query: cold deaths actually occur during moderate temperatures

positive: Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest ( DHCA ) is a surgical technique that involves cooling the body to temperatures below 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , and stopping blood circulation and brain function for up to one hour . It is used when blood circulation to the brain must be stopped because of delicate surgery within the brain , or because of surgery on large blood vessels that lead to or from the brain . DHCA is a form of carefully managed clinical death in which heartbeat and all brain activity cease .   At normal body temperature of 37 ° C only several minutes of stopped blood circulation causes changes within the brain leading to permanent damage after circulation is restored . Reducing body temperature extends the time interval that such stoppage can be survived . At a brain temperature of 14 ° C , blood circulation can be safely stopped for 30 to 40 minutes . There is an increased incidence of brain injury at times longer than 40 minutes , but sometimes circulatory arrest for up to 60 minutes is used if life-saving surgery requires it . Infants tolerate longer periods of DHCA than adults .   Applications of DHCA include repairs of the aortic arch , repairs to head and neck great vessels , repair of large cerebral aneurysms , repair of cerebral arteriovenous malformations , pulmonary thromboendarterectomy , and resection of tumors that have invaded the vena cava .

positive: Global storm activity of 2009 Global storm activity of 2009 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2009 to December 31 , 2009 . Wintery storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Summer storms including flooding , severe thunderstorms and extratropical cyclones ( which can occur in summer or winter ) are also included in this list to a certain extent .   As this occurred a heat wave and/or unforeseen monsoon weather also hit parts of Australia in 2009 and 2010 . Victoria , the scene of horrific bushfires the year before , had a far colder summer , with hot weather arriving more than a month later than usual in 2009 . August 17 saw a dust storm at Laguna Mar Chiquita as a major drought hit Argentina , and flooding and hailstorms hit southeastern Australia and Queensland in March 2010 . The lack of winter precipitation in parts of China , however , contributed to a severe drought in the southwest . Bolivia , Venezuela , Mali , Mauritania , Morocco and Spain have also seen periods of drought in 2009 and 2010 . On between May 12 and 26 , both Mauritania , the Sénégal River Area and neighbouring parts of both Senegal and Mali faced both a drought and famine in 2010 .   A storm ( from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz `` noise , tumult '' ) is any disturbed state of an astronomical body 's atmosphere , especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather .   Storms are created when a centre of low pressure develops , with a system of high pressure surrounding it . This combination of opposing forces can create winds and result in the formation of storm clouds , such as the cumulonimbus . Small , localized areas of low pressure can form from hot air rising off hot ground , resulting in smaller meteorological disturbances such as dust devils and whirlwinds .

positive: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.

negative: Early March 2015 United States winter storm The Early March 2015 United States winter storm was a significant snow and ice storm that plowed through much of the United States , bringing 1 -- 2 ft of snow and record cold temperatures behind it . The storm actually occurred in two phases , with the latter bringing the cold temperatures behind it in its wake . Record cold temperatures even spread down to as far as northern Florida .

negative: Cold fusion (disambiguation) Cold fusion ( low-energy nuclear reaction or LENR ) is a hypothesized type of nuclear reaction that would occur at or near room temperature , originally put forward by electrochemists Fleischmann and Pons .   Cold fusion may also refer to :

negative: Work hardening Work hardening , also known as strain hardening or cold working , is the strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation . This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material . Many non-brittle metals with a reasonably high melting point as well as several polymers can be strengthened in this fashion . Alloys not amenable to heat treatment , including low-carbon steel , are often work-hardened . Some materials can not be work-hardened at low temperatures , such as indium , however others can only be strengthened via work hardening , such as pure copper and aluminum .   Work hardening may be desirable or undesirable depending on the context . An example of undesirable work hardening is during machining when early passes of a cutter inadvertently work-harden the workpiece surface , causing damage to the cutter during the later passes . Certain alloys are more prone to this than others ; superalloys such as Inconel require machining strategies that take it into account . An example of desirable work hardening is that which occurs in metalworking processes that intentionally induce plastic deformation to exact a shape change . These processes are known as cold working or cold forming processes . They are characterized by shaping the workpiece at a temperature below its recrystallization temperature , usually at ambient temperature . Cold forming techniques are usually classified into four major groups : squeezing , bending , drawing , and shearing . Applications include the heading of bolts and cap screws and the finishing of cold rolled steel . In cold forming , metal is formed at high speed and high pressure using tool steel or carbide dies . The cold working of the metal increasing the hardness , yield strength , and tensile strength .

negative: Climate of Pakistan Pakistan recorded one of the highest temperatures in the world -- 53.5 ° C -- on 26 May 2010 , the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan , but also the hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded on the continent of Asia . As Pakistan is located on a great landmass north of the Tropic of Cancer ( between latitudes 25 ° and 36 ° N ) , it has a continental type of climate characterized by extreme variations of temperature , both seasonally and daily . Very high altitudes modify the climate in the cold , snow-covered northern mountains ; temperatures on the Balochistan Plateau are somewhat higher . Along the coastal strip , the climate is modified by sea breezes . In the rest of the country , temperatures reach great heights in the summer ; the mean temperature during June is 38 ° F in the plains , the highest temperatures can exceed 47 ° C . In the summer , hot winds called Loo blow across the plains during the day . Trees shed their leaves to avoid loss of moisture . The dry , hot weather is broken occasionally by dust storms and thunderstorms that temporarily lower the temperature . Evenings are cool ; the diurnal variation in temperature may be as much as 11C to 17C . Winters are cold , with minimum mean temperatures in Punjab of about 4 ° C in January , and sub-zero temperatures in the far north and Balochistan .   The monsoon and the Western Disturbance are the two main factors which alter the weather over Pakistan ; otherwise , Continental air prevails for rest of the year . Following are the main factors that influence the weather over Pakistan .   Western Disturbances mostly occur during the winter months and cause light to moderate showers in southern parts of the country while moderate to heavy showers with heavy snowfall in the northern parts of the country . These westerly waves are robbed of most of the moisture by the time they reach Pakistan .  Fog occurs during the winter season and remains for weeks in upper Sindh , central Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab .  Southwest Monsoon occurs in summer from the month of June till September in almost whole Pakistan excluding western Balochistan , FATA , Chitral and Gilgit -- Baltistan . Monsoon rains bring much awaited relief from the scorching summer heat . These monsoon rains are quite heavy by nature and can cause significant flooding , even severe flooding if they interact with westerly waves in the upper parts of the country .  Tropical Storms usually form during the summer months from late April till June and then from late September till November . They affect the coastal localities of the country .  Dust storms occur during summer months with peak in May and June , They are locally known as Andhi . These dust storms are quite violent . Dust storms during the early summer indicates the arrival of the monsoons while dust storms in the autumn indicate the arrival of winter .  Heat waves occur during May and June , especially in southern Punjab , central Balochistan and interior Sindh .  Thunderstorms most commonly occur in northern Punjab , Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad Kashmir .  Continental air prevails during the period when there is no precipitation in the country .   Pakistan has four seasons : a cool , dry winter from December through February ; a hot , dry spring from March through May ; the summer rainy season , or southwest monsoon period , from June through September ; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November . The onset and duration of these seasons vary somewhat according to location .   The climate in the capital city of Islamabad varies from an average daily low of 2 ° C in January to an average daily high of 38 ° C in June . Half of the annual rainfall occurs in July and August , averaging about 255 millimeters in each of those two months . The remainder of the year has significantly less rain , amounting to about fifty millimeters per month . Hailstorms are common in the spring .   Pakistan 's largest city , Karachi , which is also the country 's industrial center , is more humid than Islamabad but gets less rain . Only July and August average more than twenty-five millimeters of rain in the Karachi area ; the remaining months are exceedingly dry . The temperature is also more uniform in Karachi than in Islamabad , ranging from an average daily low of 13 ° C during winter evenings to an average daily high of 34 ° C on summer days . Although the summer temperatures do not get as high as those in Punjab , the high humidity causes the residents a great deal of discomfort . In Islamabad , there are cold winds from the north of Pakistan .

negative: Selective inverted sink The selective inverted sink or SIS is a device used by farmers to protect plants from frost , developed by Uruguayan Rafael Guarga in the late 1990s .   The sink is actually a large fan housed in a chimney-like structure , and works by defeating surface temperature inversion . Cold air is denser than warm air , and will pool at ground level during calm weather . This lowers the surface temperature , even if the ambient temperature is higher . Vents near the base of the chimney allow cold surface air to be pulled up through the chimney , creating a suction effect that draws warmer air down to surface level .   The SIS is more efficient than typical ground-heaters , and is widely used to combat frost .

negative: Hubbing Hubbing is a metalworking process that is used to make dies . It is a cold-working process , which means that it occurs well below the melting temperature of the metal being worked .

negative: Hypothermia Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs . In humans , it is defined as a body core temperature below 35.0 C. Symptoms depend on the temperature . In mild hypothermia there is shivering and mental confusion . In moderate hypothermia shivering stops and confusion increases . In severe hypothermia there may be paradoxical undressing , in which a person removes his or her clothing , as well as an increased risk of the heart stopping .   Hypothermia has two main types of causes . It classically occurs from exposure to extreme cold . It may also occur from any condition that decreases heat production or increases heat loss . Commonly this includes alcohol intoxication but may also include low blood sugar , anorexia , and advanced age , among others . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of 36.5 -- through thermoregulation . Efforts to increase body temperature involve shivering , increased voluntary activity , and putting on warmer clothing . Hypothermia may be diagnosed based on either a person 's symptoms in the presence of risk factors or by measuring a person 's core temperature .   The treatment of mild hypothermia involves warm drinks , warm clothing and physical activity . In those with moderate hypothermia heating blankets and warmed intravenous fluids are recommended . People with moderate or severe hypothermia should be moved gently . In severe hypothermia extracorporeal membrane oxygenation ( ECMO ) or cardiopulmonary bypass may be useful . In those without a pulse cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) is indicated along with the above measures . Rewarming is typically continued until a person 's temperature is greater than 32 C . If there is no improvement at this point or the blood potassium level is greater than 12 mmol/liter at any time resuscitation may be discontinued .   Hypothermia is the cause of at least 1500 deaths a year in the United States . It is more common in older people and males . One of the lowest documented body temperatures from which someone with accidental hypothermia has survived is 13.0 C in a near-drowning of a 7-year-old girl in Sweden . Survival after more than six hours of CPR has been described . In those in whom ECMO or bypass is used survival is around 50 % . Deaths due to hypothermia have played an important role in many wars . The term is from Greek ὑπο , ypo , meaning `` under '' , and θερμία , thermía , meaning `` heat '' . The opposite of hypothermia is hyperthermia , an increased body temperature due to failed thermoregulation .

negative: Climate of Missouri Missouri generally has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfa ) , with cool to cold winters and long , hot summers . In the southern part of the state , particularly in the Bootheel , the climate borders on a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cfa ) . Because of its location in the interior United States , Missouri often experiences extremes in temperatures . Lacking either large mountains or oceans nearby to moderate its temperature , its climate is alternately influenced by air from the cold Arctic and the hot and humid Gulf of Mexico .

negative: Famines in Czech lands This article discusses historical famines that have occurred in the area of today 's Czech Republic . Various known famines occurred throughout Czech lands between 1272 and 1847 . Excessive rain , cold temperatures , hail , warfare , and disease are the main causes of famines in Czech lands .

negative: Carnot cycle The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s . It provides an upper limit on the efficiency that any classical thermodynamic engine can achieve during the conversion of heat into work , or conversely , the efficiency of a refrigeration system in creating a temperature difference ( e.g. refrigeration ) by the application of work to the system . It is not an actual thermodynamic cycle but is a theoretical construct .   Every single thermodynamic system exists in a particular state . When a system is taken through a series of different states and finally returned to its initial state , a thermodynamic cycle is said to have occurred . In the process of going through this cycle , the system may perform work on its surroundings , thereby acting as a heat engine . A system undergoing a Carnot cycle is called a Carnot heat engine , although such a `` perfect '' engine is only a theoretical construct and can not be built in practice . However , a microscopic Carnot heat engine has been designed and run .   Essentially , there are two systems at temperatures Th and Tc ( hot and cold respectively ) , which are so large that their temperatures are practically unaffected by a single cycle . As such , they are called `` heat reservoirs '' . Since the cycle is reversible , there is no generation of entropy during the cycle ; entropy is conserved . During the cycle , an arbitrary amount of entropy ΔS is extracted from the hot reservoir , and deposited in the cold reservoir . Since there is no volume change in either reservoir , they do no work , and during the cycle , an amount of energy ThΔS is extracted from the hot reservoir and a smaller amount of energy TcΔS is deposited in the cold reservoir . The difference in the two energies ( Th-Tc ) ΔS is equal to the work done by the engine .

negative: Neutron temperature The neutron detection temperature , also called the neutron energy , indicates a free neutron 's kinetic energy , usually given in electron volts . The term temperature is used , since hot , thermal and cold neutrons are moderated in a medium with a certain temperature . The neutron energy distribution is then adopted to the Maxwellian distribution known for thermal motion . Qualitatively , the higher the temperature , the higher the kinetic energy of the free neutrons . The momentum and wavelength of the neutron are related through the De Broglie relation . The large wavelength of slow neutrons allows for the large cross section .

negative: Cold War (1953–62) The Cold War ( 1953 -- 1962 ) discusses the period within the Cold War from the death of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in 1953 to the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 . Following the death of Stalin unrest occurred in the Eastern Bloc , while there was a calming of international tensions , the evidence of which can be seen in the signing of the Austrian State Treaty reuniting Austria , and the Geneva Accords ending fighting in Indochina . However , this `` thaw '' was only partial with an expensive arms race continuing during the period .

negative: Piranguinho Piranguinho is a municipality in the state of Minas Gerais in the Southeast region of Brazil .   It lies on the Sapucaí river valley , with mild to moderate temperatures during the year .

negative: Climate of Moscow Moscow has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with warm , sometimes hot , somewhat humid summers and long , cold winters .  Typical high temperatures in the warm months of June , July and August are around 23 ° C , but during heat waves , which can occur anytime from May to September , daytime temperature highs often top 30 ° C for sometimes one or two weeks . In the winter , temperatures normally drop to approximately -10 ° C , though there can be periods of warmth with temperatures rising above 0 ° C. Summer lasts from mid-May to the beginning of September . Winter lasts from the beginning of November to the end of March .

negative: November 2014 North American cold wave The November 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that occurred across most of Canada and the contiguous United States , including parts of the Western United States up to western California . One of the first events of the winter , the cold wave was caused by the northward movement of an extremely powerful bomb cyclone associated with Typhoon Nuri 's remnant , which shifted the jet stream far northward , creating an omega block pattern . This allowed a piece of the polar vortex to advance southward into the Central and Eastern United States , bringing record-cold temperatures to much of the region . In contrast , Alaska experienced above-average temperatures .   This was the worst cold wave that the North American region had experienced since an earlier cold wave in early 2014 . The cold wave was expected to last for a few weeks , extending at least until American Thanksgiving . Although the Omega Block broke down on November 20 , due to a powerful storm moving into the Gulf of Alaska , frigid conditions continued to persist across much of the United States . There was also concern among some meteorologists that another cold wave or abnormally cold trend might persist throughout the winter of 2014 -- 15 , the chances of which were `` above average . '' On November 23 , a warming trend primarily in the Eastern United States brought an end to the cold wave ; however , below-average temperatures were forecast to return to the Midwest by November 24 . Despite the development of a second cold wave , it ended on December 6 , when a ridge of high pressure brought above-average temperatures to the region , especially in the Central United States .

negative: Thermotime switch A thermotime switch , or TTS , is a sensor used to control the cold start enrichment process in some older fuel injection systems . An extra injector is placed in the inlet manifold designed to feed all of the cylinders , and whilst the other injectors have flow rates controlled by pulse duration , the cold start injector stays on during the initial cold starting procedure .   This duration is controlled by the thermotime switch , which is a bimetallic strip based device placed in the water jacket or in the case of an air-cooled engine , in the engine/timing case . When an engine first starts , the coolant temperature is cold and the bimetallic strip is closed , which in turn supplies the cold start injector with current .   A small heater coil is built into the thermotime switch , which effectively gives a timed output to the cold start injector with the timing duration dependent on the temperature of the engine . If the engine is started whilst warm the bimetallic strip remains open due to the higher temperature , meaning the cold start routine is not entered .

negative: Climate of Puerto Rico The climate of Puerto Rico falls into the tropical climatic zone . Temperatures are moderate year round , averaging near 80 F in lower elevations and 70 F in the mountains . Easterly trade winds pass across the island year round . Puerto Rico has a rainy season which stretches from April into November . The mountains of the Cordillera Central are the main cause of the variations in the temperature and rainfall that occur over very short distances . The mountains can also cause wide variation in local wind speed and direction due to their sheltering and channeling effects adding to the climatic variation . About a quarter of the annual rainfall for Puerto Rico , on average , occurs during tropical cyclones , which are more frequent during La Niña events .

negative: Climate of Paraguay The climate of Paraguay consists of a subtropical climate in the Paraneña region and a tropical climate in the Chaco . The Paraneña region has a humid climate , with abundant precipitation throughout the year and only moderate seasonal changes in temperature .   During the Southern Hemisphere 's summer , which corresponds to the northern winter , the dominant influence on the climate is the warm sirocco winds blowing out of the northeast .   During the winter , the dominant wind is the cold pampero from the South Atlantic , which blows across Argentina and is deflected northeastward by the Andes in the southern part of that country . Because of the lack of topographic barriers within Paraguay , these opposite prevailing winds bring about abrupt and irregular changes in the usually moderate weather . Winds are generally brisk . Velocities of 160 kph have been reported in southern locations , and the town of Encarnación was once leveled by a tornado .

negative: Cold brew Cold brew refers to a beverage brewed in cold or room-temperature water . It may refer to :   Cold brew coffee  Cold brew tea

negative: Pinch analysis Pinch analysis is a methodology for minimising energy consumption of chemical processes by calculating thermodynamically feasible energy targets ( or minimum energy consumption ) and achieving them by optimising heat recovery systems , energy supply methods and process operating conditions . It is also known as process integration , heat integration , energy integration or pinch technology .   The process data is represented as a set of energy flows , or streams , as a function of heat load ( kW ) against temperature ( deg C ) . These data are combined for all the streams in the plant to give composite curves , one for all hot streams ( releasing heat ) and one for all cold streams ( requiring heat ) . The point of closest approach between the hot and cold composite curves is the pinch point ( or just pinch ) with a hot stream pinch temperature and a cold stream pinch temperature . This is where the design is most constrained . Hence , by finding this point and starting the design there , the energy targets can be achieved using heat exchangers to recover heat between hot and cold streams in two separate systems , one for temperatures above pinch temperatures and one for temperatures below pinch temperatures . In practice , during the pinch analysis of an existing design , often cross-pinch exchanges of heat are found between a hot stream with its temperature above the pinch and a cold stream below the pinch . Removal of those exchangers by alternative matching makes the process reach its energy target .

negative: 2011 Dalbandin earthquake The 2011 Dalbandin earthquake occurred on with a moment magnitude of Mw 7.2 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ) . The shock occurred in a sparsely populated area of Balochistan , caused moderate damage , three deaths and some injuries .

negative: Compaction Compaction may refer to :   Soil compaction , for mechanically induced compaction near the ground surface  Compaction ( geology ) , part of the process of lithification involving mechanical dewatering of a sediment by progressive loading under several km of geomaterial  Waste compaction , related to garbage  Cold compaction , powder compaction at low temperatures  Data compaction , related to computers  Curve-fitting compaction  Compactor , a device that performs compaction  Compaction , a cellular differentiation process during early embryogenesis , which occurs during the cleavage stage of human embryogenesis

negative: Sudestada Sudestada ( Southeast blow ) is the Spanish name for a climatic phenomenon common to the Río de la Plata ( an estuary formed by the combination of the Uruguay River and the Paraná River on the southeastern coastline of South America ) and its surrounding region . The phenomenon consists of a sudden rotation of cold southern winds to the south-east . This change , while moderating the cold temperatures , loads the air masses with oceanic humidity , bringing heavy rain and rough seas in the coastal regions . The air circulation also increases the intensity of the winds . The Sudestada is most likely to happen between July and October .

negative: Capping inversion A capping inversion is an elevated inversion layer that caps a convective boundary layer .   The boundary layer is the part of the atmosphere which is closest to the ground . Normally , the sun heats the ground , which in turn heats the air just above it . Thermals form when this warm air rises into the cold air ( warm air is less dense than cold air ) , a process described by convection . A convective layer such as this has the potential for cloud formation , since condensation occurs as the warm air rises and cools .   An inversion occurs when the normal temperature ( warm air below , cold air above ) profile is reversed , creating a stable configuration of dense , cold air sitting below lighter , warm air . An elevated inversion layer is thus a region of warm air above a region of cold air , but higher in the atmosphere ( generally not touching the surface ) .   A capping inversion occurs when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile ( warm air rising into cooler air ) and the layer above that is an inversion layer ( cooler air below warm air ) . Cloud formation from the lower layer is `` capped '' by the inversion layer . If the capping inversion layer or `` cap '' is too strong ( too close to the surface ) , it will prevent thunderstorms from developing . A strong cap can result in foggy conditions .   However , if the air at the surface is unstable enough , strong updrafts can be forced through the capping inversion . This selective process of only allowing the strongest updrafts to form thunderstorms often results in outbreaks of severe weather .

negative: Climate of Grand Forks, North Dakota The Climate of Grand Forks , North Dakota is a warm summer continental ( Köppen Dfb ) typical of cities located in the Great Plains , with four very distinct seasons and great variation in temperatures over very short periods of time . The city 's climate is characterized by long , cold winters with moderate snowfall and warm summers which are typically humid .

negative: Cold-energy battery A cold-energy battery utilizes the properties of an advanced phase-change material ( PCM ) to maintain temperature . As with a standard electrical battery , a Cold Energy Battery stores energy and releases depending on the energy demand on it . It can then be recharged by placing in an temperature environment conducive to the phase change properties of the PCM .

negative: Cryogenic hardening Cryogenic hardening is a cryogenic treatment process where the material is cooled to approximately − 185 C , usually using liquid nitrogen . It can have a profound effect on the mechanical properties of certain steels , provided their composition and prior heat treatment are such that they retain some austenite at room temperature . It is designed to increase the amount of martensite in the steel 's crystal structure , increasing its strength and hardness , sometimes at the cost of toughness . Presently this treatment is being practiced over tool steels , high-carbon , and high-chromium steels to obtain excellent wear resistance . Recent research shows that there is precipitation of fine carbides ( eta carbides ) in the matrix during this treatment which imparts very high wear resistance to the steels .   The transformation from austenite to martensite is mostly accomplished through quenching , but in general it is driven farther and farther toward completion as temperature decreases . In higher-alloy steels such as austenitic stainless steel , the onset of transformation can require temperatures much lower than room temperature . More commonly , an incomplete transformation occurs in the initial quench , so that cryogenic treatments merely enhance the effects of prior quenching . However , since martensite is a non-equilibrium phase on the iron-iron carbide phase diagram , it has not been shown that warming the part after the cryogenic treatment results in the re-transformation of the induced martensite back to austenite or to ferrite plus cementite , negating the hardening effect .   The transformation between these phases is instantaneous and not dependent upon diffusion , and also that this treatment causes more complete hardening rather than moderating extreme hardness , both of which make the term `` cryogenic tempering '' technically incorrect .   Hardening need not be due to martensitic transformation , but can also be accomplished by cold work at cryogenic temperatures . The defects introduced by plastic deformation at these low temperatures are often quite different from the dislocations that usually form at room temperature , and produce materials changes that in some ways resemble the effects of shock hardening . While this process is more effective than traditional cold work , it serves mainly as a theoretical test bed for more economical processes such as explosive forging .   Many alloys that do not undergo martensitic transformation have been subjected to the same treatments as steels -- that is , cooled with no provisions for cold work . If any benefit is seen from such a process , one plausible explanation is that thermal expansion causes minor but permanent deformation of the material .

negative: Flexible-fuel vehicles in the United States Flexible-fuel vehicles in the United States are the second largest flex-fuel fleet in the world after Brazil , and there were about 17.4 million flex-fuel cars and light trucks in operation by the end of 2014 . Despite the growing fleet of E85 flex-fuel vehicles , actual use of ethanol fuel is limited due to the lack of E85 refueling infrastructure and also because many American flex-fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex-fuel vehicle . Flex-fuel vehicles are common in the Midwest , where corn is a major crop and is the primary feedstock for ethanol fuel production . Also the U.S. government has been using flex-fuel vehicles for many years .   U.S. flex-fuel vehicles are optimized to run on a maximum blend of 15 % gasoline with 85 % anhydrous ethanol ( called E85 fuel ) . This limit in the ethanol content is set to reduce ethanol emissions at low temperatures and to avoid cold starting problems during cold weather , at temperatures lower than 11 C . The alcohol content is reduced during the winter in regions where temperatures fall below 0 ° C to a winter blend of E70 .

negative: Cold rubber Cold rubber , or cold polymerized rubber , is synthetic rubber ( especially , SBR and NBR ) emulsion polymerized at a relatively low temperature .   The polymerizing temperature is approximately 5 ℃ in the case of SBR and 5 ∼ 10 ℃ in the case of NBR .  Since rubber molecule types have a smaller number of branches than hot rubber polymerized at high temperature ( 50 ℃ ) and are characterized by good stereoregularity , cold rubber has superior processability as well as the ability to produce vulcanized materials with good tensile strength , expansion and aging resistance , and flex resistance .   Except some SBR and NBR used for special purposes , most SBR and NBR available in the market are considered cold rubber .   Category : Rubber  Category : Elastomers

negative: Inversion (meteorology) In meteorology , an inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude .   It almost always refers to a `` temperature inversion '' , i.e. an increase in temperature with height , or to the layer ( `` inversion layer '' ) within which such an increase occurs .   An inversion can lead to pollution such as smog being trapped close to the ground , with possible adverse effects on health . An inversion can also suppress convection by acting as a `` cap '' . If this cap is broken for any of several reasons , convection of any moisture present can then erupt into violent thunderstorms . Temperature inversion can notoriously result in freezing rain in cold climates .

negative: Weld line In manufacturing , the Weld line or Knit line or Meld line is the line where two flow fronts meet when there is the inability of two or more flow fronts to `` knit '' together , or `` weld '' , during the molding process . These lines usually occur around holes or obstructions and cause locally weak areas in the molded part . Knit lines are considered molding defects , and occur when the mold or/and material temperatures are set too low : thus the materials will be cold when they meet , so that they do not bond perfectly . This can cause a weak area in the part which can cause breakage when the part is under stress . There are many Computer Aided Engineering tools that are available that can predict where these areas could occur .

negative: Ice rink An ice rink ( or ice skating rink ) is a frozen body of water and/or hardened chemicals where people can ice skate or play winter sports . Besides recreational ice skating , some of its uses include ice hockey , bandy , rink bandy , ringette , broomball , speed skating , figure skating , ice stock sport and curling as well as exhibitions , contests and ice shows . There are two types of rinks in prevalent use today : natural , where freezing occurs from cold ambient temperatures , and artificial ( or mechanically frozen ) , where a coolant produces cold temperatures in the surface below the water , causing the water to freeze . There are also synthetic ice rinks where skating surfaces are made out of plastics .


query: Clearly, other factors besides atmospheric carbon influence earth temperatures and global warming."

positive: Climate Climate is the statistics of weather , usually over a 30-year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of these variables in a given region .   A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere .   The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region .   Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming . Global warming results in redistributions . For example , `` a 3 ° C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 -- 400 km in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m in elevation . Therefore , species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones '' .

positive: Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect .   Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture .   It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .

positive: Carbon cycle The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere , pedosphere , geosphere , hydrosphere , and atmosphere of the Earth . Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone . Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle , the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life . It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere , as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks .   The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges ( incomes and losses ) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop ( e.g. , atmosphere and biosphere ) of the carbon cycle . An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide . The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier , and popularized by Humphry Davy .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions .   As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas .   An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .

negative: Climate change and potatoes Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests .  Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .

negative: Atmospheric methane Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical .   Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today .   Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .

negative: Global warming potential Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 .  The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP .   The GWP depends on the following factors :  the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species  the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths  the atmospheric lifetime of the species  Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph .   Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .

negative: Methanotroph Methanotrophs ( sometimes called methanophiles ) are prokaryotes that metabolize methane as their only source of carbon and energy . They can grow aerobically or anaerobically and require single-carbon compounds to survive .  These Methanotrophs are currently being modified to absorb methane from the atmosphere , because methane released into the atmosphere contributes to greenhouse gasses , which heat up the earth and cause global warming .

negative: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago .   The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free .   The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon .   Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval .   At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .

negative: Revelle factor The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming .   Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .

negative: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science .   The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .

negative: Global cooling Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .

negative: International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ( IGBP ) was a research programme that studies the phenomenon of global change . It closed in 2015   The International Council of Scientific Unions , a coordinating body of national science organizations , launched IGBP in 1987 . It looked at the total Earth system , the changes that are occurring , and the manner in which changes are influenced by human actions .   IGBP aimed to describe and understand how the physical , chemical and biological processes regulate the Earth system . It also seeks to increase knowledge of how humans are influencing the global processes , such as the carbon cycle , nitrogen cycle , sulfur cycle , water cycle and phosphorus cycle . `` It delivers scientific knowledge to help human societies develop in harmony with Earth 's environment . ''   IGBP research is organised around six projects representing the Earth system - land , atmosphere , ocean and where they meet ( land-atmosphere , land-ocean . atmosphere-ocean ) and two further projects looking at the Earth system as a whole : Past Global Changes ( PAGES ) which looks at palaeoclimate , and the Analysis , Integration and Modelling of the Earth System ( AIMES ) , which helps set the agenda for Earth system models . Plus four joint projects - carbon , water , human health and food security - with the other three international global-change programmes .   In 2004 , IGBP published a landmark synthesis , Global Change and the Earth System ( Steffen et al ) . The synthesis stated that humanity was now the main driver of change at the planetary scale and that Earth is now operating in a `` no analogue '' state . Measurements of Earth system processes , past and present , have led to the conclusion that the planet has moved well outside the range of natural variability in the last half million years at least .   Sybil Seitzinger is the Executive Director .

negative: Carbonate–silicate cycle The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere .   The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) .   The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature .   The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .

negative: Proxy (climate) In the study of past climates ( `` paleoclimatology '' ) , climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth 's history . Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s , and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began .   Examples of proxies include ice cores , tree rings , sub-fossil pollen , boreholes , corals , lake and ocean sediments , and carbonate speleothems . The character of deposition or rate of growth of the proxies ' material has been influenced by the climatic conditions of the time in which they were laid down or grew . Chemical traces produced by climatic changes , such as quantities of particular isotopes , can be recovered from proxies . Some proxies , such as gas bubbles trapped in ice , enable traces of the ancient atmosphere to be recovered and measured directly to provide a history of fluctuations in the composition of the Earth 's atmosphere . To produce the most precise results , systematic cross-verification between proxy indicators is necessary for accuracy in readings and record-keeping .   Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the instrumental temperature record and can inform discussions of global warming . The distribution of proxy records , just like the instrumental record , is not at all uniform , with more records in the northern hemisphere .

negative: Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods .   Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system .   Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified .   Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .

negative: Guy Stewart Callendar Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''

negative: Sea surface temperature Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans .   Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .

negative: Planetary equilibrium temperature The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet .   Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .

negative: Greenhouse gas removal Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .

negative: Climate change mitigation scenarios Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases .   An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .

negative: Stratopause The stratopause ( formerly Mesopeak ) is the level of the atmosphere which is the boundary between two layers : the stratosphere and the mesosphere . In the stratosphere the temperature increases with altitude , and the stratopause is the region where a maximum in the temperature occurs .  This atmospheric feature is not only associated with Earth : it occurs on any other planet or moon that has an atmosphere as well .   On Earth , the stratopause is 50 to high above the Earth 's surface . The atmospheric pressure is around 1/1000 of the pressure at sea level . The temperature in the stratopause is -15 degrees Celsius ( 5 degrees Fahrenheit ) .

negative: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming .   Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 .   Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases .   A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .

negative: Satellite temperature measurements The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites .   Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 .   Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .

negative: The Carbon War The Carbon War : Global Warming and the End of the Oil Era is a 1999 book by former oil geologist Jeremy Leggett about global warming .

negative: Landfill gas Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons .   Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .

negative: Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas .   As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product .   Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas .   It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting .   Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .

negative: Total Carbon Column Observing Network The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .

negative: Black carbon Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot .   Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality .   In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years .   The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .

negative: Charles David Keeling Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .

negative: Terraforming of Venus The terraforming of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation . Terraforming Venus was first seriously proposed by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961 , although fictional treatments , such as The Big Rain by Poul Anderson , preceded it . Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet . These three changes are closely interrelated , because Venus 's extreme temperature is due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense carbon-dioxide atmosphere :  Reducing Venus 's surface temperature of 462 C.  Eliminating most of the planet 's dense 9.2 MPa carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide atmosphere , via removal or conversion to some other form .  Addition of breathable oxygen to the atmosphere .

negative: Eyes on the Earth Eyes on the Earth ( EoE ) is computer visualization software created by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) to visualize a number of NASA 's Earth orbiting spacecraft in-situ and the data they collect on the Earth itself . Originally released as a Unity web player interactive , it has undergone a number of iterations including the mobile app `` Earth Now '' .   It lets users monitor earth 's vital signs , such as sea level height , atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and Antarctic ozone . Trace the movement of water around the globe using the gravity map from NASA 's GRACE satellites . Spot volcanic eruptions and forest fires using the carbon monoxide vital sign . Check out the hottest and coldest locations on Earth with the global surface temperature map.It also displays the location of all of NASA 's operating Earth-observing missions in real time and lets you compare them in size to a scientist or a school bus .

negative: Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project Deep Earth Carbon Degassing ( DECADE ) project is an initiative to unite scientists around the world to make tangible advances towards quantifying the amount of carbon outgassed from the Earth 's deep interior ( core , mantle , crust ) into the surface environment ( e.g. biosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , atmosphere ) through naturally occurring processes . DECADE is an initiative within the Deep Carbon Observatory ( DCO ) .   Volcanoes are the main pathway in which deeply-sourced volatiles , including carbon , are transferred from the Earth 's interior to the surface environment . An additional , though less well understood pathway includes along faults and fractures within the Earth 's crust , often referred to as tectonic degassing . When the DCO was first formed in 2009 estimates of global carbon flux from volcanic regions ranged from 65 to 540 Mt/yr , and constraints on global tectonic degassing were virtually unknown . The order of magnitude uncertainty in current volcanic/tectonic carbon outgassing makes answering fundamental questions about the global carbon budget virtually impossible . In particular , one fundamental unknown is if carbon transferred to the Earth 's interior via subduction is efficiently recycled back to the Earth 's mantle lithosphere , crust and surface environment through volcanic and tectonic degassing , or if significant quantities of carbon are being subducted into the deep mantle . Because significant quantities of mantle carbon are also released through Mid-Ocean Ridge volcanism , if carbon inputs and outputs at subduction zone settings are in balance , then the net effect will be an imbalance in the global carbon budget , with carbon being preferentially removed from the Earth 's deep interior and redistributed to more shallow reservoirs including the mantle lithosphere , crust , hydrosphere and atmosphere . The implications of this may mean that carbon concentrations in the surface environment are increasing over Earth 's history , which has significant implications for climate change .   Findings from the DECADE project will increase our understanding of the way carbon cycles through deep Earth , and patterns in volcanic emissions data could potentially alert scientists to an impending eruption .

negative: Greening Earth Society The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute .   It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company .   Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.

negative: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting .   Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane .   AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean .   AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center .  NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.