query: New Study Confirms EVs Considerably Worse For Climate Than Diesel Cars.

positive: Car A car ( or automobile ) is a wheeled , self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry . Most definitions of the term specify that cars are designed to run primarily on roads , to have seating for one to eight people , to typically have four wheels with tyres , and to be constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods . The year 1886 is regarded as the birth year of the modern car . In that year , German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen . Cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century . One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T , an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company . Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America , where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts , but took much longer to be accepted in Western Europe and other parts of the world .   Cars are equipped with controls used for driving , parking , passenger comfort and safety , and controlling a variety of lights . Over the decades , additional features and controls have been added to vehicles , making them progressively more complex . Examples include rear reversing cameras , air conditioning , navigation systems , and in car entertainment . Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by an internal combustion engine , fueled by deflagration of gasoline ( also known as petrol ) or diesel . Both fuels cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming . Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries . Electric cars , which were invented early in the history of the car , began to become commercially available in 2008 .   There are costs and benefits to car use . The costs of car usage include the cost of : acquiring the vehicle , interest payments ( if the car is financed ) , repairs and auto maintenance , fuel , depreciation , driving time , parking fees , taxes , and insurance . The costs to society of car use include : maintaining roads , land use , road congestion , air pollution , public health , health care , and disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life . Road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide .   The benefits may include on-demand transportation , mobility , independence , and convenience . The societal benefits may include : economic benefits , such as job and wealth creation from car production , sales and maintenance , transportation provision , society well-being derived from leisure and travel opportunities , and revenue generation from the tax opportunities . The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies . It was estimated in 2014 that the number of cars had risen to over 1.25 billion vehicles , up from the 500 million of 1986 . The numbers are increasing rapidly , especially in China , India and other newly industrialized countries .

positive: Electric vehicle An electric vehicle , also called an electric drive vehicle , uses one or more electric motors or traction motors for propulsion . An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system by electricity from off-vehicle sources , or may be self-contained with a battery , solar panels or a generator to convert fuel to electricity . EVs include road and rail vehicles , surface and underwater vessels , electric aircraft and electric spacecraft .   EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century , when electricity was among the preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion , providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time . The internal combustion engine has been the dominant propulsion method for motor vehicles for almost 100 years , but electric power has remained commonplace in other vehicle types , such as trains and smaller vehicles of all types .   In the 21st century , EVs saw a resurgence due to technological developments and an increased focus on renewable energy . Government incentives to increase adoptions were introduced , including in the United States and the European Union .

negative: H-Bio H-Bio is an oil-refining processes which involves converting vegetable oil into high-quality diesel via hydrogenation . Hydrogenation is a chemical reaction , in which a substance is treated with Hydrogen , thus resulting in a new product . In H-Bio , Hydrogen is added to vegetable oil and mineral oil , making a usable diesel that is made up of diesel oil and 10 % vegetable oil . The process was first developed in 2006 by the Brazilian , state-owned and gas company , Petrobras , and was primarily established for commercial use .   H-Bio can be used to power many cars that already use diesel , therefore , H-Bio can be widely sold to car owners in local fuel stations . Moreover , the process has many advantages when compared to traditional methods , but also has drawbacks . H-Bio has been tested and confirmed as a viable method to supply diesel globally .

negative: Mini Paceman The Mini Paceman is a subcompact , three door crossover SUV based on the crossover Mini Countryman , and built by Mini . The car was introduced as a concept car first at the 2011 North American International Auto Show . Production of the concept was confirmed in August 2011 , with the production model unveiled in September 2012 .   Like the Countryman , the Paceman is offered with a choice of two or four wheel drive ( known as ALL4 ) , and with 1.6 L petrol or diesel and 2.0 L diesel Inline-four engines in various states of tune . In September 2016 , BMW confirmed that production of the Paceman would finish by the end of 2016 .

negative: No Worse for the Wear No Worse for the Wear is a 1994 album , the third and last by Orange County pop punk band Big Drill Car . It is the only album without their classic original line-up , featuring new members Keith Fallis and Darrin Norris . The band reached a little success through the album , if only for a short time before their 13-year break-up , from 1995 to 2008 . The release of No Worse for the Wear would also gain Big Drill Car supporting slots on national and world tours with bands such as The Offspring ( who had just released Smash to unexpected success and acclaim ) and Guttermouth .   The songs `` The Shake '' , `` Nogaina '' , and `` What You Believe '' were featured , amongst other Cargo/Headhunter Records artists , in the 1997 Sega Saturn/Sony PlayStation game Courier Crisis .   Like many Big Drill Car albums , No Worse for the Wear is currently out of print .

negative: Diesel 2000 Diesel 2000 is an FIA circuit racing classification for modified production based touring cars using turbodiesel engines .   Like its counterpart , Super 2000 , the category is open to large-scale series production touring cars modified by a kit . Cars must have at least four seats and at least 2500 fully identical units must be produced within 12 consecutive months to allow homologation . However , unlike Super 2000 , Diesel 2000 allows only 4-cylinder turbocharged diesel engines with a maximum capacity of 2000cc .   The category was introduced to the European Touring Car Championship for 2004 to allow turbodiesel cars to compete alongside the existing petrol engined Super 2000 vehicles .  When the European Championship was upgraded to become the World Touring Car Championship in 2005 , both Diesel 2000 and Super 2000 cars were eligible to compete for the new title .   Spanish manufacturer SEAT has won the manufacturers award of the World Championship in both 2008 and 2009 with their Diesel 2000 León TDI model . Factory SEAT drivers Yvan Muller and Gabriele Tarquini have won the drivers titles with the same model in these two years respectively .

negative: DT1 multiple unit DT1 multiple unit is a train , developed at Torzhoksky car-building factory in Russia in 2007 .  The train has electric and diesel draught , and is intended for maintenance of suburban transportations on railways of a track of with low and high passenger platforms in macroclimatic areas with a temperate climate .   The diesel engine-electric train can accelerate momentum to 110 km/h .  Quantity of places for sitting 370 , nominal density of population 878 peoples .

negative: DRC railcar The DRC ( Diesel Rail Car ) was a class of railmotor operated by the Victorian Railways on its country rail network Victoria , Australia . The cars were built by Tulloch Limited in New South Wales and featured aluminum and steel construction , air-conditioning , and twin diesel engines with hydraulic transmissions .

negative: Consideration Consideration is the concept of legal value in connection with contracts . It is anything of value promised to another when making a contract . For example , if A signs a contract to buy a car from B for $ 5,000 , A 's consideration is the $ 5,000 , and B 's consideration is the car .   Additionally , if A signs a contract with B such that A will paint B 's house for $ 500 , A 's consideration is the service of painting B 's house , and B 's consideration is $ 500 paid to A. Further , if A signs a contract with B such that A will not repaint his own house in any other color than white , and B will pay A $ 500 per year to keep this deal up , there is also consideration . Although A did not promise to affirmatively do anything , A did promise not to do something that he was allowed to do , and so A did pass consideration . A 's consideration to B is the forbearance in painting his own house in a color other than white , and B 's consideration to A is $ 500 per year . Conversely , if A signs a contract to buy a car from B for $ 0 , B 's consideration is still the car , but A is giving no consideration , and so there is no valid contract . However , if B still gives the title to the car to A , then B can not take the car back , since , while it may not be a valid contract , it is a valid gift .   In common law it is a prerequisite that both parties offer consideration before a contract can be thought of as binding . The doctrine of consideration is irrelevant in many jurisdictions , although contemporary commercial litigant relations have held the relationship between a promise and a deed is a reflection of the nature of contractual considerations . If there is no element of consideration found , there is thus no contract formed .   However , even if a court decides there is no contract , there might be a possible recovery under quantum meruit ( sometimes referred to as a quasi-contract ) or promissory estoppel .

negative: Budd Rail Diesel Car The Budd Rail Diesel Car , RDC or Buddliner is a self-propelled diesel multiple unit ( DMU ) railcar . Between 1949 and 1962 , 398 RDCs were built by the Budd Company of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . The cars were primarily adopted for passenger service in rural areas with low traffic density or in short-haul commuter service , and were less expensive to operate in this context than a traditional diesel locomotive-drawn train with coaches . The cars could be used singly or several could be coupled together in train sets and controlled from the cab of the front unit . The RDC was one of the few DMU trains to achieve commercial success in North America . RDC trains were an early example of self-contained diesel multiple unit trains , an arrangement now in common use by railways all over the world .

negative: Combined diesel and gas Combined diesel and gas ( CODAG ) is a type of propulsion system for ships which need a maximum speed that is considerably faster than their cruise speed , particularly warships like modern frigates or corvettes .   It consists of diesel engines for cruising and gas turbines that can be switched on for high-speed transits . In most cases the difference of power output from diesel engines alone to diesel and turbine power combined is too large for controllable-pitch propellers to limit the rotations so that the diesels can not continue to operate without changing the gear ratios of their transmissions . Because of that , special multi-speed gearboxes are needed . This contrasts to CODOG systems , which couple the diesels with a simple , fixed ratio gearbox to the shaft , but disengages when the turbine is switched on .   For an example the new CODAG-propelled s of the Royal Norwegian Navy , the gear ratio for the diesel engine is changed from about 1:7.7 ( engine : propeller ) for diesel-only to 1:5.3 when in diesel-and-turbine mode . Some ships even have three different gear ratios for the diesel engines : one each for single diesel and double diesel cruises and the third when the gas turbine is engaged .   Such a propulsion system has a smaller footprint than a diesel-only power plant with the same maximal power output , since smaller engines can be used and the gas turbine and gearbox do n't need that much additional space . Still it retains the high fuel efficiency of diesel engines when cruising , allowing greater range and lower fuel costs than with gas turbines alone . On the other hand , a more complex , heavy and troublesome gearing is needed .   Typical cruising speed of CODAG warships on diesel-power is 20 kn and typical maximal speed with switched on turbine is 30 kn .   CODAG has been pioneered by Germany with the .

negative: Diesel Power (magazine) Diesel Power is an American automotive magazine that focuses on interests in heavily modifying trucks , SUVs , and cars powered by diesel engines . The original tagline for the magazine called it `` The Voice of the Turbodiesel Enthusiast '' and it 's now `` The World 's Largest Diesel Magazine . '' As of January 2012 , the magazine has certified circulation of more than 135,000 per month according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations .   Diesel Power is published in Los Angeles by The Enthusiast Network and originally debuted in 2005 as a publication of Primedia . The editor is KJ Jones and the art director is Mark Snyder .

negative: Steam generator (railroad) A steam generator is a type of boiler used to produce steam for climate control and potable water heating in railroad passenger cars . The output of a railroad steam generator is low pressure , saturated steam that is passed through a system of pipes and conduits throughout the length of the train .   Steam generators were developed when diesel locomotives started to replace steam locomotives on passenger trains . In most cases , each passenger locomotive was fitted with a steam generator and a feedwater supply tank . The steam generator used some of the locomotive 's diesel fuel supply for combustion . When a steam generator-equipped locomotive was not available for a run , a so-called `` heating car '' fitted with one or two steam generators was inserted between the last locomotive in the consist and the rest of the train .   Steam generators would also be fitted to individual cars to enable them to be heated independently of any locomotive supply .   In Ireland , Córas Iompair Éireann used `` heating cars '' as standard and CIÉ diesel locomotives were not fitted with steam generators .

negative: Greenland ice core project The Greenland Ice Core Project ( GRIP ) was a multinational European research project , organized through the European Science Foundation . Funding came from 8 nations ( Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Iceland , Italy , Switzerland , and United Kingdom ) , and from the European Union .   The project ran from 1989 to 1995 , with drilling seasons from 1990 to 1992 . GRIP successfully drilled a 3029-metre ice core to the bed of the Greenland ice sheet at Summit , Central Greenland from 1989 to 1992 at .   Studies of isotopes and various atmospheric constituents in the core have revealed a detailed record of climatic variations reaching more than 100,000 years back in time . The results indicate that Holocene climate has been remarkably stable and have confirmed the occurrence of rapid climatic variation during the last ice age ( the Wisconsin ) . Delta-O-18 variations observed in the core part believed to date from the Eemian Stage have not been confirmed by other records including the NGRIP core and are now believed not to represent climate events : the interglacial climate of Eemian Stage appears to have been as stable as the Holocene .

negative: Prestige Diesels Prestige Diesels & Sports Limited is a UK-based used car sales company located in Portsmouth , Hampshire , England .   The company was founded in 2011 by Scott Shilcock and Alexis Cassey . They have been quoted in the media several times regarding the Volkswagen emissions scandal including The Telegraph , BBC One news , Daily Mail , BuzzFeed News , and ITV news .   Prestige Diesels sells various makes and models but specializes in Mercedes-Benz , BMW , Jaguar , Volvo , and MINI .

negative: Confirm Project CONFIRM was an ambitious IT project supposed to create a single computer reservations system/global distribution system used by airline , rental car , and hotel companies . It is often used as a case study as an example of a major failure in project management .

negative: Honda EV Plus The Honda EV Plus was the first battery electric vehicle from a major automaker with non-lead acid batteries . Roughly 340 EV Plus models were produced and released . The EV Plus was taken out of production in 1999 when Honda announced the release of its first hybrid electric vehicle , the Honda Insight . The EV Plus was made to learn about advanced battery use in an electric car and to meet California Air Resources Board requirements for zero-emission vehicles , the same as the new General Motors EV1 . It served as a test bed for the pancake-style motor , electronic control unit , power control unit and the Nickel -- metal hydride battery ( NiMH ) later used in Honda hybrids and developed further in the first Honda FCX Fuel Cell Vehicles made from returned ( decommissioned ) EV Plus chassis .   The EV Plus featured on-board conductive charging with the Avcon connector , passive battery balancing , regenerative braking and deceleration , AC/heat-pump climate control , HID headlights , 4 seats , and electrically heated windshield . Units deployed in cold climates also had oil-fired heaters for faster cabin heating and passenger comfort . As with virtually all vehicles , range was affected by driving style : rapid acceleration , high speeds , and fast stops lowered the all-electric range significantly . United States Environmental Protection Agency rated at 81 miles ( 130 km ) , careful driving would give it a range of just over 100 miles ( 160 km ) . The EV Plus came with a 12 V battery for running normal 12 volt accessories and lighting .

negative: UMM Alter 4x4 1985 saw the arrival of a new UMM car , the Alter 4x4 , which featured a 2.5 litre diesel engine .

negative: Audi R15 TDI The Audi R15 TDI , commonly abbreviated to the R15 , is a Le Mans Prototype ( LMP ) racing car constructed by the German car manufacturer Audi AG . It is the successor to the Audi R10 TDI .   Like its predecessor , the R15 TDI uses a turbocharged diesel engine , although the R15 's V10 engine is physically smaller than the R10 's V12 . The smaller engine is pushed further toward the middle of the car than in the R10 , resulting in a more neutral weight balance that gives the car better agility around the corners than its predecessor .

negative: TCDD MT5300 TCDD MT5300 was a series of diesel multiple units operated by the Turkish State Railways . The trains were used on intercity services , and offered higher speeds and comfort than steam powered trains . There had many similarities to the MT5200 . The motor units were built by MAN , Esslingen and Duewag with MAN Diesel engines , while the centre cars were built by Westwaggon .

negative: NIO Eve The NIO EVE is a concept car , with a working prototype that was unveiled in SXSW 2017 . The car is said to an autonomous vehicle , but can be manually driven if chosen . NIO says the car will be in production by 2020 .   The NIO website includes a section that allows browsers to look around the car .

negative: Joseph Eve (politician) Joseph Eve ( 17 July 1784 -- 1 June June 1843 ) was an American politician and diplomat . He was born in Culpeper County , Virginia . As a young man he moved to Knox County , Kentucky . He married Betsey Withers Ballinger in 1811 ; they had no children . He was a lawyer in Kentucky and was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives three times . He was a colonel in the United States Army during the War of 1812 , and later served four years as a senator in the Kentucky Senate . He was a circuit court judge for a period of ten years .   On 15 April 1841 , Eve was appointed to post of Chargé d'affaires for the United States mission to the Republic of Texas . He was a strong advocate of U.S. annexation of the then-independent Republic . During this time , conflict between Texas and Mexico grew , and the provisional Republic seat of government was relocated several times . Eve moved his legation to Galveston , Texas , hoping to benefit from the climate , as his tuberculosis was getting worse . However , in 1843 he was released from his assignment , succeeded by William S. Murphy on 3 April 1843 . He died soon thereafter ( 1 June ) , after which his widow relocated to their residence in Kentucky .

negative: Hino TH-series In May 1950 the heavy-duty Hino TH10 truck was introduced , equipped with the all-new 7-liter DS10 diesel engine . An eight-tonner , this was considerably larger than existing Japanese trucks which had rarely been built for more than 6 t payload . The model became a common sight in Japan and in Southeast Asia , its main export market , before being retired in 1968 in favor of the more modern cab over trucks which succeeded it .

negative: Peugeot 908 The Peugeot 908 is an auto racing car developed by Peugeot Sport in 2011 for the Le Mans Prototype category of racing . Powered by a diesel engine , it is the successor to the Peugeot 908 HDi FAP which competed since 2007 . The newer 908 features a smaller diesel than its predecessor , utilizing a 3700 cc HDi V8 engine with Honeywell Turbo Technologies turbocharger in order to meet new regulations for 2011 . The 908 has competed in all rounds of the 2011 Intercontinental Le Mans Cup including the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans . The new 908 lost about 150 bhp compared to 2010 but improvements in the chassis and handling made the car much more agile . Rear tyres are now fitted on the front . The only part that has been reused from its predecessor was the windscreen wiper .

negative: JCB Dieselmax The JCB Dieselmax is a diesel-engined ` streamliner ' car designed for the purpose of breaking the land speed record for a diesel-engined vehicle .   The car was built for JCB , a British multinational equipment company . As of 2014 , the car holds the world diesel-powered land speed record , having been driven to over 350 mph by Wing Commander Andy Green in 2006 .

negative: South Central Rockies forests The South Central Rockies forests is a temperate coniferous forest ecoregion of the United States located mainly in Wyoming , Idaho , and Montana . It has a considerably drier climate than the North Central Rockies forest .

negative: Electronic Diesel Control Electronic Diesel Control is a diesel engine fuel injection control system for the precise metering and delivery of fuel into the combustion chamber of modern diesel engines used in trucks and cars .

negative: NZR DS class The New Zealand DS class is a class of 16 diesel shunting locomotives built by the Vulcan Foundry and supplied by the Drewry Car Co from 1949 -- 1955 .

negative: Peugeot HR1 The Peugeot HR1 is a concept car designed by Peugeot for the 2010 Paris Motor Show . It is a Supermini SUV and features an innovative hybrid powertrain . Instead of using a diesel linked to an electric motor , like in the Peugeot 3008 and Peugeot 508 , it uses a 1.2 litre petrol engine . The concept is 3.67 m long , which is shorter than the Nissan Juke , but longer than the Citroën Lacoste . The Lacoste is its sister car and also uses a hybrid engine .

negative: Worse is better Worse is better , also called New Jersey style , was conceived by Richard P. Gabriel in an essay `` Worse is better '' to describe the dynamics of software acceptance , but it has broader application . It is the idea that quality does not necessarily increase with functionality -- that there is a point where less functionality ( `` worse '' ) is a preferable option ( `` better '' ) in terms of practicality and usability . Software that is limited , but simple to use , may be more appealing to the user and market than the reverse .   As to the oxymoronic title , Gabriel calls it a caricature , declaring the style bad in comparison with `` The Right Thing '' . However he also states that `` it has better survival characteristics than the-right-thing '' development style and is superior to the `` MIT Approach '' with which he contrasted it in the original essay .

negative: British railcars and diesel multiple units Diesel multiple units and railcars are trains , usually with passenger accommodation , that do not require a locomotive . Railcars can be single cars , while in multiple units cars are marshalled together with a driving position either end . , 23 percent of the rail passenger cars used on Network Rail are part of an diesel multiple unit .   Some prototype steam-powered railcars appeared in the mid-19th century , and at the start of the 20th century over 100 were built . Diesel motors became powerful enough for a railway use after World War I , and the Great Western Railway built several single cars and multiple units . A 1952 report recommended the trialling of lightweight diesel multiple units , followed by plans in the 1955 Modernisation Plan for up to 4,600 diesel railcars . Most of these had a mechanical transmission , but the Southern Region had experience of DC electric multiple units , and diesel electric multiple units were introduced .   In 1960 the Blue Pullman service was introduced using high-speed trainset consisting of coaches sandwiched between two power cars . This arrangement was later used for the Intercity 125 permitting a top speed of 125 mph . Initially this train was considered to be a diesel electric multiple unit , but for operational reasons the classification was changed and the power cars became identified as Class 43 locomotives .

negative: Worse Than Dead Worse Than Dead is the first full length album by American crossover thrash band Iron Reagan . It was released on March 20 , 2013 on A389 Recordings .

negative: BMW X4 The BMW X4 is a compact luxury crossover SUV introduced in 2014 , manufactured by the German automaker BMW at its United States factory in South Carolina .   It was initially announced in 2013 as a concept car and was formally launched at the 2014 New York International Auto Show with sales starting in Spring 2014 .   The X4 shares powertrains with the X3 , including a variety of four and six-cylinder engines in both petrol and diesel format . It is slightly larger than the X3 but smaller than the X5 .

negative: Mitsubishi 4N1 engine The Mitsubishi 4N1 engine is a family of all-alloy four-cylinder diesel engines developed by Mitsubishi Motors , produced at the company 's powertrain facility in Kyoto , Japan for use in Mitsubishi 's small to mid-sized global passenger cars .   In June 2006 , Mitsubishi Motors and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries announced a joint development project for a new generation of clean diesel engines to be used in cars exported to Europe with a target of beginning mass production in 2010 and later announced that the engines will be gradually phased into other global markets .   The preliminary version of the 1798 cc engine was first seen in the Concept-cX test car introduced in 2007 . The larger 2268 cc was first exhibited in the Concept-ZT test car introduced in the same year and later used in the Concept-RA test car introduced in 2008 .   With a clean diesel emission performance in mind , all engines are designed to comply with Tier 2 Bin 5 emission regulations in the United States , Euro 5 standard in Europe and Japan 's Post New Long Term regulations .   Together with Mitsubishi 's electric vehicle technology the new diesel engines are positioned as a core element in the Mitsubishi Motors Environment Initiative Program 2010 ( EIP 2010 ) announced in July 2006 .   The 4N1 engine family is the world 's first to feature a variable valve timing ( intake side ) system applied to passenger car diesel engines .   All engines developed within this family have aluminum cylinder block , double overhead camshaft layouts , four valves per cylinder , a common rail injection system with a variable geometry turbocharger and MIVEC variable valve timing .


query: Overall Greenland is losing ice mass at an accelerating rate.

positive: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses .   Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear .   The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas .   The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .

positive: Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .

positive: Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly .   Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. .  Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century .   Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .

negative: Mittivakkat Glacier The Mittivakkat Glacier is located in southeast Greenland , and is part of the largest ice field on Ammassalik Island . This glacier has been in retreat ( negative net mass balance ) throughout most of recorded history ( 1898 -- 2008 ) .   Reindeer bones were recovered from the retreating glacier in 2005 , and dated to about 1200-1300 AD .

negative: Nioghalvfjerdsbrae Nioghalvfjerdsbrae , sometimes referred to as `` 79 N Glacier '' , is a large glacier located in northeast Greenland . It drains an area of 103,314 km2 of the Greenland Ice Sheet with a flux ( quantity of ice moved from the land to the sea ) of 14.3 km3 per year , as measured for 1996 .

negative: East Greenland Ice-Core Project The East Greenland Ice-Core Project , known as EGRIP , is a scientific project that plans to retrieve an ice core from the Northeast Greenland ice stream . The first season in the field was 2015 ; the project is expected to be drilling through to the base of the ice sheet by 2020 .   Much of the camp set up for the North Greenland Eemian Ice Drilling Project ( NEEM ) was moved to the EGRIP location in 2015 . The equipment was towed by several tractors . The team ran low on fuel and had to abandon some equipment , arriving at the EGRIP location on 26 May , after nine days of towing .

negative: West Greenland Current The West Greenland Current is a weak cold water current that flows to the north along the west coast of Greenland . The current results from the movement of water flowing around the southernmost point of Greenland caused by the East Greenland Current .   According to Lloyd et al. , 2007 , the WGC is a WARM current connected to a broader scale North Atlantic climate via the combined influences of Atlantic water from the Irminger Current ( IC ) and polar water from the East Greenland Current .   Paleoclimatology records derived from foraminifera abundance show that periodic influxes of warm subsurface temperatures and near-bottom temperatures occurred throughout the Late Holocene epoch , particularly during the Holocene climatic optimum . The increased flow from the nearby East Greenland Current was associated with increased glacial iceberg calving from the large Jakobshavn Isbrae glacial outlet within the western Greenland Ice Sheet , causing rapid melting and destabilization events . Following the Neoglaciation , the Jakobshavn outlet formed a floating ice tongue around 2000 years before present .

negative: Future sea level The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming .   The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .

negative: Gravitational acceleration In physics , gravitational acceleration is the acceleration on an object caused by the force of gravitation . Neglecting friction such as air resistance , all small bodies accelerate in a gravitational field at the same rate relative to the center of mass . This equality is true regardless of the masses or compositions of the bodies .   At different points on Earth , objects fall with an acceleration between and depending on altitude and latitude , with a conventional standard value of exactly 9.80665 m/s2 ( approximately 32.174 ft/s2 ) . This does not take into account other effects , such as buoyancy or drag .

negative: Cryoconite Cryoconite is powdery windblown dust made of a combination of small rock particles , soot and microbes which is deposited and builds up on snow , glaciers , or ice caps . The darkening , especially from small amounts of soot , absorbs solar radiation melting the snow or ice beneath the deposit , and sometimes creating a cryoconite hole . Cryoconite may contain dust from far away continental deserts or farmland , particles from volcanic eruptions or power plant emissions , and soot . It was first described and named by Nils A. E. Nordenskiöld when he traveled on Greenland 's icecap in 1870 . During summer , cryoconite holes frequently contain liquid water and thus provide a niche for cold-adapted microorganisms like bacteria , algae and animals like rotifers and tardigrades to thrive . Cryoconite typically settles and concentrates at the bottom of these holes creating a noticeable dark mass .   Soot decreases the reflectivity , or albedo of ice , increasing absorption of heat . Cryoconite is constantly being added to snow and ice formations along with snow . It is buried within the snow or ice , but as the snow or ice melts increasing amounts of dark material is exposed on the surface , accelerating melting .

negative: Thrust Thrust is a reaction force described quantitatively by Isaac Newton 's second and third laws . When a system expels or accelerates mass in one direction , the accelerated mass will cause a force of equal magnitude but opposite direction on that system .  The force applied on a surface in a direction perpendicular or normal to the surface is called thrust . Force , and thus thrust , is measured in the International System of Units ( SI ) as the newton ( symbol : N ) , and represents the amount needed to accelerate 1 kilogram of mass at the rate of 1 meter per second per second .   In mechanical engineering , force orthogonal to the main load ( such as in parallel helical gears ) is referred to as thrust .

negative: Pebble accretion In pebble accretion the accretion of objects ranging from cm 's up to meters in diameter onto planetesimals in a protoplanetary disk is enhanced by aerodynamic drag . The rapid growth of the planetesimals via pebble accretion allows for the formation of giant planet cores in the outer Solar System before the dispersal of the gas disk . A reduction in the size of pebbles as they lose water ice after crossing the ice line and a declining density of gas with distance from the sun slow the rates of pebble accretion in the inner Solar System resulting in smaller terrestrial planets , a small mass of Mars and a low mass asteroid belt .

negative: List of accelerator mass spectrometry facilities The following list of accelerator mass spectrometry facilities sets out the research centres which employ accelerator mass spectrometry ( AMS ) .   Accelerator mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that uses a full-sized particle accelerator as a big mass spectrometer .

negative: Greenland ice core project The Greenland Ice Core Project ( GRIP ) was a multinational European research project , organized through the European Science Foundation . Funding came from 8 nations ( Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Iceland , Italy , Switzerland , and United Kingdom ) , and from the European Union .   The project ran from 1989 to 1995 , with drilling seasons from 1990 to 1992 . GRIP successfully drilled a 3029-metre ice core to the bed of the Greenland ice sheet at Summit , Central Greenland from 1989 to 1992 at .   Studies of isotopes and various atmospheric constituents in the core have revealed a detailed record of climatic variations reaching more than 100,000 years back in time . The results indicate that Holocene climate has been remarkably stable and have confirmed the occurrence of rapid climatic variation during the last ice age ( the Wisconsin ) . Delta-O-18 variations observed in the core part believed to date from the Eemian Stage have not been confirmed by other records including the NGRIP core and are now believed not to represent climate events : the interglacial climate of Eemian Stage appears to have been as stable as the Holocene .

negative: Dye 3 Dye 3 is an ice core site and previously part of the Distant Early Warning ( DEW ) line , located at ( , 2480 masl ) in Greenland . As a DEW line base , it was disbanded in years 1990/1991 .   An ice core is a core sample from the accumulation of snow and ice that has re-crystallized and trapped air bubbles over many years . The composition of these ice cores , especially the presence of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes , provides a picture of the climate at the time . Ice cores contain an abundance of climate information .   Inclusions in the snow , such as wind-blown dust , ash , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances , remain in the ice . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires .   Typical ice cores are removed from an ice sheet such as the ice cap internal to Greenland . Greenland is , by area , the world 's largest island . The Greenland ice sheet covers about 1.71 million km2 and contains about 2.6 million km3 of ice .

negative: Greenland Brewhouse Greenland Brewhouse was Greenland 's first brewery . It was located in Narsaq in Southern Greenland and was founded in December 2004 . The beer was brewed from water derived from melted icebergs . Melt water was collected from icebergs and transported to the brewery by local fishermen on their fishing boats . Greenland Brewhouse pioneered ` ice beer ' , brewed from 2000-year-old natural Arctic ice harvested from glaciers .   Prior to 1954 , alcohol sales were heavily restricted in Greenland , thus home brewing presented problems .

negative: Konrad Steffen Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .

negative: Momentum exchange tether A momentum exchange tether is a kind of space tether that could theorically be used as a launch system , or to change spacecraft orbits . Momentum exchange tethers create a controlled force on the end-masses of the system due to the pseudo-force known as centrifugal force . While the tether system rotates , the objects on either end of the tether will experience continuous acceleration ; the magnitude of the acceleration depends on the length of the tether and the rotation rate . Momentum exchange occurs when an end body is released during the rotation . The transfer of momentum to the released object will cause the rotating tether to lose energy , and thus lose velocity and altitude . However , using electrodynamic tether thrusting , or ion propulsion the system can then re-boost itself with little or no expenditure of consumable reaction mass .   A non-rotating tether is a rotating tether that rotates exactly once per orbit so that it always has a vertical orientation relative to the parent body . A spacecraft arriving at the lower end of this tether , or departing from the upper end , will take momentum from the tether , while a spacecraft departing from the lower end of the tether , or arriving at the upper end , will add momentum to the tether .

negative: Deglaciation Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene .   The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .

negative: André E. Lalonde Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory The André E. Lalonde Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory is a accelerator mass spectrometry research facility at the University of Ottawa in Canada . It is currently the only AMS facility in Canada . The facility is named after former uOttawa Faculty of Science dean André E. Lalonde , who died of cancer in 2012 .

negative: Acceleration (disambiguation) Acceleration , in physics , is the rate at which the velocity of a body changes over time .   Acceleration may also refer to :  Acceleration ( differential geometry ) , the rate of change of velocity of a curve with respect to a given linear connection  Acceleration ( human ) , in developmental biology  Academic acceleration , the rapid advancement of students  Cardiotocographic acceleration , an apparent abrupt increase in fetal heart rate  Vehicular acceleration , usually controlled by a throttle such as an accelerator pedal in a car  The sensation of a change in speed  Series acceleration , in mathematics , a sequence transformation for improving the rate of convergence of a series

negative: Sea ice Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .

negative: Rock mass rating The Rock Mass Rating ( RMR ) System is a geomechanical classification system for rocks , developed by Z. T. Bieniawski between 1972 and 1973 .  It combines the most significant geologic parameters of influence and represents them with one overall comprehensive index of rock mass quality , which is used for the design and construction of excavations in rock , such as tunnels , mines , slopes and foundations .

negative: Abrupt climate change An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states .   Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .

negative: Jakobshavn Glacier Jakobshavn Glacier , also known as Sermeq Kujalleq ( in Greenlandic ) and the Jakobshavn Isbræ ( in Danish ) , is a large outlet glacier in West Greenland . It is located near the Greenlandic town of Ilulissat ( Jakobshavn ) and ends at the sea in the Ilulissat Icefjord .   Jakobshavn Glacier drains 6.5 % of the Greenland ice sheet and produces around 10 % of all Greenland icebergs . Some 35 billion tonnes of icebergs calve off and pass out of the fjord every year . Icebergs breaking from the glacier are often so large ( up to a kilometer in height ) that they are too tall to float down the fjord and lie stuck on the bottom of its shallower areas , sometimes for years , until they are broken up by the force of the glacier and icebergs further up the fjord . Studied for over 250 years , Jakobshavn Glacier has helped develop our understanding of climate change and icecap glaciology .   Ilulissat Icefjord ( Ilulissat Kangerlua ) was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004 .

negative: Ice core An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition .   Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires .   The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable .   An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .

negative: Fictitious force A fictitious force ( also called a pseudo force , d'Alembert force , or inertial force ) is an apparent force that acts on all masses whose motion is described using a non-inertial frame of reference , such as a rotating reference frame .   The force F does not arise from any physical interaction between two objects , but rather from the acceleration a of the non-inertial reference frame itself . As stated by Iro :   Assuming Newton 's second law in the form F = ma , fictitious forces are always proportional to the mass m.   A fictitious force on an object arises when the frame of reference used to describe the object 's motion is accelerating compared to a non-accelerating frame . As a frame can accelerate in any arbitrary way , so can fictitious forces be as arbitrary ( but only in direct response to the acceleration of the frame ) . However , four fictitious forces are defined for frames accelerated in commonly occurring ways : one caused by any relative acceleration of the origin in a straight line ( rectilinear acceleration ) ; two involving rotation : centrifugal force and Coriolis force ; and a fourth , called the Euler force , caused by a variable rate of rotation , should that occur . Gravitational force would also be a fictitious force based upon a field model in which particles distort spacetime due to their mass .

negative: Greenland Sea The Greenland Sea is a body of water that borders Greenland to the west , the Svalbard archipelago to the east , Fram Strait and the Arctic Ocean to the north , and the Norwegian Sea and Iceland to the south . The Greenland Sea is often defined as part of the Arctic Ocean , sometimes as part of the Atlantic Ocean . However , definitions of the Arctic Ocean and its seas tend to be imprecise or arbitrary . In general usage the term `` Arctic Ocean '' would exclude the Greenland Sea . In oceanographic studies the Greenland Sea is considered part of the Nordic Seas , along with the Norwegian Sea . The Nordic Seas are the main connection between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans and , as such , could be of great significance in a possible shutdown of thermohaline circulation . In oceanography the Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas are often referred to collectively as the `` Arctic Mediterranean Sea '' , a marginal sea of the Atlantic .   The sea has Arctic climate with regular northern winds and temperatures rarely rising above 0 ° C . It previously contained the Odden ice tongue ( or Odden ) area , which extended eastward from the main East Greenland ice edge in the vicinity of 72 -- 74 ° N during the winter and acted as a key winter ice formation area in the Arctic . The West Ice forms in winter in the Greenland Sea , north of Iceland , between Greenland and Jan Mayen island . It is a major breeding ground of harp seal and hooded seal that has been used for seal hunting for more than 200 years .

negative: Economy of Greenland The economy of Greenland can be characterized as small , mixed and vulnerable . Greenland 's economy consists of a big public sector and comprehensive foreign trade , which has resulted in an economy with periods of strong growth , considerable inflation , unemployment problems and extreme dependence on capital inflow from Denmark and use of outside , mainly Danish , skilled labor .   GDP per capita is similar to the average European economies but the economy is critically dependent upon substantial support from the Danish government , which supplies about half the revenues of the home rule government who in turn employs 10,307 Greenlanders out 25,620 currently in employment ( 2015 ) . Unemployment nonetheless remains high , with the rest of the economy dependent upon demand for exports of shrimp and fish .

negative: Greenland in World War II In 1940 , Greenland was a Danish colony . The fall of Denmark to German invasion in April 1940 left Greenland an unoccupied territory of an occupied nation , but under threat of seizure by Britain or Canada . To forestall this , the United States acted to guarantee Greenland 's position . However , with the entrance of the United States into the war in December 1941 , Greenland became a combatant . During 1941-45 the United States established numerous and extensive facilities for air and sea traffic in Greenland , as well as radio beacons , radio stations , weather stations , ports , depots , artillery posts , and search-and-rescue stations . The U.S. Coast Guard also provided a considerable portion of the civilian resupply task up and down both coasts . Economically , Greenland traded successfully with the United States , Canada , and Portugal , which , supplemented by the cryolite exports , caused a reanimation and permanent realignment of the island 's economy .

negative: Particle acceleration In a compressible sound transmission medium - mainly air - air particles get an accelerated motion : the particle acceleration or sound acceleration with the symbol a in metre/second2 . In acoustics or physics , acceleration ( symbol : a ) is defined as the rate of change ( or time derivative ) of velocity . It is thus a vector quantity with dimension length/time2 . In SI units , this is m/s2 .   To accelerate an object ( air particle ) is to change its velocity over a period . Acceleration is defined technically as `` the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time '' and is given by the equation   where  a is the acceleration vector  v is the velocity vector expressed in m/s  t is time expressed in seconds .   This equation gives a the units of m / ( s · s ) , or m/s2 ( read as `` metres per second per second '' , or `` metres per second squared '' ) .   An alternative equation is :   where  is the average acceleration ( m/s2 )   is the initial velocity ( m/s )   is the final velocity ( m/s )   is the time interval ( s )   Transverse acceleration ( perpendicular to velocity ) causes change in direction . If it is constant in magnitude and changing in direction with the velocity , we get a circular motion . For this centripetal acceleration we have   One common unit of acceleration is g-force , one g being the acceleration caused by the gravity of Earth .   In classical mechanics , acceleration is related to force and mass ( assumed to be constant ) by way of Newton 's second law :

negative: List of companies of Greenland Greenland is an autonomous constituent country within the Danish Realm between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans , east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago . Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America , Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe ( specifically Norway and Denmark , the colonial powers , as well as the nearby island of Iceland ) for more than a millennium .   In 1979 , Denmark had granted home rule to Greenland , and in 2008 , Greenlanders voted in favour of the Self-Government Act , which transferred more power from the Danish royal government to the local Greenlandic government . Under the new structure , in effect since 21 June 2009 , Greenland can gradually assume responsibility for policing , judicial system , company law , accounting , and auditing ; mineral resource activities ; aviation ; law of legal capacity , family law and succession law ; aliens and border controls ; the working environment ; and financial regulation and supervision , while the Danish government retains control of foreign affairs and defence . It also retains control of monetary policy , providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK 3.4 billion , which is planned to diminish gradually over time . Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources . The capital , Nuuk , held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games . Greenland leads the world in renewable energy . 70 % of its energy is from renewable sources , particularly hydropower .

negative: Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator The Vienna Environmental Research Accelerator , VERA , is a particle accelerator . It is operated by the University of Vienna and is dedicated to Accelerator Mass Spectrometry ( AMS ) . It started operation in 1995 .

negative: Climate change Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming .   Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .

negative: Iceberg An iceberg or ice mountain is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water . It may subsequently become frozen into pack ice ( one form of sea ice ) . As it drifts into shallower waters , it may come into contact with the seabed , a process referred to as seabed gouging by ice . Almost 91 % of an iceberg is below the surface of the water .


query: The iris hypothesis has not withstood the test of time - subsequent research

positive: Type I and type II errors In statistical hypothesis testing , a type I error is the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis ( a `` false positive '' ) , while a type II error is incorrectly retaining a false null hypothesis ( a `` false negative '' ) . More simply stated , a type I error is detecting an effect that is not present , while a type II error is the failure to detect an effect that is present .

positive: Confirmation bias Confirmation bias , also called confirmatory bias or myside bias , David Perkins , a geneticist , coined the term `` myside bias '' referring to a preference for `` my '' side of an issue . is the tendency to search for , interpret , favor , and recall information in a way that confirms one 's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses . It is a type of cognitive bias and a systematic error of inductive reasoning . People display this bias when they gather or remember information selectively , or when they interpret it in a biased way . The effect is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs . People also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position . Biased search , interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization ( when a disagreement becomes more extreme even though the different parties are exposed to the same evidence ) , belief perseverance ( when beliefs persist after the evidence for them is shown to be false ) , the irrational primacy effect ( a greater reliance on information encountered early in a series ) and illusory correlation ( when people falsely perceive an association between two events or situations ) .   A series of experiments in the 1960s suggested that people are biased toward confirming their existing beliefs . Later work re-interpreted these results as a tendency to test ideas in a one-sided way , focusing on one possibility and ignoring alternatives . In certain situations , this tendency can bias people 's conclusions . Explanations for the observed biases include wishful thinking and the limited human capacity to process information . Another explanation is that people show confirmation bias because they are weighing up the costs of being wrong , rather than investigating in a neutral , scientific way .   Confirmation biases contribute to overconfidence in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence . Poor decisions due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts.Tuchman ( 1984 ) described a form of confirmation bias at work in the process of justifying policies to which a government has committed itself : `` Once a policy has been adopted and implemented , all subsequent activity becomes an effort to justify it '' ( p. 245 ) .   In the context of a discussion of the policy that drew the United States into war in Vietnam and kept the U.S. military engaged for 16 years despite countless evidences that it was a lost cause from the beginning , Tuchman argued :   Wooden-headedness , the source of self-deception is a factor that plays a remarkably large role in government . It consists in assessing a situation in terms of preconceived fixed notions while ignoring or rejecting any contrary signs . It is acting according to wish while not allowing oneself to be deflected by the facts . It is epitomized in a historian 's statement about Philip II of Spain , the surpassing wooden head of all sovereigns : `` no experience of the failure of his policy could shake his belief in essential excellence . '' ( p. 7 )  Folly , she argued , is a form of self-deception characterized by `` insistence on a rooted notion regardless of contrary evidence '' ( p. 209 )

positive: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event The Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) extinction event , also known as the Cretaceous -- Tertiary ( K -- T ) extinction , was a mass extinction of some three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth that occurred over a geologically short period of time approximately 65 million years ago . With the exception of some ectothermic species like the leatherback sea turtle and crocodiles , no tetrapods weighing more than 25 kg survived . It marked the end of the Cretaceous period and with it , the entire Mesozoic Era , opening the Cenozoic Era that continues today .   In the geologic record , the K -- Pg event is marked by a thin layer of sediment called the K -- Pg boundary , which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks . The boundary clay shows high levels of the metal iridium , which is rare in the Earth 's crust but abundant in asteroids .   As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by Luis Alvarez , it is now generally thought that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by a massive comet or asteroid impact , estimated to be 10 km wide , 66 million years ago and its catastrophic effects on the global environment , including a lingering impact winter that made it impossible for plants and plankton to carry out photosynthesis . The impact hypothesis , also known as the Alvarez hypothesis , was bolstered by the discovery of the 180 km Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico in the early 1990s , which provided conclusive evidence that the K -- Pg boundary clay represented debris from an asteroid impact . The fact that the extinctions occurred at the same time as the impact provides strong situational evidence that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by the asteroid . It was possibly accelerated by the creation of the Deccan Traps . However , some scientists maintain the extinction was caused or exacerbated by other factors , such as volcanic eruptions , climate change , or sea level change , separately or together .   A wide range of species perished in the K -- Pg extinction . The best-known victims are the non-avian dinosaurs . However , the extinction also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms , including certain mammals , pterosaurs , birds , lizards , insects , and plants . In the oceans , the K -- Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards ( Mosasauridae ) and devastated fish , sharks , mollusks ( especially ammonites , which became extinct ) and many species of plankton . It is estimated that 75 % or more of all species on Earth vanished . Yet the devastation caused by the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities . In the wake of the extinction , many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiations -- a sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches resulting from the event . Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene , producing new forms such as horses , whales , bats , and primates . Birds , fish and perhaps lizards also radiated .

positive: Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally .   Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be .   Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .

negative: Scientific method The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena , acquiring new knowledge , or correcting and integrating previous knowledge . To be termed scientific , a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning . The Oxford Dictionaries Online define the scientific method as `` a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century , consisting in systematic observation , measurement , and experiment , and the formulation , testing , and modification of hypotheses '' . Experiments need to be designed to test hypotheses . The most important part of the scientific method is the experiment .   The scientific method is a continuous process , which usually begins with observations about the natural world . Human beings are naturally inquisitive , so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear and often develop ideas ( hypotheses ) about why things are the way they are . The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways , including making further observations about nature . In general , the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather empirical data . Depending on how well the tests match the predictions , the original hypothesis may require refinement , alteration , expansion or even rejection . If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported a general theory may be developed .   Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another , identifiable features are frequently shared in common between them . The overall process of the scientific method involves making conjectures ( hypotheses ) , deriving predictions from them as logical consequences , and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions . A hypothesis is a conjecture , based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question . The hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad . Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments . Under modern interpretations , a scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable , implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis ; otherwise , the hypothesis can not be meaningfully tested .   The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis . Experiments can take place anywhere from a college lab to CERN 's Large Hadron Collider . There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method , however . Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps , it represents rather a set of general principles .  Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry ( or to the same degree ) , and are not always in the same order . Some philosophers and scientists have argued that there is no scientific method , such as Lee Smolin and Paul Feyerabend ( in his Against Method ) . Nola and Sankey remark that `` For some , the whole idea of a theory of scientific method is yester-year 's debate '' .

negative: Irie Irie may refer to :   Irie , a word in Jamaican Patois and Rastafarian English ( see Iyaric )  Irie Maffia , Hungarian band formed in 2005  Irie Time , American reggae band formed in the early 1990s  Muroran Irie Stadium , athletic stadium in Japan

negative: Talatat Talatat are stone blocks of standardized size ( c. 27 by 27 by 54 cm , corresponding to by by 1 ancient Egyptian cubits ) used during the 18th dynasty reign of the Pharaoh Akhenaten in the building of the Aton temples at Karnak and Akhetaten ( modern Amarna ) . The standardized size and their small weight made construction more efficient . Their use may have begun in the second year of Akhenaten 's reign . After the Amarna Period talatat construction was abandoned , apparently not having withstood the test of time .

negative: Exploratory research Exploratory Research is research conducted for a problem that has not been studied more clearly , establishes priorities , develops operational definitions and improve the final research design . Exploratory research helps determine the best research design , data-collection method and selection of subjects . It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution . Given its fundamental nature , exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist .   Exploratory research often relies on techniques such as :   secondary research - such as reviewing available literature and/or data  informal qualitative approaches , such as discussions with consumers , employees , management or competitors  formal qualitative research through in-depth interviews , focus groups , projective methods , case studies or pilot studies   The Internet allows for research methods that are more interactive in nature . For example :   RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with up-to-date information  services such as Google Alerts may send major search-engine search results by email to researchers  services such as Google Trends track comprehensive search results over lengthy periods of time  researchers may set up websites to attract worldwide feedback on any subject   When research aims to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to acquire new insight into it in order to formulate a more precise problem or to develop a hypothesis , exploratory studies ( also known as formulative research ) come in handy . If the theory happens to be too general or too specific , a hypothesis can not be formulated . Therefore , a need for an exploratory research is felt to gain experience that may help in formulating a relevant hypothesis for more definite investigation .   The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves , but they can provide significant insight into a given situation . Although the results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the `` why '' , `` how '' and `` when '' something occurs , they can not reveal `` how often '' or `` how many '' .   Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at large .   Social exploratory research `` seeks to find out how people get along in the setting under question , what meanings they give to their actions , and what issues concern them . The goal is to learn ` what is going on here ? ' and to investigate social phenomena without explicit expectations . '' This methodology is also at times referred to as a grounded theory approach to qualitative research or interpretive research , and is an attempt to unearth a theory from the data itself rather than from a predisposed hypothesis .   Earl Babbie identifies three purposes of social-science research : exploratory , descriptive and explanatory .   Exploratory research takes place when problems are in a preliminary stage . Exploratory research is used when the topic or issue is new and when data is difficult to collect . Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types ( what , why , how ) . Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses . Shields and Tajalli link exploratory research with the conceptual framework working hypothesis . Skeptics , however , have questioned the usefulness and necessity of exploratory research in situations where prior analysis could be conducted instead .

negative: Music of Tonga Music of Tonga refers to music derived from the island Tonga in the islands of Polynesia . Music of Tonga today generally falls under the category of traditional music that has withstood the test of time , or into one of the two opposing genres of religious and secular music . Tongan music can be either very emotional and somewhat modern with instrumental makeup including modern brass instruments , or conversely can be very primitive and consist of only drums and voices . In this way , Tongan music is very diverse despite the fact that it is contained to a fairly small island , which means that the different cultures and styles co-exist on the small land mass together without blending .