query: Volcanoes, solar variations, clouds, methane, aerosols - these all change the way energy enters and/or leaves our climate.

positive: Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect .   Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture .   It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .

positive: Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.

positive: Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\nThe energy moving through Earth\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of "internal variability", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.

positive: Global cooling Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: Marine cloud brightening Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .

negative: Robert Jay Charlson Robert Jay Charlson is an American atmospheric scientist , climate scientist , pioneer in the fields of climate forcing and climate change , and coauthor of the CLAW hypothesis . He is professor of Atmospheric Sciences , chemistry , and geophysics at the University of Washington in Seattle , Washington . Charlson earned his PhD from the University of Washington . He is a world expert in atmospheric chemistry , aerosol physics , aerosol/cloud/climate interaction , aerosol and cloud instrumentation .

negative: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit .  The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System  ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the  Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the  Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) ,  could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .

negative: Eruption column An eruption column is a cloud of hot volcanic ash suspended in volcanic gas emitted during an explosive volcanic eruption . The ash forms a column that may rise many kilometres into the air above the vent of the volcano . In the most explosive eruptions , the eruption column may rise over 40 km , penetrating the stratosphere . Stratospheric injection of aerosols by volcanoes is a major cause of short-term climate change .   A common occurrence in explosive eruptions is for column collapse to occur . In this case , the eruption column is too dense to be lifted high into the air by air convection , and instead falls down the flanks of the volcano to form a pyroclastic flow or surge . On some occasions , if ash is n't dense enough to fall , it may create pyrocumulonimbus .

negative: The Cloud Mystery The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish .   This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .

negative: Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .

negative: Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are :  increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases  global changes to land surface , such as deforestation  increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols .   There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity .   According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence .   Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities :  A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established .  Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual .  Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included .  Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming .   The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .

negative: CLOUD experiment Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or CLOUD is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) and aerosols under controlled conditions . The experiment began operation in November 2009 .   The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) on aerosols and clouds , and their implications for climate . Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question , ( as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997 ) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions . Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models .

negative: Albrecht effect The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate .   Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect .   There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .

negative: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect .   These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .

negative: Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility ( ARM Climate Research Facility ) is a United States Department of Energy scientific user facility for the study of global climate change by the national and international research community .   The ARM Climate Research Facility consists of global observation sites and research aircraft that measure radiative properties of the atmosphere , particularly cloud and aerosol formation processes . Continuous data from these sites , as well as supplemental data obtained through intensive field research campaigns , are available to scientists online through the ARM Data Archive . ARM is collaboratively managed by nine DOE national laboratories .

negative: Simon Tett Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre .   His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says :   All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .

negative: Global Energy and Water Exchanges The Global Energy and Water cycle Exchanges project (abbreviated GEWEX, formerly named the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment from 1990 to 2012) is an international research project and a core project of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP).  In the beginning, the project intended to observe, comprehend and model the Earth's water cycle. The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives, studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed. Sunlight's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain, and dries out land masses after rain. Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes. GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere. If the Earth's climates were identical from year to year, then people could predict when, where and what crops to plant. However, instability created by solar variation, weather trends, and chaotic events creates weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales. Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities. GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data, and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future.

negative: Mark Z. Jacobson Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler .   According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .

negative: Solar Century Holdings Ltd v Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change Solar Century Holdings Ltd v SS for Energy and Climate Change -LSB- 2016 -RSB- EWCA Civ 117 is a UK enterprise law case , on electricity generation by solar power . It held that the Secretary of State could stop scheme supporting renewable electricity , without breaching legitimate expectations , misusing power , or unfairness in a judicial review claim .

negative: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system .   The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance .   Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .

negative: Solar-powered refrigerator A solar-powered refrigerator is a refrigerator which runs on energy directly provided by sun , and may include photovoltaic or solar thermal energy .   Solar-powered refrigerators are able to keep perishable goods such as meat and dairy cool in hot climates , and are used to keep much needed vaccines at their appropriate temperature to avoid spoilage .   Solar-powered refrigerators may be most commonly used in the developing world to help mitigate poverty and climate change .

negative: Arctic geoengineering Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release .   Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss .   In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .

negative: Michael Schlesinger Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles .   Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols .   He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change .   He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change .   He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .

negative: Remote sensing atmospheric boundary layer Remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer refers to the utilization of ground based , flight based , or satellite based remote sensing instruments to measure properties of the planetary boundary layer including boundary layer height , aerosols and clouds . Satellite remote sensing of the atmosphere has the advantage of being able to provide global coverage of atmospheric planetary boundary layer properties while simultaneously providing relatively high temporal sampling rates . Advancements in satellite remote sensing have provided greater vertical resolution which enables higher accuracy for planetary boundary layer measurements .   The radiative forcing for marine boundary layer ( MBL ) clouds is imperative for understanding any global warming changes . Low-level clouds , including MBL clouds , have the largest net radiative forcing of all clouds .   The albedo of these low level clouds is much higher than the albedo of the underlying ocean surface and correctly modeling these clouds is needed to limit the uncertainty in climate model predictions . The remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer , especially clouds and aerosols within the planetary boundary layer can help verify and improve climate models .

negative: Tholin Tholins ( after the Greek θολός ( tholós ) `` hazy '' or `` muddy '' ; from the ancient Greek word meaning `` sepia ink '' ) are a class of heteropolymer molecules formed by solar ultraviolet irradiation of simple organic compounds such as methane or ethane , often in combination with nitrogen . Tholins do not form naturally on modern-day Earth , but they are found in great abundance on the surface of icy bodies in the outer Solar System , and as reddish aerosols in the atmosphere of outer solar system planets and moons . They usually have a reddish-brown appearance .

negative: Methanation Methanation is the conversion of COx to methane CH4 through hydrogenation . The methanation reactions of COx were first discovered by Sabatier and Senderens in 1902 .   COx methanation has many practical application it is a means of carbon oxide removal from process gases and is also being discussed as an alternative to PROX in fuel processors for mobile fuel cell applications .   Methanation as a means of producing synthetic natural gas has been considered since the 1970s . More recently it has been considered as a way to store energy produced from solar or wind power . This would also allow it to serve as a potential carbon capture mechanism .

negative: Bio-geoengineering Bio-geoengineering is a form of climate engineering which seeks to use or modify plants or other living things to modify the Earth 's climate .   Bio-energy with carbon storage , afforestation projects , and ocean nourishment ( including iron fertilization ) could be considered examples of bio-geoengineering .   Biogenic aerosols can be grown to replace those beneficial aerosols lost as the result of the death of 50 % of Earth 's boreal forests . Agricultural production of atmospheric aerosols called `` monoterpenes '' is possible if crops that are rich in monoterpenes are grown .

negative: Glory (satellite) The Glory satellite was a planned NASA satellite mission that would have collected data on the chemical , micro-physical and optical properties -- and the spatial and temporal distributions -- of sulfate and other aerosols , and would have collected solar irradiance data for the long-term climate record . The science focus areas served by Glory included : atmospheric composition ; carbon cycle , ecosystems , and biogeochemistry ; climate variability and change ; and water and energy cycles . The US$ 424 million satellite was lost on March 4 , 2011 , when its Taurus XL carrier rocket malfunctioned . A subsequent investigation revealed that the fairing system failed to open fully , causing the satellite to reenter the atmosphere at which point it likely broke up and burned .

negative: Auden Schendler Auden Schendler is an American climate activist , businessman and author of Getting Green Done . He is the Vice President of Sustainability at Aspen Skiing Company .   Schendler has written extensively about the difficulties of enacting sustainability initiatives in the business world and the ineffectiveness of conventional green business practices in the face of climate change . He has been featured in Men 's Journal , Businessweek , Outside , Fast Company Harvard Business Review , Slate , and Scientific American 's Earth 3.0 .   He has published numerous essays on climate change , politics , parenting , and the outdoors and speaks regularly about climate change and what constitutes meaningful action . At Aspen Skiing Company Schendler is part of a team that has developed several innovative utility-scale clean energy systems , including a microhydroelectric plant , a solar photovoltaic farm , and a coal mine methane-to-electricity project , the first of its kind west of the Mississippi .

negative: James Hansen James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest .   In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''

negative: Solar savings fraction In discussing solar energy , the solar savings fraction or solar fraction ( f ) is the amount of energy provided by the solar technology divided by the total energy required .   The solar savings fraction thus is zero for no solar energy utilization , to 1.0 for all energy provided by solar . The solar savings fraction of a particular system is dependent on many factors such as the load , the collection and storage sizes , the operation , and the climate . As an example , the same solar-thermal water heating system installed in a single-family house in Arizona might have f = 0.75 ( 75 % ) , while in a much colder and cloudier climate , like Pittsburgh , PA , might only have a solar fraction of f = 0.3 ( 30 % ) or so . Great care is thus needed in designing such systems , and in evaluating their economics .   To increase the solar savings fraction , energy conservation measures should be employed first before expanding the size of the solar energy collection system . Doing so reduces the need for hot water or space heating , for example , and typically provides the best economic return on the total investment , including the solar energy system .

negative: Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem Plankton , Aerosol , Cloud , ocean Ecosystem ( PACE ) is a NASA ocean color satellite mission that will continue and advance observations of ocean biology , biogeochemistry , and ecology , as well as aerosols and clouds . PACE data will be used to identify the extent and duration of harmful algal blooms and improve understanding of air quality . These and other uses of PACE data will benefit the economy and society , especially sectors that rely on water quality , fisheries and food security .   PACE will also measure atmospheric particles and clouds that scatter and absorb sunlight . Improved characterization of aerosol particles , in particular , will enable quantifying their impact on ocean biology and chemistry as well as Earth 's energy budget .   The PACE project is managed by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . The main instrument and bus are being designed and built at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . The satellite is planned for launch in 2022 .

negative: Oort cloud The Oort cloud ( -LSB- ˈɔrt -RSB- or -LSB- ˈʊərt -RSB- , named after the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort ) , sometimes called the Öpik -- Oort cloud , is a theoretical cloud of predominantly icy planetesimals believed to surround the Sun to as far as somewhere between 50000 and.The Oort cloud 's outer limit is difficult to define as it varies over the millennia as different stars pass the Sun and thus is subject to variation . Estimates of its distance range from 50,000 to 200,000 AU . It is divided into two regions : a disc-shaped inner Oort cloud ( or Hills cloud ) and a spherical outer Oort cloud . Both regions lie beyond the heliosphere and in interstellar space . The Kuiper belt and the scattered disc , the other two reservoirs of trans-Neptunian objects , are less than one thousandth as far from the Sun as the Oort cloud .   The outer limit of the Oort cloud defines the cosmographical boundary of the Solar System and the extent of the Sun 's Hill sphere . The outer Oort cloud is only loosely bound to the Solar System , and thus is easily affected by the gravitational pull both of passing stars and of the Milky Way itself . These forces occasionally dislodge comets from their orbits within the cloud and send them toward the inner Solar System . Based on their orbits , most of the short-period comets may come from the scattered disc , but some may still have originated from the Oort cloud .   Astronomers conjecture that the matter composing the Oort cloud formed closer to the Sun and was scattered far into space by the gravitational effects of the giant planets early in the Solar System 's evolution . Although no confirmed direct observations of the Oort cloud have been made , it may be the source of all long-period and Halley-type comets entering the inner Solar System , and many of the centaurs and Jupiter-family comets as well .

negative: Climate change in Pakistan Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts .  The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue .   Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .

negative: Solar (novel) Solar is a novel by author Ian McEwan , first published on 18 March 2010 by Jonathan Cape , an imprint of Random House . It is a satire about a jaded Nobel-winning physicist whose dysfunctional personal life and cynical ambition see him pursuing a solar-energy based solution for climate change .

negative: Solar access Solar access is the ability of one property to continue to receive sunlight across property lines without obstruction from another 's property ( buildings , foliage or other impediment ) . Solar access is calculated using a sun path diagram . Sun is the source of our vision and energy . Its movements inform our perception of time and space . Access to sun is essential to energy conservation and to the quality of our lives .   Solar access is differentiated from solar rights or solar easement , which is specifically meant for direct sunlight for solar energy systems , whereas solar access is a right to sunlight upon certain building façades regardless of the presence of active or passive solar energy systems .


query: Scientists are "questioning the original idea that man-made global warming is what is causing the climate to change. "

positive: Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.  Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally .   Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be .   Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .

negative: Christopher C. Horner Christopher C. Horner is an attorney in Washington , D.C. and a Senior Fellow at the Competitive Enterprise Institute who opposes the mainstream view of climate change and has been prominent in promoting climate change denial . He is the author of three books disputing the scientific evidence for man-made global warming . Horner had a financial relationship with coal companies who provided him with funds . Horner has been criticized for hounding climate scientists with frivolous requests for documentation and emails .

negative: Climate change in Germany Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe .

negative: Climate change in Argentina According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .

negative: Scientific opinion on climate change The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect .   This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys .   National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that :  Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level .  Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities .  Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming .  The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time .  The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) .   Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion .   No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .

negative: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint .   The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows :  The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years .  `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane .  If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming .   These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science .   There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds .   For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations .   NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .

negative: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .

negative: Land surface effects on climate Land surface effects on climate are wide-ranging and vary by region . Deforestation and exploitation of natural landscapes play a significant role . Some of these environmental changes are similar to those caused by the effects of global warming .

negative: John Gribbin John R. Gribbin ( born 19 March 1946 ) is a British science writer , an astrophysicist , and a visiting fellow in astronomy at the University of Sussex . His writings include quantum physics , human evolution , climate change , global warming , the origins of the universe , and biographies of famous scientists . He also writes science fiction .

negative: International Arctic Research Center The International Arctic Research Center , or IARC , established in 1999 , is a research institution focused on integrating and coordinating study of climate change in the Arctic . The primary partners in IARC are Japan and the United States . Participants include organizations from Canada , China , Denmark , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States .   The Center is located at the University of Alaska Fairbanks , in the Syun-Ichi Akasofu Building . The Keith B. Mather Library is the science library housed in the Akasofu Building , serving IARC and the Geophysical Institute of UAF . The building also houses the UAF atmospheric sciences department , the Center for Global Change and the Fairbanks forecast office of the National Weather Service .   Study projects are focused within four major themes :  Arctic ocean models and observation  Arctic atmosphere : feedbacks , radiation , and weather analysis  Permafrost/Frozen soil models and observations  Arctic biota/vegetation ( ecosystem models )   IARC is devoting specific effort to answering the following three questions :  To what extent is climate change due to natural vs man-made causes ?  What parameters , processes and interactions are needed to understand and predict future climate change ?  What are the likely impacts of climate change ?

negative: Scott Denning A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .

negative: Business action on climate change Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )

negative: Space mirror (climate engineering) The use of space mirrors as an anti-global warming measure is a proposed technology for climate change mitigation by deflection of sunlight . It was one of a series of proposals for controlling global warming made to the United States government in 2001 .   At the `` Response Options to Rapid or Severe Climate Change '' round-table meeting organized by the President 's Climate Change Technology Program in September 2001 to gather ideas for averting climate change , one of the proposals was to station one or more wire-mesh `` mirrors '' in orbit to deflect sunlight back into space or to filter it . The idea was proposed by Lowell Wood , a senior staff scientist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , who calculated that deflecting 1 % of sunlight would restore climatic stability , and that that would require either a single mirror 600000 sqmi in area or several smaller ones . Wood had been researching the idea for more than ten years but considered it so infeasible that it should only be a back-up plan for solving the global warming problem .   In January 2007 , The Guardian reported that the US government was recommending that research on sunlight deflection , including space mirrors , be continued as `` insurance '' and that the next United Nations Report on Climate Change advocate such a strategy . In addition to the space mirror , suggested sunlight-reducing techniques included launching thousands of highly reflective balloons and pumping sulphate droplets into the upper atmosphere to emulate volcanic emissions .   Space mirrors were first considered in the 1980s as a way to cool the climate of Venus . James Early , also at Livermore , in 1989 proposed using a `` space shade '' 2,000 kilometers in diameter orbiting at Lagrangian Point L1 . He estimated the cost at between one and ten trillion US dollars and suggested manufacturing it on the moon using moon rock .   Using space mirrors as a space sunshade to reduce the impact of sunlight falls into the category of geoengineering : deliberately modifying the earth 's climate . At a conference on the topic organized by Daniel Schrag of Harvard University and David Keith of the University of Calgary in November 2007 , the consensus was that it was worth studying such ideas further despite their high cost , the doubtful feasibility of some including the space mirror , and the risk of their distracting attention from reduction of greenhouse gas emissions .

negative: Climate change denial Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism .   Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming .   Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none .   Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks .  The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation .   Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .

negative: Glossary of climate change This article serves as a glossary of climate change terms . It lists terms that are related to global warming .

negative: Effects of global warming on marine mammals The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .

negative: James Annan James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .

negative: Unstoppable global warming Unstoppable global warming may refer to :   Runaway climate change  Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years , book by Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery

negative: List of ministers of climate change A list of ministers of climate change or officials in charge of cabinet positions with portfolios dealing primarily with climate change and issues related to mitigation of global warming .

negative: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm .   The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .

negative: Ecological forecasting Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming .   One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus  is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems .   One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .

negative: Drawdown (climate) Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis .   Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures .   Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .

negative: John F. B. Mitchell John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller .   He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 .   In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming .   He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 .   He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .

negative: Myron Ebell Myron Ebell is Director of Global Warming and International Environmental Policy at the Competitive Enterprise Institute ( CEI ) , a libertarian advocacy group based in Washington , D.C. . He is also the chairman of the Cooler Heads Coalition , a loose coalition formed in 1997 which presents itself as `` focused on dispelling the myths of global warming by exposing flawed economic , scientific , and risk analysis '' .   In these organizations , Ebell has been central in promoting climate change denial , distributing his views to the media and politicians . Ebell , who is not a scientist , has been described as a climate change skeptic , a climate contrarian and a climate change denier .   In September 2016 , Ebell was appointed by then Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump to lead his transition team for the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) .

negative: Long-term effects of global warming See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 .   There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .

negative: List of climate change initiatives Here is a list of international , national , regional , and local political initiatives to take action on climate change ( global warming ) .   A Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide efforts for climate change mitigation .

negative: Peter Stilbs Peter Stilbs ( born 1 June 1945 ) is an emeritus professor in physical chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology ( KTH ) in Stockholm , Sweden .   Stilbs earned a master 's degree in chemical engineering from the Lund Institute of Technology at Lund University in 1969 , and a Ph.D. in physical chemistry in 1974 . He served as a research assistant in physical chemistry at Uppsala University from 1976 to 1982 , and as an assistant professor from 1982 to 1986 . In 1986 he became a professor in physical chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm . His main fields of research are the techniques and applications of nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) .   Stilbs has also been active in the debate on global warming . He has criticised the view that there is a scientific consensus on the attribution of recent climate change , and described the climate projections conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) as inadequate and misleading . In September 2006 he was chairman of an international seminar at the Royal Institute of Technology labelled Global Warming -- Scientific Controversies in Climate Variability , where both critics and supporters of the theory of man-made global warming were invited .

negative: Medieval Warm Period The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important .   Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures .   Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .

negative: AGW AGW can refer to :    Anthropogenic global warming ; see the following :  Attribution of recent climate change  Human impact on the environment  Climate change  Global warming  Global warming controversy  Actual gold weight , a measure used in gold bullion , coin or bar  Agnew Airport , Queensland , Australia ( IATA code : AGW )  Access gateway , shorthand for multi-service access gateway ( MSAG ) , a device used in telecommunications .  Kahua language ( ISO 639-3 code : agw )

negative: Effects of global warming on Australia Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast .   Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .

negative: An Inconvenient Truth (book) An Inconvenient Truth : The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming and What We Can Do About It is a 2006 book by Al Gore released in conjunction with the film An Inconvenient Truth . It is published by Rodale Press in Emmaus , Pennsylvania , in the United States .   Based on Gore 's lecture tour on the topic of global warming this book elaborates upon points offered in the film . The publisher of the text states that the book , `` brings together leading-edge research from top scientists around the world ; photographs , charts , and other illustrations ; and personal anecdotes and observations to document the fast pace and wide scope of global warming . ''  Michiko Kakutani argues in the New York Times that the book 's `` roots as a slide show are very much in evidence . It does not pretend to grapple with climate change with the sort of minute detail and analysis '' given by other books on the topic `` and yet as a user-friendly introduction to global warming and a succinct summary of many of the central arguments laid out in those other volumes , `` An Inconvenient Truth '' is lucid , harrowing and bluntly effective . ''   In a section called `` The Politicization of Global Warming '' , Al Gore said this statement :   As for why so many people still resist what the facts clearly show , I think , in part , the reason is that the truth about the climate crisis is an inconvenient one that means we are going to have to change the way we live our lives .   A highlighted statement separated from the main writing in that section was :   The truth about the climate crisis is an inconvenient one that means we are going to have to change the way we live our lives .   In 2009 , the audiobook version , narrated by Beau Bridges , Cynthia Nixon , and Blair Underwood , won the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album .

negative: KYOTOplus KYOTOplus is a joint campaign of a number of public interest groups in Canada to encourage and support Canadians in a call for stronger policy on Climate Change . The campaign was devised as a means to educate the Canadian public on issues related to climate change and global warming and to encourage Canadians to take a strong stance at the climate talks in Copenhagen in December 2009 .   Canadian politicians are invited to indicate a strong stance against global warming by means of the KYOTOplus Pledge . The KYOTOplus Petition , which calls for a minimum 25 % decrease in greenhouse gas emission in Canada by 2020 ( in comparison to 1990 ) , is available for signing by any Canadian .