query: The claim that 97 percent of scientists believe humans are causing climate change has been debunked by the "head" of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

positive: Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are :  increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases  global changes to land surface , such as deforestation  increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols .   There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity .   According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence .   Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities :  A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established .  Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual .  Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included .  Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming .   The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .

positive: Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.  Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.

positive: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP .  The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . ''   The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources .   Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries .   The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .

negative: Reto Knutti Reto Knutti ( born 1973 ) is a Swiss climate scientist and professor of climate physics at ETH Zurich 's Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science . He is known for his research involving climate models , and has been a key member of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .

negative: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''

negative: The Real Global Warming Disaster The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated .   From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' .   The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions .   The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .

negative: History of climate change science The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .   Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .

negative: Climate risk Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions .   In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena  the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .

negative: Human Rights and Climate Change Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments .   Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .

negative: Piers Forster Piers Forster is Professor of Physical Climate Change and Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate at the University of Leeds .  A physicist by training , his research focuses on quantifying the different human causes of climate change and the way the Earth responds . He is best known for his work on radiative forcing , climate sensitivity , contrails and geoengineering . He has contributed heavily to the writing of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports , including acting as a Lead Author for both the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .

negative: Peter A. Stott Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change .   He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate .   Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .

negative: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology .   In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .

negative: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 .   Category : Climate change policy

negative: Dennis Tirpak Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute .   He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa .   He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C.   He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 .   In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .

negative: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences .   The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR :   The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference .   Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying :   However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .

negative: Climate change acronyms The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy .

negative: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .

negative: International Conference on Climate Change The International Conference on Climate Change is a conference series organized and sponsored by The Heartland Institute which aims to bring together global warming skeptics who `` dispute that the science is settled on the causes , consequences , and policy implications of climate change . ''  The first conference took place in 2008 . As at 2017 there have been twelve conferences . Most of the events have been held in the United States , but there has been one in Australia and two in Germany .

negative: IPCC Third Assessment Report The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 .   Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .

negative: The Deniers The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .

negative: David Wratt David Stuart Wratt QSO is the Chief Scientist ( Climate ) at the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research ( NIWA ) and is responsible for NIWA 's National Climate Centre . He has a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury . He has worked in the USA and Australia as well as New Zealand . His expertise includes climate and meteorology , climate change science and impacts , mountain meteorology , and air quality .   He is a Companion of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He chairs the Climate Committee of the Royal Society of New Zealand . He is a member of the Bureau of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and he is a Vice-Chair of IPCC Working Group 1 , which assesses the physical science of climate change .   He was a Coordinating Lead Author of the `` Australia and New Zealand '' chapter of the IPCC Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .   After gaining a PhD in atmospheric physics from the University of Canterbury and a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Illinois , he worked for the New Zealand Meteorological Service . In 1992 he and other climate researchers transferred to NIWA .   Wratt has stated :   `` There 's a strong scientific case for significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions . We need a combination of reducing our emissions in New Zealand and being part of international negotiations to reduce emissions globally in order to forestall the worst effects . ''   Wratt was made a Companion of the Queen 's Service Order in the 2012 New Year Honours , for services to science .

negative: Leipzig Declaration The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue .  It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement .  All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) .   The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .

negative: Global warming conspiracy theory A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus .  Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .

negative: Indur M. Goklany Indur M. Goklany is a science and technology policy analyst for the United States Department of the Interior , where he holds the position of Assistant Director of Programs , Science and Technology Policy .   He has represented the United States at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and during the negotiations that led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . He was a rapporteur for the Resource Use and Management Subgroup of Working Group III of the IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 ,  and is the author of Clearing the Air ( 1999 ) , The Precautionary Principle ( 2001 ) , and The Improving State of the World ( 2007 ) .

negative: Vicky Pope Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models .   In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said :   `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link

negative: Climate change Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming .   Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .

negative: Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand is a non-fiction book about climate change denial , coauthored by Haydn Washington and John Cook , with a foreword by Naomi Oreskes . Washington had a background in environmental science prior to authoring the work , and Cook was educated in physics and founded the website Skeptical Science which compiles peer-reviewed evidence of global warming . The book was first published in hardcover and paperback formats in 2011 by Earthscan , a division of Routledge .   The book presents an in-depth analysis and refutation of climate change denial , going over several arguments point-by-point and disproving them with peer-reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus for climate change . The authors assert that those denying climate change engage in tactics including cherry picking data purported to support their specific viewpoints , and attacking the integrity of climate scientists . They use social science theory to examine the phenomenon of climate change denial in the wider public , and call this phenomenon a form of pathology .   The book traces financial support for climate change denial to the fossil fuel industry , asserting these companies have attempted to influence public opinion on the matter . Washington and Cook write that politicians have a tendency to use weasel words as part of a propaganda tactic through use of spin , as a way to deflect public interest away from climate change and remain passive on the issue . The authors conclude that if the public ceased engaging in denial , the problem of climate change could be realistically addressed .   For his research on the book , and efforts in communicating the essence of climate change science to the general public , John Cook won the 2011 Australian Museum Eureka Prize for Advancement of Climate Change Knowledge . Climate Change Denial received a positive reception in reviews from publications including : The Ecologist , ECOS magazine , academic journal Natures Sciences Sociétés , the journal Education published by the New South Wales Teachers Federation , . An article in The New American was critical , describing the labels of `` deniers '' and `` denialists '' as cruel and forms of character assassination .

negative: World Climate Research Programme The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system .   WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change .   Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations .

negative: The Skeptical Environmentalist The Skeptical Environmentalist : Measuring the Real State of the World ( Verdens sande tilstand , literal translation : The True State of the World ) is a book by Danish environmentalist author Bjørn Lomborg , controversial for its claims that overpopulation , declining energy resources , deforestation , species loss , water shortages , certain aspects of global warming , and an assortment of other global environmental issues are unsupported by analysis of the relevant data . It was first published in Danish in 1998 , while the English edition was published as a work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001 .   Due to the scope of the project , comprising the range of topics addressed , the diversity of data and sources employed , and the many types of conclusions and comments advanced , The Skeptical Environmentalist does not fit easily into a particular scientific discipline or methodology . Although published by the social sciences division of Cambridge University Press , the findings and conclusions were widely challenged on the basis of natural science . This interpretation of The Skeptical Environmentalist as a work of environmental science generated much of the controversy and debate that surrounded the book .

negative: 2007 Nobel Peace Prize The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in two equal parts , between the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and Al Gore `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' .

negative: New Zealand Climate Science Coalition The New Zealand Climate Science Coalition is an organisation based in New Zealand which has the aim of refuting what it claims are unfounded claims about anthropogenic global warming .

negative: Land use, land-use change and forestry Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . ''   LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .

negative: IPCC Second Assessment Report The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .

negative: Media coverage of climate change Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions .   The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 .   A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference .   Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .

negative: Climate change opinion by country Climate change opinion is the aggregate of public opinion held by the adult population . Cost constraints often restrict surveys to sample only one or two countries from each continent or focus on only one region . Because of differences among questions , wording , and methods -- it is difficult to reliably compare results or to generalize them to opinions held worldwide .   In 2007 -- 2008 , the Gallup Poll surveyed individuals from 128 countries in the first comprehensive study of global opinions . The Gallup Organization aggregated opinion from the adult population fifteen years of age and older , either through the telephone or personal interviews , and in both rural and urban areas except in areas where the safety of interviewer was threatened and in scarcely populated islands . Personal interviews were stratified by population size or geography and cluster sampling was achieved through one or more stages . Although error bounds vary , they were all below ± 6 % with 95 % confidence .   Weighting countries to a 2008 World Bank population estimate , sixty-one percent of individuals worldwide were aware of global warming , developed countries more aware than developing , with Africa the least aware . The median of people perceiving it as a threat was 47 % . Latin America and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change was a result of human activities , while Africa , parts of Asia and the Middle East , and countries from the Former Soviet Union led in the opposite . Awareness often translates to concern , although of those aware , individuals in Europe and developed countries in Asia perceived global warming as a greater threat than others .


query: “The oceans will never become acid because there is such a huge buffering capacity in the oceans.

positive: Biodiversity Biodiversity a portmanteau of `` biological diversity , '' generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth . According to the United Nations Environment Programme , biodiversity typically measures variation at the genetic , the species , and the ecosystem level . Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator , which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity . Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth , and is richest in the tropics . These tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 per cent of earth 's surface , and contain about 90 percent of the world 's species . Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific , where sea surface temperature is highest and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans . There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity . Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots , and has been increasing through time , but will be likely to slow in the future .   Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions . More than 99.9 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes . In comparison , the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC ( trillion tons of carbon ) . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor ( LUCA ) of all organisms living on Earth .   The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old . The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago , during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon . There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia . Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland . More recently , in 2015 , `` remains of biotic life '' were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . According to one of the researchers , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth . . then it could be common in the universe . ''   Since life began on Earth , five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity . The Phanerozoic eon ( the last 540 million years ) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion -- a period during which the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared . The next 400 million years included repeated , massive biodiversity losses classified as mass extinction events . In the Carboniferous , rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life . The Permian -- Triassic extinction event , 251 million years ago , was the worst ; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years . The most recent , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , occurred 65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs .   The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity . Named the Holocene extinction , the reduction is caused primarily by human impacts , particularly habitat destruction . Conversely , biodiversity impacts human health in a number of ways , both positively and negatively .   The United Nations designated 2011 -- 2020 as the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity .

positive: United Nations Ocean Conference The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be "under threat as never before", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying "if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is "Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made.

positive: Sea A sea is a large body of salt water that is surrounded in whole or in part by land . More broadly , `` the sea '' is the interconnected system of Earth 's salty , oceanic waters -- considered as one global ocean or as several principal oceanic divisions . The sea moderates Earth 's climate and has important roles in the water cycle , carbon cycle , and nitrogen cycle . Although the sea has been traveled and explored since prehistory , the modern scientific study of the sea -- oceanography -- dates broadly to the British Challenger expedition of the 1870s . The sea is conventionally divided into up to five large oceanic sections -- including the International Hydrographic Organization 's four named oceans ( the Atlantic , Pacific , Indian , and Arctic ) and the Southern Ocean ; smaller , second-order sections , such as the Mediterranean , are known as seas .   Owing to the present state of continental drift , the Northern Hemisphere is now fairly equally divided between land and sea ( a ratio of about 2:3 ) but the South is overwhelmingly oceanic ( 1:4.7 ) . Salinity in the open ocean is generally in a narrow band around 3.5 % by mass , although this can vary in more landlocked waters , near the mouths of large rivers , or at great depths . About 85 % of the solids in the open sea are sodium chloride . Deep-sea currents are produced by differences in salinity and temperature . Surface currents are formed by the friction of waves produced by the wind and by tides , the changes in local sea level produced by the gravity of the Moon and Sun . The direction of all of these is governed by surface and submarine land masses and by the rotation of the Earth ( the Coriolis effect ) .   Former changes in sea levels have left continental shelves , shallow areas in the sea close to land . These nutrient-rich waters teem with life , which provide humans with substantial supplies of food -- mainly fish , but also shellfish , mammals , and seaweed -- which are both harvested in the wild and farmed . The most diverse areas surround great tropical coral reefs . Whaling in the deep sea was once common but whales ' dwindling numbers prompted international conservation efforts and finally a moratorium on most commercial hunting . Oceanography has established that not all life is restricted to the sunlit surface waters : even under enormous depths and pressures , nutrients streaming from hydrothermal vents support their own unique ecosystem . Life may have started there and aquatic microbial mats are generally credited with the oxygenation of Earth 's atmosphere ; both plants and animals first evolved in the sea .   The sea is an essential aspect of human trade , travel , mineral extraction , and power generation . This has also made it essential to warfare and left major cities exposed to earthquakes and volcanoes from nearby faults ; powerful tsunami waves ; and hurricanes , typhoons , and cyclones produced in the tropics . This importance and duality has affected human culture , from early sea gods to the epic poetry of Homer to the changes induced by the Columbian Exchange , from burial at sea to Basho 's haikus to hyperrealist marine art , and inspiring music ranging from the shanties in The Complaynt of Scotland to Rimsky-Korsakov 's `` The Sea and Sinbad 's Ship '' to A-mei 's `` Listen to the Sea '' . It is the scene of leisure activities including swimming , diving , surfing , and sailing . However , population growth , industrialization , and intensive farming have all contributed to present-day marine pollution . Atmospheric carbon dioxide is being absorbed in increasing amounts , lowering its pH in a process known as ocean acidification . The shared nature of the sea has made overfishing an increasing problem .

positive: Fisheries and climate change Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .

negative: Oceanic carbon cycle The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) .   At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) .  Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean .  In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) .  The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink .  The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 .  The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide .  Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers .  The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere .  Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them .  The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .

negative: Ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean .   Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level .   While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins .   Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .

negative: PIPES PIPES is the common name for piperazine-N , N ′ - bis ( 2-ethanesulfonic acid ) , and frequently used buffering agent in biochemistry . It is an ethanesulfonic acid buffer developed by Good et al. in the 1960s .

negative: Mola (fish) A sunfish ( or mola ) is any fish in the Mola genus ( family Molidae ) . The fishes develop their truncated , bullet-like shape because the back fin , with which they are born , never grows . Instead , it folds into itself as the creature matures , creating a rounded rudder called a clavus . Mola in Latin means `` millstone '' and describes the ocean sunfish 's somewhat circular shape . They are a silvery color and have a rough skin texture .   The mola is the heaviest of all the bony fish , with large specimens reaching 14 ft vertically and 10 ft horizontally and weighing nearly 5000 lb . Sharks and rays can be heavier , but they are cartilaginous fish .   Mola are found in temperate and tropical oceans around the world . They are frequently seen basking in the sun near the surface and are often mistaken for sharks when their huge dorsal fins emerge above the water . Their teeth are fused into a beak-like structure , and they are unable to fully close their relatively small mouths .   Ocean sunfish can become so infested with skin parasites , they will often invite small fish or even birds to feast on them . Sunfish will even breach the surface up to 10 ft in the air , in an attempt to shake the parasites .   They are clumsy swimmers , waggling their large dorsal and anal fins to move , and steering with their clavus . Their food of choice is jellyfish , though they will eat small fish and huge amounts of zooplankton and algae , as well . They are harmless to people , but can be very curious and will often approach divers .   Their population is considered stable , though they frequently are snagged in drift gill nets and can suffocate on sea trash , like plastic bags ( which resemble jellyfish ) .

negative: Ural Ocean The Ural Ocean ( also called the Uralic Ocean ) was a small , ancient ocean that was situated between Siberia and Baltica . The ocean formed in the Late Ordovician epoch , when large islands from Siberia collided with Baltica , which was now part of a minor supercontinent of Euramerica . The islands also caused Ural Ocean 's precursor , Khanty Ocean to close . By the Devonian Period , however , Ural Ocean begins to shrink because the Siberian continent and Kazakhstania microcontinent were closing in to Baltica . In the Latest Devonian to Mississippian periods , Ural Ocean became a seaway . Until the three collided in the Carboniferous , it created the Ural Mountains , completely closing the ocean , and forming the Pangaea supercontinent .

negative: Indian Ocean Dipole The Indian Ocean Dipole ( IOD ) , also known as the Indian Niño , is an irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperatures in which the western Indian Ocean becomes alternately warmer and then colder than the eastern part of the ocean .   Monsoon in India is generally affected by the temperature between bay of Bangal in the east and The Arabian sea in the west

negative: Iapetus Ocean The Iapetus Ocean was an ocean that existed in the late Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic eras of the geologic timescale ( between 600 and 400 million years ago ) . The Iapetus Ocean was situated in the southern hemisphere , between the paleocontinents of Laurentia , Baltica and Avalonia . The ocean disappeared with the Acadian , Caledonian and Taconic orogenies , when these three continents joined to form one big landmass called Euramerica . The `` southern '' Iapetus Ocean has been proposed to have closed with the Famatinian and Taconic orogenies , meaning a collision between Western Gondwana and Laurentia .   Because the Iapetus Ocean was positioned between continental masses that would at a much later time roughly form the opposite shores of the Atlantic Ocean , it can be seen as a sort of precursor of the Atlantic . The Iapetus Ocean was therefore named for the titan Iapetus , who in Greek mythology was the father of Atlas , after whom the Atlantic Ocean was named .

negative: List of countries bordering on two or more oceans This is a list of countries which border two or more oceans , including both sovereign states and dependencies , provided the same contiguous territory borders on more than one of the five named oceans , the Pacific , Atlantic , Indian , Southern , and Arctic . Countries which border on multiple oceans because of discontiguous regions are excluded here but included in the list of transcontinental countries .

negative: Sonic characteristics of marine species Sonic characteristics of marine species - Noise in the ocean is of utmost importance for ocean explorations , oceanographic as well as fisheries studies , sonar operations , etc. . The wide range of systems for ocean research demands the need for characterizing the noise sources in the ocean . The ambient noise in the ocean is composite in nature , with components emanating from a variety of noise sources . The problem of identification of noise sources in the ocean is of prime importance because of its diverse practical applications . In view of the importance of the area of identification of noise sources , there is a need and requirement for characterizing the noise sources in the ocean which are of both man made and biological in origin .   Category : Marine biology

negative: John Fairfax (rower) John Fairfax ( 21 May 1937 -- 8 February 2012 ) was a British ocean rower and adventurer who , in 1969 , became the first person to row solo across an ocean . He subsequently went on to become the first to row the Pacific Ocean ( with Sylvia Cook ) in 1971/2 .

negative: Time to Move On (album) Time to Move On is the eighth studio album by R&B singer Billy Ocean , released in 1993 . It would be Ocean 's last studio album until 2009 's Because I Love You .

negative: Ridge push Ridge push or sliding plate force is a proposed mechanism for plate motion in plate tectonics . Because mid-ocean ridges lie at a higher elevation than the rest of the ocean floor , gravity causes the ridge to push on the lithosphere that lies farther from the ridge .   As molten magma rises at a mid-ocean ridge it heats the rocks around it . The heat expelled by the magma expands the lithosphere and asthenosphere at the ridge , pushing them above the surrounding ocean floor . As time passes , the heated rocks cool and their density increases . When this happens gravity pulls the weighty lithosphere away from the mid-ocean ridge , down the sloping asthenosphere , which , in turn , allows new molten magma to well up . This fresh magma will eventually become new lithosphere .   The cooling rock exerts a force on spreading lithospheric plates , helping to drive their movements . The force is called ridge push . It can be calculated by the principle of isostasy , making a balance between the mid-ocean ridge and the old ocean floor . Notably , in such a calculation , the force depends only on the temperature of the asthenosphere at the ridge ( the same in all ` normal ' ridges , though higher at hotspots , and not on the spreading rate of the ridge .   Another force , that for some plates exceeds ridge-push , is slab pull , where the weight of a subducting slab pulls the plate at the surface along .

negative: Ocean View, Delaware Ocean View is a town in Sussex County , Delaware , in the United States . The population was 1,882 at the 2010 census , an increase of 87.1 % over the previous decade . It is part of the Salisbury , Maryland-Delaware Metropolitan Statistical Area and lies in Baltimore Hundred .   Ocean View is fast becoming a bedroom community for the neighboring summer resort of Bethany Beach .

negative: Tropical Storm Colin The name Colin has been used for two tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean and two in the Southern Hemisphere .   In the Atlantic Ocean :   Tropical Storm Colin ( 2010 ) , moved across the Atlantic , fluctuating between tropical depression and tropical storm status . Dissipated before reaching Bermuda .  Tropical Storm Colin ( 2016 ) , earliest third-storm formation in the Atlantic Ocean since record-keeping began , beating the previous record set in 1887 by 7 days . Made landfall in Florida causing significant damage .   In the Southwest Pacific Ocean :   Cyclone Colin ( 1976 ) , moved parallel to the Australian coast without making landfall .   In the Southwest Indian Ocean :   Cyclone Colin ( 2014 ) , churned through the open ocean , never threatened land .   Category : Atlantic hurricane disambiguation pages  Category : Australian region cyclone disambiguation pages

negative: Tropical Storm Atang The name Atang has been used in the Philippines by PAGASA for four tropical cyclones in the Western Pacific .  Typhoon Hester ( 1966 ) ( T6601 , 01W , Atang )  Typhoon Nancy ( 1970 ) ( T7001 , 01W , Atang )  Tropical Storm Wanda ( 1974 ) ( T7401 , 01W , Atang )  Typhoon Olive ( 1978 ) ( T7802 , 02W , Atang )   The name Atang was retired because of its destruction in the Philippines in 1978 .   The name was also used in the southwestern Indian Ocean .  Tropical Depression Atang ( 2002 ) , never classified as a tropical storm by Meteo France or Mauritius , but was named because it posed a threat to the island of Agalega   Category : Pacific typhoon disambiguation pages  Category : South-West Indian Ocean cyclone disambiguation pages

negative: Histioteuthis reversa Histioteuthis reversa , commonly known as the reverse jewel squid or the elongate jewel squid , is a species of cock-eyed squid , so called because the eyes are dissimilar . It occurs at moderate depths in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea and is also known from the Indian Ocean .

negative: Ocean City, Maryland Ocean City ( OC or OCMD ) , officially the Town of Ocean City , is an Atlantic resort town in Worcester County , Maryland . Ocean City is widely known in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States and is a frequent destination for vacationers in that area . The population was 7,102 at the 2010 U.S. Census , although during summer weekends the city hosts between 320,000 and 345,000 vacationers , and up to 8 million visitors annually . During the summer , Ocean City becomes the second most populated municipality in Maryland , after Baltimore . It is part of the Salisbury metropolitan area .

negative: Tropical Storm Philippe The name Philippe has been used for two tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean .   Hurricane Philippe ( 2005 ) , a short-lived Category 1 hurricane that stayed out in Atlantic Ocean  Hurricane Philippe ( 2011 ) , a Category 1 hurricane that never impacted any land   Category : Atlantic hurricane disambiguation pages

negative: List of ancient oceans This is a list of former oceans that disappeared due to tectonic movements and other geographical and climatic changes . In alphabetic order :   Bridge River Ocean , the ocean between the ancient Insular Islands ( i.e. Stikinia ) and North America  Iapetus Ocean , the southern hemisphere ocean between Baltica and Avalonia  Mezcalera Ocean , the ocean between the Guerrero terrane and Laurentia  Mirovia , the ocean that surrounded the Rodinia supercontinent  Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean , the early Mesozoic ocean between the North China and Siberia cratons  Oimyakon Ocean , the northernmost part of the Mesozoic Panthalassa Ocean  Paleo-Tethys Ocean , the ocean between Gondwana and the Hunic terranes  Pan-African Ocean , the ocean that surrounded the Pannotia supercontinent  Panthalassa , the vast world ocean that surrounded the Pangaea supercontinent , also referred to as the Paleo-Pacific Ocean  Poseidon Ocean , Mesoproterozoic  Pontus Ocean , the western part of the early Mesozoic Panthalassa Ocean  Proto-Tethys Ocean , NeoProterozoic  Rheic Ocean , the Paleozoic ocean between Baltica and Laurentia ( North America )  Slide Mountain Ocean , the Mesozoic ocean between the ancient Intermontane Islands ( i.e. Wrangellia ) and North America  Superocean , the ocean that surrounds a global supercontinent  Tethys Ocean , the ocean between the ancient continents of Gondwana and Laurasia  Thalassa Ocean , the eastern part of the early Mesozoic Panthalassa Ocean  Ural Ocean , the Paleozoic ocean between Siberia and Baltica   ancient oceans  ancient oceans

negative: Bottled Ocean Bottled Ocean was an exhibition of work by New Zealand artists of Pacific Island descent that was shown at a number of metropolitan art galleries in New Zealand in 1994-1995 . It featured the work artists who have become notable figures in New Zealand and internationally .

negative: Tropical Storm Hazel The name Hazel has been used for two tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean , three in the eastern Pacific Ocean , one in the western Pacific , and one in the Indian Ocean . It was used in all basins before formal naming systems were instituted . It has not been used since the six-year lists began ; the name will never again be used in the Atlantic or East Pacific as it was retired in both basins .   North Atlantic :  Hurricane Hazel ( 1953 )  Hurricane Hazel ( 1954 ) -- killed over 1000 people in Haiti , caused damage and death from South Carolina to Ontario   Northeast Pacific :  Tropical Depression Hazel ( 1963 ) -- was downgraded after the fact ; it never warranted a name .  Tropical Storm Hazel ( 1965 )   Northwest Pacific :  Typhoon Hazel ( 1948 ) ( T4819 )   Southwest Indian Ocean :  Cyclone Hazel ( 1965 ) -- southwest Indian Ocean   Southwest Pacific Ocean :  Cyclone Hazel ( 1964 )  Cyclone Hazel ( 1979 )   Category : Atlantic hurricane disambiguation pages  Category : Pacific hurricane disambiguation pages  Category : Pacific typhoon disambiguation pages  Category : South-West Indian Ocean cyclone disambiguation pages  Category : Australian region cyclone disambiguation pages

negative: RFA Ocean Salvor (A492) RFA Ocean Salvor ( A492 ) was a salvage vessel of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary .   ASV Ocean Salvor was handed to Risdon Beazley Ltd. on delivery ; they managed this ship and 29 other Admiralty Salvage Vessels until the end of the war when 25 were handed to the Royal Maritime Auxiliary Service and three returned to the USA ; two were war losses . They were never prefixed HMS as they were civilian manned .

negative: Tropical Storm Franklin The name Franklin has been used for two tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean .  Tropical Storm Franklin ( 2005 ) - Formed over the Bahamas , then moved erratically in the open ocean . Brushed Newfoundland before dissipating .  Tropical Storm Franklin ( 2011 ) - Never threatened land .   Category : Atlantic hurricane disambiguation pages

negative: Benson raft The Benson raft was a huge seagoing log raft designed to reliably transport millions of board feet of timber at one time through the open ocean .   Held together with giant logging chains , their cargo of logs and often finished lumber goods went from the outlet of the Columbia River in the United States into the Pacific Ocean and south 1100 miles to San Diego , California . Once there the logs were sawn into lumber by the Benson Logging and Lumber Company for sale in Southern California .

negative: Acanthastrea echinata Acanthastrea echinata is a species of corals in the family Lobophylliidae known commonly as the starry cup coral . It is a wide-ranging species found from the western Indian Ocean , throughout the Pacific Ocean , and eastward to the southeastern Atlantic Ocean . It can inhabit any reef habitat to depths of 50 m . This species , which may become threatened with the global decline of coral reefs , is a popular coral used in aquariums .

negative: Circumpolar Circumpolar may refer to :  Antarctic region  Antarctic Circle  the Antarctic Circumpolar Current  Subantarctic  List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands  Antarctic Convergence  Antarctic Circumpolar Wave  Antarctic Ocean  Arctic region  Arctic Circle  Subarctic  Circumpolar peoples  Arctic Cooperation and Politics  Arctic Ocean  List of islands in the Arctic Ocean  Circumpolar star , stars that never rise or set from the perspective of a given latitude on Earth .  Polar front in meteorology .  circumpolar navigation , a global circumnavigation which traverses both poles

negative: Obduction Obduction was originally defined by Coleman to mean the overthrusting of oceanic lithosphere onto continental lithosphere at a convergent plate boundary where continental lithosphere is being subducted beneath oceanic lithosphere .   Subsequently , this definition has been broadened to mean the emplacement of continental lithosphere by oceanic lithosphere at a convergent plate boundary , such as closing of an ocean or a mountain building episode . This process is uncommon because the denser oceanic lithosphere usually subducts underneath the less dense continental plate .  Obduction occurs where a fragment of continental crust is caught in a subduction zone with resulting overthrusting of oceanic mafic and ultramafic rocks from the mantle onto the continental crust . Obduction may occur where a small tectonic plate is caught between two larger plates , with the lithosphere ( both island arc and oceanic ) welding onto an adjacent continent as a new terrane . When two continental plates collide , obduction of the oceanic lithosphere between them is often a part of the resulting orogeny .   Most obductions appear to have initiated at back-arc basins above the subduction zones during the closing of an ocean or an orogeny .

negative: Waves and shallow water When waves travel into areas of shallow water , they begin to be affected by the ocean bottom . The free orbital motion of the water is disrupted , and water particles in orbital motion no longer return to their original position . As the water becomes shallower , the swell becomes higher and steeper , ultimately assuming the familiar sharp-crested wave shape . After the wave breaks , it becomes a wave of translation and erosion of the ocean bottom intensifies .

negative: Ocean Terminal Ocean Terminal may refer to :   Ocean Terminal , Edinburgh  Ocean Terminal , now demolished , at Southampton docks  Ocean Terminal , Greenock  Ocean Terminal , Hong Kong  Ocean Terminal ( film ) , a British Transport Film

negative: SS Amerika SS Amerika may refer to :  , launched in 1905 as SS Amerika by Harland and Wolff in Belfast for the Hamburg America Line of Germany as a passenger ocean liner , before becoming USS America in 1917  , ocean liner renamed in 1893 as SS Amerika by Thingvalla Line of Copenhagen

negative: 42nd parallel south The 42nd parallel south is a circle of latitude that is 42 degrees south of the Earth 's equatorial plane . It crosses the Atlantic Ocean , the Indian Ocean , Australasia , the Pacific Ocean and South America .   At this latitude the sun is visible for 15 hours , 15 minutes during the December solstice and 9 hours , 7 minutes during the June solstice .   The alcohol brand 42 Below was named in part because the 42nd parallel South passes through New Zealand .

negative: Tropical Storm Lisa The name Lisa has been used for four tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean , one in the Western Pacific Ocean , one in the Southwest Indian Ocean and three in the Southwest Pacific Ocean .   Lisa is used on the six-year lists in the Atlantic . Lisa is not to be confused with Liza , which was used in the Pacific Ocean .  Hurricane Lisa ( 1998 ) -- travelled north in the central Atlantic without approaching land .  Hurricane Lisa ( 2004 ) -- formed off Cape Verde , a named cyclone in the central Atlantic for a record 11 days before reaching hurricane strength . Never affected land .  Hurricane Lisa ( 2010 ) -- travelled in eastern Atlantic near Cape Verde .  Tropical Storm Lisa ( 2016 ) -- formed in eastern Atlantic in close proximity to Cape Verde , churned in the open ocean without threatening land .   Lisa was also used on the old typhoon name list :  Tropical Storm Lisa ( 1996 ) ( T9611 , 14W ) -- Made a landfall in Southern China .   Lisa was also used for one tropical cyclone in the Southwest Indian Ocean :  Cyclone Lisa ( 1981 )   Lisa was also used for three tropical cyclones in the Southwest Pacific Ocean :  Cyclone Lisa ( 1966 )  Cyclone Lisa ( 1982 )  Cyclone Lisa ( 1991 )   Category : Atlantic hurricane disambiguation pages  Category : Pacific typhoon disambiguation pages  Category : South-West Indian Ocean cyclone disambiguation pages  Category : Australian region cyclone disambiguation pages