query: Thus rather than a "doomsday" cycle of runaway warming, Mother Earth appears surprisingly tolerant of carbon, decreasing atmospheric levels of water vapor -- a more effective greenhouse gas -- to compensate.

positive: Water Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth 's streams , lakes , and oceans , and the fluids of most living organisms . Its chemical formula is H2O , meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms , that are connected by covalent bonds . Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance , that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure ; but it often refers also to its solid state ( ice ) or its gaseous state ( steam or water vapor ) . It also occurs in nature as snow , glaciers , ice packs and icebergs , clouds , fog , dew , aquifers , and atmospheric humidity .   Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . It is vital for all known forms of life . On Earth , 96.5 % of the planet 's crust water is found in seas and oceans , 1.7 % in groundwater , 1.7 % in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland , a small fraction in other large water bodies , and 0.001 % in the air as vapor , clouds ( formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air ) , and precipitation . Only 2.5 % of this water is freshwater , and 98.8 % of that water is in ice ( excepting ice in clouds ) and groundwater . Less than 0.3 % of all freshwater is in rivers , lakes , and the atmosphere , and an even smaller amount of the Earth 's freshwater ( 0.003 % ) is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products . A greater quantity of water is found in the earth 's interior .   Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation and transpiration ( evapotranspiration ) , condensation , precipitation , and runoff , usually reaching the sea . Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land . Large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals .   Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients . Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world , but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation . There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita . However , some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability . A report , issued in November 2009 , suggests that by 2030 , in some developing regions of the world , water demand will exceed supply by 50 % .   Water plays an important role in the world economy . Approximately 70 % of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture . Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world . Much of long-distance trade of commodities ( such as oil and natural gas ) and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas , rivers , lakes , and canals . Large quantities of water , ice , and steam are used for cooling and heating , in industry and homes . Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances ; as such it is widely used in industrial processes , and in cooking and washing . Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment , such as swimming , pleasure boating , boat racing , surfing , sport fishing , and diving .

positive: Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect .   Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture .   It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .

positive: Runaway greenhouse effect A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . ''   Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .

negative: Global warming potential Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 .  The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP .   The GWP depends on the following factors :  the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species  the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths  the atmospheric lifetime of the species  Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph .   Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .

negative: Water vapor Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds .   Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution .   Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects .

negative: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect .   These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .

negative: Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere :   Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere  Global warming  Greenhouse effect

negative: Atmospheric methane Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical .   Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today .   Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .

negative: Carbon rift Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift .   Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed .   Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .

negative: Atmosphere of Earth The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) .   By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres .   The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition .   The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .

negative: Regional effects of global warming Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores .   Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years .   There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .

negative: Greenhouse gas removal Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .

negative: Charles David Keeling Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .

negative: Carbonate–silicate cycle The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere .   The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) .   The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature .   The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .

negative: Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas .   As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product .   Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas .   It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting .   Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .

negative: Solar radiation management Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .

negative: Methane Methane ( -LSB- ˈmɛθeɪn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmiːθeɪn -RSB- ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ( one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen ) . It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane , and is the main constituent of natural gas . The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel , though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure .   Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor . When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere , it is known as atmospheric methane . The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750 , and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases ( these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect ) .

negative: Integrated Carbon Observation System Integrated Carbon Observation System ( ICOS ) is a new strategic research infrastructure to quantify the greenhouse gas balance in Europe and adjacent regions . It consists of a harmonized network of ecosystem long-term observation sites , a network of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration sites and a network of ocean observations . The network will be coordinated through a set of central facilities , including an atmospheric and an ecosystem thematic center , a central data center , an analytical laboratory and an oceanic thematic center .   ICOS will provide the essential long-term observations required to understand the present state and predict future behavior of the global carbon cycle and greenhouse gas emissions . It will monitor and assess the effectiveness of carbon sequestration and/or greenhouse gases emission reduction activities on global atmospheric composition levels , including attribution of sources and sinks by region and sector .   Standardized network will improved access to data and enable the development of flux products for research and political application . ICOS will be a state-of-the-art facility for the European research community . It will contribute the European share to global greenhouse gas observations under GEO , WMO-GAW and GTOS programs .

negative: Arctic methane emissions Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas .   The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits .   Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .

negative: Contraction and Convergence Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .

negative: Trace gas A trace gas is a gas which makes up less than 1 % by volume of the Earth 's atmosphere , and it includes all gases except nitrogen ( 78.1 % ) and oxygen ( 20.9 % ) . The most abundant trace gas at 0.934 % is argon . Water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance .

negative: Low-carbon economy A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems .   Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts .   Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .

negative: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions .   As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas .   An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .

negative: Water vapor windows In the Earth 's atmosphere , water vapor absorbs many wavelengths of IR energy , while others are not absorbed . Those sections of the Electromagnetic spectrum that it does not absorb , are like windows in the atmosphere , allowing electromagnetic energy to flow freely in and out of the system . Like a window , that allows light to enter and leave . Originally discovered by John Tyndall , most of the infrared coming from the Universe is blocked , absorbed by water vapor ( and other greenhouse gases ) in the Earth 's atmosphere . Those wavelength ranges that can partially reach the surface , are coming through what is called ` water vapor windows ' . These windows are how Astronomers can view the Universe with IR telescopes , called Infrared astronomy . These windows also allow orbiting satellites to measure the IR energy leaving the planet , the SSTs and other important matters . See Electromagnetic_absorption_by_water #Atmospheric _ effects .

negative: Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets The discovery of extrasolar Earth-sized planets has spurred inquiry regarding their potential for habitability . One of the generally agreed-upon ( Noack and Breuer and references within ) requirements for a life-sustaining planet is a mobile , fractured lithosphere cyclically recycled into a vigorously convecting mantle , commonly known as plate tectonics . Plate tectonics provide a means of geochemical regulation of atmospheric particulates , as well as sequestration of carbon . This prevents `` runaway greenhouse '' scenarios that can result in inhospitable surface temperatures and vaporization of liquid surface water . There is not a clear academic consensus on whether Earth-like exoplanets have plate tectonics , but it is widely thought that the likelihood of plate tectonics on an Earth-like exoplanet is a function of planetary radius , initial temperature upon coalescence , insolation , and presence or absence of liquid-phase surface water .

negative: Ammonia fountain The ammonia fountain is a type of chemical demonstration . The experiment consists of introducing water through an inlet to a container filled with ammonia gas . Ammonia dissolves into the water and the pressure in the container drops . As a result , more water is forced into the container from another inlet creating a fountain effect . The demonstration introduces concepts like solubility and the gas laws at entry level .   A different gas of comparable solubility in water , such as hydrogen chloride , can be used instead of ammonia .   If the ammonia is replaced by a liquid vapor , such as water vapor , at a pressure higher than its room-temperature vapor pressure , a similar effect is produced . In this case , the reduction in pressure in the container is due to condensation of the vapor as the container cools to room temperature .

negative: Idealized greenhouse model The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere .   The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .

negative: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .

negative: Atmospheric river An atmospheric river is a narrow corridor or filament of concentrated moisture in the atmosphere . Atmospheric rivers consist of narrow bands of enhanced water vapor transport , typically along the boundaries between large areas of divergent surface air flow , including some frontal zones in association with extratropical cyclones that form over the oceans . Pineapple Express storms are the most commonly represented and recognized type of atmospheric rivers ; they are given the name due to the warm water vapor plumes originating over the Hawaiian tropics that follow a path towards California .   The term was originally coined by researchers Reginald Newell and Yong Zhu of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the early 1990s , to reflect the narrowness of the moisture plumes involved . Atmospheric rivers are typically several thousand kilometers long and only a few hundred kilometers wide , and a single one can carry a greater flux of water than the Earth 's largest river , the Amazon River . There are typically 3 -- 5 of these narrow plumes present within a hemisphere at any given time . In the current research field of atmospheric rivers the length and width factors described above in conjunction with an integrated water vapor depth greater than 2.0 cm are used as standards to categorize atmospheric river events . However , as data modeling techniques progress , integrated water vapor transport ( IVT ) is becoming a more common data type used to interpret atmospheric rivers . Its strength lies in its ability to show the transportation of water vapor over multiple time steps instead of a stagnant measurement of water vapor depth in a specific air column ( IWV ) . In addition IVT is more directly attributed to orographic precipitation , a key factor in the production of intense rainfall and subsequent flooding .   Atmospheric rivers have a central role in the global water cycle . On any given day , atmospheric rivers account for over 90 % of the global meridional ( north-south ) water vapor transport , yet they cover less than 10 % of the Earth 's circumference .   They also are the major cause of extreme precipitation events that cause severe flooding in many mid-latitude , westerly coastal regions of the world , including the West Coast of North America , Western Europe , and the west coast of North Africa .   The significance atmospheric rivers have for the control of coastal water budgets juxtaposed against their creation of detrimental floods can be constructed and studied by looking at California and the surrounding coastal region of the western United States . In this region atmospheric rivers have contributed 30-50 % of total annual rainfall . In conjunction Californian land falling Atmospheric Rivers have been historically associated with approximately all major flooding events . The inconsistency of California 's rainfall is due to the variability in strength and quantity of these storms , which can produce strenuous effects on California 's water budget . The factors described above make California a perfect case study to show the importance of proper water management and prediction of these storms .  __ NOTOC __

negative: Landfill gas Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons .   Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .

negative: Clathrate gun hypothesis The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun .   In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely .   However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .

negative: Atmosphere of Venus The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts .   Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia .   Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell .   Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases .   Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization .   On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''

negative: Future of Earth The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes .   Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° .   During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth .   In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .

negative: Carbon tax A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel .   Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health .   Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups .   A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly .   Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .

negative: Methanotroph Methanotrophs ( sometimes called methanophiles ) are prokaryotes that metabolize methane as their only source of carbon and energy . They can grow aerobically or anaerobically and require single-carbon compounds to survive .  These Methanotrophs are currently being modified to absorb methane from the atmosphere , because methane released into the atmosphere contributes to greenhouse gasses , which heat up the earth and cause global warming .


query: According to the WHO, exposure to particulate matter increases the risk of acute lower respiratory infection, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart disease, stroke and lung cancer.

positive: Air pollution Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth 's atmosphere . It may cause diseases , allergies or death in humans ; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops , and may damage the natural or built environment . Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution .   Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world 's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World 's Worst Polluted Places report . According to the 2014 WHO report , air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide , an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency .

positive: Particulates Atmospheric particulate matter -- also known as particulate matter ( PM ) or particulates -- are microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earth 's atmosphere . The term aerosol commonly refers to the particulate/air mixture , as opposed to the particulate matter alone . Sources of particulate matter can be man-made or natural . They have impacts on climate and precipitation that adversely affect human health .   Subtypes of atmospheric particulate matter include suspended particulate matter ( SPM ) , thoracic and respirable particles , inhalable coarse particles , which are -LSB- coarse -RSB- particles with a diameter between 2.5 and 10 micrometers ( μm ) ( PM10 ) , fine particles with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less ( PM2 .5 ) , ultrafine particles , and soot   The IARC and WHO designate airborne particulates a Group 1 carcinogen . Particulates are the deadliest form of air pollution due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and blood streams unfiltered , causing permanent DNA mutations , heart attacks , and premature death . In 2013 , a study involving 312,944 people in nine European countries revealed that there was no safe level of particulates and that for every increase of 10 μg / m3 in PM10 , the lung cancer rate rose 22 % . The smaller PM2 .5 were particularly deadly , with a 36 % increase in lung cancer per 10 μg / m3 as it can penetrate deeper into the lungs .

negative: Obstructive lung disease Obstructive lung disease is a category of respiratory disease characterized by airway obstruction . Many obstructive diseases of the lung result from narrowing of the smaller bronchi and larger bronchioles , often because of excessive contraction of the smooth muscle itself . It is generally characterized by inflamed and easily collapsible airways , obstruction to airflow , problems exhaling and frequent medical clinic visits and hospitalizations . Types of obstructive lung disease include ; asthma , bronchiectasis , bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) . Although COPD shares similar characteristics with all other obstructive lung diseases , such as the signs of coughing and wheezing , they are distinct conditions in terms of disease onset , frequency of symptoms and reversibility of airway obstruction . Cystic fibrosis is also sometimes included in obstructive pulmonary disease .

negative: Lifestyle disease Lifestyle diseases are defined as diseases linked with the way people live their life . This is commonly caused by alcohol , drug and smoking abuse as well as lack of physical activity and unhealthy eating . Diseases that impact on our lifestyle are heart disease , stroke , obesity and type II diabetes . The diseases that appear to increase in frequency as countries become more industrialized and people live longer . They can include Alzheimer 's disease , arthritis , atherosclerosis , asthma , cancer , chronic liver disease or cirrhosis , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , type 2 diabetes , heart disease , metabolic syndrome , chronic renal failure , osteoporosis , stroke , depression , and obesity . In the U.K the death rate is four times higher from respiratory disease caused by an unhealthy lifestyle   Some commenters maintain a distinction between diseases of longevity and diseases of civilization . Certain diseases , such as diabetes , dental caries and asthma , appear at greater rates in young populations living in the `` western '' way ; their increased incidence is not related to age , so the terms can not accurately be used interchangeably for all diseases .

negative: Nitrogen dioxide poisoning Nitrogen dioxide poisoning is the illness resulting from the toxic effect of nitrogen dioxide . It usually occurs after the inhalation of the gas beyond the threshold limit value .  Nitrogen dioxide is reddish-brown with very a sharp , harsh smell at high concentrations . It is colourless and odourless at lower concentration but yet harmful . Nitrogen dioxide poisoning depends on the duration , frequency and intensity of exposure .  Nitrogen dioxide is an irritant of the mucous membrane linked with other air pollutant that causes pulmonary diseases such as OLD , asthma , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and sometimes acute exacerbation of COPD and in fatal cases , deaths .  Its poor solubility in water enhances its passage and its ability to pass through the moist oral mucosa of the respiratory tract .  Like most toxic gases , the dose inhaled determines the toxicity on the respiratory tract . Occupational exposures constitute the highest risk of toxicity and domestic exposure is uncommon . Prolonged exposure to low concentration of the gas may have lethal effects , as can short-term exposure to high concentrations like chlorine gas poisoning . It is one of the major air pollutant capable of causing severe heath hazards such as coronary artery disease as well as stroke .  Nitrogen dioxide is often released into the environment as a byproduct of fuel combustion but rarely released by spontaneous combustion . Known sources of nitrogen gas poisoning includes automobile exhaust and power stations .  The toxicity may also result from non-combustible sources such as the one released from anaerobic fermentation of food grains and anaerobic digestion of biodegradable waste .  The World Health Organization ( WHO ) developed a global recommendation limiting exposures to less than 20 parts per billion for chronic exposure and value less 100 ppb for one hour for acute exposure , using nitrogen dioxide as a marker for other pollutants from fuel combustion .  The standards also based on the concentration of nitrogen dioxide that show a significant and profound effects on the function of the pulmonary of asthmatic patients .  Historically , some cities in the United States including Chicago and Los Angeles have high levels of nitrogen dioxide but the EPA set a standard values less than 100 ppb for a one-hour exposure and less than 53 ppb for chronic exposure .

negative: Bronchitis Bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchi ( large and medium-sized airways ) in the lungs . Symptoms include coughing up mucus , wheezing , shortness of breath , and chest discomfort . Bronchitis is divided into two types : acute and chronic . Acute bronchitis is also known as a chest cold .   Acute bronchitis usually has a cough that lasts around three weeks . In more than 90 % of cases the cause is a viral infection . These viruses may be spread through the air when people cough or by direct contact . Risk factors include exposure to tobacco smoke , dust , and other air pollution . A small number of cases are due to high levels of air pollution or bacteria such as Mycoplasma pneumoniae or Bordetella pertussis . Treatment of acute bronchitis typically involves rest , paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) , and NSAIDs to help with the fever .   Chronic bronchitis is defined as a productive cough that lasts for three months or more per year for at least two years . Most people with chronic bronchitis have chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) . Tobacco smoking is the most common cause , with a number of other factors such as air pollution and genetics playing a smaller role . Treatments include quitting smoking , vaccinations , rehabilitation , and often inhaled bronchodilators and steroids . Some people may benefit from long-term oxygen therapy or lung transplantation .   Acute bronchitis is one of the most common diseases . About 5 % of adults are affected and about 6 % of children have at least one episode a year . In 2010 , COPD affects 329 million people or nearly 5 % of the global population . In 2013 , it resulted in 2.9 million deaths , up from 2.4 million deaths in 1990 .

negative: Chronic lung disease Chronic lung disease may refer to :  Asthma  Bronchopulmonary dysplasia  Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , including chronic bronchitis and emphysema

negative: Occupational cardiovascular disease Occupational cardiovascular disease is disease of the heart or blood vessels that are caused by working conditions , making them a form of occupational illness . Little is known about occupational risks for heart disease , but links have been established between cardiovascular disease and certain toxins ( including carbon disulfide , nitroglycerin , and carbon monoxide ) , extreme heat and cold , exposure to tobacco smoke , depression , and occupational stress . Other occupational hazards potentially related to cardiovascular disease include noise exposure at work , shift work , and physical activity at work .   A 2015 SBU-report including a systematic review of non-chemical riskfactors for occupation cardiovascular disease found an association between certain occupational risk factors and developing cardiovascular disease in those :  With mentally stressfull work with a lack of control of their own working situation -- with a effort-reward imbalance  Who experience low social support at work ; who experience injustice or experience insufficient opportunities for personal development ; or those who experience job insecurity  Those who work night schedules ; or have long working weeks  Those who are exposed to noise  Specifically the risk of stroke was also increased by :  Exposure to ionizing radiation  Hypertension develops more often in those who experience job strain and who have shift-work . Differences between women and men in risk are small , however men risk suffering and dieing of heart attacks or stroke twice as often as women during working life .

negative: Exacerbation An exacerbation , in medicine , is the worsening of a disease or an increase in its symptoms . Examples includes an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and acute exacerbation of congestive heart failure .

negative: Chronic Respiratory Disease Chronic Respiratory Disease is a quarterly peer-reviewed medical journal that covers research in the field of respiratory disease , including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , respiratory failure , and obstructive sleep apnea . The editors-in-chief are Mike Morgan ( Glenfield Hospital ) , Carolyn Rochester ( Yale University ) , and Sally Singh ( Glenfield Hospital ) . It was established in 2004 and is published by SAGE Publications .

negative: Effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease In some individuals , the effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is to cause increased carbon dioxide retention , which may cause drowsiness , headaches , and in severe cases lack of respiration , which may lead to death . People with lung ailments or with central respiratory depression , who receive supplemental oxygen , require careful monitoring .

negative: Pulmonary heart disease Pulmonary heart disease , also known as cor pulmonale is the enlargement and failure of the right ventricle of the heart as a response to increased vascular resistance ( such as from pulmonic stenosis ) or high blood pressure in the lungs .   Chronic pulmonary heart disease usually results in right ventricular hypertrophy ( RVH ) , whereas acute pulmonary heart disease usually results in dilatation . Hypertrophy is an adaptive response to a long-term increase in pressure . Individual muscle cells grow larger ( in thickness ) and change to drive the increased contractile force required to move the blood against greater resistance . Dilatation is a stretching ( in length ) of the ventricle in response to acute increased pressure .   To be classified as pulmonary heart disease , the cause must originate in the pulmonary circulation system . Two causes are vascular changes as a result of tissue damage ( e.g. disease , hypoxic injury ) , and chronic hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction . If left untreated , then death may result , RVH due to a systemic defect is not classified as pulmonary heart disease . The heart and lungs are intricately related ; whenever the heart is affected by a disease , the lungs will follow and vice versa .

negative: Alcoholic lung disease Alcoholic lung disease is disease of the lungs caused by excessive alcohol consumption . The term ` alcoholic lung disease ' is not a generally accepted medical diagnosis , and `` the association between alcohol abuse and acute lung injury remains largely unrecognized , even by lung researchers '' .   Chronic alcohol ingestion impairs multiple critical cellular functions in the lung . These cellular impairments lead to increased susceptibility to serious complications from lung disease . Recent research cites alcoholic lung disease as comparable to liver disease in alcohol-related mortality . Alcoholics have a higher risk of developing acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ) and experience higher rates of mortality from ARDS when compared to non-alcoholics .   Alcohol abuse will make you more prone to getting an infection after major trauma to the lungs/respiratory system.It creates an increased risk of aspiration of gastric acid , microbes from the upper part of the throat , decreased mucous-facilitated clearance of bacterial pathogens from the upper airway and impaired pulmonary host defences . This increased colonization by pathogenic organisms , combined with the acute intoxicating effects of alcohol and the subsequent depression of the normally protective gag and cough reflexes , leads to more frequent and severe pneumonia 's from gram-negative organisms . Defects in the function of the upper airways clearance mechanisms in alcoholic patients .

negative: Asbestos-related diseases Asbestos-related diseases are disorders of the lung and pleura caused by the inhalation of asbestos fibres . Asbestos-related diseases include non-malignant disorders such as asbestosis ( pulmonary fibrosis due to asbestos ) , diffuse pleural thickening , pleural plaques , pleural effusion , rounded atelectasis and malignancies such as lung cancer and malignant mesothelioma .   People who worked in jobs with high asbestos dust exposure are at the highest risk of developing asbestos-related disease . However , exposure to asbestos may also occur in the worker 's home due to dust that has accumulated on the worker 's clothing ( para-occupational exposure ) . Asbestos-related diseases can also occur as a result of non-occupational , environmental exposure . Asbestos was extensively used in many building materials , therefore large quantities of asbestos still remain in buildings that were built prior to the restriction of asbestos use that applies in many countries . The weathering and aging of such buildings may cause asbestos fragments to be released in the air and create a potential hazard . Anyone who disturbs the asbestos-containing material during home maintenance and renovation can be affected , although the exact risks are difficult to quantify .

negative: COPD: Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease The COPD : Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diesase is a peer-reviewed medical journal that covers all aspects of chronic obstructive lung disease and its related conditions .

negative: Respiratory Health Association of Metropolitan Chicago Respiratory Health Association is a not-for-profit organization located on Chicago 's Near West Side .   Initially founded as the Chicago Tuberculosis Institute , the organization has undergone several name changes since 1906 to incorporate its expanding mission . Today , the association fights lung disease and promotes healthy lungs through research , advocacy and educational efforts on behalf of individuals and families affected by lung cancer , asthma , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) and other lung diseases .   The organization serves people living with lung disease through community-based interventions , including assisting with grants for research , creating policy initiatives that address long-term concerns on respiratory diseases , and developing programs to prevent lung disease .

negative: Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis Aspergillosis is an infection caused by the fungus Aspergillus . Aspergillosis describes a large number of diseases involving both infection and growth of fungus as well as allergic responses . Aspergillosis can occur in a variety of organs , both in humans and animals .   The most common sites of infection are the respiratory apparatus ( lungs , sinuses ) and these infections can be :  Invasive ( e.g. -- IPA )  Non-invasive ( e.g. Allergic Pulmonary Aspergillosis - ABPA )  Chronic pulmonary and aspergilloma ( e.g. chronic cavitary , semi-invasive )  Severe asthma with fungal sensitisation ( SAFS )   Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis ( CPA ) is a long-term aspergillus infection of the lung and Aspergillus fumigatus is almost always the species responsible for this illness . Patients fall into several groups as listed below .   Those with an aspergilloma which is a ball of fungus found in a single lung cavity - which may improve or disappear , or change very little over a few years .  Aspergillus nodule  Chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis ( CCPA ) where cavities are present in the lungs , but not necessarily with a fungal ball ( aspergilloma ) .  Chronic fibrosing pulmonary aspergillosis this may develop where pulmonary aspergillosis remains untreated and chronic scarring of the lungs occurs . Unfortunately scarring of the lungs does not improve .  Most patients with CPA have or have had an underlying lung disease . The most common diseases include tuberculosis , atypical mycobacterium infection , stage III fibrocystic pulmonary sarcoidosis , ABPA , lung cancer , COPD and emphysema , asthma and silicosis .

negative: World Trade Center lung World Trade Center lung is the name for a collection of lung diseases found in people who worked at or were near to the Ground Zero site of the September 11 attacks in New York City . This cluster of diseases includes asthma , asthmatic bronchitis , terminal airways disease , sarcoidosis , and acute eosinophilic pneumonia .   The particulate matter from the destruction of the towers contained fibrogenic and other harmful materials also found in responders ' lungs , including fiberglass , asbestos , aluminum , calcium silicate , polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , silica , vitreous fibers , carbon nanotubes , fly ash , titanium , magnesium silicate , and phosphate .

negative: Bronchodilator A bronchodilator is a substance that dilates the bronchi and bronchioles , decreasing resistance in the respiratory airway and increasing airflow to the lungs . Bronchodilators may be endogenous ( originating naturally within the body ) , or they may be medications administered for the treatment of breathing difficulties . They are most useful in obstructive lung diseases , of which asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are the most common conditions . Although this remains somewhat controversial , they might be useful in bronchiolitis and Bronchiectasis . They are often prescribed but of unproven significance in restrictive lung diseases .   Bronchodilators are either short-acting or long-acting . Short-acting medications provide quick or `` rescue '' relief from acute bronchoconstriction . Long-acting bronchodilators help to control and prevent symptoms . The three types of prescription bronchodilating drugs are β2-agonists ( short - and long-acting ) , anticholinergics ( short-acting ) , and theophylline ( long-acting ) .

negative: Acute interstitial pneumonitis Acute interstitial pneumonitis ( also known as acute interstitial pneumonia or Hamman -- Rich syndrome ) is a rare , severe lung disease that usually affects otherwise healthy individuals . There is no known cause or cure .   Acute interstitial pneumonitis is often categorized as both an interstitial lung disease and a form of acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ) but it is distinguished from the chronic forms of interstitial pneumonia such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis .

negative: Criteria air contaminants Criteria air contaminants ( CAC ) , or criteria pollutants , are a set of air pollutants that cause smog , acid rain , and other health hazards . CACs are typically emitted from many sources in industry , mining , transportation , electricity generation and agriculture . In most cases they are the products of the combustion of fossil fuels or industrial processes .   The history of each criteria air pollutant is listed below :

negative: Asthma-related microbes Chronic Mycoplasma pneumonia and Chlamydia pneumonia infections are associated with the onset and exacerbation of asthma . These microbial infections result in chronic lower airway inflammation , impaired mucociliary clearance , an increase in mucous production and eventually asthma . Furthermore , children who experience severe viral respiratory infections early in life have a high possibility of having asthma later in their childhood . These viral respiratory infections are mostly caused by respiratory syncytial virus ( RSV ) and human rhinovirus ( HRV ) . Although RSV infections increase the risk of asthma in early childhood , the association between asthma and RSV decreases with increasing age . HRV on the other hand is an important cause of bronchiolitis and is strongly associated with asthma development . In children and adults with established asthma , viral upper respiratory tract infections ( URIs ) , especially HRVs infections , can produce acute exacerbations of asthma . Thus , Chlamydia pneumoniae , Mycoplasma pneumoniae and human rhinoviruses are microbes that play a major role in non-atopic asthma .

negative: ICD-10 Chapter X: Diseases of the respiratory system

negative: Chemical hazard A chemical hazard is a type of occupational hazard caused by exposure to chemicals in the workplace . Exposure to chemicals in the workplace can cause acute or long-term detrimental health effects . There are many types of hazardous chemicals , including neurotoxins , immune agents , dermatologic agents , carcinogens , reproductive toxins , systemic toxins , asthmagens , pneumoconiotic agents , and sensitizers . These hazards can cause physical and/or health risks . Depending on chemical , the hazards involved may be varied , thus it is important to know and apply the PPE especially during the lab .   Longterm exposure to chemicals such as silica dust , engine exhausts , tobacco smoke , and/or lead ( among others ) have been shown to increase risk of heart disease , stroke , and high blood pressure .

negative: Your Disease Risk Your Disease Risk is a publicly available health risk assessment tool on the Internet . Launched in early 2000 and continually updated , the site offers risk assessments for twelve different cancers and four other important chronic diseases : heart disease , stroke , diabetes , and osteoporosis .   The site began in 1998 as a pen and paper questionnaire called the Harvard Cancer Risk Index . In January 2000 , The Harvard Cancer Risk Index developed into an online assessment and was renamed Your Cancer Risk , and offered assessments for four cancers : breast , colon , lung , and prostate . Six months later , eight additional cancers were added .   In 2004 , the site was renamed Your Disease Risk to reflect the addition of four further conditions : heart disease , stroke , diabetes , and osteoporosis . Since many common chronic diseases share risk factors , the renaming promoted the importance of a healthy lifestyle to lowering disease risks .   In 2007 , the site moved to the Alvin J. Siteman Cancer Center at Barnes-Jewish Hospital and Washington University School of Medicine .   In 2012 , researchers released a related iPad app , called Zuum , that offers customized advice for healthier living based on an individual 's diet , exercise and other habits .

negative: Hypoxic hypoxia Hypoxic hypoxia is a result of insufficient oxygen available to the lungs . A blocked airway , a drowning or a reduction in partial pressure ( high altitude above 10,000 feet ) are examples of how lungs can be deprived of oxygen . Some medical examples are abnormal pulmonary function or respiratory obstruction . Hypoxic hypoxia is seen in patients suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases ( COPD ) , neuromuscular diseases or interstitial lung disease .   Some symptoms of hypoxic hypoxia are :   Cyanosis  Headache  Increased reaction time  Impaired judgment time  Euphoria  Visual impairment  Drowsiness  Lightheaded or dizzy sensation  Tingling in fingers and toes  Numbness

negative: Peter J. Barnes (respiratory scientist) Professor Peter John Barnes , MA , DM , DSc , FRCP , FCCP , FMedSci , FRS ( born October 29 , 1946 ) is a British respiratory scientist and clinician , a specialist in the mechanisms and treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) . He is currently Professor of Thoracic Medicine at the National Heart & Lung Institute , Head of Respiratory Medicine at Imperial College and Honorary Consultant Physician at the Royal Brompton Hospital London .

negative: Non-communicable disease A non-communicable disease ( NCD ) is a medical condition or disease that is not caused by infectious agents ( non-infectious or non-transmissible ) . NCDs can refer to chronic diseases which last for long periods of time and progress slowly . Sometimes , NCDs result in rapid deaths such as seen in certain diseases such as autoimmune diseases , heart diseases , stroke , cancers , diabetes , chronic kidney disease , osteoporosis , Alzheimer 's disease , cataracts , and others . While sometimes referred to as synonymous with `` chronic diseases '' , NCDs are distinguished only by their non-infectious cause , not necessarily by their duration , though some chronic diseases of long duration may be caused by infections . Chronic diseases require chronic care management , as do all diseases that are slow to develop and of long duration .   NCDs are the leading cause of death globally . In 2012 , they caused 68 % of all deaths ( 38 million ) up from 60 % in 2000 . About half were under age 70 and half were women . Risk factors such as a person 's background , lifestyle and environment increase the likelihood of certain NCDs . Every year , at least 5 million people die because of tobacco use and about 2.8 million die from being overweight . High cholesterol accounts for roughly 2.6 million deaths and 7.5 million die because of high blood pressure .

negative: Particulate pollution Particulate pollution is pollution of an environment that consists of particles suspended in some medium . There are three primary forms : atmospheric particulate matter , marine debris , and space debris .   Particle pollution , also called particulate matter or PM , is a mixture of solids and liquid droplets floating in the air . Some particles are released directly from a specific source , while others form in complicated chemical reactions in the atmosphere .

negative: Smog Smog is a type of air pollutant . The word `` smog '' was coined in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog , its opacity , and odour . The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog , a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid 20th century . This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , ozone , smoke or particulates among others ( less visible pollutants include carbon monoxide , CFCs and radioactive sources ) . Human-made smog is derived from coal emissions , vehicular emissions , industrial emissions , forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions .   Modern smog , as found for example in Los Angeles , is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog . In certain other cities , such as Delhi , smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas . The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles , Beijing , Delhi , Mexico City , Tehran and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to the ground . It is usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness , shortened life or death .

negative: Aerosol An aerosol is a colloid of fine solid particles or liquid droplets , in air or another gas . Aerosols can be natural or anthropogenic . Examples of natural aerosols are fog , forest exudates and geyser steam . Examples of artificial aerosols are haze , dust , particulate air pollutants and smoke . The liquid or solid particles have diameter mostly smaller than 1 μm or so ; larger particles with a significant settling speed make the mixture a suspension , but the distinction is not clear-cut . In general conversation , aerosol usually refers to an aerosol spray that delivers a consumer product from a can or similar container . Other technological applications of aerosols include dispersal of pesticides , medical treatment of respiratory illnesses , and combustion technology . Diseases can also spread by means of small droplets in the breath , also called aerosols .   Aerosol science covers generation and removal of aerosols , technological application of aerosols , effects of aerosols on the environment and people , and a wide variety of other topics .   __ TOC __

negative: Reactive airway disease Reactive airway disease is a group of conditions that include reversible airway narrowing due to an external stimulation . These conditions generally result in wheezing .   Conditions within this group include asthma , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , and viral upper respiratory infections .   The term sometimes is misused as a synonym for asthma . Current medical use of the term reactive airway disease is used in pediatrics to describe an asthma-like syndrome in infants , that may later be confirmed to be asthmatics when they become old enough to participate in diagnostic tests such as the bronchial challenge test .

negative: International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease The International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease is a peer-reviewed medical journal focusing on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease . It was established in 2008 and is published by Dove Medical Press .