query: The strong CO2 effect has been observed by many different measurements.

positive: Physical impacts of climate change This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described .   This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .

positive: Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas .   As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product .   Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas .   It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting .   Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

positive: Atmosphere of Venus The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts .   Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia .   Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell .   Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases .   Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization .   On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''

negative: Martian Craters There are a number of different types of craters that have been observed and studied on Mars . Many of the them are shaped by the effects of impacts into ice-rich ground .

negative: Tear resistance Tear resistance ( or tear strength ) is a measure of how well a material can withstand the effects of tearing . It is a useful engineering measurement for a wide variety of materials by many different test methods .

negative: Measures of pollutant concentration Measures of pollutant concentration are used to determine risk assessment in public health .   Industry is continually synthesizing new chemicals , the regulation of which requires evaluation of the potential danger for human health and the environment . Risk assessment is nowadays considered essential for making these decisions on a scientifically sound basis .   Measures or defined limits include :  No effect concentration ( NEC ) , No Observed Effect Concentration ( NOEC ) , No-observed-adverse-effect level ( NOAEL )  Lowest-observed-adverse-effect level ( LOAEL )  Acceptable Operator Exposure Level ( AOEL )  ECx ( in percent )

negative: Outcome factorisation Outcome factorisation is a method for quantifiably comparing outcomes generated by similar activities , used in quantitative research .  This process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides a fundamental and measurable connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of the quantitative relationships .  It has been used in various areas of social sciences and has been the basis of many market research projects .

negative: Plasmaron In physics , a plasmaron is a quasiparticle arising in a system that has strong plasmon-electron interactions . It is a quasiparticle formed by quasiparticle-quasiparticle interactions , since both plasmons and electron holes are collective modes of different kinds . It has recently been observed in graphene and earlier in elemental bismuth .

negative: List of psychological tests by gender difference This is a list of specific psychological tests by the effect size for gender as reported in the most recent meta-analysis or norm . Only some psychological tests have been the subject of such research .   The standard guidelines for interpreting effect size state that  0.2 is a small difference ;  0.5 is medium difference , one that would be noticeable to a casual observer ;  0.8 is large difference , one that would be obvious to a casual observer .

negative: Quantum Zeno effect The quantum Zeno effect ( also known as the Turing paradox ) is a feature of Quantum mechanics systems allowing a particle 's time evolution to be arrested by measuring it frequently enough with respect to some chosen measurement setting . Sometimes this is stated as `` a system ca n't change while you are watching it . '' One can `` freeze '' the evolution of the system by measuring it frequently enough in its known initial state . The meaning of the term has since expanded , leading to a more technical definition in which time evolution can be suppressed not only by measurement : the quantum Zeno effect is the suppression of unitary time evolution in quantum systems provided by a variety of sources : measurement , interactions with the environment , stochastic fields , and so on . As an outgrowth of study of the quantum Zeno effect , it has become clear that applying a series of sufficiently strong and fast pulses with appropriate symmetry can also decouple a system from its decohering environment .   The name comes from Zeno 's arrow paradox , which states that because an arrow in flight is not seen to move during any single instant , it can not possibly be moving at all . The first rigorous and general derivation of the quantum Zeno effect was presented in 1974 by Degasperis et al. , although it had previously been described by Alan Turing . The comparison with Zeno 's paradox is due to a 1977 paper by George Sudarshan and Baidyanath Misra .   According to the reduction postulate , each measurement causes the wavefunction to `` collapse '' to a pure eigenstate of the measurement basis . In the context of this effect , an `` observation '' can simply be the absorption of a particle , without an observer in any conventional sense . However , there is controversy over the interpretation of the effect , sometimes referred to as the `` measurement problem '' in traversing the interface between microscopic and macroscopic .   Another crucial problem related to the effect is strictly connected to the time-energy indeterminacy relation . If one wants to make the measurement process more and more frequent , one has to correspondingly decrease the time duration of the measurement itself . But the request that the measurement last only a very short time implies that the energy spread of the state on which reduction occurs becomes increasingly large . However , the deviations from the exponential decay law for small times , is crucially related to the inverse of the energy spread so that the region in which the deviations are appreciable shrinks when one makes the measurement process duration shorter and shorter . An explicit evaluation of these two competing requests shows that it is inappropriate , without taking into account this basic fact , to deal with the actual occurrence and emergence of Zeno 's effect .   Closely related ( and sometimes not distinguished from the quantum Zeno effect ) is the watchdog effect , in which the time evolution of a system is affected by its continuous coupling to the environment .

negative: Observer (quantum physics) In quantum mechanics , `` observation '' is synonymous with quantum measurement and `` observer '' with a measurement apparatus and `` observable '' with what can be measured . Thus the quantum mechanical observer does not have to  necessarily present or solve any problems over and above the issue of measurement in quantum mechanics . The quantum mechanical observer is also intimately tied to the issue of observer effect .   A number of new-age religious or philosophical interpretations of quantum mechanics , notably `` consciousness causes collapse '' , give the observer a special role , or place  constraints on who or what can be an observer . However , this is not yet founded in quantum physics .

negative: Green Power Usage Effectiveness Green Power Usage Effectiveness ( GPUE ) is a proposed measurement of both how much sustainable energy a computer data center uses , its carbon footprint per usable kilowatt hour ( kWh ) and how efficiently it uses its power ; specifically , how much of the power is actually used by the computing equipment ( in contrast to cooling and other overhead ) . It is an addition to the power usage effectiveness ( PUE ) definition and was first proposed by Greenqloud .   The Green Grid has developed the Power Usage Effectiveness metric or PUE to measure a data centers ' effectiveness of getting power to IT equipment . What the PUE tells in simple terms is how much extra energy is needed for each usable kWh for the IT equipment due to the power going into cooling , power distribution loss etc. and it 's a simple formula ( in theory ) :   PUE = Total Facility Power/IT Equipment Power   The PUE can change depending on where measurements are made , when they are made and the timespan the measurements are made in .  Data centers are subtracting factors from their PUE to lower it e.g. district heating . Some of the issues with PUE are being addressed with the PUEx definition .   GPUE is a way to `` weigh '' the PUE to better see which data centers are truly green in the sense that they indirectly cause the least amount of CO2 to be emitted by their use of sustainable or unsustainable energy sources .   This new metric GPUE or Green Power Usage Effectiveness is defined as :   GPUE = G × PUEx ( for inline comparison of data centers )  or = G @ PUEx ( a better display and for CO2 emission calculations )   The `` G '' is the key factor here and it is a simple calculated value :   G = Weighed sum of energy sources and their lifecycle KG CO2/KWh   G = ∑ ( % EnergySource × ( 1 + weight ) )   Adding 1 to the weight is to `` weigh '' ( multiply ) with the PUE to get a number that is comparable to PUE . The weights taken directly from the `` lifecycle CO2/kWh for electricity generation by power source '' table above we got from the 2008 Sovacool Study e.g. the weight for unscrubbed coal is e.g. 1.050 ( kg of CO2/kWh ) while hydroelectric river generation has a weight of 0.013 . An unknown energy source or a `` mix '' will get the same as the maximum value which for now is the same as coal .   Example :   PUE 1.20 , 50/50 Coal/Hydro  G = 0.5 * ( 1 +1.050 ) + 0.5 * ( 1 +0.013 )  G = 1.531 , GPUEx = 1.84 or 1.531@1.20   Kg CO2 per usable kWh = ( G-1 ) × PUEx = 0.64 kg

negative: Difference in differences Difference-in-Difference technique ( DID or DD ) is a statistical technique used in econometrics and quantitative research in the social sciences that attempts to mimic an experimental research design using observational study data , by studying the differential effect of a treatment on a ` treatment group ' versus a ` control group ' in a natural experiment . It calculates the effect of a treatment ( i.e. , an explanatory variable or an independent variable ) on an outcome ( i.e. , a response variable or dependent variable ) by comparing the average change over time in the outcome variable for the treatment group , compared to the average change over time for the control group . Although it is intended to mitigate the effects of extraneous factors and selection bias , depending on how the treatment group is chosen , this method may still be subject to certain biases ( e.g. mean regression , reverse causality and omitted variable bias ) .   In contrast to a time-series estimate of the treatment effect on subjects ( which analyzes differences over time ) or a cross-section estimate of the treatment effect ( which measures the difference between treatment and control groups ) , difference in differences uses panel data to measure the differences , between the treatment and control group , of the changes in the outcome variable that occur over time .

negative: Observer effect Observer effect may refer to :  Hawthorne effect , a form of reactivity in which subjects modify an aspect of their behavior , in response to their knowing that they are being studied  Heisenbug of computer programming , where a software bug seems to disappear or alter its behavior when one attempts to study it  Observer effect ( information technology ) , the impact of observing a process while it is running  Observer effect ( physics ) , the impact of observing a physical system  Probe effect , the effect on a physical system of adding measurement devices , such as the probes of electronic test equipment  Observer-expectancy effect , a form of reactivity in which a researcher 's cognitive bias causes them to unconsciously influence the participants of an experiment   It may also refer to :  `` Observer Effect '' ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) , an episode of Star Trek : Enterprise , named after this effect

negative: Music therapy for Alzheimer's disease Music therapy ( MT ) has been used as a treatment for Alzheimer 's disease ( AD ) , but its use remains mostly uninvestigated . Results of studies investigating its effectiveness are promising , but further research is needed because these studies are of poor methodological quality . Further research is needed to determine the mechanisms by which it may work , and to `` delineate the most effective techniques '' .   In a 2010 study , which took place in Italy , 60 patients in five different nursing homes were observed for changes in behaviors ; after six months of music therapy , there was a noticeable reduction in disruptive behaviors , especially agitation and anxiety ( by nearly 50 % or greater ) and an increase in appetite . While current research continues to show positive effects music therapy has on behaviors and memory , further research is encouraged to measure the effects on `` quality of life '' , but it is suggested as a sufficient intervention for behavioral management .

negative: Social dominance orientation Social dominance orientation ( SDO ) is a personality trait which predicts social and political attitudes , and is a widely used social psychological scale . SDO is conceptualized as a measure of individual differences in levels of group-based discrimination ; that is , it is a measure of an individual 's preference for hierarchy within any social system and the domination over lower-status groups . It is a predisposition toward anti-egalitarianism within and between groups . The concept of SDO as a measurable individual difference is a product of social dominance theory .   Individuals who score high in SDO desire to maintain and , in many cases , increase the differences between social statuses of different groups , as well as individual group members . Typically , they are dominant , driven , tough , and relatively uncaring seekers of power . People high in SDO also prefer hierarchical group orientations . Often , people who score high in SDO adhere strongly to belief in a `` dog-eat-dog '' world . It has also been found that men are generally higher than women in SDO measures . Studies have found that SDO has a strong positive relationship with authoritarian and racist beliefs .

negative: Latency (engineering) Latency is a time interval between the stimulation and response , or , from a more general point of view , a time delay between the cause and the effect of some physical change in the system being observed . Latency is physically a consequence of the limited velocity with which any physical interaction can propagate . This velocity is always lower than or equal to the speed of light . Therefore , every physical system that has spatial dimensions different from zero will experience some sort of latency , regardless of the nature of stimulation that it has been exposed to .   The precise definition of latency depends on the system being observed and the nature of stimulation . In communications , the lower limit of latency is determined by the medium being used for communications . In reliable two-way communication systems , latency limits the maximum rate that information can be transmitted , as there is often a limit on the amount of information that is `` in-flight '' at any one moment . In the field of human -- machine interaction , perceptible latency has a strong effect on user satisfaction and usability .

negative: Effective competition Effective Competition is a concept first proposed by John Maurice Clark , then under the name of `` workable competition , '' as a `` workable '' alternative to the economic theory of perfect competition since perfect competition is seldom observed in the real world .   J.M. Clark 's proposal resulted in extensive debate in the economic literature over the next several decades , in which George W. Stocking , Sr. , George Stigler , Jesse W. Markham , Joe S. Bain , and many others participated . No consensus has yet been reached over which of many potential criteria should be used to judge competition to be effective , but as an alternative to identifying specific structural criteria by which to constitute effectiveness or workability , Jesse W. Markham suggested the following definition : An industry may be judged to be workably competitive when , after the structural characteristics of its market and the dynamic forces that shaped them have been thoroughly examined , there is no clearly indicated change than can be effected through public policy measures that would result in greater social gains than social losses .   Despite the lack of consensus in the literature , the concept is often used in antitrust enforcement and public policy analysis , as a method for measuring and ensuring adequate levels of competitive performance in markets which may not be ideally structured . Charles F. Phillips , Jr. notes that `` Workable or effective competition may result from conditions that are less exacting than those demanded for perfection . ''

negative: DI Herculis DI Herculis is an Algol-type binary star in the constellation of Hercules . The system has an apparent magnitude of about +8.5 and consists of two young blue stars of spectral type B5 and B4 . It is about two thousand light years from Earth .   The orbit of the stars around their mutual centre of gravity is very elliptical , with an eccentricity of 0.49 and a semi-major axis of 0.496 astronomical units ; stellar masses of 5.15 and 4.52 solar masses lead to a theoretical precession of 4.27 degrees per century ( 1.93 degrees from classical effects and 2.34 degrees from general relativistic effects ) ; but the observed precession original measure is 1.04 degrees per century and the most recent is 1.39 degrees per century .   This observation has led to extensive studies of the bright binary system in the last thirty years ; solutions discussed included  new theories of gravitation such as MOND  tidal forces ( perhaps due to unusual internal structure in the stars ) leading to a circularisation of the elliptical orbit  a third body in the system  presence of a circumstellar cloud between the two components  unusual rotation axes of the stars   After observations of the Rossiter -- McLaughlin effect in 2009 , it emerged that the rotation axes of the two stars lay roughly in the orbital plane of the system . When this is taken account in calculating the rate of precession , the difference between expected and observed precession disappears ; so DI Hercules is no longer a test case for a possible falsification of general relativity . However , a more recent research article shows that the 2009 study leaves many questions unanswered regarding the solution for the axes . For example , orbital effects caused by the tilting of the axes have not been observed ; also , the stars ' rotation axes themselves may also be precessing .

negative: Mnemonic effect The mnemonic effect or mnemotechnic effect occurs when the viewer of an advertisement is persuaded in making a buying decision that is contradictory to the intention of the advertiser .   This can be observed especially in image advertising , in which case the viewer starts associating what he sees with the memories , recollections , and experience that have already been imprinted in his brain .   In the end the only thing the advertisement might have reminded him of , is that he is hungry ( in case of food advertisement ) , and not that he should buy the specific food being advertised .   Not much attention has been given to the study of the mnemonic effect in advertising , but that is slowly changing with companies questioning more and more the effectiveness of the costly types of advertising they are using .   The only thing that is currently agreed upon is that the brain does actually group different information , and many associations are instantly created when viewing or remembering images , numbers or sounds .

negative: Humor research Humor research ( also humor studies ) is a multifaceted field which enters the domains of linguistics , history , and literature . Research in humor has been done to understand the psychological and physiological effects , both positive and negative , on a person or groups of people . Research in humor has revealed many different theories of humor and many different kinds of humor including their functions and effects personally , in relationships , and in society .

negative: English units English units are the historical units of measurement used in England up to 1826 ( when they were replaced by Imperial units ) , which evolved as a combination of the Anglo-Saxon and Roman systems of units . Various standards have applied to English units at different times , in different places , and for different applications .   The two main sets of English units were the Winchester Units , in effect from 1495 -- 1587 , as reaffirmed by King Henry VII , and the Exchequer Standards , in effect from 1588 -- 1825 , as first defined by Queen Elizabeth I.   The units were replaced by Imperial Units in 1824 ( effective January 1 , 1826 ) by a Weights and Measures Act , which retained many but not all of the unit names and redefined many of the definitions .   Use of the term `` English units '' is ambiguous , as it is sometimes mistakenly used to refer to the Imperial units used in the UK , or to United States customary units , which retain some unit names of English Units , but has somewhat different definitions . ( The terms imperial units or imperial measurements are used in the UK to refer to the non-metric system since they were used as a standard throughout the British Empire and the Commonwealth . )

negative: Optimality criterion In statistics , an optimality criterion provides a measure of the fit of the data to a given hypothesis , to aid in model selection . A model is designated as the `` best '' of the candidate models if it gives the best value of an objective function measuring the degree of satisfaction of the criterion used to evaluate the alternative hypotheses .   The term has been used to identify the different criteria that are used to evaluate a phylogenetic tree . For example , in order to determine the best topology between two phylogenetic trees using the maximum likelihood optimality criterion , one would calculate the maximum likelihood score of each tree and choose the one that had the better score . However , different optimality criteria can select different hypotheses . In such circumstances caution should be exercised when making strong conclusions .   Many other disciplines use similar criteria or have specific measures geared toward the objectives of the field . Optimality criteria include maximum likelihood , Bayesian , maximum parsimony , sum of squared residuals , least absolute deviations , and many others .   Category : Statistical hypothesis testing  Category : Model selection

negative: Strictly standardized mean difference In statistics , the strictly standardized mean difference ( SSMD ) is a measure of effect size . SSMD is the mean divided by the standard deviation of a difference between two random values each from one of two groups . SSMD was initially proposed for quality control   and hit selection   in high-throughput screening ( HTS ) and has become a statistical parameter measuring effect sizes for the comparison of any two groups with random values .  .

negative: List of cities by sunshine duration The following is a list of cities by sunshine duration . Sunshine duration is a climatological indicator , measuring duration of sunshine in given period ( usually , a day or a year ) for a given location on Earth , typically expressed as an averaged value over several years . It is a general indicator of cloudiness of a location , and thus differs from insolation , which measures the total energy delivered by sunlight over a given period .   Sunshine duration is usually expressed in hours per year , or in ( average ) hours per day . The first measure indicates the general sunniness of a location compared with other places , while the latter allows for comparison of sunshine in various seasons in the same location . Another often-used measure is percentage ratio of recorded bright sunshine duration and daylight duration in the observed period .   An important use of sunshine duration data is to characterize the climate of sites , especially of health resorts . This also takes into account the psychological effect of strong solar light on human well-being . It is often used to promote tourist destinations .

negative: Educator effectiveness Educator effectiveness is a K-12 school system education policy initiative that measures the quality of a educator performance in terms of improving student learning . It describes a variety of methods , such as observations , student assessments , student work samples and examples of teacher work , that education leaders use to determine the effectiveness of a K-12 educator .   The drive for educator effectiveness programs stem from Race to the top where states were awarded points for meeting educational policies based on the teacher 's effectiveness . This policy was the basis of the emergence of statewide educator effectiveness programs .   Educator effectiveness programs vary from state to state . Typically , an educator effectiveness program describes a cycle of observations and assessments that apply to different groups of teachers during an academic year . New teachers are evaluated more frequently , and veteran teachers are evaluated across multiple year cycles . Evaluated teachers have multiple scheduled classroom observations and conferences with the evaluator in addition to unannounced classroom observations . A controversial aspect of The purpose of evaluations is to help educators determine what is effective in their practices and provides them a medium to reflect upon and change their practice to help teachers become more effective .

negative: Amplitude domain reflectometry Many of the soil moisture measuring instruments are based on the principle of Amplitude Domain Reflectometry ( ADR ) . This method measures the electrical impedance . Electromagnetic waves traveling along Transmission Line ( TL ) enter in soil medium whose impedance is different from TL a part of the energy is reflected back to transmitter . The reflected wave interferes with incident wave and produces a standing wave along the TL , this changes the amplitude of wave along the TL . The impedance can be measured from difference in amplitude . The impedance has two components : electrical conductivity and dielectric constant . The effect of conductivity can be minimized by selecting an appropriate frequency .

negative: W Crucis W Crucis is a star system in the constellation Crux . A Beta Lyrae variable , its apparent magnitude ranges from 9.04 to 10.38 over 198 days . Its light curve has been observed to be asymmetric with subsequent maxima differing in height , which is described as the so-called O'Connell effect .

negative: Mixed-design analysis of variance In statistics , a mixed-design analysis of variance model ( also known as a split-plot ANOVA ) is used to test for differences between two or more independent groups whilst subjecting participants to repeated measures . Thus , in a mixed-design ANOVA model , one factor ( a fixed effects factor ) is a between-subjects variable and the other ( a random effects factor ) is a within-subjects variable . Thus , overall , the model is a type of mixed effect model .   A repeated measures design is used when multiple independent variables or measures exist in a data set , but all participants have been measured on each variable .

negative: Elliptic flow Relativistic heavy-ion collisions produce very large numbers of subatomic particles in all directions . In such collisions , flow refers to how energy , momentum , and number of these particles varies with direction , and elliptic flow is a measure of how the flow is not uniform in all directions when viewed along the beam-line . Elliptic flow is strong evidence for the existence of quark -- gluon plasma , and has been described as one of the most important observations measured at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider ( RHIC ) .   Elliptic flow describes the azimuthal momentum space anisotropy of particle emission from non-central heavy-ion collisions in the plane transverse to the beam direction , and is defined as the second harmonic coefficient of the azimuthal Fourier decomposition of the momentum distribution . Elliptic flow is a fundamental observable since it directly reflects the initial spatial anisotropy , of the nuclear overlap region in the transverse plane , directly translated into to the observed momentum distribution of identified particles . Since the spatial anisotropy is largest at the beginning of the evolution , elliptic flow is especially sensitive to the early stages of system evolution . A measurement of elliptic flow thus provides access to the fundamental thermalization time scale and many more things in the early stages of a relativistic heavy-ion collision .

negative: Radiation-absorbent material Radiation-absorbent material , usually known as RAM , is a material which has been specially designed and shaped to absorb incident RF radiation ( also known as non-ionising radiation ) , as effectively as possible , from as many incident directions as possible . The more effective the RAM , the lower the resulting level of reflected RF radiation . Many measurements in electromagnetic compatibility ( EMC ) and antenna radiation patterns require that spurious signals arising from the test setup , including reflections , are negligible to avoid the risk of causing measurement errors and ambiguities .

negative: Cognitive styles analysis Cognitive styles analysis ( CSA ) was developed by Richard J. Riding and is the most frequently used computerized measure of cognitive styles . Although CSA is not well known in North American institutions , it is quite popular among European universities and organizations .   state :   `` A number of different labels have been given to cognitive styles and , according to Riding , many of these are but different conceptions of the same dimensions . Riding and Cheema surveyed the various ( about 30 ) labels and , after reviewing the descriptions , correlations , methods of assessment , and effect on behavior , concluded that the styles may be grouped into two principal groups : the Wholist-Analytic and the Verbal-Imagery dimensions . It is argued that these dimensions of cognitive style are very fundamental because they develop early in life and are pervasive given their effect on social behavior , decision making , and learning . ''   Unlike many other cognitive style measures , CSA has been the subject of much empirical investigation . Three experiments reported by showed the reliability of CSA to be low . Considering the theoretical strength of CSA , and unsuccessful earlier attempts to create a more reliable parallel form of it , a revised version was made to improve its validity and reliability .

negative: Mating preferences Mate preferences in humans refers to why one human chooses or chooses not to mate with another human and their reasoning why ( see : Evolutionary Psychology , mating ) . Men and women have been observed having different criteria as what makes a good or ideal mate ( gender differences ) . A potential mate 's socioeconomic status has also been seen as having a noticeable effect , especially in developing areas where social status is more emphasized .

negative: Coordinate time In the theory of relativity , it is convenient to express results in terms of a spacetime coordinate system relative to an implied observer . In many ( but not all ) coordinate systems , an event is specified by one time coordinate and three spatial coordinates . The time specified by the time coordinate is referred to as coordinate time to distinguish it from proper time .   In the special case of an inertial observer in special relativity , by convention the coordinate time at an event is the same as the proper time measured by a clock that is at the same location as the event , that is stationary relative to the observer and that has been synchronised to the observer 's clock using the Einstein synchronisation convention .

negative: Holstein–Primakoff transformation The Holstein-Primakoff transformation in quantum mechanics is a mapping to the spin operators from boson creation and annihilation operators , effectively truncating their infinite-dimensional Fock space to finite-dimensional subspaces .   One important aspect of quantum mechanics is the occurrence of -- in general -- non-commuting operators which represent observables , quantities that can be measured .  A standard example of a set of such operators are the three components of the angular momentum operators , which are crucial in many quantum systems .  These operators are complicated , and one would like to find a simpler representation , which can be used to generate approximate calculational schemes .   The transformation was developed in 1940 by Theodore Holstein , a graduate student at the time , and Henry Primakoff . This method has found widespread applicability and has been extended in many different directions .   There is a close link to other methods of boson mapping of operator algebras : in particular , the ( non-hermitian ) Dyson-Maleev technique , and to a lesser extent the Jordan -- Schwinger map . There is , furthermore , a close link to the theory of ( generalized ) coherent states in Lie algebras .


query: Different areas of science are understood with varying degrees of certainty.

positive: Science Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe .   Contemporary science is typically subdivided into the natural sciences , which study the material universe ; the social sciences , which study people and societies ; and the formal sciences , which study logic and mathematics . The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations . Disciplines which use science , like engineering and medicine , may also be considered to be applied sciences .   From classical antiquity through the 19th century , science as a type of knowledge was more closely linked to philosophy than it is now , and in the Western world the term `` natural philosophy '' once encompassed fields of study that are today associated with science , such as astronomy , medicine , and physics . However , during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the scientific method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics . While the classification of the material world by the ancient Indians and Greeks into air , earth , fire and water was more philosophical , medieval Middle Easterns used practical and experimental observation to classify materials .   In the 17th and 18th centuries , scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws . Over the course of the 19th century , the word `` science '' became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world . It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology , chemistry , and physics reached their modern shapes . That same time period also included the origin of the terms `` scientist '' and `` scientific community '' , the founding of scientific institutions , and the increasing significance of their interactions with society and other aspects of culture .

negative: Degrees of Certainty Degrees of Certainty may refer to :   Rudolf Carnap  Bayesian analysis  Confidence Interval

negative: Poverty in Tanzania The level of poverty in Tanzania is high . The definition of poverty is a contentious point , which differs from one country to another . There are also varying degrees of poverty . From a broader perspective , poverty is defined as `` the state of being extremely poor '' and is understood by many to mean the lack of basic necessities such as food , water , shelter , healthcare , and primary education .   Unicef argues that , whilst Tanzania has made great efforts in meeting its domestic and international targets in the alleviation of child poverty especially in the areas of education and healthcare , child poverty is still an important issue for the country .

negative: Education for librarianship Education for librarianship is the term for the educational preparation for professional librarians . This varies widely in different countries . In the United States and Canada , it generally consists of a master 's degree program in library science . There are also bachelor 's , associate , and certificate programs in library science , which provide formal training of paraprofessional library workers , library technicians , and clerks -- as well as preparation for graduate study in library science .

negative: Opinio tolerata In Catholic theology , opinio tolerata refers to pious beliefs with a low degree of theological certainty , but which are tolerated by the magisterium of the Catholic Church . These are ranked less certain than sententia probabilis and hold the least degree of certainty in the hierarchy of dogmatic teachings for Catholics .

negative: Bachelor of Information Technology A Bachelor of Information Technology ( abbreviations BIT , BInfTech , B.Tech ( IT ) or BE ( IT ) ) is an undergraduate academic degree that generally requires three to five years of study . While the degree has a major focus on computers and technology , it differs from a Computer Science degree in that students are also expected to study management and information science , and there are reduced requirements for mathematics . A degree in computer science can be expected to concentrate on the scientific aspects of computing , while a degree in information technology can be expected to concentrate on the business and communication applications of computing . There is more emphasis on these two areas in the e-commerce , e-business and business information technology undergraduate courses . Specific names for the degrees vary across countries , and even universities within countries .   This is in contrast to a Bachelor of Science in Information Technology which is a bachelor 's degree typically conferred after a period of three to four years of an undergraduate course of study in Information Technology ( IT ) . The degree itself is a Bachelor of Science with institutions conferring degrees in the fields of information technology and related fields .  And some other ways to find the bachelors educations.that is a private  Way that a students can prepare our own subject in at homes and they will go for exams only .

negative: Doctor of Nursing Science The Doctor of Nursing Science , usually abbreviated D.N.S. , or D.N.Sc. , is an academic research degree awarded in a number of countries throughout the world as a terminal research degree in Nursing . The title of this degree varies with the collegiate institution which grants it . Another form of this degree is a Doctor of Science in Nursing ( D.S.N. ) degree . This academic research degree is recognized by both the United States Department of Education and the National Science Foundation to be equivalent to the more commonly awarded Doctor of Philosophy Ph.D. .   Most universities have discontinued the degree in favor of the more recognized Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) degree .

negative: Moral certainty Moral certainty is a concept of intuitive probability . It means a very high degree of probability , sufficient for action , but short of absolute or mathematical certainty .

negative: List of library science schools Library science ( often termed library studies or library and information science ) is an interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary field that applies the practices , perspectives , and tools of management , information technology , education , and other areas to libraries ; the collection , organization , preservation , and dissemination of information resources ; and the political economy of information . Most professional library jobs require a professional post-baccalaureate degree in library science as a basic credential but this varies widely in different countries . There are also bachelor 's , associate , and certificate programs in library science , which provide formal training of paraprofessional library workers , library technicians , and clerks -- as well as preparation for graduate study in library science . A library school is an institution of higher learning specializing in the professional training of librarians . As of April 2012 there are 63 American Library Association-accredited Library science programs in Canada and the United States and as of July 2014 , 16 UK institutions offering CILIP-accredited programmes .

negative: Hydrate In chemistry , a hydrate is a substance that contains water or its constituent elements . The chemical state of the water varies widely between different classes of hydrates , some of which were so labeled before their chemical structure was understood .

negative: Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering A Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering is a kind of bachelor 's degree typically conferred after a four year undergraduate course of study in biomedical engineering ( BME ) . The degree itself is largely equivalent to a bachelor of science and many institutions conferring degrees in the fields of biomedical engineering and bioengineering do not append the field to the degree itself . Courses of study in BME are also extremely diverse as the field itself is relatively new and developing . In general , an undergraduate course of study in BME is likened to a cross between engineering and biological science with varying degrees of proportionality between the two .

negative: Aftertaste Aftertaste is the taste intensity of a food or beverage that is perceived immediately after that food or beverage is removed from the mouth . The aftertastes of different foods and beverages can vary by intensity and over time , but the unifying feature of aftertaste is that it is perceived after a food or beverage is either swallowed or spat out . The neurobiological mechanisms of taste ( and aftertaste ) signal transduction from the taste receptors in the mouth to the brain have not yet been fully understood . However , the primary taste processing area located in the insula has been observed to be involved in aftertaste perception .

negative: Manado Malay Manado Malay , or simply the Manado language , is a creole language spoken in Manado , the capital of North Sulawesi province in Indonesia , and the surrounding area . The local name of the language is Bahasa Manado , and the name Minahasa Malay is also used , after the main ethnic group speaking the language . Since Manado Malay is used only for spoken communication , there is no standard orthography .   Manado Malay is a creole of the Malay language . It differs from Malay in having a large number of Portuguese and Dutch loan words as a result of colonisation and having traits such as its use of `` kita '' as a first person singular pronoun , while `` kita '' is a first person inclusive plural pronoun in Malay . Simple Manado Malay sentences can be understood by speakers of standard Malay , albeit with varying degrees of difficulty .

negative: Form of life (philosophy) Form of life ( Lebensform ) is a technical term used by Ludwig Wittgenstein and others in the continental philosophy and philosophy of science traditions . Wittgenstein himself used the term consistently in his works Philosophical Investigations and On Certainty , but other writers have sometimes used it in very different and often mutually incompatible ways .

negative: Van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle Bond triangles or van Arkel -- Ketelaar triangles ( named after Anton Eduard van Arkel and J. A. A. Ketelaar ) are triangles used to show different compounds in varying degrees of ionic , metallic and covalent bonding . The bond triangle shows that ionic , metallic and covalent bonds are not just particular bonds of a specific type . Rather , bond types are interconnected and different compounds have varying degrees of different bonding character ( for example , covalent bonds with significant ionic character are called polar covalent bonds ) .   Different compounds can be placed around the triangle . On the right side ( from ionic to covalent ) should be compounds with varying difference in electronegativity , in the covalent corner compounds with equal electronegativity such as Cl2 ( chlorine ) , in the ionic corner compounds with large electronegativity difference such as NaCl ( table salt ) . The bottom side ( from metallic to covalent ) is for compounds with varying degree of directionality in the bond . At one extreme is metallic bonds with delocalized bonding and the other are covalent bonds in which the orbitals overlap in a particular direction . The left side ( from ionic to metallic ) is for delocalized bonds with varying electronegativity difference .   Three species at the vertices of the triangle are : caesium ( metallic ) , fluorine ( covalent ) and caesium fluoride ( ionic ) .

negative: Master of Arts A Master of Arts ( Magister Artium abbreviated M.A. or MA ; also Artium Magister , abbreviated A.M. or AM ) is a person who was admitted to a type of master 's degree awarded by universities in many countries , and the degree is also named Master of Arts in colloquial speech . The degree is usually contrasted with the Master of Science degree . Those admitted to the degree typically study linguistics , history , communication studies , diplomacy , public administration , political science , or other subjects within the scope of the humanities and social sciences ; however , different universities have different conventions and may also offer the degree for fields typically considered within the natural sciences and mathematics . The degree can be conferred in respect of completing courses and passing examinations , in respect of research , or a combination of the two .   The Master of Arts degree traces its origin to the teaching license , or Licentia docendi , of the University of Paris .

negative: Double degree A double degree program , sometimes called a dual degree , combined degree , conjoint degree , joint degree , simultaneous degree or double graduation program , involves a student 's working for two different university degrees in parallel , either at the same institution or at different institutions ( sometimes in different countries ) , completing them in less time than it would take to earn them separately . The two degrees might be in the same subject area ( especially when the course is split between countries ) , or in two different subjects .

negative: Natural Sciences (Cambridge) The Natural Sciences Tripos ( NST ) are several courses which form the University of Cambridge system of undergraduate teaching ( called Tripos ) . It is known for its broad range of study in the first year , in which students can not study just one discipline , but instead must choose three courses in different areas of the natural sciences and one in mathematics . As is traditional at Cambridge , the degree awarded after Part II is a BA . An MSci is available to those who take the optional Part III .

negative: Yaqeen Yaqeen is generally translated as `` certainty '' , and is considered the summit of the many stations by which the path of walaya ( sometimes translated as Sainthood ) is fully completed . This is the repository of liberating experience in Islam . In relation to the exoteric religious life , certainty is the sister of religious life in its perfection ( ehsân ) , that is , to say the adoration of Allah according to the visionary way ; through this channel it is the pillar of Islam in the accomplishment of its external practices , as it is the foundation of faith ( iman ) in its internal dogma . It is , in fact , ihsân which gives the external religion its true meaning and the domain of faith its real values . It occurs in the Quran about certainty , `` And worship your Lord until there comes to you the certainty '' . Certainty ( yaqeen ) comprises three degrees .

negative: Bachelor of Science A Bachelor of Science ( Latin Baccalaureus Scientia , B.S. , BS , B.Sc. , or BSc ; or , less commonly , S.B. , SB , or Sc.B. , from the equivalent Latin Scientiae Baccalaureus ) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years , or a person holding such a degree .   Whether a student of a particular subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities . For one example , an economics degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts ( B.A. ) by one university but as a B.Sc . by another , and some universities offer the choice of either . Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA , even in the natural sciences , while some universities offer only the BS even in non-science fields . Georgetown University 's School of Foreign Service awards Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service degrees to all of its undergraduates , although many major in humanities-oriented fields such as international history and culture and politics .   The London School of Economics offers B.Sc . degrees in practically all subject areas , even those normally associated with arts degrees , while the Oxbridge universities almost exclusively award arts qualifications . In both instances , there are historical and traditional reasons . Northwestern University 's School of Communication grants B.Sc . degrees in all of its programs of study , including theater , dance , and radio/television/film . University of California , Berkeley grants B.S. degree in Environmental Economics and Policy in College of Natural Resources ( CNR ) , and B.A. degree in Environmental Economics and Policy in College of Letters and Science ( L&S ) . Cornell University offers a B.S. degree in Computer Science from its College of Engineering and a B.A. degree in Computer Science from its College of Arts and Sciences .   The first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860 . Prior to this , science subjects were included in the B.A. bracket , notably in the cases of mathematics , physics , physiology and botany .

negative: Pseudeurotiaceae The Pseudeurotiaceae are a family of fungi in the division Ascomycota . This family can not yet be taxonomically classified in any of the ascomycetous classes and orders with any degree of certainty ( incertae sedis ) .

negative: Statistical proof Statistical proof is the rational demonstration of degree of certainty for a proposition , hypothesis or theory that is used to convince others subsequent to a statistical test of the supporting evidence and the types of inferences that can be drawn from the test scores . Statistical methods are used to increase the understanding of the facts and the proof demonstrates the validity and logic of inference with explicit reference to a hypothesis , the experimental data , the facts , the test , and the odds . Proof has two essential aims : the first is to convince and the second is to explain the proposition through peer and public review .   The burden of proof rests on the demonstrable application of the statistical method , the disclosure of the assumptions , and the relevance that the test has with respect to a genuine understanding of the data relative to the external world . There are adherents to several different statistical philosophies of inference , such as Bayes theorem versus the likelihood function , or positivism versus critical rationalism . These methods of reason have direct bearing on statistical proof and its interpretations in the broader philosophy of science .   A common demarcation between science and non-science is the hypothetico-deductive proof of falsification developed by Karl Popper , which is a well-established practice in the tradition of statistics . Other modes of inference , however , may include the inductive and abductive modes of proof . Scientists do not use statistical proof as a means to attain certainty , but to falsify claims and explain theory . Science can not achieve absolute certainty nor is it a continuous march toward an objective truth as the vernacular as opposed to the scientific meaning of the term `` proof '' might imply . Statistical proof offers a kind of proof of a theory 's falsity and the means to learn heuristically through repeated statistical trials and experimental error . Statistical proof also has applications in legal matters with implications for the legal burden of proof .

negative: Location (geography) The terms location and place in geography are used to identify a point or an area on the Earth 's surface or elsewhere . The term location generally implies a higher degree of certainty than place , which often indicates an entity with an ambiguous boundary , relying more on human or social attributes of place identity and sense of place than on geometry .

negative: Master of Science in Cyber Security A Master of Science in Cyber Security is a type of postgraduate academic master 's degree awarded by universities in many countries . This degree is typically studied for in cyber security .  What is offered by many institutions is actually called a Master in Strategic Cyber Operations and Information Management ( SCOIM ) which is commonly understood to be a Master in Cybersecurity . This degree is offered by at least some universities in their Professional Studies program ( GWU for one ) so that it can be accomplished while students are employed - in other words it allows for `` distance learning '' or online attendance . Requirements for the Professional Studies program include : 3.0 or better undergrad GPA , professional recommendations letters and an essay .

negative: Birth aboard aircraft and ships The subject of birth aboard aircraft and ships is one with a long history in public international law . The law on the subject is complex , because various states apply differing principles of nationality , namely jus soli and jus sanguinis , to varying degrees and with varying qualifications .

negative: Tropical North Queensland Tropical North Queensland is the northern part of Queensland , Australia , an area from about the city of Mackay north to the tip of Cape York .  The tropical region of Queensland covers 54 % of the state 's area some 934600 km2 , and includes the whole area above the latitude 23.5 degrees south , taking in an area from Rockhampton north . However , what is generally accepted as Tropical `` North '' Queensland includes the cities of Mackay , Townsville and Cairns and the Australian islands of the Torres Strait . It also includes several world heritage listed areas , such as the Great Barrier Reef and the Wet Tropics .   Within the tourism industry , the phrase is used to mean varying areas of the tropical region of the state , usually within Far North Queensland .   Different government departments also have varying definitions for what is meant by `` Tropical North Queensland '' and Tropical Australia .

negative: Xanthopyreniaceae The Xanthopyreniaceae are a family of fungi in the Ascomycota phylum . This family can not yet be taxonomically classified in any of the ascomycetous classes and orders with any degree of certainty ( incertae sedis ) .

negative: Certainty Certainty is perfect knowledge that has total security from error , or the mental state of being without doubt .   Objectively defined , certainty is total continuity and validity of all foundational inquiry , to the highest degree of precision . Something is certain only if no skepticism can occur . Philosophy ( at least , historical Cartesian philosophy ) seeks this state .   It is widely held that certainty about the real world is a failed historical enterprise ( that is , beyond deductive truths , tautology , etc. ) . This is in large part due to the power of David Hume 's problem of induction . Physicist Carlo Rovelli adds that certainty , in real life , is useless or often damaging ( the idea is that `` total security from error '' is impossible in practice , and a complete `` lack of doubt '' is undesirable ) .

negative: Doctor of law Doctor of Law or Doctor of Laws is a degree in law . The application of the term varies from country to country , and includes degrees such as the Doctor of Juridical Science ( J.S.D. or S.J.D ) , Doctor juris ( Dr. iur . or Dr. jur . ) , Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D. ) , Juris Doctor ( J.D. ) , and Legum Doctor ( LL.D . ) .

negative: Eoterfeziaceae The Eoterfeziaceae are a family of fungi in the Ascomycota phylum . This family can not yet be taxonomically classified in any of the ascomycetous classes and orders with any degree of certainty ( incertae sedis ) .

negative: Saccardiaceae The Saccardiaceae are a family of fungi in the Ascomycota phylum . This family can not yet be taxonomically classified in any of the ascomycetous classes and orders with any degree of certainty ( incertae sedis ) .

negative: Aspidotheliaceae The Aspidotheliaceae are a family of fungi in the division Ascomycota . This family can not yet be taxonomically classified in any of the ascomycetous classes and orders with any degree of certainty ( incertae sedis ) .

negative: British degree abbreviations Degree abbreviations are used as an alternative way to specify an academic degree instead of spelling out the title in full , such as in reference books such as Who 's Who and on business cards . Many degree titles have more than one possible abbreviation , with the abbreviation used varying between different universities . In the UK it is normal not to punctuate abbreviations for degrees with full stops ( e.g. `` BSc '' rather than `` B.Sc . '' ) , although this is done at some universities .