic ice pack and the Antarctic ice pack . The most important areas of pack ice are the polar ice packs formed from seawater in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs significantly change their size during seasonal changes of the year . Because of vast amounts of water added to or removed from the oceans and atmosphere , the behavior of polar ice packs has a significant impact on global changes in climate .

negative: Bradley Land Bradley Land was the name Frederick Cook gave to a mass of land which he claimed to have seen between and during a 1909 expedition . He described it as two masses of land with a break , a strait , or an indentation between . The land was named for John R. Bradley , who had sponsored Cook 's expedition .   Cook published two photographs of the land and described it thus : `` The lower coast resembled Heiberg Island , with mountains and high valleys . The upper coast I estimated as being about one thousand feet high , flat , and covered with a thin sheet ice . ''   It is now known there is no land at that location and Cook 's observations were based on either a misidentification of sea ice or an outright fabrication . Cook 's Inuit companions reported that the photographs were actually taken near the coast of Axel Heiberg Island .

negative: Champlain Sea The Champlain Sea was a temporary inlet of the Atlantic Ocean , created by the retreating glaciers during the close of the last ice age . The Sea once included lands in what are now the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario , as well as parts of the American states of New York and Vermont .   The mass of ice from the continental ice sheets had depressed the rock beneath it over millennia . At the end of the last ice age , while the rock was still depressed , the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa River valleys , as well as modern Lake Champlain , were below sea level and flooded with rising worldwide sea levels , once the ice no longer prevented the ocean from flowing into the region . As the land gradually rose again , in the process known as isostatic rebound , the sea coast gradually retreated to its current location .   The sea lasted from about 13,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago and was continuously shrinking during that time , since the rebounding continent was slowly rising above sea level . At its peak , the sea extended inland as far south as Lake Champlain and somewhat farther west than the city of Ottawa , Ontario , and farther up the Ottawa River past Pembroke . The remaining glaciers fed the sea during that time , making it more brackish than typical seawater . It is estimated that the sea was as much as 150 m above the level of today 's Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers .   The best evidence of this former sea is the vast clay plain deposited along the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers . This resulted in distinctive forest types , and large wetlands . Other modern evidence of the sea can be seen in the form of whale fossils , ( belugas , fin whales , and bowhead whales ) and marine shells that have been found near the cities of Ottawa , Ontario , and Montreal , Quebec . There are also fossils of oceanic fish such as capelin . The Sea also left ancient raised shorelines in the former coastal regions , and the Leda clay deposits in areas of deeper water .   The northern shore of the lake was in southern Quebec where outcrops of the Canadian shield form the Eardley Escarpment . This escarpment still has distinctive plants that may date back to the sea . The Eardley Escarpment is known locally as the Gatineau Hills ; part of the Mattawa fault at the southeastern edge of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben , in Eastern Ontario and the Outaouais region of Quebec , more commonly known as the Ottawa Valley .

negative: Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE .   Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .

negative: Sea level equation The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) .   The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads   where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement .   In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow :     where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .

negative: Tuya A tuya is a type of distinctive , flat-topped , steep-sided volcano formed when lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet . They are somewhat rare worldwide , being confined to regions which were covered by glaciers and had active volcanism during the same period .   Lava that erupts under a glacier cools very quickly and can not travel far , so it piles up into a steep-sided hill . If the eruption continues long enough , it either melts all the ice or emerges through the top of the ice and then creates normal-looking lava flows that make a flat cap on top of the hill . Discovering and dating the lava flows in a tuya has proven useful in reconstructing past glacial ice extents and thicknesses .

negative: Climate of Antarctica The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .

negative: Ice sheet An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America .   Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery .   Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams .   The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .

negative: Extreme points of Antarctica The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level .  The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) .  The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level .  The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility .  Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) .  Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia .  The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island .  The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level .  The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf .  The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .

negative: Arctic Ocean The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean .   Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .

negative: Subglacial lake A subglacial lake is a lake under a glacier , typically an ice cap or ice sheet . There are many such lakes , with Lake Vostok in Antarctica being by far the largest known at present .

negative: Bay of Whales The Bay of Whales was a natural ice harbor , or iceport , indenting the front of Ross Ice Shelf just north of Roosevelt Island , Antarctica . It is the southernmost point of open ocean not only of the Ross Sea , but worldwide . The Ross Sea extends much further south -- as far as the Gould Coast , some 320 km from the South Pole -- but most of that area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf rather than open sea .

negative: Joseph Adhémar Joseph Alphonse Adhémar ( 1797 -- 1862 ) was a French mathematician . He was the first to suggest that ice ages were controlled by astronomical forces in his 1842 book Revolutions of the Sea .   The Earth 's orbit is elliptical , with the Sun at one focus ; lines drawn through the summer and winter solstice ; and the spring and autumn equinox ; intersect with the sun at right angles . The Earth is closest to the Sun ( perihelion ) near the northern hemisphere winter solstice . The earth moves faster through its orbit when closer to the sun . Hence , the period from the northern hemisphere 's autumn equinox to winter and spring is shorter by around seven days than the period from spring to summer to autumn ; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere . Hence , northern hemisphere winter is shorter .   Because of this , Adhemar reasoned that because the southern hemisphere had more hours of darkness in winter , it must be cooling , and attributed the Antarctic ice sheet to this . Adhemar knew of the 22,000 year cycle of precession of the equinoxes , and theorised that the ice ages occurred in this cycle .   One immediate objection to the theory was that the total insolation during a year does not vary at all during the precessional cycle , only its seasonal distribution . Another was that the timing was wrong ; however this could not be tested by observations available at the time .   Adhemar 's theory was further developed , first by James Croll and later by Milutin Milanković .   Adhemar predicted the Antarctic ice sheet and theorised about its thickness by comparing the depths of the Arctic and circum-Antarctic oceans . Finding the Antarctic oceans deeper ( the measurements he used may not have been fully representative ) and attributing this to the gravitational attraction of the Antarctic ice sheet , he postulated a truly enormous ice sheet approximately 90 km thick .

negative: Gulliver Nunatak Gulliver Nunatak is a nunatak with a flat , ice-free summit , 575 m high , at the north side of Adie Inlet , on the east coast of Graham Land , Antarctica . It was charted by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) and photographed from the air by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition ( RARE ) in 1947 . It was named by the FIDS for the fictional character in Jonathan Swift 's Gulliver 's Travels , because when viewed from the southeast its appearance is suggestive of a man lying on his back with his head toward the south .

negative: ICESat-2 ICESat-2 ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite 2 ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , is a planned satellite mission for measuring ice sheet elevation , sea ice freeboard as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat-2 is a planned follow-on to the ICESat mission . It will be launched in 2018 from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 496 km . It is being designed to operate for 3 years , and will carry enough propellant for 7 years .   The ICESat-2 mission is designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as vegetation canopy information . It will provide topography measurements of cities , lakes and reservoirs , oceans and land surfaces around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage .   The ICESat-2 project is being managed by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . The sole instrument is being designed and built by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center , and the bus is being provided by Orbital ATK . The satellite will launch on a Delta II rocket provided by United Launch Alliance .

negative: Halley Research Station Halley Research Station , run by the British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) , is a scientific research station on the Brunt Ice Shelf floating on the Weddell Sea in Antarctica . As with the German Neumayer-Station III it is built on an ice shelf floating on the sea , versus being on solid land on the continent of Antarctica . Because the ice shelf is slowly moving towards the open ocean it will eventually calve off creating a drifting iceberg .   In 2002 , the BAS realized there was a calving event that would destroy Halley V , so a competition was undertaken to design a replacement station . The current base structure , the Halley VI , is notable for being the world 's first fully relocatable research station , and is distinguishable by its colourful modular structure that is built upon huge hydraulic skis .   It is a British research facility dedicated to the study of the Earth 's atmosphere . Measurements from Halley led to the discovery of the ozone hole in 1985 .

negative: Decree of Dionysopolis The Decree of Dionysopolis was written around 48 BC by the citizens of Dionysopolis ( today 's Balchik , on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria ) to Akornion , who traveled far away in a diplomatic mission to meet somebody 's farther in Argedauon . The decree , a fragmentary marble inscription , is located in the National Historical Museum in Sofia .

negative: Tidal force The tidal force is a force that is the secondary effect of the force of gravity ; it is responsible for the phenomenon of tides . It arises because the gravitational force exerted by one body on another is not constant across it : the nearest side is attracted more strongly than the farthest side . Thus , the tidal force is differential . Consider the gravitational attraction of the Moon on the oceans nearest to the Moon , the solid Earth and the oceans farthest from the Moon . There is a mutual attraction between the Moon and the solid Earth , which can be considered to act on its centre of mass . However , the near oceans are more strongly attracted and , especially since they are fluid , they approach the Moon slightly , causing a high tide . The far oceans are attracted less . The attraction on the far-side oceans could be expected to cause a low tide , but since the solid Earth is attracted ( accelerated ) more strongly towards the moon , there is a relative acceleration of those waters in the outwards direction . Viewing the Earth as a whole , we see that all its mass experiences a mutual attraction with that of the Moon , but the near oceans more so than the far oceans , leading to a separation of the two .   In a more general usage in celestial mechanics , the expression `` tidal force '' can refer to a situation in which a body or material ( for example , tidal water ) is mainly under the gravitational influence of a second body ( for example , the Earth ) , but is also perturbed by the gravitational effects of a third body ( for example , the Moon ) . The perturbing force is sometimes in such cases called a tidal force ( for example , the perturbing force on the Moon ) : it is the difference between the force exerted by the third body on the second and the force exerted by the third body on the first .

negative: Ocean surface topography The ocean surface has highs and lows , similar to the hills and valleys of Earth 's land surface depicted on a topographic map . These variations , called ocean surface topography ( or sea surface topography ) , also dynamic topography , are mapped using direct ( usually satellite-based ) or indirect measurements of sea surface height relative to Earth 's geoid . Earth 's geoid is a calculated surface of equal gravitational potential energy and represents the shape the sea surface would be if the ocean were not in motion . The main purpose of measuring ocean surface topography is to understand the large-scale circulation of the ocean .   On a daily basis , SSH is most obviously affected by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting on the Earth . Over longer timescales , SSH is influenced by ocean circulation . Typically , SSH anomalies resulting from these forces differ from the mean by less than ± 1 m at the global scale . Other influences include temperature , salinity , tides , waves , and the loading of atmospheric pressure . The slowest and largest variations are due to changes in the Earth 's gravitational field ( geoid ) due to the rearrangement of continents , formation of sea mounts and other redistribution of rock .   Since the Earth 's gravitational field is relatively stable on decadal to centennial timescales , ocean circulation plays a more significant role in the observed variation of SSH . Across the seasonal cycle changes in patterns of warming , cooling and surface wind forcing affect circulation and influence SSH . Variations in SSH can be measured by satellite altimetry ( e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon ) and used to calculate determine sea level rise and properties such as ocean heat storage .

negative: East Antarctic Ice Sheet The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally .   The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .

negative: Quaternary glaciation The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .

negative: West Antarctic Rift The West Antarctic Rift is a major , active rift valley lying between East and West Antarctica . It encompasses the Ross Sea , the area under the Ross Ice Shelf and a part of West Antarctica . Its evolution is due to lithospheric thinning of the non-cratonic area of West Antarctica .   Exploration of the geology of the West Antarctic Rift is difficult , because , apart from peaks of the Transantarctic Mountains that protrude above the ice , the region is covered by the vast West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Thus , the rift is less well known than other major rift valleys . It is known , however , that like the East African Rift , the West Antarctic Rift is actually a number of much shorter rifts that cross Antarctica . There is also a sharp division between older , broader Paleogene rifts including the Ross Sea Basin and the younger , narrower Terror Rift . There are also a large number of failed rifts extending as far as Berkner Island .   Although many rifts within the West Antarctic Rift system are no longer active , it is now known that West Antarctica is moving away from the East Antarctic Craton in a north/northeasterly direction ( approximately in the direction of the South Georgia Islands ) at a rate of about 2 mm per year or 500,000 years per kilometre .   The West Antarctic Rift is the source of all the recently active volcanoes within Antarctica , and of most of the major Antarctic mountain systems outside the Antarctic Peninsula . It is also believed to have a major influence on ice flows in West Antarctica , because fast moving ice streams are believed to be influenced by the lubrication provided by water-saturated till , which some argue could help cause breakup of the ice sheet if global warming accelerates .

negative: Amundsen Sea The Amundsen Sea , an arm of the Southern Ocean off Marie Byrd Land in western Antarctica , lies between Cape Flying Fish ( the northwestern tip of Thurston Island ) to the east and Cape Dart on Siple Island to the west . Cape Flying Fish marks the boundary between the Amundsen Sea and the Bellingshausen Sea . West of Cape Dart there is no named marginal sea of the Southern Ocean between the Amundsen and Ross Seas . The Norwegian expedition of 1928 -- 1929 under Captain Nils Larsen named the body of water for the Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen while exploring this area in February 1929 .   The sea is mostly ice-covered , and the Thwaites Ice Tongue protrudes into it . The ice sheet which drains into the Amundsen Sea averages about 3 km in thickness ; roughly the size of the state of Texas , this area is known as the Amundsen Sea Embayment ( ASE ) ; it forms one of the three major ice-drainage basins of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .

negative: Richards Inlet Richards Inlet is a large ice-filled inlet at the mouth of Lennox-King Glacier , opening to the Ross Ice Shelf just southeast of Lewis Ridge . Named by the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition ( NZGSAE ) ( 1959 -- 60 ) for R.W. Richards , a member of the Ross Sea Party of the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition ( 1914 -- 17 ) , who assisted in laying depots as far south as Mount Hope for Shackleton 's proposed crossing of Antarctica .    Category : Inlets of Antarctica  Category : Shackleton Coast

negative: Weddell Sea The Weddell Sea is part of the Southern Ocean and contains the Weddell Gyre . Its land boundaries are defined by the bay formed from the coasts of Coats Land and the Antarctic Peninsula . The easternmost point is Cape Norvegia at Princess Martha Coast , Queen Maud Land . To the east of Cape Norvegia is the King Haakon VII Sea . Much of the southern part of the sea is covered by a permanent , massive ice shelf field , the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ( not pack ice ) . The sea is contained within the two overlapping Antarctic territorial claims of Argentina , ( Argentine Antarctica ) and Britain ( British Antarctic Territory ) , and also resides partially within the territorial claim of Chile ( Antarctic Chilean Territory ) . At its widest the sea is around 2,000 km across , and its area is around 2.8 e6km2 .   Various ice shelves , including the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf , fringe the Weddell sea . Some of the ice shelves on the east side of the Antarctic Peninsula , which formerly covered roughly 3900 sqmi of the Weddell Sea , had completely disappeared by 2002 ; see . Whilst a dramatic event , the area that disappeared was far smaller than the total area of ice shelf that remains .   The Weddell Sea has been deemed by scientists to have the clearest water of any sea . Dutch researchers from the German Alfred Wegener Institute , on finding a Secchi disc visible at a depth of 262 ft on 13 October 1986 , ascertained that the clarity corresponded to that of distilled water .   In his 1950 book The White Continent , historian Thomas R. Henry writes :   He continues for an entire chapter , relating myths of the green-haired merman sighted in the sea 's icy waters , the inability of crews to navigate a path to the coast until 1949 , and treacherous `` flash freezes '' that left ships , such as Ernest Shackleton 's Endurance , at the mercy of the ice floes .

negative: Konrad Steffen Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .

negative: Ross Sea party 1914–1917 The Ross Sea party was a component of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition 1914 -- 17 . Its task was to lay a series of supply depots across the Great Ice Barrier from the Ross Sea to the Beardmore Glacier , along the polar route established by earlier Antarctic expeditions . The expedition 's main party , under Shackleton , was to land near Vahsel Bay on the opposite coast of Antarctica , and to march across the continent via the South Pole to the Ross Sea . As the main party would be unable to carry sufficient fuel and supplies for the whole distance , their survival depended on the Ross Sea party setting up supply depots , which would cover the final quarter of their journey .   Shackleton set sail from London on his ship Endurance , bound for the Weddell Sea in August 1914 . Meanwhile , the Ross Sea party personnel gathered in Australia , prior to departure for the Ross Sea in the second expedition ship , SY Aurora . Organisational and financial problems delayed their start until December 1914 , which shortened their first depot-laying season . After their arrival the inexperienced party struggled to master the art of Antarctic travel , in the process losing most of their sled dogs .   A greater misfortune occurred at the onset of the southern winter when the Aurora , locked in an ice-floe which broke off from the main shelf , was torn from its moorings . The ocean currents then pulled ship further away from the sledding parties marooned on shore and drifted for over six months before breaking free of the ice . Sadly the Aurora 's damaged rudder forced her to return to New Zealand rather than returning for the stranded shore party .   Despite these setbacks , the Ross Sea party survived inter-personnel disputes , extreme weather , illness , and the deaths of three of its members to carry out its mission in full during its second Antarctic season . This success proved ultimately without purpose , because Shackleton 's main expedition was unable to land after Endurance was crushed in the Weddell Sea ice . Shackleton eventually led his men to safety , but the transcontinental march did not take place and the Ross Sea party 's depots were not required . The Ross Sea party remained stranded until January 1917 , when Aurora , which had been repaired and refitted in New Zealand , arrived to rescue them . Public recognition of their efforts was slow in coming , but in due course four Albert Medals were awarded to members of the party , two posthumously . Shackleton later wrote that those who died `` gave their lives for their country as surely as those who gave up their lives in France or Flanders . ''

negative: Nordic Seas The Nordic Seas are located north of Iceland and south of Svalbard . They have also been defined as the region located north of the Greenland-Scotland Ridge and south of the Fram Strait-Spitsbergen-Norway intersection . Known to connect the North Pacific and the North Atlantic waters , this region is also known as having some of the densest waters , creating the densest region found in the North Atlantic Deep Water . The deepest waters of the Arctic Ocean are connected to the worlds other oceans through Nordic Seas and Fram Straight . There are three seas within the Nordic Sea : Greenland Sea , Norwegian Sea , and Iceland Sea . The Nordic Seas only make up about 0.75 % of the World 's Oceans . This region is known as having diverse features in such a small topographic area , such as the mid oceanic ridge systems . Some locations have shallow shelves , while others have deep slopes and basins . This region , because of the atmosphere-ocean transfer of energy and gases , has varying seasonal climate . During the winter , sea ice is formed in the western and northern regions of the Nordic Seas , whereas during the summer months , the majority of the region remains free of ice .   Several water masses are found interacting in the Nordic Sea . These water masses are present due to subduction , deep convective mixing , surface/frontal mixing , and entrainment of water from low and high latitudes . Interaction from multiple water sources can lead to varying conditions . New primary production is higher in this region , usually exceeding regenerated primary production . New production is higher in regions where water interacts with Atlantic Water , which has nutrient-rich waters . When looking at carbon flux from the atmosphere to the ocean , this region is considered one of the highest in the world 's oceans . This region is also known as being one of the few bodies of water that take up large quantities of carbon dioxide yearly , ranging from 20-85 g C m − 2y − 1 , which is considered high in comparison the carbon dioxide flux in the world 's oceans .   The Nordic Seas include the Greenland Sea , the Norwegian Sea , and the Iceland Sea . The Greenland and the Norwegian Sea are separately distinguished by Mohn 's Ridge . The Greenland and Iceland Sea are separated by the Jan Mayen fracture zone , and the Norwegian and Iceland Seas have the Aegir Ridge between them . The Nordic Seas have varying and diverse features as a result of each sea having separate water mass structures and circulation patterns . The Greenland Sea produces dense waters because of its high salinity and cooler temperatures from winter cooling . Higher salinity is present as a result of the Greenland Sea 's close proximity to the salinity inflow that occurs from the Atlantic Ocean . Another dense water source comes from the Arctic waters that also flow into the Greenland Sea . These water source mixtures are important because they play a role in the overflows that occur in the North Atlantic . The water that overflows from the Greenland ridge becomes the North Atlantic Deep Water dense water , even though this body of water does not make up the deep waters of the Nordic Sea .

negative: Ice shove An ice shove , ice surge , ice heave , ivu ,  or shoreline ice pileup is a surge of ice from an ocean or large lake onto the shore .  Ice shoves are caused by ocean currents , strong winds , or temperature differences pushing ice onto the shore ,  creating piles up to 12 metres ( 40 feet ) high . Some have described them as ` ice tsunamis ' ,  but the phenomenon works like an iceberg . Witnesses have described the shove 's sound as being like that of a train or thunder . Ice shoves can damage buildings and plants that are near to the body of water . Arctic communities can be affected by ice shoves .

negative: Bentley Subglacial Trench Bentley Subglacial Trench is a vast topographic trench in Marie Byrd Land , West Antarctica , 80 ° S , 115 ° W . At 2,555 meters ( 8,382 ft ) below sea level , it is the lowest point on the surface of the earth not covered by ocean , although it is covered by ice . Normally , it is not counted as the lowest point on land , since the overlying ice sheet makes it essentially subterranean . ( See Extremes on Earth and Vestfold Hills ) Also , if the ice melted , the area would be under water .   The trench was named in 1961 after Charles R. Bentley who was the geophysicist in charge of the scientific expeditions in West Antarctica in 1957 -- 59 that led to its discovery .

negative: Earth Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets .   According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation .   Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics .   Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states .


query: Also, it's not yet clear whether changes in stratospheric water vapor are caused by a climate feedback or internal variability

positive: Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\nThe energy moving through Earth\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of "internal variability", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.

positive: Cloud In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology .   There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties .   Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water .   Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels .   '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: Climate change in Saskatchewan The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .

negative: Physical impacts of climate change This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described .   This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .

negative: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect .   These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .

negative: Vapor polishing Vapor polishing is a method of polishing plastics to reduce the surface roughness or improve clarity . Typically , a component is exposed to a chemical vapor causing the surface to flow thereby improving the surface finish . This method of polishing is frequently used to return clear materials to an optical quality finish after machining . Vapor polishing works well in the internal features of components .   Feature size changes of the plastic component generally do not occur . Post stress relieving is usually required as vapor polishing sets up surface stresses that can cause crazing .   Plastics that respond well to vapor polishing are polycarbonate , acrylic , polysulfone , PEI , and ABS .   The technique is also being used to improve the surface of objects created with 3D printing techniques . As the printer deposits layer upon layer of material to build the object , the surface is often not entirely smooth . The smoothness of the surface can be greatly increased by vapor polishing .

negative: Negative feedback Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system , process , or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output , whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances .   Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth , oscillation or chaotic behavior , negative feedback generally promotes stability . Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium , and reduces the effects of perturbations . Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable , accurate , and responsive .   Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering , but it also occurs naturally within living organisms , and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate . General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering .

negative: Climate change adaptation in Nepal Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa

negative: Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change The Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change ( CMCC ) is an Italian research centre dedicated to climate and climate related research , including climate variability , its causes and consequences , carried out through numerical models ranging from Global Earth System to Regional models within the Euro-Mediterranean area .

negative: SAGE III on ISS SAGE III on ISS is the fourth generation of a series of NASA Earth-observing instruments , known as the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment . The first SAGE III instrument was launched on the Russian Meteor ( satellite ) spacecraft . The recently revised SAGE III will be mounted to the International Space Station where it will use the unique vantage point of ISS to make long-term measurements of ozone , aerosols , water vapor , and other gases in Earth 's atmosphere .

negative: Journal of Climate The Journal of Climate is a scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society .  The journal publishes articles on climate research , in particular those concerned with large-scale atmospheric and oceanic variability , changes in the climate system ( including those caused by human activities ) , and climate simulation and prediction .

negative: Water cycle The water cycle , also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle , describes the continuous movement of water on , above and below the surface of the Earth . The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice , fresh water , saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables . The water moves from one reservoir to another , such as from river to ocean , or from the ocean to the atmosphere , by the physical processes of evaporation , condensation , precipitation , infiltration , surface runoff , and subsurface flow . In doing so , the water goes through different forms : liquid , solid ( ice ) and vapor .   The water cycle involves the exchange of energy , which leads to temperature changes . For instance , when water evaporates , it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment . When it condenses , it releases energy and warms the environment . These heat exchanges influence climate .   The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater . The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe . It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth , through processes including erosion and sedimentation . The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet .

negative: Climate change in Idaho Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho .   In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers .   Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult .   Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .

negative: Cooperative Institute for Climate Applications and Research The Cooperative Institute for Climate Applications and Research ( CICAR ) formalizes a major collaborative relationship between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and Columbia University .   The CICAR research themes are :  Modeling , understanding , prediction , and assessment of climate variability and change  Development , collection , analysis , and archiving of instrumental and Paleoclimate data  Development of the application of climate variability and change prediction and assessment to provide information for decision makers and assess risk to water resources , agriculture , health , and policy

negative: International Arctic Research Center The International Arctic Research Center , or IARC , established in 1999 , is a research institution focused on integrating and coordinating study of climate change in the Arctic . The primary partners in IARC are Japan and the United States . Participants include organizations from Canada , China , Denmark , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States .   The Center is located at the University of Alaska Fairbanks , in the Syun-Ichi Akasofu Building . The Keith B. Mather Library is the science library housed in the Akasofu Building , serving IARC and the Geophysical Institute of UAF . The building also houses the UAF atmospheric sciences department , the Center for Global Change and the Fairbanks forecast office of the National Weather Service .   Study projects are focused within four major themes :  Arctic ocean models and observation  Arctic atmosphere : feedbacks , radiation , and weather analysis  Permafrost/Frozen soil models and observations  Arctic biota/vegetation ( ecosystem models )   IARC is devoting specific effort to answering the following three questions :  To what extent is climate change due to natural vs man-made causes ?  What parameters , processes and interactions are needed to understand and predict future climate change ?  What are the likely impacts of climate change ?

negative: Peter A. Stott Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change .   He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate .   Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .

negative: Atmospheric river An atmospheric river is a narrow corridor or filament of concentrated moisture in the atmosphere . Atmospheric rivers consist of narrow bands of enhanced water vapor transport , typically along the boundaries between large areas of divergent surface air flow , including some frontal zones in association with extratropical cyclones that form over the oceans . Pineapple Express storms are the most commonly represented and recognized type of atmospheric rivers ; they are given the name due to the warm water vapor plumes originating over the Hawaiian tropics that follow a path towards California .   The term was originally coined by researchers Reginald Newell and Yong Zhu of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the early 1990s , to reflect the narrowness of the moisture plumes involved . Atmospheric rivers are typically several thousand kilometers long and only a few hundred kilometers wide , and a single one can carry a greater flux of water than the Earth 's largest river , the Amazon River . There are typically 3 -- 5 of these narrow plumes present within a hemisphere at any given time . In the current research field of atmospheric rivers the length and width factors described above in conjunction with an integrated water vapor depth greater than 2.0 cm are used as standards to categorize atmospheric river events . However , as data modeling techniques progress , integrated water vapor transport ( IVT ) is becoming a more common data type used to interpret atmospheric rivers . Its strength lies in its ability to show the transportation of water vapor over multiple time steps instead of a stagnant measurement of water vapor depth in a specific air column ( IWV ) . In addition IVT is more directly attributed to orographic precipitation , a key factor in the production of intense rainfall and subsequent flooding .   Atmospheric rivers have a central role in the global water cycle . On any given day , atmospheric rivers account for over 90 % of the global meridional ( north-south ) water vapor transport , yet they cover less than 10 % of the Earth 's circumference .   They also are the major cause of extreme precipitation events that cause severe flooding in many mid-latitude , westerly coastal regions of the world , including the West Coast of North America , Western Europe , and the west coast of North Africa .   The significance atmospheric rivers have for the control of coastal water budgets juxtaposed against their creation of detrimental floods can be constructed and studied by looking at California and the surrounding coastal region of the western United States . In this region atmospheric rivers have contributed 30-50 % of total annual rainfall . In conjunction Californian land falling Atmospheric Rivers have been historically associated with approximately all major flooding events . The inconsistency of California 's rainfall is due to the variability in strength and quantity of these storms , which can produce strenuous effects on California 's water budget . The factors described above make California a perfect case study to show the importance of proper water management and prediction of these storms .  __ NOTOC __

negative: Schiaparelli (Martian crater) Schiaparelli is an impact crater on Mars named after Giovanni Schiaparelli located near Mars 's equator . It is 461 km in diameter and located at latitude 3 ° south and longitude 344 ° . A crater within Schiaparelli shows many layers that may have formed by the wind , volcanoes , or deposition under water .   Layers can be a few meters thick or tens of meters thick . Recent research on these layers suggests that ancient climate change on Mars , caused by regular variation in the planet 's tilt , may have caused the patterns in layers . On Earth , similar changes ( astronomical forcing ) of climate results in ice-age cycles .   The regular appearance of rock layers suggests that regular changes in climate may be the root cause . Regular changes in climate may be due to variations of a planet 's tilt ( called obliquity ) . The tilt of the Earth 's axis changes by only a little more than 2 degrees since our moon is relatively large . In contrast Mars 's tilt varies by tens of degrees . When the tilt is low ( current situation on Mars ) , the poles are the coldest places on the planet , while the equator is the warmest ( as on Earth ) . This could cause gases in the atmosphere , like water and carbon dioxide , to migrate poleward , where they would freeze . When the obliquity is higher , the poles receive more sunlight , causing those materials to migrate away . When carbon dioxide moves from the Martian poles , the atmospheric pressure increases , possibly causing a difference in the ability of winds to transport and deposit sand . Also , with more water in the atmosphere sand grains may stick and cement together to form layers .

negative: Dynamic vapor sorption Dynamic vapor sorption ( DVS ) is a gravimetric technique that measures how quickly and how much of a solvent is absorbed by a sample : such as a dry powder absorbing water . It does this by varying the vapor concentration surrounding the sample and measuring the change in mass which this produces . Water vapor is most commonly used , but it is also possible to use a wide range of organic solvents .   Dr Daryl Williams , founder of Surface Measurement Systems Ltd , invented Dynamic Vapor Sorption in 1991 and the first instrument was delivered to Pfizer UK in 1992 . DVS was originally developed to replace the time and labor-intensive desiccators and saturated salt solutions to measure water vapor sorption isotherms .

negative: Climatic adaptation Climate adaptation refers to specific adaptations in a living organism that develop in response to changes in climate and habitat . Such adaptations could include physical changes , such as skin or fur color and composition changes , or the adaptations could be behavioral , such as burrowing into the ground or spending more time in water . These are not necessarily permanently expressed traits , instead encompassing the potential for the individual to adapt to certain environments . The change in the environment triggers a change in behavior which would not have been present had the organism not been exposed to that specific stimuli . Climate adaptation is constrained by the genetic variability of the species in question .

negative: CLIVAR CLIVAR ( climate variability and predictability ) is a component of the World Climate Research Programme . Its purpose is to describe and understand climate variability and predictability on seasonal to centennial time-scales , identify the physical processes responsible for climate change and develop modeling and predictive capabilities for climate modelling .

negative: Evaporative cooler An evaporative cooler ( also swamp cooler , desert cooler and wet air cooler ) is a device that cools air through the evaporation of water . Evaporative cooling differs from typical air conditioning systems , which use vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycles . Evaporative cooling works by exploiting water 's large enthalpy of vaporization . The temperature of dry air can be dropped significantly through the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor ( evaporation ) . This can cool air using much less energy than refrigeration . In extremely dry climates , evaporative cooling of air has the added benefit of conditioning the air with more moisture for the comfort of building occupants .   The cooling potential for evaporative cooling is dependent on the wet bulb depression , the difference between dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature . In arid climates , evaporative cooling can reduce energy consumption and total equipment for conditioning as an alternative to compressor-based cooling . In climates not considered arid , indirect evaporative cooling can still take advantage of the evaporative cooling process without increasing humidity . Passive evaporative cooling strategies offer the same benefits of mechanical evaporative cooling systems without the complexity of equipment and ductwork .

negative: Kathleen Miller Kathleen A. Miller is a climate scientist who specializes in the economics of climate change and its effects on institutions , management of risk and investment decisions .   She has worked as the lead author on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change chapter on North America in the report Climate Change 2001 : Impacts , Adaptations and Vulnerability .   She is based at the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado .   Miller undertook her doctorate in Economics at the University of Washington in 1985 . Her dissertation was entitled The Right to Use vs. the Right to Sell : Water Rights in the Western United States . It explored the evolution of property institutions governing access to water in the arid western states and modelled the operation and effects of these institutions in the presence of both scarcity and inter-temporal variability in water supplies .

negative: Trace gas A trace gas is a gas which makes up less than 1 % by volume of the Earth 's atmosphere , and it includes all gases except nitrogen ( 78.1 % ) and oxygen ( 20.9 % ) . The most abundant trace gas at 0.934 % is argon . Water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance .

negative: Cryosphere The cryosphere ( from the Greek κρύος kryos , `` cold '' , `` frost '' or `` ice '' and σφαῖρα sphaira , `` globe , ball '' ) is those portions of Earth 's surface where water is in solid form , including sea ice , lake ice , river ice , snow cover , glaciers , ice caps , ice sheets , and frozen ground ( which includes permafrost ) . Thus , there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere . The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes , clouds , precipitation , hydrology , atmospheric and oceanic circulation . Through these feedback processes , the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes . The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features . Cryology is the study of cryospheres .

negative: Ainun Nishat Ainun Nishat ( born April 29 , 1948 ) is a Professor Emeritus of BRAC University , and is deemed as a water resource and climate change specialist . He represented Bangladesh at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2009 , among other international climate-related conferences .

negative: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .

negative: Habitat destruction Habitat destruction is the process in which natural habitat is rendered unable to support the species present . In this process , the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed , reducing biodiversity . Habitat destruction by human activity is mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industry production and urbanization . Clearing habitats for agriculture is the principal cause of habitat destruction . Other important causes of habitat destruction include mining , logging , trawling and urban sprawl . Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary cause of species extinction worldwide . It is a process of natural environmental change that may be caused by habitat fragmentation , geological processes , climate change or by human activities such as the introduction of invasive species , ecosystem nutrient depletion , and other human activities   The terms habitat loss and habitat reduction are also used in a wider sense , including loss of habitat from other factors , such as water and noise pollution .

negative: Sierra Wave thumb | A Sierra Wave over the Sierra Nevada   The Sierra Wave is a type of lenticular cloud created by winds that lift off the Sierra Nevada mountain range of California . Known as lee waves , Sierra Waves form as winds hit the Sierra Nevada and are forced to rise , causing water vapor to condense as it cools and forming lenticular clouds on the leeward side of the mountain range . These clouds can remain stationary for many hours . The formation of a Sierra Wave is dependent upon many factors , including wind speed and direction , leeward wind patterns , and water vapor . Given that Sierra Waves are dependent upon many variables their formation is unpredictable .

negative: Woods Hole Research Center The Woods Hole Research Center ( WHRC ) is a scientific research organization that studies climate change , land use change , soils , wetlands , and forests . WHRC was named the world 's top climate change think tank for 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 by the International Center for Climate Governance .   The Center conducts research throughout the Amazon , the Arctic , central Africa , and North America . WHRC collaborates with a wide variety of partners to understand the causes and impacts of climate change and to implement more science-based policies .

negative: Climatic Change (journal) Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .

negative: Köhler theory Köhler theory describes the process in which water vapor condenses and forms liquid cloud drops , and is based on equilibrium thermodynamics . It combines the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface , and Raoult 's Law , which relates the saturation vapor pressure to the solute . It is an important process in the field of cloud physics . It was initially published in 1936 by Hilding Köhler , Professor of Meteorology in the Uppsala University .   Köhler equation :   where is the droplet water vapor pressure , is the corresponding saturation vapor pressure over a flat surface , is the droplet surface tension , is the density of pure water , is the moles of solute , is the molecular weight of water , and is the cloud drop diameter .

negative: International Conference on Climate Change The International Conference on Climate Change is a conference series organized and sponsored by The Heartland Institute which aims to bring together global warming skeptics who `` dispute that the science is settled on the causes , consequences , and policy implications of climate change . ''  The first conference took place in 2008 . As at 2017 there have been twelve conferences . Most of the events have been held in the United States , but there has been one in Australia and two in Germany .

negative: Vacuum evaporation Vacuum evaporation is the process of causing the pressure in a liquid-filled container to be reduced below the vapor pressure of the liquid , causing the liquid to evaporate at a lower temperature than normal . Although the process can be applied to any type of liquid at any vapor pressure , it is generally used to describe the boiling of water by lowering the container 's internal pressure below standard atmospheric pressure and causing the water to boil at room temperature .   The vacuum evaporation treatment process consists of reducing the interior pressure of the evaporation chamber below atmospheric pressure . This reduces the boiling point of the liquid to be evaporated , thereby reducing or eliminating the need for heat in both the boiling and condensation processes . In addition , there are other technical advantages such as the ability to distill other liquids with high boiling points and avoiding the decomposition of substances that are sensitive to temperature , etc. .