query: Global sea level data shows that sea level rise has been increasing since 1880 while future sea level rise predictions are based on physics, not statistics.

positive: Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly .   Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. .  Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century .   Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .

negative: Future sea level The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming .   The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .

negative: Global Sea Level Observing System The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .

negative: Marine transgression A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load .   During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean .   The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .

negative: Tide gauge A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum .   Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer .   Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data .   Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis .  The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected .   A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .

negative: James O'Brien (oceanographer) James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''

negative: Global warming in Tuvalu Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .

negative: Meltwater pulse 1A Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .

negative: Besh Barmag Mountain Besh Barmag ( Beş Barmaq ) literally translated as Five Finger Mountain , is in Siazan District of Azerbaijan , not far from the Caspian Sea .   It rises to 382 m above the sea level overlooking the Baku-Quba Highway . The mountain is a solid rock and is one of the most famous mountains in the Caucasus , known for its mythical stories . It is a sacred place for regular visitation by pilgrims .   Tide marks on the mount attest to meltwater inundation from the northern glacial ice caps and date back to the end of the last ice age . The tidelines confirm the theory of a Holocene outflow of meltwater from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea , rather than a direct incursion of sea water into the Black Sea as a result of global sea level rise . Estimates of the increase in Caspian Sea level height are between + 20 and 30 meters .

negative: Copenhagen Diagnosis The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date .   The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 .   In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are :   Surging Greenhouse gas emissions  Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % .  Human-induced warming  Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun .  Acceleration of melting ice caps  Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise .  Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline  According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 .  Underestimation of changing sea levels  In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted .  Damage due to inaction  A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more .  Turning point must come soon  The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . ''  The Future  By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .

negative: Ice2sea Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level .   The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' .   Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections .   The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .

negative: Rising Tide Rising Tide ( s ) or The Rising Tide may refer to :

negative: Gjesværstappan Gjesværstappan is a group of high , steep-sided , grass-covered islands which are located north of the village of Gjesvær in Nordkapp Municipality in Finnmark county , Norway . The three main islands are Storstappen , Kjerkestappen , and Bukkstappen .   Storstappan rises to a height of 283 m above sea level and has a peninsula called Stauren that rises to 165 m. Kjerkestappen rises to an elevation of 166 m above sea level and Bukkstappen rises to 92 m above sea level . Historically , there were people that lived on the islands and there was a church on Kjerkestappen .

negative: Raised shoreline A raised shoreline is an ancient shoreline exposed above current water level . These landforms are formed by a relative change in sea level due to global sea level rise , isostatic rebound , and/or tectonic uplift . These surfaces are usually exposed above modern sea level when a heavily glaciated area experiences a glacial retreat , causing water levels to rise . This area will then experience post-glacial rebound , effectively  raising the shoreline surface .  Examples of raised shorelines can be found along the coasts of formerly glaciated areas in Ireland and Scotland , as well as in North America . Raised shorelines are exposed at various locations around the Puget Sound of Washington State .

negative: Demographic gravitation Demographic gravitation is a concept of `` social physics '' , introduced by Princeton University astrophysicist John Quincy Stewart in 1947 . It is an attempt to use equations and notions of classical physics - such as gravity - to seek simplified insights and even laws of demographic behaviour for large numbers of human beings . A basic conception within it is that large numbers of people , in a city for example , actually behave as an attractive force for other people to migrate there , hence the notion of demographic gravitation . It has been related to W. J. Reilly 's law of retail gravitation , George Kingsley Zipf 's Demographic Energy , and to the theory of Trip distribution through gravity models Trip distribution #Gravity model .   Writing in the journal Sociometry , Stewart set out an `` agenda for social physics . '' Comparing the microscopic versus macroscopic viewpoints in the methodology of formulating physical laws , he made an analogy with the social sciences :   Fortunately for physics , the macroscopic approach was the commonsense one , and the early investigators - Boyle , Charles , Gay-Lussac - were able to establish the laws of gases . The situation with respect to `` social physics '' is reversed ...  If Robert Boyle had taken the attitude of many social scientists , he would not have been willing to measure the pressure and volume of a sample of air until an encyclopedic history of its molecules had been compiled . Boyle did not even know that air contained argon and helium but he found a very important law .  Stewart proceeded to apply Newtonian formulae of gravitation to that of `` the average interrelations of people '' on a wide geographic scale , elucidating such notions as `` the demographic force of attraction , '' demographic energy , force , potential and gradient .

negative: History of statistics The history of statistics can be said to start around 1749 although , over time , there have been changes to the interpretation of the word statistics . In early times , the meaning was restricted to information about states . This was later extended to include all collections of information of all types , and later still it was extended to include the analysis and interpretation of such data . In modern terms , `` statistics '' means both sets of collected information , as in national accounts and temperature records , and analytical work which requires statistical inference .   Statistical activities are often associated with models expressed using probabilities , and require probability theory for them to be put on a firm theoretical basis : see History of probability .   A number of statistical concepts have an important impact on a wide range of sciences . These include the design of experiments and approaches to statistical inference such as Bayesian inference , each of which can be considered to have their own sequence in the development of the ideas underlying modern statistics .

negative: Jonathan M. Gregory Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre .   A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more .   He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change .   In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change .   In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .

negative: Climate change in Tuvalu Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.

negative: Climate inertia Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .

negative: Standard sea level Standard sea level ( SSL ) ( also known as sea level standard ( SLS ) ) defines a set of conditions for physical calculations .  The term `` standard sea level '' is used to indicate that values of properties are to be taken to be the same as those standard at sea level , and is done to define values for use in general calculations .

negative: 1880 in science The year 1880 in science and technology included many events , some of which are listed here .

negative: Duncan Wingham Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission .   In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' .   In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''

negative: Regional effects of global warming Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores .   Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years .   There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .

negative: Meteorology Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics , with a major focus on weather forecasting . The study of meteorology dates back millennia , though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century . The 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions . Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data . It was n't until after the elucidation of the laws of physics and , more particularly , the development of the computer , allowing for the automated solution of a great many equations that model the weather , in the latter half of the 20th century that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved .   Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology . Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of Earth 's atmosphere : temperature , air pressure , water vapor , mass flow , and the variations and interactions of those variables , and how they change over time . Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local , regional , and global levels .   Meteorology , climatology , atmospheric physics , and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences . Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology . The interactions between Earth 's atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system . Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military , energy production , transport , agriculture , and construction .   The word `` meteorology '' is from Greek μετέωρος metéōros `` lofty ; high ( in the sky ) '' ( from μετα - meta - `` above '' and ἀείρω aeiro `` I lift up '' ) and - λογία - logia '' - logy '' , i.e. `` the study of things in the air '' .

negative: Instrumental temperature record The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .

negative: Campbell Plateau The Campbell Plateau is a large oceanic plateau south of New Zealand and the Chatham Rise . It originated in the Gondwanan breakup and is part of Zealandia , a largely submerged continent . The above sea level parts of the plateau -- the Bounty Islands , Antipodes Islands , Auckland Islands and Campbell Island -- form part of the New Zealand Subantarctic Islands which were declared a World Heritage Site in 1998 .  Large parts of the Campbell Plateau lies less than 1000 m below sea level . It rises to 500 m at the Pukaki Rise and emerges above sea level at the Auckland and Campbell Islands .   Covering an area of 800000 km2 , the Campbell Plateau has a gently undulating bathymetry with major rises trending east-west : Campbell Island Rise , Pukaki Rise , and Bounty Island Ridge . There are two near-parallel rises on the western margin : Stewart Island -- Snare Island Rise and Auckland Island platform . The continental slopes are steep on western and southern margins while the northern margin slowly falls into the Bounty Trough .

negative: Flood geology Flood geology ( also creation geology or diluvial geology ) is the attempt to interpret and reconcile geological features of the Earth in accordance with a literal belief in the global flood described in Genesis 6 -- 8 . In the early-19th century , diluvial geologists hypothesized that specific surface features were evidence of a worldwide flood which had followed earlier geological eras ; after further investigation they agreed that these features resulted from local floods or glaciers . In the 20th century , young Earth creationists revived flood geology as an overarching concept in their opposition to evolution , assuming a recent six-day Creation and cataclysmic geological changes during the Biblical Deluge , and incorporating creationist explanations of the sequence of rock strata .   In the early stages of development of the science of geology , fossils were interpreted as evidence of past flooding . The `` theories of the Earth '' of the 17th century proposed mechanisms based on natural laws , within a timescale set by the biblical chronology . As modern geology developed , geologists found evidence of an ancient Earth , and evidence inconsistent with the notion that the Earth had developed in a series of cataclysms , the most recent of which could be attributed to the Genesis flood . In early 19th-century Britain , `` Diluvialism '' attributed landforms and surface features such as beds of gravel and erratic boulders to the destructive effects of this supposed global Deluge , but by 1830 geologists increasingly found that the evidence only showed relatively local floods . Attempts were made by so-called scriptural geologists to give primacy to literal Biblical explanations , but they lacked background in geology and were marginalised by the scientific community , as well as having little influence on the church .   Flood geology was revived as a field of study within creation science , which is a part of young Earth creationism .  Proponents hold to a literal reading of Genesis 6 -- 9 and view its passages to be historically accurate , using the Bible 's internal chronology to place the Flood and the story of Noah 's Ark within the last five thousand years .   The key tenets of flood geology are refuted by scientific analysis . Flood geology contradicts the scientific consensus in geology , stratigraphy , geophysics , physics , paleontology , biology , anthropology , and archeology . Modern geology , its sub-disciplines and other scientific disciplines utilize the scientific method . In contrast , flood geology does not adhere to the scientific method , and it is , therefore , a pseudoscience .

negative: Before Present Before Present ( BP ) years is a time scale used mainly in geology and other scientific disciplines to specify when events occurred in the past . Because the `` present '' time changes , standard practice is to use 1 January 1950 as commencement date of the age scale , reflecting the fact that radiocarbon dating became practical in the 1950s . The abbreviation `` BP '' , with the same meaning , has also been interpreted as `` Before Physics '' ; that is , before nuclear weapons testing artificially altered the proportion of the carbon isotopes in the atmosphere , making dating after that time likely to be unreliable .

negative: Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory The former Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory ( POL ) is based in Brownlow Street , Liverpool , England . In April 2010 , POL merged with the National Oceanography Centre , Southampton ( NOCS ) to form the National Oceanography Centre . The Liverpool laboratory 's scientific research focuses on oceanography encompassing global sea-levels and geodesy , numerical modelling of continental shelf seas and coastal sediment processes . This research alongside activities of surveying , monitoring , data management and forecasting provides strategic support for the wider mission of the Natural Environment Research Council .   A leading world centre in tidal prediction ( with related interests in earth tides and storm surges ) and a leading European centre in modelling and forecasting shelf sea dynamics , it is home to the Coastal Observatory in Liverpool Bay , the National Tidal and Sea Level Facility , the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level and the British Oceanographic Data Centre .

negative: History of climate change science The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .   Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .

negative: 1879 in science The year 1879 in science and technology involved some significant events , listed below .

negative: Retrogradation Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common :  during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets .  with extremely low sediment input .


query: “Carbon dioxide hurts nobody’s health.

positive: Smog Smog is a type of air pollutant . The word `` smog '' was coined in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog , its opacity , and odour . The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog , a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid 20th century . This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , ozone , smoke or particulates among others ( less visible pollutants include carbon monoxide , CFCs and radioactive sources ) . Human-made smog is derived from coal emissions , vehicular emissions , industrial emissions , forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions .   Modern smog , as found for example in Los Angeles , is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog . In certain other cities , such as Delhi , smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas . The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles , Beijing , Delhi , Mexico City , Tehran and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to the ground . It is usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness , shortened life or death .

positive: Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas .   As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product .   Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas .   It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting .   Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .

negative: Nobody Move Nobody Move is an album by Jamaican dancehall deejay Yellowman , released by Volcano Records in 1983 . It was released in a slightly altered form outside Jamaica in 1984 as Nobody Move Nobody Get Hurt .

negative: Carbonate–silicate cycle The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere .   The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) .   The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature .   The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .

negative: Biotin—(acetyl-CoA-carboxylase) ligase In enzymology , a biotin - -LSB- acetyl-CoA-carboxylase -RSB- ligase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction   ATP + biotin + apo - -LSB- acetyl-CoA : carbon-dioxide ligase ( ADP-forming ) -RSB- AMP + diphosphate + -LSB- acetyl-CoA : carbon-dioxide ligase ( ADP-forming ) -RSB-   The 3 substrates of this enzyme are ATP , biotin , and apo - -LSB- acetyl-CoA : carbon-dioxide ligase ( ADP-forming ) -RSB- , whereas its 3 products are AMP , diphosphate , and acetyl-CoA : carbon-dioxide ligase ( ADP-forming ) .   This enzyme belongs to the family of ligases , specifically those forming generic carbon-nitrogen bonds .   This enzyme participates in biotin metabolism . This protein may use the morpheein model of allosteric regulation .

negative: Lead carbonate Lead ( II ) carbonate is the chemical compound PbCO3 . It is prepared industrially from lead ( II ) acetate and carbon dioxide .   It occurs naturally as the mineral cerussite .

negative: Polypropylene carbonate Polypropylene carbonate ( PPC ) , a copolymer of carbon dioxide and propylene oxide , is a thermoplastic material . Catalysts like zinc glutarate are used in polymerization .

negative: Potassium carbonate Potassium carbonate ( K2CO3 ) is a white salt , soluble in water ( insoluble in ethanol ) which forms a strongly alkaline solution . It can be made as the product of potassium hydroxide 's absorbent reaction with carbon dioxide . It is deliquescent , often appearing a damp or wet solid . Potassium carbonate is used in the production of soap and glass .

negative: Methanol reformer A methanol reformer is a device used in chemical engineering , especially in the area of fuel cell technology , which can produce pure hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide by reacting a methanol and water ( steam ) mixture .    Methanol is transformed into hydrogen and carbon dioxide by pressure and heat and interaction with a catalyst .

negative: Berry L. Cannon Berry Louis Cannon ( March 22 , 1935 -- February 17 , 1969 ) was an American aquanaut who served on the SEALAB II and III projects of the U.S. Navy . Cannon died of carbon dioxide poisoning while attempting to repair SEALAB III . It was later found that his diving rig 's baralyme canister , which should have absorbed the carbon dioxide Cannon exhaled , was empty .

negative: Silver oxalate Silver oxalate is commonly employed in experimental petrology to add carbon dioxide to experiments as it will break down to silver ( Ag ) and carbon dioxide under geologic conditions . It is also a precursor to the production of silver nanoparticles .  It is explosive upon heating around 140 degrees Celsius , shock or friction .

negative: Henry's law In chemistry , Henry 's law is one of the gas laws formulated by the English chemist William Henry , who studied the topic in the early 19th century . In his publication about the quantity of gases absorbed by water , he described the results of his experiments :   ... `` water takes up , of gas condensed by one , two , or more additional atmospheres , a quantity which , ordinarily compressed , would be equal to twice , thrice , & c. the volume absorbed under the common pressure of the atmosphere . ''   In other words , the amount of dissolved gas is proportional to its partial pressure in the gas phase . The proportionality factor is called the Henry 's law constant .   An example where Henry 's law is at play is in the depth-dependent dissolution of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood of underwater divers that changes during decompression , leading to decompression sickness . An everyday example is given by one 's experience with carbonated soft drinks , which contain dissolved carbon dioxide . Before opening , the gas above the drink in its container is almost pure carbon dioxide , at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure . After the bottle is opened , this gas escapes , moving the partial pressure of carbon dioxide above the liquid to be much lower , resulting in degassing as the dissolved carbon dioxide comes out of solution .

negative: Metallacarboxylic acid A metallacarboxylic acid is a metal complex with the ligand CO2H . These compounds are intermediates in reactions that involve carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide , these species are intermediates in the water gas shift reaction .

negative: Environmental issues in Austria The Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection of Austria , established in 1972 , is responsible for the coordination at the national level of all environmental protection efforts , addressing its efforts toward problems including waste disposal , pollution , noise , sulfur dioxide , and carbon monoxide levels , as well as emissions by the iron , steel , and ceramics industries . A toxic waste law enacted in 1984 established strict regulations for the collection , transport , and disposal of dangerous substances .   The Austrian government has imposed strict regulations on gas emissions , which helped to reduce sulfur dioxide by two-thirds over an eight-year period beginning in 1980 . In 1992 Austria was among the 50 countries with the highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emissions , producing 56.6 million metric tons of emissions , or 7.29 m tons per capita . In 1996 , the level rose to 59.3 million metric tons . In 2000 , the total was 60.8 million metric tons .

negative: EcoBot EcoBot is short for Ecological Robot and it refers to a class of energetically autonomous robots that can remain self-sustainable by collecting their energy from material , mostly waste matter , in the environment . The only by-product from this process is carbon dioxide , which would have been produced from the natural biodegradation of the fuel regardless . This carbon dioxide production belongs to the immediate carbon cycle of our planet and does not impose to the already increasing problem of the greenhouse effect .

negative: Integrated gasification combined cycle An integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) is a technology that uses a high pressure gasifier to turn coal and other carbon based fuels into pressurized gas -- synthesis gas ( syngas ) . It can then remove impurities from the syngas prior to the power generation cycle . Some of these pollutants , such as sulfur , can be turned into re-usable byproducts through the Claus process . This results in lower emissions of sulfur dioxide , particulates , mercury , and in some cases carbon dioxide . With additional process equipment , a water-gas shift reaction can increase gasification efficiency and reduce carbon monoxide emissions by converting it to carbon dioxide . The resulting carbon dioxide from the shift reaction can be separated , compressed , and stored through sequestration . Excess heat from the primary combustion and syngas fired generation is then passed to a steam cycle , similar to a combined cycle gas turbine . This process results in improved thermodynamic efficiency compared to conventional pulverized coal combustion .

negative: Estuarine acidification Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation :   CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +

negative: Paser A PASER ( from the acronym of Particle Acceleration by Stimulated Emission of Radiation ) is a device that accelerates a coherent beam of electrons . This process was demonstrated for the first time in 2006 at the Brookhaven National Lab by a team of physicists from the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology .   Relativistic electrons from a conventional particle accelerator pass through a vibrationally excited carbon dioxide medium in which the electrons undergo millions of collisions with excited carbon dioxide molecules and are accelerated in a coherent fashion . No heat is generated in this quantum energy transfer , thus all the energy transferred to the electrons is used in accelerating the electrons . The electron beam created from this process may result in electrons that are highly collimated in velocity in comparison to other acceleration methods .   The vibrationally excited carbon dioxide is the same medium used in a carbon dioxide laser . This medium resonantly amplifies light with a wavelength near 10.6 or 9.4 micrometers , corresponding to a frequency of approximately 30 terahertz . In order to be accelerated , incident electrons must be microbunched at this frequency . An appropriately bunched electron beam strikes excited carbon dioxide molecules resonantly in order to efficiently stimulate energy emission .

negative: Ammonium carbonate Ammonium carbonate is a salt with the chemical formula ( NH4 ) 2CO3 . Since it readily degrades to gaseous ammonia and carbon dioxide upon heating , it is used as a leavening agent and also as smelling salt . It is also known as baker 's ammonia and was a predecessor to the more modern leavening agents baking soda and baking powder . It is a component of what was formerly known as sal volatile and salt of hartshorn .

negative: Calcium bicarbonate Calcium bicarbonate , also called calcium hydrogen carbonate , has a chemical formula Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 . The term does not refer to a known solid compound ; it exists only in aqueous solution containing the calcium ( Ca2 + ) , bicarbonate ( HCO3 − ) , and carbonate ( CO32 − ) ions , together with dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The relative concentrations of these carbon-containing species depend on the pH ; bicarbonate predominates within the range 6.36-10 .25 in fresh water .   All waters in contact with the atmosphere absorb carbon dioxide , and as these waters come into contact with rocks and sediments they acquire metal ions , most commonly calcium and magnesium , so most natural waters that come from streams , lakes , and especially wells , can be regarded as dilute solutions of these bicarbonates . These hard waters tend to form carbonate scale in pipes and boilers and they react with soaps to form an undesirable scum .   Attempts to prepare compounds such as calcium bicarbonate by evaporating its solution to dryness invariably yield the solid calcium carbonate , instead : Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ( aq ) → CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) + CaCO3 ( s ) . Very few solid bicarbonates other than those of the alkali metals and ammonium ion are known to exist .   The above reaction is very important to the formation of stalactites , stalagmites , columns , and other speleothems within caves , and for that matter , in the formation of the caves themselves . As water containing carbon dioxide ( including extra CO2 acquired from soil organisms ) passes through limestone or other calcium carbonate-containing minerals , it dissolves part of the calcium carbonate , hence becomes richer in bicarbonate . As the groundwater enters the cave , the excess carbon dioxide is released from the solution of the bicarbonate , causing the much less soluble calcium carbonate to be deposited .   In the reverse process , dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in rainwater ( H2O ) reacts with limestone calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) to form soluble calcium bicarbonate ( Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ) . This soluble compound is then washed away with the rainwater . This form of weathering is called carbonation .   In medicine , calcium bicarbonate is sometimes administered intravenously to immediately correct the cardiac depressor effects of hypokalemia by increasing calcium concentration in serum , and at the same time , correcting the acid usually present .

negative: TanSat TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) .   TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .

negative: Nobody Hurt No One `` Nobody Hurt No One '' was the Russian entry in the 2005 Eurovision Song Contest , performed in English by Belarusian singer Natalia Podolskaya . It was written by Victor Drobysh , Jussi-Pekka Järvinen and Mary Susan Applegate , produced by Victor Drobysh and Iosif Prigozhin .   The song won Russia 's national song selection , which took place in Moscow on February 25 , 2005 .   On the night of the final the song was performed 20th , following Greece 's Helena Paparizou with `` My Number One '' and preceding Bosnia and Herzegovina 's Feminnem with `` Call Me '' . At the close of voting , it had received 57 points , placing 15th in a field of 24 .   The song was succeeded as Russian representative by Dima Bilan with `` Never Let You Go '' .

negative: Hopcalite Hopcalite is a mixture of copper and manganese oxides used as catalyst to convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide when exposed to the oxygen in air . A variety of composition for are known , `` Hopcalite II '' is approximately 3:1 manganese dioxide : copper oxide . Hopcalite I is a mixture of 50 % MnO , 30 % CuO , 15 % `` Co2O3 '' , and 5 % Ag2O .

negative: Calcium reactor __ NOTOC __   In marine and reef aquariums , a calcium reactor creates a balance of alkalinity . An acidic solution is produced by injecting carbon dioxide into a chamber with salt water and calcium rich media . The carbon dioxide lowers the pH by producing a solution high in carbonic acid , and dissolves calcium . The effluent is returned to the reef aquarium where the calcium is consumed by organisms , primarily corals when building skeletons . A calcium reactor is an efficient method to supply calcium to a reef aquarium . Reactors may be used in elaborate freshwater and brackish aquariums where freshwater clams and other invertebrates need a constant supply of calcium .   The reactor dissolves the calcium-laden media to provide bicarbonates HCO3 − ( alkalinity ) and calcium ( Ca + + ) ions at the sames rate as consumed during calcification . Effectively dissolving the media requires an acidic pH. Saltwater may have a pH of 7.8 or higher , so to reduce the pH carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) is used . The reaction formula is :   CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 < -- -- > Ca2 + + 2HCO3 −   Inside the reaction chamber , a calcium rich media ( aragonite ) , mainly CaCO3 , is forced into contact with water injected with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in order to create carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This increases the solubility of the calcium carbonate . The reaction frees the calcium and carbonate , supplying the aquarium with water rich in Ca2 + and CO32 − , important for maintaining alkalinity and calcium levels .   The bubble counter measures carbon dioxide . The flow rate of carbon dioxide is monitored so that the dissolved gas goes into the solution , with a minimum unconsumed . A needle valve or solenoid valve regulates the CO2 bubble rate . Valves with precise adjustment abilities improve bubble control .   The feed pump controls the volume of water exchange . This is important because a high rate of water flow into the reactor reduces its efficiency , thus resulting in underproduction and a waste of CO2 .   Some reactors siphon water into the input of the reactor 's re-circulation pump . A potential complication is the medium in the reactor becoming compacted , increasing back pressure onto the pump and reducing water into the reactor . Placing a gate or needle valve on the reactor 's outlet side will improve flow characteristics compared to control from the inlet side .   A peristaltic pumps are effective operating against pressure , capable of supplying an adjustable and continuous flow over flow rates with minimal maintenance .   The pH control is connected to a probe in the reactor and adjusts the rate at which the calcium media dissolves . This probe monitors the pH level in the calcium reactor . The pH range for the typical calcium reactor is 6.5 - 6.8 . When the pH rises above a certain level , a valve opens , allowing carbon dioxide to enter the reactor . The control closes the valve as the pH falls below this level .   Some pH controllers have an interface for an air pump . This air pump is connected to an airstone in the sump or main tank . If the probe detects a low pH level , the pump activates . The bubbles raise the pH by dissipating the CO2 gas .

negative: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies .   The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) .   The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output .   Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion  Including Greenland and Faroe Islands  Including Netherlands Antilles  Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong

negative: Dry ice color show Dry ice color show is the formation of carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) by the reaction of dry ice , the solid form of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and water , which lower the pH to the acidic solution . By applying Universal Indicator to the solution , the changing of pH can be indicated as the color of the solution changes into the contrast color . This experiment is usually conducted as a classroom demonstration of pH and properties of carbon dioxide since the materials required are handful and prepared easily .

negative: Terraforming of Venus The terraforming of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation . Terraforming Venus was first seriously proposed by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961 , although fictional treatments , such as The Big Rain by Poul Anderson , preceded it . Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet . These three changes are closely interrelated , because Venus 's extreme temperature is due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense carbon-dioxide atmosphere :  Reducing Venus 's surface temperature of 462 C.  Eliminating most of the planet 's dense 9.2 MPa carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide atmosphere , via removal or conversion to some other form .  Addition of breathable oxygen to the atmosphere .

negative: Magnesium bicarbonate Magnesium bicarbonate or magnesium hydrogen carbonate , Mg ( HCO3 ) 2 , is the bicarbonate salt of magnesium . It can be formed through the reaction of dilute solutions of carbonic acid ( such as seltzer water ) and magnesium hydroxide ( milk of magnesia ) .   Magnesium bicarbonate exists only in aqueous solution . To produce it , a suspension of magnesium hydroxide is treated with pressurized carbon dioxide , producing a solution of magnesium bicarbonate :   Mg ( OH ) 2 + 2 CO2 → Mg ( HCO3 ) 2   Drying the resulting solution causes the magnesium bicarbonate to decompose , yielding magnesium carbonate , carbon dioxide , and water :   Mg2 + + 2 HCO3 − → MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O

negative: Eggshell An eggshell is the outer covering of a hard-shelled egg and of some forms of eggs with soft outer coats . Bird eggshells contain calcium carbonate and dissolve in various acids , including the vinegar used in cooking . While dissolving , the calcium carbonate in an eggshell reacts with the acid to form carbon dioxide .

negative: Stephen E. Schwartz Stephen E. Schwartz ( born 1941 ) is an atmospheric scientist at Brookhaven National Laboratory . He served from 2004 to 2009 as the Chief Scientist of the Atmospheric Science Program of the United States Department of Energy . The program is charged with developing a comprehensive understanding of how the atmosphere processes energy related trace chemicals , such as nitrogen oxides , sulfur , aerosols and carbon dioxide . The current focus is on aerosols and carbon dioxide .

negative: Woikoski Oy Woikoski Ab is Finland 's oldest industrial and medical gas supplier . The company started 1882 as a carbon black factory which then evolved into the company 's current form . The company is also an importer of welding and gas equipment which they distribute along with their gas products through a network of resellers . Kt currently operates 13 plants and offices , and has over 200 agents in Finland . Their annual turnover is approx . 25 million EUR .   Woikoski is also an exporter of liquid and gaseous helium , with an automated helium plant capable of recycling gaseous helium . In 2006 the company finished a carbon dioxide treatment plant capable of recovering and recycling 1-3 tonnes of carbon dioxide per hour .

negative: Climate Dress The Climate Dress was designed in 2009 by Danish design company Diffus Design in collaboration with the Swiss embroidery company Forster-Rohner , Alexandra Institute and the Danish School of Design .   The Climate Dress is laced with hundreds of light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) that responds to the level of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the nearby surroundings and are powered through the conductive embroidery by an Arduino Lily pad microprocessor and a carbon dioxide detector , resulting in patterns that range from slow pulses to rapid flashes depending on the concentration of the CO2 . The Climate Dress does not rely on wiring , soldering , or crimping , which is often the case with smart textile products . All functional elements are blended into the embroidery and exposed to the viewer .   The Climate Dress was presented at the Cop 15 Climate Summit in Copenhagen in 2009 , at the `` Health Environment Climate '' exhibition .   In 2011 the Climate Dress won first prize in the Design That Performs contest , hosted by Samsung .

negative: Phototrophic prokaryotes Phototropic prokaryotes are bacteria or archaea that obtain energy from light . phototropic prokaryotes may utilize a variety of carbon sources , depending on the metabolic pathways available to the bacterium . Most phototropic organisms are also autotrophs , obtaining carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide in a process called photosynthesis .

negative: Scrubbing Scrubbing may refer to :  Carbon dioxide scrubbing ( disambiguation )  Data scrubbing  Memory scrubbing  Scrubbing ( audio )  Scrubbing Bubbles