query: The report confidently claims that when temperatures rise, “the reduction in premature deaths from cold are expected to be smaller than the increase in deaths from heat in the United States.

positive: Urban heat island An urban heat island ( UHI ) is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities . The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day , and is most apparent when winds are weak . UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter . The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces . Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor . As a population center grows , it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature . The less-used term heat island refers to any area , populated or not , which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area .   Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities , partially due to the UHI . Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons , and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes . The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone , and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems .   Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island . Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in urban areas , which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat .   There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming . Research on China and India indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30 % . On the other hand , one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends . Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

positive: Climate change in the United States Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita .   In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 .   From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers .   Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example .   President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production .   Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States .   In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years .   2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.

negative: Hypothermia Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs . In humans , it is defined as a body core temperature below 35.0 C. Symptoms depend on the temperature . In mild hypothermia there is shivering and mental confusion . In moderate hypothermia shivering stops and confusion increases . In severe hypothermia there may be paradoxical undressing , in which a person removes his or her clothing , as well as an increased risk of the heart stopping .   Hypothermia has two main types of causes . It classically occurs from exposure to extreme cold . It may also occur from any condition that decreases heat production or increases heat loss . Commonly this includes alcohol intoxication but may also include low blood sugar , anorexia , and advanced age , among others . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of 36.5 -- through thermoregulation . Efforts to increase body temperature involve shivering , increased voluntary activity , and putting on warmer clothing . Hypothermia may be diagnosed based on either a person 's symptoms in the presence of risk factors or by measuring a person 's core temperature .   The treatment of mild hypothermia involves warm drinks , warm clothing and physical activity . In those with moderate hypothermia heating blankets and warmed intravenous fluids are recommended . People with moderate or severe hypothermia should be moved gently . In severe hypothermia extracorporeal membrane oxygenation ( ECMO ) or cardiopulmonary bypass may be useful . In those without a pulse cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) is indicated along with the above measures . Rewarming is typically continued until a person 's temperature is greater than 32 C . If there is no improvement at this point or the blood potassium level is greater than 12 mmol/liter at any time resuscitation may be discontinued .   Hypothermia is the cause of at least 1500 deaths a year in the United States . It is more common in older people and males . One of the lowest documented body temperatures from which someone with accidental hypothermia has survived is 13.0 C in a near-drowning of a 7-year-old girl in Sweden . Survival after more than six hours of CPR has been described . In those in whom ECMO or bypass is used survival is around 50 % . Deaths due to hypothermia have played an important role in many wars . The term is from Greek ὑπο , ypo , meaning `` under '' , and θερμία , thermía , meaning `` heat '' . The opposite of hypothermia is hyperthermia , an increased body temperature due to failed thermoregulation .

negative: List of premature obituaries A premature obituary is an obituary published whose subject is not actually deceased at the time of publication . Examples of premature obituaries include that of arms manufacturer Alfred Nobel , whose premature obituary condemning him as a `` merchant of death '' may have caused him to create the Nobel Prize ; black nationalist Marcus Garvey , whose actual death was apparently caused by reading his own obituary ; and actor Abe Vigoda , who was the subject of so many premature obituaries that a website was created to state whether he was alive or dead .   This article lists the recipients of incorrect death reports ( not just formal obituaries ) from publications , media organisations , official bodies , and widely used information sources such as the Internet Movie Database ; but not mere rumours of deaths , nor reports from sites which feature automated death hoax stories designed to draw in page clicks from specific web searches . People who were presumed ( though not categorically declared ) to be dead , and joke death reports that were widely believed , are also included .

negative: Human Security Report 2005 The Human Security Report 2005 is a report outlining declining world trends of global violence from the early 1990s to 2003 . The study reported major worldwide declines in the number of armed conflicts , genocides , military coups , and international crises , as well as in the number of battle-related deaths per armed conflict . Three years in the making and launched in 2005 , the report was produced at the Human Security Centre at the University of British Columbia 's Liu Institute for Global Issues by the Human Security Report Project ( HSRP ) , which moved in May 2007 to join Simon Fraser University 's School for International Studies . The Human Security Report covers similar ground to the long-running Peace and Conflict series .   According to the 2005 Report , the world saw a shift in global security after the end of the Cold War , with a 40 % decrease in the number of armed conflicts being waged around the world since the early 1990s , and an 80 % decrease of genocides between 1998 and 2001 .   Some critics have questioned the relevance of this data , noting that conflict and violence are still significant obstacles for human development , worldwide security , and sustainable peace . For example , a recent Human Development Report from the United Nations Development Programme agrees that the number of conflicts has declined in the last decade , but claims that the wars of the past 15 years have exterminated a larger number of human lives . The Human Security Report argues that there is no evidence to support such a contention . The Report claims that the average number of battle-related deaths per conflict has declined from some 38,000 in 1950 to less than 500 in 2007 . Individual fatality tolls may well be inaccurate ; the trends , however , are indisputable . There are no accurate data on the ( much larger ) number of people who die from war-exacerbated disease and malnutrition , but the Report argues that there are good reasons for believing that these have declined as well .   Some critics have argued that there was too much focus on battle-related `` direct '' deaths in the Report . However , an entire section discusses the large number of `` indirect '' deaths caused by war-exacerbated malnutrition and disease . In some cases , the Report says , the ratio of indirect to direct deaths is higher than 10:1 . The Report argues that conflict-driven disease and malnutrition are greater threats to human security than bombs and bullets . But it also argues that indirect deaths have declined over the past 15 years , along with battle-related deaths . Indirect deaths -- the hidden cost of war -- is one of the two main themes of the later Human Security Report 2009/2010 .   Indirect deaths are driven by the intensity and scope of political violence . The 2009/2010 Report argues that , since humanitarian assistance has increased on a per capita basis and since recent peacetime health interventions -- primarily immunization -- reduce death tolls in wartime , it is highly likely that indirect deaths from war-exacerbated disease and malnutrition have declined to a greater degree than have `` direct '' deaths from violent injuries .   Since the 2005 Report appeared , the data on armed conflict trends , which comes from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program , indicates that there has been a 25 % increase in the overall number of conflicts in which a state is one of the warring parties , but that the number of high-intensity conflicts ( those generating 1,000 or more battle deaths in a year ) have continued to decline and are now some 68 % lower than at the end of the Cold War .

negative: Shivering Shivering ( also called shuddering ) is a bodily function in response to early hypothermia or just feeling cold in warm-blooded animals . When the core body temperature drops , the shivering reflex is triggered to maintain homeostasis . Skeletal muscles begin to shake in small movements , creating warmth by expending energy . Shivering can also be a response to a fever , as a person may feel cold . During fever the hypothalamic set point for temperature is raised . The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise ( pyrexia ) , but also makes the patient feel cold until the new set point is reached . Severe chills with violent shivering are called rigors . Rigors occur because the patient 's body is shivering in a physiological attempt to increase body temperature to the new set point .   Located in the posterior hypothalamus near the wall of the third ventricle is an area called the primary motor center for shivering . This area is normally inhibited by signals from the heat center in the anterior hypothalamic-preoptic area but is excited by cold signals from the skin and spinal cord . Therefore , this center becomes activated when the body temperature falls even a fraction of a degree below a critical temperature level .   Cold-defensive and febrile shivering responses require activation of rostral medullary raphe neurons , especially those located near the midline in the region of the raphe pallidus nucleus between 2.3 and 3.5 mm caudal to the interaural line , corresponding to an antero-posterior level between 400 μm caudal to 800 μm rostral to the caudal border of the facial nucleus , and are modulated by activation of local 5-HT1A receptors ; the central command pathway for shivering parallels that for sympathetically regulated non-shivering thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue ( discussed below ) : Cutaneous cold afferent-triggered activation of neurons in the dorsomedial hypothalamus and GABAergic transmission from the median preoptic nucleus to the medial preoptic area mediates the shivering response as well as the brown adipose tissue non-shivering thermogenic and the tachycardic responses to environmental cooling .   Increased muscular activity results in the generation of heat as a byproduct . Most often , when the purpose of the muscle activity is to produce motion , the heat is wasted energy . In shivering , the heat is the main intended product and is utilized for warmth .   Shivering can also appear after surgery . This is known as postanesthetic shivering .   Newborn babies , infants , and young children experience a greater ( net ) heat loss than adults because they can not shiver to maintain body heat . They rely on non-shivering thermogenesis . Children have an increased amount of brown adipose tissue ( increased vascular supply , and high mitochondrial density ) , and , when cold-stressed , will have greater oxygen consumption and will release norepinephrine . Norepinephrine will react with lipases in brown fat to break down fat into triglycerides . Triglycerides are then metabolized to glycerol and non-esterified fatty acids . These are then further degraded in the needed heat-generating process to form CO2 and water . Chemically , in mitochondria the proton gradient producing the proton electromotive force that is ordinarily used to synthesize ATP is instead bypassed to produce heat directly .

negative: Cold-shock domain In molecular biology , the cold-shock domain ( CSD ) is a protein domain of about 70 amino acids which has been found in prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA-binding proteins . Part of this domain is highly similar to the RNP-1 RNA-binding motif .   When Escherichia coli is exposed to a temperature drop from 37 to 10 degrees Celsius , a 4 -- 5 hour lag phase occurs , after which growth is resumed at a reduced rate . During the lag phase , the expression of around 13 proteins , which contain cold shock domains is increased 2 -- 10 fold . These so-called ` cold shock ' proteins are thought to help the cell to survive in temperatures lower than optimum growth temperature , by contrast with heat shock proteins , which help the cell to survive in temperatures greater than the optimum , possibly by condensation of the chromosome and organisation of the prokaryotic nucleoid .

negative: Heavy freezing spray watch A Heavy Freezing Spray Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when there is an increased risk of a heavy spray event that meets the necessary criteria , but the occurrence , timing , and/or location are still uncertain . A watch will be issued when forecasters expect freezing water droplets to be able to accumulate on sea vessels at rates of 2 cm per hour or greater . This accumulation must be caused by an `` appropriate combination of cold water , wind , cold air temperature , and vessel movement . ''

negative: Heat death paradox Formulated in 1862 by Lord Kelvin , Hermann von Helmholtz and William John Macquorn Rankine , the heat death paradox , also known as Clausius 's paradox and thermodynamic paradox , is a reductio ad absurdum argument that uses thermodynamics to show the impossibility of an infinitely old universe .   This paradox is based upon the classical model of the universe in which the universe is eternal . Clausius 's paradox is a paradox of paradigm . It was necessary to amend the fundamental ideas about the universe , which brought about the change of the paradigm . The paradox was solved when the paradigm was changed .   The paradox was based upon the rigid mechanical point of view of the Second principle of thermodynamics postulated by Rudolf Clausius according to which heat can only be transferred from a warmer to a colder object . If the universe was eternal , as claimed in the classical stationary model of the universe , it should already be cold .   Any hot object transfers heat to its cooler surroundings , until everything is at the same temperature . For two objects at the same temperature as much heat flows from one body as flows from the other , and the net effect is no change . If the universe were infinitely old , there must have been enough time for the stars to cool and warm their surroundings . Everywhere should therefore be at the same temperature and there should either be no stars , or everything should be as hot as stars .   Since there are stars and the universe is not in thermal equilibrium it can not be infinitely old .   The paradox does not arise in Big Bang or Steady State cosmology . In Big Bang cosmology , the current age of the universe is not old enough to have reached equilibrium ; while in a Steady State system , sufficient hydrogen is replenished or regenerated continuously to allow for a constant average density and preventing stars from running down .

negative: Capping inversion A capping inversion is an elevated inversion layer that caps a convective boundary layer .   The boundary layer is the part of the atmosphere which is closest to the ground . Normally , the sun heats the ground , which in turn heats the air just above it . Thermals form when this warm air rises into the cold air ( warm air is less dense than cold air ) , a process described by convection . A convective layer such as this has the potential for cloud formation , since condensation occurs as the warm air rises and cools .   An inversion occurs when the normal temperature ( warm air below , cold air above ) profile is reversed , creating a stable configuration of dense , cold air sitting below lighter , warm air . An elevated inversion layer is thus a region of warm air above a region of cold air , but higher in the atmosphere ( generally not touching the surface ) .   A capping inversion occurs when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile ( warm air rising into cooler air ) and the layer above that is an inversion layer ( cooler air below warm air ) . Cloud formation from the lower layer is `` capped '' by the inversion layer . If the capping inversion layer or `` cap '' is too strong ( too close to the surface ) , it will prevent thunderstorms from developing . A strong cap can result in foggy conditions .   However , if the air at the surface is unstable enough , strong updrafts can be forced through the capping inversion . This selective process of only allowing the strongest updrafts to form thunderstorms often results in outbreaks of severe weather .

negative: Health in Hong Kong Hong Kong is one of the healthiest places in the world . Because of its early health education , professional health services , and well-developed health care and medication system , Hongkongers enjoy a life expectancy of 85.9 for females and 80 for men , which is the third highest in the world , and an infant mortality rate of 2.73 deaths per 1,000 births , the ninth-lowest in the world . The proportion of the population over 65 years old is expected to grow from 14 % in 2013 to 18 % in 2018 , and the number of people with a long-term condition is expected to increase by 33 % over the same period .   Mental health appears to be more of a problem than physical health . It is reported that the number of mental health patients has increased by 2 % to 4 % every year since 2011 from 187,000 in 2011 -- 12 to 226,000 in 2015 -- 16 . Pressure on children from the competitive education system and high parental expectations is blamed for rising levels of anxiety and depression in young children . Primary school children are reported to spend less time outdoors playing than convicted prisoners .

negative: 2002 India heat wave More than 1,030 people were killed in the 2002 heatwave in south India . Most of the dead were poor and elderly and a majority of deaths occurred in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh . In districts that were impacted most , the heat was so severe that ponds and rivers evaporated and in those same districts birds had fallen from the sky and animals were collapsing from the intense heat . It is said by officials to be the worst heat wave in four years . The relief commissioner of Andhra Pradesh , Rosaiah , said that the maximum number of 172 deaths related to heat took place in the East Godavari district . There were also 166 deaths in Prakasam and 144 deaths in West Godavari . Unusually high temperatures were detected across India during April of the year 2002 . In addition , this heat wave over northern zones of India lasted from the middle of April to the third week in May , thus , causing these fatalities . On May 10 the highest temperature recorded in the region of Gannavaram ( Vijayawada ) was 49 degrees Celsius ( 120.2 degrees Fahrenheit ) . According to the BBC News , `` Heatwaves are defined as periods of abnormally high temperatures and usually occur between March and June in India . May is the country 's hottest month , with an average maximum temperature of 41C ( 104F ) in Delhi . Longer , more severe heatwaves are becoming increasingly frequent globally . Intense heat can cause cramps , exhaustion and heat stroke . Thousands of people have died across India during heatwaves in 2002 and 2003 . '' The heatwaves also affected the northern states of Punjab , Haryana , Orissa and 100 people suffered from heat-related sickness .  2010 Indian heatwave

negative: January 2016 East Asia cold wave In late January 2016 , a cold wave struck much of East Asia , parts of mainland Southeast Asia and parts of northern South Asia , bringing record cold temperatures and snowfall to many regions . Sleet was reported in Okinawa for the first time on record , and many other regions saw their coldest temperatures in decades . Snowfall and frigid weather stranded thousands of people across four countries . At least 85 people in Taiwan died from hypothermia and cardiac arrest following a sudden drop in temperature during the weekend of January 22 -- 24 . The cold claimed a further fourteen lives in Thailand , and snowstorms resulted in six deaths across Japan . This event was driven by a fast Arctic warming that occurred within the troposphere , forcing the Arctic Oscillation to change phase rapidly from positive ( in late December ) to negative ( in late January ) , facilitating the atmospheric blocking and associated Siberian high buildup .

negative: Cold inflation pressure Cold inflation pressure is the inflation pressure of tires before the car is driven and the tires warmed up . Recommended cold inflation pressure is displayed on the owner 's manual and on the placard ( or sticker ) attached to the vehicle door edge , pillar , glovebox door or fuel filler flap . Drivers are encouraged to make sure their tires are adequately inflated , as suboptimal tire pressure can greatly reduce fuel economy , increase emissions , increased wear on the edges of the tire surface , and can lead to premature failure of the tire . Excessive pressure , on the other hand , may lead to impact-breaks , decrease braking performance , and cause uneven wear ( i.e. greater wear on the center part of the tire surface ) .   Tire pressure is commonly measured in psi in the imperial and US customary systems , bar , which is deprecated but accepted for use with SI or the kilopascal ( kPa ) , which is an SI unit .   Ambient temperature affects the cold tire pressure . Absolute cold tire pressure ( gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure ) varies directly with the absolute temperature , measured in kelvins .   From physics , the ideal gas law states that PV = nRT where P is absolute pressure , T is absolute temperature ( Kelvin ) , V is the volume ( assumed to be relatively constant in the case of a tire ) , and nR is constant for a given number of molecules of gas . To understand this , assume the tire was filled when it was 300 kelvin ( 80 degrees Fahrenheit ) . If the temperature varies 10 % , i.e. by 30 kelvin ( also 30 Celsius degrees or 54 Fahrenheit degrees ) , the pressure varies 10 % . So if the tire was filled at 80F to 32 psi ( or 47 psi absolute when we add atmospheric pressure ) , the change would be 4.7 psi for this 30 Celsius degree change , or .16 psi per Celsius degree or .1 psi per Fahrenheit degree or 1 psi for every 10 Fahrenheit degrees . Using SI units , that would be 1.1 kPa per kelvin .   Hence , for a tire filled to 32 psi , the approximation usually made is that within the range of normal atmospheric temperatures and pressures :  Tire pressure increases 1 psi for each 10 Fahrenheit degree increase in temperature , or conversely decreases 1 psi for each 10 Fahrenheit degree decrease in temperature and  in SI units , tire pressure increases 1.1 kPa for each 1 Celsius degree increase in temperature , or conversely decreases 1.1 kPa for each 1 Celsius degree decrease in temperature . For tires that need inflation greater than 32psi it might be easier to use a Rule of Thumb of 2 % pressure change for a change of 10 degrees Fahrenheit .  From the table below , one can see that these are only approximations .

negative: Thermoregulation Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries , even when the surrounding temperature is very different . A thermoconforming organism , by contrast , simply adopts the surrounding temperature as its own body temperature , thus avoiding the need for internal thermoregulation . The internal thermoregulation process is one aspect of homeostasis : a state of dynamic stability in an organism 's internal conditions , maintained far from thermal equilibrium with its environment ( the study of such processes in zoology has been called physiological ecology ) . If the body is unable to maintain a normal temperature and it increases significantly above normal , a condition known as hyperthermia occurs . For humans , this occurs when the body is exposed to constant temperatures of approximately 55 ° C , and with prolonged exposure ( longer than a few hours ) at this temperature and up to around 75 ° C death is almost inevitable . Humans may also experience lethal hyperthermia when the wet bulb temperature is sustained above 35 ° C for six hours . The opposite condition , when body temperature decreases below normal levels , is known as hypothermia . It results when the homeostatic control mechanisms of heat within the body malfunction , causing the body to lose heat faster than producing it . Normal body temperature is around 37 ° C , and hypothermia sets in when the core body temperature gets lower than 35 ° C. Usually caused by prolonged exposure to cold temperatures , hypothermia is usually treated by methods that attempt to raise the body temperature back to a normal range .   It was not until the introduction of thermometers that any exact data on the temperature of animals could be obtained . It was then found that local differences were present , since heat production and heat loss vary considerably in different parts of the body , although the circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature of the internal parts . Hence it is important to identify the parts of the body that most closely reflect the temperature of the internal organs . Also , for such results to be comparable , the measurements must be conducted under comparable conditions . The rectum has traditionally been considered to reflect most accurately the temperature of internal parts , or in some cases of sex or species , the vagina , uterus or bladder .   Occasionally the temperature of the urine as it leaves the urethra may be of use in measuring body temperature . More often the temperature is taken in the mouth , axilla , ear or groin .   Some animals undergo one of various forms of dormancy where the thermoregulation process temporarily allows the body temperature to drop , thereby conserving energy . Examples include hibernating bears and torpor in bats .

negative: Death of Marcia Powell Marcia Powell was a 48-year-old inmate who died May 20 , 2009 after exposure to 107-degree temperatures for four hours in an outside cage at Arizona State Prison Complex - Perryville in Goodyear , Arizona . Prison policy limits such outside confinement to a maximum of two hours . An autopsy report showed that Powell had first - and second-degree burns and a core body temperature of 108 degrees . She suffered burn blisters all over her body . The county medical examiner found the cause of death to be due to complications from heat exposure . According to a 3,000 page report released by the ADC , she pleaded to be taken back inside , but was ignored . She was also not allowed to use the restroom , and as a result , died in her own excrement . Prison administrators fired , suspended or disciplined 16 corrections employees over Powell 's death . The Maricopa County Attorney 's Office chose not to prosecute Arizona Department of Corrections staff in her death , claiming that there was `` insufficient evidence to go forward with a prosecution against any of the named individuals '' .

negative: Transportation safety in the United States Transportation safety encompasses automobile accidents , airplane crashes , railroad and motorcoach fatalities and maimings , and other mass transit incidents .   The U.S. government 's National Center for Health Statistics reported 33,736 motor vehicle traffic deaths in 2014 . This exceeded the number of firearm deaths which was 33,599 in 2014 . According to another U.S. government office , the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration , motor vehicle crashes on U.S. roadways claimed 32,744 lives in 2014 and 35,092 in 2015 . ( The National Center for Health Statistics may have different criteria for inclusion and/or a slightly different methodology from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration . ) The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report comparing 2015 to 2014 noted that fatalities increased from 2014 to 2015 in almost all segments of the population -- passenger vehicle occupants , passengers of large trucks , pedestrians , pedalcyclists ( commonly referred to as cyclists ) , motorcyclists , alcohol-impaired driving fatalities , male/female , daytime/nighttime . Fatalities of drivers of large trucks remained unchanged . The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration performed a regression analysis between monthly roadway fatalities and various possible explanatory variables over the five year period 2011 -- 2015 . As one might expect , the strongest correlation was with Vehicle Miles Traveled ( VMT ) , which had a correlation of .80 , followed by average monthly temperature , which had a correlation of .74 , meaning that higher temperatures were associated with increased fatalities . Part of the reason for that pattern may be that more people are out walking and biking in the warmer months , and pedestrians and cyclists are often victims of collisions with motor vehicles . The report also suggests that there may be more vacation travel during warmer months . ( It is not stated whether the analysis used Annual Vehicle Miles Traveled or Monthly Vehicle Miles Traveled . ) Although not mentioned , motorcycle use , and therefore motorcyclist fatalities , may also increase in warmer months .   The National Safety Council , a nonprofit safety advocacy group , estimates U.S. motor vehicle deaths in 2016 were 40,200 , a 14 percent increase from its 2014 estimate . The National Safety Council measures roadside deaths differently than U.S. government agencies . The National Safety Council counts traffic and non-traffic deaths within one year of an accident while the government counts only traffic deaths occurring within 30 days of a crash . The National Safety Council 's statistics show that the increase in 2016 was due only in part to increased miles driven ( due to population growth , low gasoline prices , and a strengthening economy . ) The National Safety Council suggests the increase in deaths not explained by increased vehicle miles is attributable to complacency about impaired driving and increased driver distraction .   Motor vehicle deaths are most often expressed as a rate , often deaths per 100 million vehicle-miles or per billion vehicle-miles , or , for international comparisons , as deaths per billion vehicle-km .

negative: Gul Rahman Gul Rahman ( died 20 November 2002 ) was a suspected Afghan militant who was a victim of torture . He died in a secret CIA prison , or black site , located in northern Kabul , Afghanistan and known as the Salt Pit . He had been captured October 29 , 2002 .   His name was kept secret by the United States for more than seven years although his death was announced . In 2010 the Associated Press reported that before his death he was left half-stripped and chained against a concrete wall on a night when the temperature was close to freezing . The United States government did not notify his family ( wife and four daughters ) of his death , according to the report .

negative: Hot spring A hot spring is a spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater that rises from the Earth 's crust . There are geothermal hot springs in many locations all over the crust of the earth . While some of these springs contain water that is a safe temperature for bathing , others are so hot that immersion can result in injury or death .

negative: 2015 Pakistan heat wave A severe heat wave with temperatures as high as 49 C struck southern Pakistan in June 2015 . It caused the deaths of about 2,000 people from dehydration and heat stroke , mostly in Sindh province and its capital city , Karachi . The heat wave also claimed the lives of zoo animals and countless agricultural livestock . The event followed a separate heat wave in neighboring India that killed 2,500 people in May 2015 .

negative: Cold cathode A cold cathode is a cathode that is not electrically heated by a filament.A negatively charged electrode emits electrons or is the positively charged terminal . For more , see field emission . A cathode may be considered `` cold '' if it emits more electrons than can be supplied by thermionic emission alone . It is used in gas-discharge lamps , such as neon lamps , discharge tubes , and some types of vacuum tube . The other type of cathode is a hot cathode , which is heated by electric current passing through a filament . A cold cathode does not necessarily operate at a low temperature : it is often heated to its operating temperature by other methods , such as the current passing from the cathode into the gas .

negative: Convective heat transfer Convective heat transfer , often referred to simply as convection , is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids . Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases . Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat transfer , convective heat transfer involves the combined processes of unknown conduction ( heat diffusion ) and advection ( heat transfer by bulk fluid flow ) .   Convection can be `` forced '' by movement of a fluid by means other than buoyancy forces ( for example , a water pump in an automobile engine ) . Thermal expansion of fluids may also force convection . In other cases , natural buoyancy forces alone are entirely responsible for fluid motion when the fluid is heated , and this process is called `` natural convection '' . An example is the draft in a chimney or around any fire . In natural convection , an increase in temperature produces a reduction in density , which in turn causes fluid motion due to pressures and forces when fluids of different densities are affected by gravity ( or any g-force ) . For example , when water is heated on a stove , hot water from the bottom of the pan rises , displacing the colder denser liquid , which falls . After heating has stopped , mixing and conduction from this natural convection eventually result in a nearly homogeneous density , and even temperature . Without the presence of gravity ( or conditions that cause a g-force of any type ) , natural convection does not occur , and only forced-convection modes operate .   The convection heat transfer mode comprises one mechanism . In addition to energy transfer due to specific molecular motion ( diffusion ) , energy is transferred by bulk , or macroscopic , motion of the fluid . This motion is associated with the fact that , at any instant , large numbers of molecules are moving collectively or as aggregates . Such motion , in the presence of a temperature gradient , contributes to heat transfer . Because the molecules in aggregate retain their random motion , the total heat transfer is then due to the superposition of energy transport by random motion of the molecules and by the bulk motion of the fluid . It is customary to use the term convection when referring to this cumulative transport and the term advection when referring to the transport due to bulk fluid motion .

negative: Gallocatechin gallate Gallocatechin gallate ( GCG ) is the ester of gallocatechin and gallic acid and a type of catechin . It is an epimer of epigallocatechin gallate ( EGCG ) .   In a high temperature environment , an epimerization change is likely to occur , because heating results in the conversion from EGCG to GCG . According to the referenced study the resulting GCG ( the epimer of EGCG ) results in even lower dietary cholesterol absorption than occurs with EGCG . While this may be a beneficial outcome with respect to cholesterol reduction activity , for those wishing to maximize the EGCG content of green tea infusions , it is still appropriate to use high temperatures , as long as it is taking into account that extreme conditions will lead to small reductions in total EGCG , for example a 12.4 % reduction in total EGCG when heated for 30 minutes straight at 100 degrees Celsius .

negative: Fever Fever , also known as pyrexia and febrile response , is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body 's temperature set-point . There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using values between 37.5 and . The increase in set-point triggers increased muscle contractions and causes a feeling of cold . This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat . When the set-point temperature returns to normal , a person feels hot , becomes flushed , and may begin to sweat . Rarely a fever may trigger a febrile seizure . This is more common in young children . Fevers do not typically go higher than 41 to .   A fever can be caused by many medical conditions ranging from not serious to potentially serious . This includes viral , bacterial and parasitic infections such as the common cold , urinary tract infections , meningitis , malaria and appendicitis among others . Non-infectious causes include vasculitis , deep vein thrombosis , side effects of medication , and cancer among others . It differs from hyperthermia , in that hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature over the temperature set-point , due to either too much heat production or not enough heat loss .   Treatment to reduce fever is generally not required . Treatment of associated pain and inflammation , however , may be useful and help a person rest . Medications such as ibuprofen or paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) may help with this as well as lower temperature . Measures such as putting a cool damp cloth on the forehead and having a slightly warm bath are not useful and may simply make a person more uncomfortable . Children younger than three months require medical attention , as might people with serious medical problems such as a compromised immune system or people with other symptoms . Hyperthermia does require treatment .   Fever is one of the most common medical signs . It is part of about 30 % of healthcare visits by children and occurs in up to 75 % of adults who are seriously sick . While fever is a useful defense mechanism , treating fever does not appear to worsen outcomes . Fever is viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than it usually deserves , a phenomenon known as fever phobia .

negative: Roll bonding Roll bonding is a solid state , cold welding process , obtained through flat rolling of sheet metals . In roll bonding , two or more layers of different metals are passed through a pair of flat rollers under sufficient pressure to bond the layers . The pressure is high enough to deform the metals and reduce the combined thickness of the clad material . The mating surfaces must be previously prepared ( scratched , cleaned , degreased ) in order to increase their friction coefficient and remove any oxide layers .  The process can be performed at room temperature or at warm conditions . In warm roll bonding , heat is applied to pre-heat the sheets just before rolling , in order to increase their ductility and improve the strength of the weld . The strength of the rolled bonds depends on the main process parameters , including the rolling conditions ( entry temperature of the sheets , amount of thickness reduction , rolling speed , etc. ) , the pre-rolling treatment conditions ( annealing temperature and time , surface preparation techniques , etc. ) and the post-rolling heat treatments .

negative: 2015 Indian heat wave In May 2015 , India was struck by a severe heat wave . , it has caused the deaths of at least 2,500 people in multiple regions . The heat wave occurred during the Indian dry season , which typically lasts from March to July with peak temperatures in April and May . Although it typically remains hot until late October , Indian monsoons often provide some respite from the heat .   The South Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and the neighbouring Telangana , where more than 1,735 and 585 people died respectively , were the areas most affected by the heat wave . Other casualties were from the eastern states of West Bengal and Odisha . The high demand for electricity to power air conditioning led to power outages in some cities . The 2015 heat wave has had the highest recorded temperatures since 1995 . In May 2016 , a new record was set in Phalodi .

negative: 2019 heat wave in India and Pakistan From mid-May to mid-June 2019, India and Pakistan had a severe heat wave. It was one of the hottest and longest heat waves since the two countries began recording weather reports. The highest temperatures occurred in Churu, Rajasthan, reaching up to 50.8 °C (123.4 °F), a near record high in India, missing the record of 51.0 °C (123.8 °F) set in 2016 by a fraction of a degree. As of 12 June 2019, 32 days are classified as parts of the heatwave, making it the second longest ever recorded.As a result of hot temperatures and inadequate preparation, more than 184 people died in the state of Bihar, with many more deaths reported in other parts of the country. In Pakistan, five infants died after extreme heat exposure.The heat wave coincided with extreme droughts and water shortages across India and Pakistan. In mid-June, reservoirs that previously supplied Chennai ran dry, depriving millions. The water crisis was exacerbated by high temperatures and lack of preparation, causing protests and fights that sometimes led to killing and stabbing.

negative: Heat Heat is the amount of energy flowing from one body to another spontaneously due to their temperature difference , or by any means other than through work or the transfer of matter . The transfer can be by contact between the source and the destination body , as in conduction ; or by radiation between remote bodies ; or by way of an intermediate fluid body , as in convective circulation ; or by a combination of these . . In thermodynamics , heat is often contrasted with work : heat applies to individual particles ( such as atoms or molecules ) , work applies to objects ( or a system as a whole ) . Heat involves stochastic ( or random ) motion equally distributed among all degrees of freedom , while work is directional , confined to a specific degrees of freedom .   Since heat ( like work ) represents a quantity of energy being transferred between two bodies by certain processes , neither body `` has '' a definite amount of heat ( much like a body in itself does n't `` have '' work ) ; in contrast , a body indeed has properties ( state functions ) such as temperature and internal energy . Thus , energy exchanged as heat during a given process changes the ( internal ) energy of each body by equal and opposite amounts . The sign of the quantity of heat can indicate the direction of the transfer , for example from system A to system B ; negation indicates energy flowing in the opposite direction .   Although heat flows spontaneously from a hotter body to a cooler one , it is possible to construct a heat pump or refrigeration system that does work to increase the difference in temperature between two systems . Conversely , a heat engine reduces an existing temperature difference to do work on another system .   Heat is a consequence of the microscopic motion of particles . When heat is transferred between two objects or systems , the energy of the object or system 's particles increases . As this occurs , the arrangement between particles becomes more and more disordered . In other words , heat is related to the concept of entropy .   Historically , many energy units for measurement of heat have been used . The standards-based unit in the International System of Units ( SI ) is the joule ( J ) . Heat is measured by its effect on the states of interacting bodies , for example , by the amount of ice melted or a change in temperature . The quantification of heat via the temperature change of a body is called calorimetry , and is widely used in practice . In calorimetry , sensible heat is defined with respect to a specific chosen state variable of the system , such as pressure or volume . Sensible heat causes a change of the temperature of the system while leaving the chosen state variable unchanged . Heat transfer that occurs at a constant system temperature but changes the state variable is called latent heat with respect to the variable . For infinitesimal changes , the total incremental heat transfer is then the sum of the latent and sensible heat .

negative: Climate change in New York City Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse .   Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .

negative: Migrant deaths along the Mexico–United States border Migrant deaths along the Mexico -- U.S. border occur hundreds of times a year because of those attempting to cross into the United States from Mexico illegally . The number of deaths reported in US Federal fiscal year 2015 ( ending 30 Sept ) was 240 , which was the lowest number in at least 18 years , and less than half the 492 deaths reported in 2005 . Exposure ( including heat stroke , dehydration , and hyperthermia ) were the leading cause .   Pro human rights groups maintain that since 1994 , more than 11,000 people have died from dehydration in their attempt to cross the increasingly militarized border . According to the United States Border Patrol , 1,954 people died crossing the U.S -- Mexico border between the years 1998 -- 2004 . In the fiscal year ending September 29 , 2004 , 460 migrants died crossing the U.S. -- Mexico border . In 2005 , more than 500 died across the entire U.S. -- Mexico border . The number of yearly border crossing deaths has doubled since 1995 . In 2009 , 417 deaths were reported across the border . Yet the statistics cited by scholars and the media are only the number of known deaths and do not include those who have never been found , underestimating the actual number of migrants that have died attempting unauthorized border crossings .   Mexico 's Secretariat of Foreign Affairs has compiled data including deaths on the Mexican side of the border area during the period from 1994 to 2000 . The data shows 87 deaths in 1996 , 149 in 1997 , 329 in 1998 , 358 in 1999 , and 499 in 2000 .

negative: Nucleate boiling Nucleate boiling is a type of boiling that takes place when the surface temperature is hotter than the saturated fluid temperature by a certain amount but where the heat flux is below the critical heat flux . For water , as shown in the graph below , nucleate boiling occurs when the surface temperature is higher than the saturation temperature ( TS ) by between 10 C-change to 30 C-change . The critical heat flux is the peak on the curve between nucleate boiling and transition boiling . The heat transfer from surface to liquid is greater than that in film boiling .

negative: NTU method The Number of Transfer Units ( NTU ) Method is used to calculate the rate of heat transfer in heat exchangers ( especially counter current exchangers ) when there is insufficient information to calculate the Log-Mean Temperature Difference ( LMTD ) . In heat exchanger analysis , if the fluid inlet and outlet temperatures are specified or can be determined by simple energy balance , the LMTD method can be used ; but when these temperatures are not available The NTU or The Effectiveness method is used .   To define the effectiveness of a heat exchanger we need to find the maximum possible heat transfer that can be hypothetically achieved in a counter-flow heat exchanger of infinite length . Therefore one fluid will experience the maximum possible temperature difference , which is the difference of ( The temperature difference between the inlet temperature of the hot stream and the inlet temperature of the cold stream ) . The method proceeds by calculating the heat capacity rates ( i.e. mass flow rate multiplied by specific heat ) and for the hot and cold fluids respectively , and denoting the smaller one as .   A quantity :     is then found , where is the maximum heat that could be transferred between the fluids per unit time . must be used as it is the fluid with the lowest heat capacity rate that would , in this hypothetical infinite length exchanger , actually undergo the maximum possible temperature change . The other fluid would change temperature more quickly along the heat exchanger length . The method , at this point , is concerned only with the fluid undergoing the maximum temperature change .   The effectiveness , is the ratio between the actual heat transfer rate and the maximum possible heat transfer rate :   where :   Effectiveness is dimensionless quantity between 0 and 1 . If we know for a particular heat exchanger , and we know the inlet conditions of the two flow streams we can calculate the amount of heat being transferred between the fluids by :   For any heat exchanger it can be shown that :   For a given geometry , can be calculated using correlations in terms of the `` heat capacity ratio ''   and the number of transfer units ,    where is the overall heat transfer coefficient and is the heat transfer area .   For example , the effectiveness of a parallel flow heat exchanger is calculated with :   Or the effectiveness of a counter-current flow heat exchanger is calculated with :   For   Similar effectiveness relationships can be derived for concentric tube heat exchangers and shell and tube heat exchangers . These relationships are differentiated from one another depending on the type of the flow ( counter-current , concurrent , or cross flow ) , the number of passes ( in shell and tube exchangers ) and whether a flow stream is mixed or unmixed .   Note that the is a special case in which phase change condensation or evaporation is occurring in the heat exchanger . Hence in this special case the heat exchanger behavior is independent of the flow arrangement . Therefore the effectiveness is given by :

negative: Operation Speedy Express Operation Speedy Express was a controversial United States military operation of the Vietnam War conducted in the Mekong Delta provinces Kiến Hòa and Vĩnh Bình . The operation , led by Julian J. Ewall , was part of a US military `` pacification '' efforts against the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam ( Viet Cong ) . The US military sought to interdict lines of NLF communication and deny them the use of base areas by using brutal repression and counterinsurgency tactics . The broader context of the campaign was the effort combat communism , under the Cold War-era Domino Theory .   The combined ground and air operation resulted in thousands of deaths . U.S. military claims that 10,889 of these deaths were NLF soldiers , but this claim was undermined by on-the-ground reports and the much lower number of weapons seized than enemy soldiers reported killed . The US Army Inspector General estimated there were 5,000 to 7,000 civilian casualties from the operation .

negative: Death in Custody Reporting Act of 2013 The Death in Custody Reporting Act of 2013 is a bill that would require the United States Department of Justice to collect data from U.S. states and territories about the deaths of prisoners in their custody . States and territories would face monetary penalties for noncompliance . The bill would also require federal agencies to report on the deaths of prisoners in their custody . The Death in Custody Reporting Act of 2013 was introduced into the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress .


query: [climate scientists] say that aspects of the case of Hurricane Harvey suggest global warming is making a bad situation worse.

positive: Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity .   Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option .   Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .

positive: Hurricane Harvey The name Harvey has been used for five tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean .  Hurricane Harvey ( 1981 ) - threatened Bermuda but turned away before striking , no damage .  Hurricane Harvey ( 1993 ) - short-lived storm that threatened no land .  Tropical Storm Harvey ( 1999 ) - struck Florida , causing $ 15 million in damage .  Tropical Storm Harvey ( 2005 ) - earliest eighth-storm formation in the Atlantic Ocean since record-keeping began , breaking the old record set in 1936 by 12 days . Threatened Bermuda .  Tropical Storm Harvey ( 2011 ) - record eighth-storm failing to reach hurricane strength , in a single season , since reliable records began . Strong tropical storm that affected parts of Central America .   Category : Atlantic hurricane disambiguation pages

negative: Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally .   Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be .   Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .

negative: The Greenhouse Conspiracy The Greenhouse Conspiracy is a documentary film broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990 , as part of the Equinox series , which criticised the theory of global warming and asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding . It is one of the earliest instances of the suggestion of a conspiracy to promote false claims supporting global warming . Although the title of the program implied the existence of a conspiracy , when interviewed on the program Patrick Michaels played down the idea , saying , `` It may not quite add up to a conspiracy , but certainly a coalition of interests has promoted the greenhouse theory : scientists have needed funds , the media a story , and governments a worthy cause '' .

negative: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .

negative: An Inconsistent Truth An Inconsistent Truth is a 2012 documentary film written , produced , and featuring , nationally syndicated conservative talk radio host Phil Valentine and directed by Shayne Edwards . Valentine , a skeptic of global warming theory , interviewed scientists about the validity of Al Gore 's film An Inconvenient Truth and the facts presented within . What he is told by the scientists he interviews is that there is no consensus on the issue of global warming or climate change . The film argues that global warming proponents keep changing its label , basing their argument on what Valentine says is shaky scientific ground .

negative: Climatic Research Unit documents Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations .   The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''

negative: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''

negative: The Great Global Warming Swindle The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King .   The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols .   The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . ''   Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .

negative: Climate change in Germany Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe .

negative: Hurricane Alley Hurricane Alley is an area of warm water in the Atlantic Ocean stretching from the west coast of northern Africa to the east coast of Central America and Gulf Coast of the Southern United States . Many hurricanes form within this area . The sea surface temperature of the Atlantic in Hurricane Alley has been steadily growing warmer over the past decades , which most climate scientists believe accounts for the increase in hurricane activity .

negative: Climate Code Red Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen .   The key themes of Climate Code Red are :  `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . ''  `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . ''  `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . ''  `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . ''  `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' .   Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network .   The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .

negative: World Wide Views on Global Warming World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 .   World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .

negative: ExxonMobil climate change controversy The ExxonMobil climate change controversy is the controversy around ExxonMobil 's activities related to climate change , especially their promotion of climate change denial . Since the 1970s , ExxonMobil engaged in research , lobbying , advertising , and grant making , some of which were conducted with the purpose of delaying widespread acceptance and action on global warming .   From the late 1970s and through the 1980s , Exxon funded internal and university collaborations , broadly in line with the developing public scientific approach . After the 1980s , the company was a leader in climate change denial , opposing regulations to curtail global warming . ExxonMobil funded organizations critical of the Kyoto Protocol and seeking to undermine public opinion about the scientific consensus that global warming is caused by the burning of fossil fuels . Exxon helped to found and lead the Global Climate Coalition of businesses opposed to the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions .

negative: Robert Balling Robert C. Balling , Jr. is a professor of geography at Arizona State University , and the former director of its Office of Climatology . His research interests include climatology , global climate change , and geographic information systems . Balling has declared himself one of the scientists who oppose the consensus on global warming , arguing in a 2009 book that anthropogenic global warming `` is indeed real , but relatively modest '' , and maintaining that there is a publication bias in the scientific literature .

negative: James Annan James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .

negative: Unstoppable global warming Unstoppable global warming may refer to :   Runaway climate change  Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years , book by Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery

negative: Climatic Research Unit email controversy The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change .   The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas .   The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . ''   Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .

negative: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint .   The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows :  The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years .  `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane .  If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming .   These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science .   There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds .   For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations .   NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .

negative: Global warming in Russia Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .

negative: The Deniers The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .

negative: Business action on climate change Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )

negative: The Cloud Mystery The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish .   This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .

negative: Patrick Michaels Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 .   A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .

negative: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm .   The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .

negative: Nature Climate Change Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .

negative: Climate Counts Climate Counts , spearheaded by Stonyfield Farm CEO Gary Hirshberg , is a non-profit campaign that scores companies annually on the basis of their voluntary action to reverse climate change . The Climate Counts Company Scorecard -- launched in June 2007 -- helps people vote with their dollars by making climate-conscious purchasing and investing choices that put pressure on the world 's most well-known companies to take the issue of climate change seriously . Climate Counts aims to mobilize everyday consumers -- not just the traditional environmental community -- as the most important activists in the fight against global warming .   Companies are given a 0 to 100 score based on whether they have measured their climate footprint , set goals and targets to reduce their impact on global warming ( with ongoing progress toward those reductions to show for it ) , supported ( or suggest intent to block ) progressive climate legislation , and publicly disclosed their climate actions clearly and comprehensively . They outline their criteria for scoring in greater detail here . ( Climate Counts Scorecard ) .   Climate Counts publishes a downloadable pocket shopping guide based on company scores and ranks and in keeping with the organization 's own efforts to reduce its impact , offers shoppers the option of having a paperless version sent to their cell phones .

negative: World Climate Conference The World Climate Conferences are a series of international meetings , organized by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , about global climate issues principally global warming in addition to climate research and forecasting .

negative: Long-term effects of global warming See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 .   There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .

negative: Drawdown (climate) Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis .   Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures .   Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .

negative: Climate engineering Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation .   Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility .   Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy .   Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts .  Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .

negative: Lavoisier Group The Lavoisier Group is an Australian organisation formed by politicians and dominated by retired industrial businesspeople and engineers . It does not accept the science of global warming and works to influence attitudes of policy makers and politicians . The organisation downplays the risk of the effects of global warming , rejects the scientific conclusion that human activity causes it , and opposes policies designed to curtail it . Some members regard climate change as a `` scam . ''   The group was named after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier ( 1743-1794 ) , the father of modern chemistry who disproved the Phlogiston theory of combustion .

negative: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 "internationally renowned" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.

negative: Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.  Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.