query: Human additions of CO2 are in the margin of error of current measurements and the gradual increase in CO2 is mainly from oceans degassing as the planet slowly emerges from the last ice age.

positive: Sea A sea is a large body of salt water that is surrounded in whole or in part by land . More broadly , `` the sea '' is the interconnected system of Earth 's salty , oceanic waters -- considered as one global ocean or as several principal oceanic divisions . The sea moderates Earth 's climate and has important roles in the water cycle , carbon cycle , and nitrogen cycle . Although the sea has been traveled and explored since prehistory , the modern scientific study of the sea -- oceanography -- dates broadly to the British Challenger expedition of the 1870s . The sea is conventionally divided into up to five large oceanic sections -- including the International Hydrographic Organization 's four named oceans ( the Atlantic , Pacific , Indian , and Arctic ) and the Southern Ocean ; smaller , second-order sections , such as the Mediterranean , are known as seas .   Owing to the present state of continental drift , the Northern Hemisphere is now fairly equally divided between land and sea ( a ratio of about 2:3 ) but the South is overwhelmingly oceanic ( 1:4.7 ) . Salinity in the open ocean is generally in a narrow band around 3.5 % by mass , although this can vary in more landlocked waters , near the mouths of large rivers , or at great depths . About 85 % of the solids in the open sea are sodium chloride . Deep-sea currents are produced by differences in salinity and temperature . Surface currents are formed by the friction of waves produced by the wind and by tides , the changes in local sea level produced by the gravity of the Moon and Sun . The direction of all of these is governed by surface and submarine land masses and by the rotation of the Earth ( the Coriolis effect ) .   Former changes in sea levels have left continental shelves , shallow areas in the sea close to land . These nutrient-rich waters teem with life , which provide humans with substantial supplies of food -- mainly fish , but also shellfish , mammals , and seaweed -- which are both harvested in the wild and farmed . The most diverse areas surround great tropical coral reefs . Whaling in the deep sea was once common but whales ' dwindling numbers prompted international conservation efforts and finally a moratorium on most commercial hunting . Oceanography has established that not all life is restricted to the sunlit surface waters : even under enormous depths and pressures , nutrients streaming from hydrothermal vents support their own unique ecosystem . Life may have started there and aquatic microbial mats are generally credited with the oxygenation of Earth 's atmosphere ; both plants and animals first evolved in the sea .   The sea is an essential aspect of human trade , travel , mineral extraction , and power generation . This has also made it essential to warfare and left major cities exposed to earthquakes and volcanoes from nearby faults ; powerful tsunami waves ; and hurricanes , typhoons , and cyclones produced in the tropics . This importance and duality has affected human culture , from early sea gods to the epic poetry of Homer to the changes induced by the Columbian Exchange , from burial at sea to Basho 's haikus to hyperrealist marine art , and inspiring music ranging from the shanties in The Complaynt of Scotland to Rimsky-Korsakov 's `` The Sea and Sinbad 's Ship '' to A-mei 's `` Listen to the Sea '' . It is the scene of leisure activities including swimming , diving , surfing , and sailing . However , population growth , industrialization , and intensive farming have all contributed to present-day marine pollution . Atmospheric carbon dioxide is being absorbed in increasing amounts , lowering its pH in a process known as ocean acidification . The shared nature of the sea has made overfishing an increasing problem .

positive: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years .   Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds .   The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .

positive: Ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean .   Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level .   While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins .   Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .

negative: Estuarine acidification Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation :   CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +

negative: David Archer (scientist) David Archer is a computational ocean chemist , and has been a professor at the Geophysical Sciences department at the University of Chicago since 1993 . He has published research on the carbon cycle of the ocean and the sea floor . He has worked on the history of atmospheric CO2 concentration , the expectation of fossil fuel CO2 over geologic time scales in the future , and the impact of CO2 on future ice age cycles , ocean methane hydrate decomposition , and coral reefs .   He is a contributor to the RealClimate blog .

negative: Low-carbon emission The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change .   The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle :   The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score .  There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles .   CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .

negative: Integrated fluorometer An integrated fluorometer is a system that measures the light reaction and the dark reaction of photosynthesis . Software allows combined operation of gas exchange measurement and chlorophyll fluorescence measurement of a leaf . These parameters are used to non-destructively measure the photosynthetic efficiency of plants . The use of an integrated chlorophyll fluorometer provides the opportunity to measure additional measuring parameters that allow for a more exact measurement of photosynthesis than with gas exchange alone . Advanced gas exchange instrumentation , by itself , is capable of measuring A/Ci curves , commonly used for plant characterization . `` A '' is the term for photosynthetic rate ( rate of CO2 exchange in the leaf chamber ) , and Ci is Sub-stomatal CO2 concentration or intracellular CO2 level within the leaf . When measured over a range of CO2 levels above and below ambient conditions , A/Ci curves become possible . With the addition of an integrated chlorophyll fluorometer , it becomes possible to measure more accurate A/CC curves , or photosynthetic rate at the site of carboxylation in chloroplasts . The integrated fluorometer allows measurement of mesophyll conductance , or the opposite of the resistance to CO2 transfer from intracellular air spaces to the site of carboxylation in chloroplasts . Various integrated chlorophyll fluorometer measuring protocols , such as the Laisk Protocol , the Kok protocol and the Yin Protocol are used to measure or estimate gm or mesophyll conductance . For example : the Laisk protocol allows the measurement of Γ * or compensation point , and Rd or respiration in the dark . Both values are required to calculate gm or mesophyll conductance and CC or CO2 at the site of carboxylation . Parameters typically measured by the gas exchange portion of the system include : `` A '' or photosynthetic rate , `` gs '' or stomatal conductance , `` Ci '' or sub stomatal CO2 concentration , and `` E '' or transpiration .

negative: Free Ocean CO2 Enrichment Free Ocean CO2 Enrichment ( FOCE ) is a technology facilitating studies of the consequences of ocean acidification for marine organisms and communities by enabling the precise control of CO2 enrichment within in situ , partially open , experimental enclosures . Current FOCE systems control experimental CO2 perturbations by real-time monitoring of differences in seawater pH between treatment ( i.e. high-CO2 ) and control ( i.e. ambient ) seawater within experimental enclosures .

negative: Carbon dioxide flooding Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil .   When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs .  By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well .   As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased .   In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone .   CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .

negative: Fuel factor The fuel factor , fo , is the ratio of created CO2 to depleted oxygen in a combustion reaction , used to check the accuracy of an emission measurement system . It can be calculated using the equation   fo = ( 20.9 - % O2 ) / % CO2 ,   Where % O2 is the percent O2 by volume , dry basis , % CO2 is the percent CO2 by volume , dry basis , and 20.9 is the percent O2 by volume in ambient air . The Fuel factor can be corrected for the amount of CO , by adding the percent CO on a dry basis to the CO2 , and subtracting half of the percent CO from the O2 .

negative: Total inorganic carbon The total inorganic carbon ( CT , or TIC ) or dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) is the sum of inorganic carbon species in a solution . The inorganic carbon species include carbon dioxide , carbonic acid , bicarbonate anion , and carbonate . It is customary to express carbon dioxide and carbonic acid simultaneously as CO2 * . CT is a key parameter when making measurements related to the pH of natural aqueous systems , and carbon dioxide flux estimates .   CT = -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- + -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- + -LSB- CO32 − -RSB-   where ,   CT is the total inorganic carbon  -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- is the sum of carbon dioxide and carbonic acid concentrations ( -LSB- CO2 * -RSB- = -LSB- CO2 -RSB- + -LSB- H2CO3 -RSB- )  -LSB- HCO3 − -RSB- is the bicarbonate concentration  -LSB- CO32 − -RSB- is the carbonate concentration   Each of these species are related by the following pH-driven chemical equilibria :   CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H + + HCO3 − 2H + + CO32 −   The concentrations of the different species of DIC ( and which species is dominant ) depends on the pH of the solution , as shown by a Bjerrum plot .   Total inorganic carbon is typically measured by the acidification of the sample which drives the equilibria to CO2 . This gas is then sparged from solution and trapped , and the quantity trapped is then measured , usually by infrared spectroscopy .

negative: North American Carbon Program The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program .  The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions .   The specific program goals are as followed :   Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins .   Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 .   Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends .   The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .

negative: Pyrenoid Pyrenoids are sub-cellular micro-compartments found in chloroplasts of many algae , and in a single group of land plants , the hornworts . Pyrenoids are associated with the operation of a carbon-concentrating mechanism ( CCM ) . Their main function is to act as centres of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) fixation , by generating and maintaining a CO2 rich environment around the photosynthetic enzyme ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase ( Rubisco ) . Pyrenoids therefore seem to have a role analogous to that of carboxysomes in cyanobacteria .   Algae are restricted to aqueous environments , even in terrestrial habitats , and this has implications for their ability to access CO2 for photosynthesis . CO2 diffuses 10,000 times slower in water than in air , and is also slow to equilibrate . The result of this is that water , as a medium , is often easily depleted of CO2 and is slow to gain CO2 from the air . Finally , CO2 equilibrates with bicarbonate ( HCO3 − ) when dissolved in water , and does so on a pH-dependent basis . In sea water for example , the pH is such that dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) is mainly found in the form of HCO3 − . The net result of this is a low concentration of free CO2 that is barely sufficient for an algal Rubisco to run at a quarter of its maximum velocity , and thus , CO2 availability may sometimes represent a major limitation of algal photosynthesis .

negative: Soil respiration Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna .   Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration .   The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures .   Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth .   Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .

negative: Limescale Limescale is the hard , off-white , chalky deposit found in kettles , hot-water boilers and the inside of inadequately maintained hot-water central heating systems .   It is also often found as a similar deposit on the inner surface of old pipe and other surfaces where `` hard water '' has evaporated . In addition to being unsightly and hard to clean , limescale seriously impairs the operation or damages various components .   The type found deposited on the heating elements of water heaters has a main component of calcium carbonate . Hard water contains calcium ( and often magnesium ) bicarbonate or similar ions . Calcium salts , such as calcium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate are both more soluble in hot water than cold water . Thus , heating water does not cause calcium carbonate to precipitate per se . However , there is an equilibrium between dissolved calcium bicarbonate and dissolved calcium carbonate :   Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − ⇋ Ca2 + + CO32 − + CO2 + H2O   where the equilibrium is driven by the carbonate/bicarbonate , not the calcium . Note that the CO2 is dissolved in the water .   There is also an equilibrium of carbon dioxide between dissolved in water ( dis ) and the gaseous state ( g ) :  CO2 ( dis ) ⇋ CO2 ( g )   The equilibrium of CO2 also moves to the right towards gaseous CO2 when the water temperature rises . When water that contains dissolved calcium carbonate is warmed , CO2 is removed from the water as gas causing the equilibrium of bicarbonate and carbonate to shift to the right , increasing the concentration of dissolved carbonate . As the concentration of carbonate increases , calcium carbonate precipitates as the salt : Ca2 + + CO32 − ⇋ CaCO3 .   As new cold water with dissolved calcium carbonate/bicarbonate is added and heated , CO2 gas is removed , carbonate concentration increases , and more calcium carbonate precipitates .   Descaling agents are used to remove scale . Prevention of scale build-up relies on the technologies of water softening .

negative: Alberta Carbon Trunk Line The Alberta Carbon Trunk Line ( ACTL ) is a 240 km pipeline in its construction stages that will collect excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the province of Alberta and transport it to various oil reservoirs around the province for enhanced oil recovery applications . Pioneered by Enhance Energy , the ACTL will source its CO2 from a fertilizer manufacturing plant in Redwater , and the North West Redwater Partnership bitumen upgrading plant using gasification . It will initially funnel the collected CO2 to Clive , a field discovered in the 1950s and currently produces about 300 barrels per day .

negative: IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) .   The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established .   Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums  Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths  Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies   Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports .   The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes :   We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it .  We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ...  Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade .  There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets .  Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more .  under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .

negative: Multi-component gas analyzer system A multi-component gas analyzer system ( Multi-GAS ) is an instrument package used to take real-time high-resolution measurements of volcanic gas plumes . A Multi-GAS package includes an infrared spectrometer for CO2 , two electrochemical sensors for SO2 and H2S , and pressure -- temperature -- humidity sensors , all in a weatherproof box weighing approximately 3 kg , as well as radio transmitters to transmit data to remote locations . The instrument package is portable , and its operation and data analysis are simple enough to be conducted by non-specialists .   Multi-GAS instruments have been used to measure volcanic gas plumes at Mount Etna , Stromboli , Vulcano Italy , Villarrica ( volcano ) Chile , Masaya Volcano Nicaragua , Mount Yasur and Ambrym Vanuatu , Miyake-jima and Mount Asama Japan , Soufrière Hills Montserrat , with permanent installations at Etna and Stromboli .   Multi-GAS measurements of CO2/SO2 ratios can allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas , improving prediction of volcanic activity .

negative: CO2 rocket CO2 rockets are a very safe and simple way to experiment with model rockets . Most CO2 rockets are very small and do not travel very high or fast . The common method of construction for a CO2 rocket is to take a CO2 canister and use it as the motor to propel the projectile , or load into the air .

negative: CO2 Cashmere CO2 Cashmere is a wholesale clothing company launched in 2005 by designer Pascal Benouaiche . CO2 uses primarily 100 % Cashmere in its line , making it youthful with innovative designs and prints . CO2 incorporates casual everyday garments such as tunics and hoodies with top of the line cashmere . CO2 has several lines including cashmere and leather handbags , with styles ranging from slouchy hobo bags and satchels to classic , structured totes , as well

negative: CO2 (disambiguation) CO2 is the molecular formula for carbon dioxide .   CO2 , Co2 or C02 may refer to :

negative: NiCoT family Proteins currently known to belong to the Ni2 + - Co2 + Transporter ( NiCoT ) family ( TC # 2 . A. 52 ) can be found in organisms ranging from Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria to archaea and some eukaryotes . Members of this family catalyze uptake of Ni2 + and/or Co2 + in a proton motive force-dependent process .

negative: The Greening of Planet Earth The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .

negative: Carbon dioxide sensor A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .

negative: Clarias maclareni Clarias maclareni is a critically endangered species of catfish in the Clariidae family . It is endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo in western Cameroon . It is threatened because of pollution and sedimentation due to human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) . It is known to grow to 36 cm TL . Large individuals feed mainly on other fishes ( especially cichlids ) , while smaller mainly feed on insects .

negative: Cap carbonate Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record .   The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation .   High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting .   Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain .   This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock .   A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .

negative: Severinghaus electrode The Severinghaus electrode is an electrode that measures carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . It was developed by Dr. John W. Severinghaus and his technician A. Freeman Bradley in 1958 .   It utilizes a CO2-sensitive glass electrode in a surrounding film of bicarbonate solution covered by a thin plastic carbon dioxide permeable membrane , but impermeable to water and electrolytic solutes . The carbon dioxide pressure of a sample gas or liquid equilibrates through the membrane and the glass electrode measures the resulting pH of the bicarbonate solution .

negative: Katsuko Saruhashi was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .

negative: Central chemoreceptors Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment .   These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier .   However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors .   The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation .   This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed .   Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .

negative: Cytochrome c oxidase subunit II Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 2 , also known as cytochrome c oxidase polypeptide II , is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MT-CO2 gene .   Cytochrome c oxidase subunit II , abbreviated COXII , COX2 , COII , or MT-CO2 , is the second subunit of cytochrome c oxidase .

negative: Supercritical fluid extraction Supercritical Fluid Extraction ( SFE ) is the process of separating one component ( the extractant ) from another ( the matrix ) using supercritical fluids as the extracting solvent . Extraction is usually from a solid matrix , but can also be from liquids . SFE can be used as a sample preparation step for analytical purposes , or on a larger scale to either strip unwanted material from a product ( e.g. decaffeination ) or collect a desired product ( e.g. essential oils ) . These essential oils can include limonene and other straight solvents . Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) is the most used supercritical fluid , sometimes modified by co-solvents such as ethanol or methanol . Extraction conditions for supercritical carbon dioxide are above the critical temperature of 31 ° C and critical pressure of 74 bar . Addition of modifiers may slightly alter this . The discussion below will mainly refer to extraction with CO2 , except where specified .

negative: Carbon trioxide Carbon trioxide ( CO3 ) is an unstable oxide of carbon ( an oxocarbon ) . Three possible isomers of carbon trioxide , with molecular symmetry point groups Cs , D3h , and C2v , have been most studied by theoretical methods , and the C2v state has been shown to be the ground state of the molecule .   Carbon trioxide should not be confused with the stable carbonate ion ( CO32 − ) .   Carbon trioxide can be produced , for example , in the drift zone of a negative corona discharge by reactions between carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and the atomic oxygen ( O ) created from molecular oxygen by free electrons in the plasma .   Another reported method is photolysis of ozone O3 dissolved in liquid CO2 , or in CO2/SF6 mixtures at -45 ° C , irradiated with light of 2537 Å . The formation of CO3 is inferred but it appears to decay spontaneously by the route 2CO3 → 2CO2 + O2 with a lifetime much shorter than 1 minute .   Carbon trioxide can be made by blowing ozone at dry ice ( solid CO2 ) , and it has also been detected in reactions between carbon monoxide ( CO ) and molecular oxygen ( O2 ) .

negative: Carbonate–silicate cycle The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere .   The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) .   The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature .   The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .

negative: Fissi The fissi ( Sarotherodon caroli ) is a species of cichlid endemic to Lake Barombi Mbo in western Cameroon . This species can reach a length of 18.6 cm SL . It is threatened because of pollution and sedimentation due to human activities . It is potentially also threatened by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although studies indicate that Barombo Mbo lacks excess amounts of this gas .   Adults mainly feed on phytoplankton .

negative: Compensation point The ( light ) compensation point is the amount of light intensity on the light curve where the rate of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of respiration . At this point , the uptake of CO2 through photosynthetic pathways is exactly matched to the respiratory release of carbon dioxide , and the uptake of O2 by respiration is exactly matched to the photosynthetic release of oxygen .   In assimilation terms , at compensation point , the net carbon dioxide assimilation is zero . Leaves release CO2 by photorespiration and day respiration , but CO2 is also converted into carbohydrate by photosynthesis . Assimilation is therefore the difference in the rate of these processes . At a normal partial pressure of CO2 ( 0.343 hPa in 1980 ) , there is an irradiation at which the net assimilation of CO2 is zero . For instance , in the early morning and late evenings , the compensation point may be reached as photosynthetic activity decreases and respiration increases . Therefore , the partial pressure of CO2 at the compensation point , also known as gamma , is a function of irradiation . The irradiation dependence of the compensation point is explained by the RuBP ( ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ) concentration . When the acceptor RuBP is in saturated concentration , gamma is independent of irradiation . However at low irradiation , only a small fraction of the sites on RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase enzyme ( Rubisco ) have the electron acceptor RuBP . This decreases the photosynthetic activity and therefore affects gamma . The intracellular concentration of CO2 affects the rates of photosynthesis and photo respiration . At higher carbon dioxide concentrations , the photosynthesis rate is higher , while at low CO2 concentrations , photo respiration is higher .


query: What they find is sea level rise has been steadily accelerating over the past century.

positive: Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly .   Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. .  Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century .   Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .

negative: Past sea level Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence .   Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago .   Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .

negative: Future sea level The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming .   The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .

negative: Sea level Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location .   Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming .   The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .

negative: Copenhagen Diagnosis The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date .   The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 .   In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are :   Surging Greenhouse gas emissions  Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % .  Human-induced warming  Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun .  Acceleration of melting ice caps  Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise .  Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline  According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 .  Underestimation of changing sea levels  In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted .  Damage due to inaction  A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more .  Turning point must come soon  The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . ''  The Future  By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .

negative: Climate inertia Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .

negative: Coastal management Coastal management is defense against flooding and erosion , and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands .   Coastal zones occupy less than 15 % of the Earth 's land area , while they host more than 40 % of the world population . Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 km of a shoreline and 100 m of sea level , with an average density nearly 3 times higher than the global average for population . With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025 , human activities originating from this small land area will impose heavy pressure on coasts . Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities .   In the European Union , almost half of the population lives within 50 kilometres of the sea and coastal resources produce much of the Union 's economic wealth . The fishing , shipping and tourism industries all compete for space along Europe 's estimated 89,000 km of coastline and coastal zones contain some of Europe 's most fragile and valuable natural habitats .   Protection against sea level rise in the 21st century will be especially important , as sea level rise accelerates . Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems . Coastal sediments are disturbed and suspended by wave and tide energy .

negative: Hundred-year wave A hundred-year wave is a statistically projected water wave , the height of which , on average , is met or exceeded once in a hundred years for a given location . The likelihood of this wave height being attained at least once in the hundred-year period is 63 % . As a projection of the most extreme wave which can be expected to occur in a given body of water , the hundred-year wave is a factor commonly taken into consideration by designers of oil platforms and other offshore structures . Periods of time other than a hundred years may also be taken into account , resulting in , for instance , a fifty-year wave .   Various methods are employed to predict the possible steepness and period of these waves , in addition to their height .

negative: Climate change Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming .   Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .

negative: History of lobbying in the United States The history of lobbying in the United States is a chronicle of the rise of paid advocacy generally by special interests seeking favor in lawmaking bodies such as the United States Congress . While lobbying has usually been understood as activity by paid professionals to try to influence key legislators and executives , it has been around since the early days of the Republic , and affects every level of government from local municipal authorities to the federal government in Washington . In the nineteenth century , lobbying was mostly conducted at the state level , but in the twentieth century , there has been a marked rise in activity , particularly at the federal level in the past thirty years . While lobbying has generally been marked by controversy , there have been numerous court rulings protecting lobbying as free speech .

negative: Yew Wah School of Shanghai Yew Wah School of Shanghai is located in the Changning District of Shanghai , China . It was founded in 2001 and has been offering quality international education to Chinese students since 2004 . Yew Wah is a licensed Cambridge International Examinations center , offering both IGCSE and A Level courses for high school students . By providing a fully international program with professional foreign teachers , international curriculum and advanced educational philosophies , Yew Wah has created an authentic international atmosphere and learning environment in Mainland China .   The school has been growing steadily over the past decade , with an enrolment of close to 300 students for the 2012-2013 school year .

negative: Hurricane Alley Hurricane Alley is an area of warm water in the Atlantic Ocean stretching from the west coast of northern Africa to the east coast of Central America and Gulf Coast of the Southern United States . Many hurricanes form within this area . The sea surface temperature of the Atlantic in Hurricane Alley has been steadily growing warmer over the past decades , which most climate scientists believe accounts for the increase in hurricane activity .

negative: Managed retreat In the context of coastal erosion , managed retreat ( also managed realignment ) allows an area that was not previously exposed to flooding by the sea to become flooded by removing coastal protection . This process is usually in low-lying estuarine areas and almost always involves flooding of land that has at some point in the past been claimed from the sea .   In the UK , managed retreat is often a response to sea level rise exacerbated by local subsidence of the land surface due to post-glacial isostatic rebound in the north .

negative: Phytoseiidae The Phytoseiidae are a family of mites which feed on thrips and other mite species . They are often used as a biological control agent for managing mite pests . Because of their usefulness as biological control agents , interest in phytoseiids has steadily increased over the past century . In 1950 , there were 34 known species . Today , there are 2,731 documented species .

negative: Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are :  increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases  global changes to land surface , such as deforestation  increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols .   There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity .   According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence .   Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities :  A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established .  Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual .  Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included .  Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming .   The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .

negative: Wage ratio In economics , the wage ratio refers to the ratio of the top salaries in a group ( company , city , country , etc. ) to the bottom salaries . It is a measure of wage dispersion .   There has been a resurgence for the importance of equitable wage ratio . The amount of money paid out to executives has steadily been on the rise . `` An April 2013 study by Bloomberg finds that large public company CEOs were paid an average of 204 times the compensation of rank-and-file workers in their industries . By comparison , it is estimated that the average CEO was paid about 20 times the typical worker 's pay in the 1950s , with that multiple rising to 42-to-1 in 1980 , and to 120-to-1 in 2000 '' . While not as extreme , similar trends have been observed around the world .

negative: Annual cycle of sea level height The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .

negative: Expanding Earth The expanding Earth or growing Earth hypothesis asserts that the position and relative movement of continents is at least partially due to the volume of Earth increasing . Conversely , geophysical global cooling was the hypothesis that various features could be explained by Earth contracting .   Although it was suggested historically , since the recognition of plate tectonics in the 1970s , scientific consensus has rejected any significant expansion or contraction of Earth .

negative: Marine transgression A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load .   During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean .   The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .

negative: Killincarrig Killincarrig is a village between Greystones and Delgany in north County Wicklow . It lies at the crossroads ( now a mini-roundabout ) of the R762 and the R761 roads . Like neighbouring Delgany it has been steadily built-up over the past 40 years and now forms part of the continuous urban area of Greystones .   Category : Towns and villages in County Wicklow

negative: Acceleration due to gravity Acceleration due to gravity may refer to  Gravitational acceleration , the acceleration caused by the gravitational attraction of massive bodies in general  Gravity of Earth , the acceleration caused by the gravitational attraction of the Earth  Standard gravity , or g , the standard value of gravitational acceleration at sea level on Earth

negative: Tide Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth .   The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible .   Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level .   While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts .   Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .

negative: Raised shoreline A raised shoreline is an ancient shoreline exposed above current water level . These landforms are formed by a relative change in sea level due to global sea level rise , isostatic rebound , and/or tectonic uplift . These surfaces are usually exposed above modern sea level when a heavily glaciated area experiences a glacial retreat , causing water levels to rise . This area will then experience post-glacial rebound , effectively  raising the shoreline surface .  Examples of raised shorelines can be found along the coasts of formerly glaciated areas in Ireland and Scotland , as well as in North America . Raised shorelines are exposed at various locations around the Puget Sound of Washington State .

negative: Arctic sea ice decline Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .

negative: Prodromos, Cyprus Prodromos is the highest village in Cyprus at 1,380 m above sea level . It is the island 's main centre for winter sport , with three ski slopes located on nearby Mount Olympus . The village is part of the Limassol District . The number of inhabitants has decreased steadily over the years ; by there were only 123 permanent residents , although there are over 240 residences that are temporarily occupied , mostly during the summer and other holidays .

negative: Emerging power An emerging power or rising power is a term used as recognition of the rising , primarily economic , influence of a nation -- or union of nations -- which has steadily increased their presence in global affairs . Such a power aspires to have a more powerful position or role in international relations , either regionally or globally , and possess sufficient resources and levels of development that such goals are potentially achievable . A term also used to describe such a state is `` rising power '' .

negative: History of climate change science The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .   Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .

negative: Meltwater pulse 1B Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .

negative: Subsidence Subsidence is the motion of a surface ( usually , the earth 's surface ) as it shifts downward relative to a datum such as sea level . The opposite of subsidence is uplift , which results in an increase in elevation . Ground subsidence is of concern to geologists , geotechnical engineers and surveyors .

negative: Whakaari / White Island Whakaari / White Island is an active andesite stratovolcano , situated 48 km from the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand , in the Bay of Plenty . It is New Zealand 's most active cone volcano , and has been built up by continuous volcanic activity over the past 150,000 years . The nearest mainland towns are Whakatane and Tauranga . White Island has been in a nearly continuous stage of smoking at least since it was ` discovered ' by James Cook in 1769 .   The island is roughly circular , about 2 km in diameter , and rises to a height of 321 m above sea level . However this is only the peak of a much larger submarine mountain , which rises up to 1600 m above the nearby seafloor . Sulfur mining was attempted but was abandoned in 1914 after a lahar killed all 10 workers . The main activities on the island now are guided tours and scientific research .

negative: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies .   It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report .   The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''

negative: Climate change in New Zealand Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates .   Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .

negative: 20th century The 20th century was a century that began on   January 1 , 1901 and ended on December 31 , 2000 . It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium . It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 .   The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : World War I and World War II , nuclear power and space exploration , nationalism and decolonization , the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts ; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology ; poverty reduction and world population growth , awareness of environmental degradation , ecological extinction ; and the birth of the Digital Revolution . It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life . The term `` short twentieth century '' was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991 .   Global total fertility rates , sea level rise and ecological collapses increased ; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation , water depletion . and the mass extinction of half the world 's estimated nine million unique species and wildlife population ; consequences which are now being dealt with . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927 ; by late 1999 , the global population reached 6 billion . Global literacy averaged 80 % ; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history , with over half achieving 70 + years ( three decades longer than it was a century ago ) .