query: that atmospheric CO2 increase that we observe is a product of temperature  increase, and not the other way around, meaning it is a product of  natural variation...

positive: Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas .   As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product .   Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas .   It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting .   Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .

positive: Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect .   Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture .   It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .

positive: Eocene The Eocene ( -LSB- pronˈiːəˌsiːn , _ ˈiːoʊ - -RSB- ) Epoch , lasting from , is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era . The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Paleocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch . The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C . The end is set at a major extinction event called the Grande Coupure ( the `` Great Break '' in continuity ) or the Eocene -- Oligocene extinction event , which may be related to the impact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake Bay . As with other geologic periods , the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified , though their exact dates are slightly uncertain .   The name Eocene comes from the Ancient Greek ἠώς ( ēṓs , `` dawn '' ) and καινός ( kainós , `` new '' ) and refers to the `` dawn '' of modern ( ` new ' ) fauna that appeared during the epoch .

positive: Greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere .   If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains .   On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect .   Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming .   The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: Thermal runaway Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback .   In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' .   There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .

negative: IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) .   The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established .   Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums  Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths  Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies   Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports .   The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes :   We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it .  We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ...  Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade .  There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets .  Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more .  under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .

negative: Stratopause The stratopause ( formerly Mesopeak ) is the level of the atmosphere which is the boundary between two layers : the stratosphere and the mesosphere . In the stratosphere the temperature increases with altitude , and the stratopause is the region where a maximum in the temperature occurs .  This atmospheric feature is not only associated with Earth : it occurs on any other planet or moon that has an atmosphere as well .   On Earth , the stratopause is 50 to high above the Earth 's surface . The atmospheric pressure is around 1/1000 of the pressure at sea level . The temperature in the stratopause is -15 degrees Celsius ( 5 degrees Fahrenheit ) .

negative: Mesopause The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . )   Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation .   In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .

negative: Carbon dioxide flooding Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil .   When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs .  By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well .   As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased .   In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone .   CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .

negative: Law of supply The law of supply is a fundamental principle of economic theory which states that , all else equal , an increase in price results in an increase in quantity supplied . In other words , there is a direct relationship between price and quantity : quantities respond in the same direction as price changes . This means that producers are willing to offer more products for sale on the market at higher prices by increasing production as a way of increasing profits .   In short , Law of Supply is a positive relationship between quantity supplied and price and is the reason for the upward slope of the supply curve . When the supply goes down , the price increases

negative: Density altitude Density altitude is the altitude relative to the standard atmosphere conditions ( ISA ) at which the air density would be equal to the indicated air density at the place of observation . In other words , density altitude is air density given as a height above mean sea level . `` Density altitude '' can also be considered to be the pressure altitude adjusted for non-standard temperature .   Both an increase in temperature , decrease in atmospheric pressure , and , to a much lesser degree , increase in humidity will cause an increase in density altitude . In hot and humid conditions , the density altitude at a particular location may be significantly higher than the true altitude .   In aviation , the density altitude is used to assess the aircraft 's aerodynamic performance under certain weather conditions . The lift generated by the aircraft 's airfoils and the relation between indicated and true airspeed are also subject to air density changes . Furthermore , the power delivered by the aircraft 's engine is affected by the air density and air composition .

negative: Keeling Curve The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .   Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards .   Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .

negative: Lime kiln A lime kiln is a kiln used for the calcination of limestone ( calcium carbonate ) to produce the form of lime called quicklime ( calcium oxide ) . The chemical equation for this reaction is   CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2   This reaction takes place at 900 ° C ( 1650 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 1 atmosphere ) , but a temperature around 1000 ° C ( 1800 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 3.8 atmospheres ) is usually used to make the reaction proceed quickly . Excessive temperature is avoided because it produces unreactive , `` dead-burned '' lime .   Slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ) can be formed by mixing water with quicklime .

negative: Permissive temperature The permissive temperature is the temperature at which a temperature sensitive mutant gene product takes on a normal , functional phenotype .  When a temperature sensitive mutant is grown in a permissive condition , the mutated gene product behaves normally ( meaning that the phenotype is n't observed ) , even if there is a mutant allele present . This results in the survival of the cell or organism , as if it were a wild type strain . In contrast , the nonpermissive temperature or restrictive temperature is the temperature at which the mutant phenotype is observed .   Most temperature sensitive mutations affect proteins , and are recessive and cause loss of protein function at the non-permissive temperature . The permissive temperature is one at which the protein typically can fold properly , or remain properly folded .

negative: Hawthorne effect The Hawthorne effect ( also referred to as the observer effect ) is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed . The original research at the Hawthorne Works in Cicero , Illinois , on lighting changes and work structure changes such as working hours and break times was originally interpreted by Elton Mayo and others to mean that paying attention to overall worker needs would improve productivity . Later interpretations such as that done by Landsberger suggested that the novelty of being research subjects and the increased attention from such could lead to temporary increases in workers ' productivity . This interpretation was dubbed `` the Hawthorne effect '' .

negative: Atmosphere of Triton The atmosphere of Triton is the layer of gases surrounding Triton . The surface pressure is only 14 microbars , 1/70 ,000 th of the surface pressure on Earth , and it is composed of nitrogen , similar to those of Titan and Earth . It extends 800 kilometers above its surface . Recent observations have shown an increase in temperature .

negative: Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event The Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event , or the Cenomanian-Turonian extinction event , the Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event ( OAE 2 ) , and referred to in Europe as the Bonarelli Event , was one of two anoxic extinction events in the Cretaceous period . ( The other being the earlier Selli Event , or OAE 1a , in the Aptian . ) The OAE 2 occurred approximately 91.5 ± 8.6 Ma , though other estimates are given as 93-94 Ma .   The event brought about the extinction of the Spinosauridae , Pliosauridae , and possibly Ichthyosauria ; although coracoids of Maastrichtian age may belong to ichthyosaurs , indicating the survival of the group until the latest Cretaceous . Other animals lost some diversity as well . Although the cause is still uncertain , the result starved the Earth 's oceans of oxygen for nearly half a million years , causing the extinction of approximately 27 percent of marine invertebrates . This global environmental disturbance increased atmospheric and oceanic temperatures . Boundary sediments show an enrichment of trace elements , and contain elevated δ13C values .   One possible cause was sub-oceanic volcanism , possibly the Caribbean large igneous province , with increased activity approximately 500,000 years earlier . During that period , the rate of crustal production reached its highest level for 100 million years . This was largely caused by the widespread melting of hot mantle plumes under the oceans at the base of the lithosphere . This resulted in the thickening of the oceanic crust in the Pacific and Indian Oceans . This volcanism would have sent large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Within the oceans , the emission of SO2 , H2S , CO2 , and halogens would have increased the acidity of the water , causing the dissolution of carbonate , and a further release of carbon dioxide . When the volcanic activity declined , this run-away greenhouse effect would have likely been put into reverse . The increased CO2 content of the oceans could have increased organic productivity in the ocean surface waters . The consumption of this newly abundant organic life by aerobic bacteria would produce anoxia and mass extinction . The resulting elevated levels of carbon burial would account for the black shale deposition in the ocean basins .

negative: Atmospheric refraction Atmospheric refraction is the deviation of light or other electromagnetic wave from a straight line as it passes through the atmosphere due to the variation in air density as a function of height . This refraction is due to the velocity of light through air decreasing ( the index of refraction increases ) with increased density . Atmospheric refraction near the ground produces mirages and can make distant objects appear to shimmer or ripple , elevated or lowered , stretched or shortened with no mirage involved . The term also applies to the refraction of sound . Atmospheric refraction is considered in measuring the position of both astronomical and terrestrial objects .   Astronomical or celestial refraction causes astronomical objects to appear higher in the sky than they are in reality . Terrestrial refraction usually causes terrestrial objects to appear higher than they really are , although in the afternoon when the air near the ground is heated , the rays can curve upward making objects appear lower than they really are .   Refraction not only affects lightrays but all electromagnetic radiation , although in varying degrees ( see dispersion in optics ) . For example , in visible light , blue is more affected than red . This may cause astronomical objects to be spread out into a spectrum in high-resolution images .   Whenever possible , astronomers will schedule their observations around the time of culmination of an object when it is highest in the sky . Likewise sailors will never shoot a star which is not at least 20 ° or more above the horizon . If observations close to the horizon can not be avoided , it is possible to equip a telescope with control systems to compensate for the shift caused by the refraction . If the dispersion is a problem too , ( in case of broadband high-resolution observations ) atmospheric refraction correctors can be employed as well ( made from pairs of rotating glass prisms ) . But as the amount of atmospheric refraction is a function of the temperature gradient , the temperature , pressure , and humidity ( the amount of water vapour is especially important at mid-infrared wavelengths ) the amount of effort needed for a successful compensation can be prohibitive . Surveyors , on the other hand , will often schedule their observations in the afternoon when the magnitude of refraction is minimum .   Atmospheric refraction becomes more severe when there are strong temperature gradients , and refraction is not uniform when the atmosphere is inhomogeneous , as when there is turbulence in the air . This is the cause of twinkling of the stars and various deformations of the shape of the sun at sunset and sunrise .

negative: Carbon rift Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift .   Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed .   Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .

negative: Repressuring Repressuring is the method by which the pressure inside a crude oil well is increased so as to increase the output of the well . Pumping crude oil from a reservoir causes its pressure to drop , which further reduces pumpability . Returning the natural gas or other inert gases to the oil well increases the pumpability of the crude present inside the well by decreasing its viscosity and density . In one instance , slower rate of oil production and recycling of natural gas at 9.6 MPa enabled a net recovery of 70 % of the oil originally present .   Although recovery can be increased even by repressuring with air , air is seldom used because it causes an inferior quality of product . Instead carbon dioxide or natural gas itself is used so as to not only increase the recovery from the oil well but also to maintain the high quality of the product .

negative: Soil respiration Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna .   Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration .   The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures .   Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth .   Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .

negative: Gas reinjection Gas reinjection is the reinjection of natural gas into an underground reservoir , typically one already containing both natural gas and crude oil , in order to increase the pressure within the reservoir and thus induce the flow of crude oil or else sequester gas that can not be exported . This is not to be confused with gas lift , where gas is injected into the annulus of the well rather than the reservoir . After the crude has been pumped out , the natural gas is once again recovered . Since many of the wells found around the world contain heavy crude , this process increases their production . The basic difference between light crude and heavy crude is its viscosity and pumpability - the lighter the crude the easier it is to pump . Recovery of hydrocarbons in a well is generally limited to 50 % ( heavy crudes ) and 75-80 % ( light crudes ) . Recycling of natural gas or other inert gases causes the pressure to rise in the well , thus causing more gas molecules to dissolve in the oil lowering its viscosity and thereby increasing the well 's output . Air is not suitable for repressuring wells because it tends to cause deterioration of the oil , thus carbon dioxide or natural gas is used to repressure the well . The term ` gas-reinjection ' is also sometimes referred to as repressuring -- the term being used only to imply that the pressure inside the well is being increased to aid recovery .   Injection or reinjection of carbon dioxide also takes place in order to reduce the emission of CO2 into the atmosphere , a form of carbon sequestration . This has been proposed as a method to combat climate change , allowing mass storage of CO2 over a geological timescale . Reinjection of carbon dioxide in the Norwegian Sleipner gas field saves the operators 1 million Norwegian Kroners per day in national carbon taxes .

negative: Cap carbonate Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record .   The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation .   High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting .   Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain .   This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock .   A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .

negative: Vapor pressure Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases ( solid or liquid ) at a given temperature in a closed system . The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a liquid 's evaporation rate . It relates to the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid ( or a solid ) . A substance with a high vapor pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as volatile . The pressure exhibited by vapor present above a liquid surface is known as vapor pressure . As the temperature of a liquid increases , the kinetic energy of its molecules also increases . As the kinetic energy of the molecules increases , the number of molecules transitioning into a vapor also increases , thereby increasing the vapor pressure .   The vapor pressure of any substance increases non-linearly with temperature according to the Clausius -- Clapeyron relation . The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid ( also known as the normal boiling point ) is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure . With any incremental increase in that temperature , the vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapor bubbles inside the bulk of the substance . Bubble formation deeper in the liquid requires a higher pressure , and therefore higher temperature , because the fluid pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure as the depth increases . More important at shallow depths is the higher temperature required to start bubble formation . The surface tension of the bubble wall leads to an overpressure in the very small , initial bubbles . Thus , thermometer calibration should not rely on the temperature in boiling water .   The vapor pressure that a single component in a mixture contributes to the total pressure in the system is called partial pressure . For example , air at sea level , and saturated with water vapor at 20 ° C , has partial pressures of about 2.3 kPa of water , 78 kPa of nitrogen , 21 kPa of oxygen and 0.9 kPa of argon , totaling 102.2 kPa , making the basis for standard atmospheric pressure .

negative: Production (economics) Production is a process of workers combining various material inputs and immaterial inputs ( plans , know-how ) in order to make something for consumption ( the output ) . It is the act of creating output , a good or service which has value and contributes to the utility of individuals .   Economic well-being is created in a production process , meaning all economic activities that aim directly or indirectly to satisfy human wants and needs . The degree to which the needs are satisfied is often accepted as a measure of economic well-being . In production there are two features which explain increasing economic well-being . They are improving quality-price-ratio of goods and services and increasing incomes from growing and more efficient market production .   The most important forms of production are  market production  public production  household production   In order to understand the origin of the economic well-being we must understand these three production processes . All of them produce commodities which have value and contribute to well-being of individuals .   The satisfaction of needs originates from the use of the commodities which are produced . The need satisfaction increases when the quality-price-ratio of the commodities improves and more satisfaction is achieved at less cost . Improving the quality-price-ratio of commodities is to a producer an essential way to improve the competitiveness of products but this kind of gains distributed to customers can not be measured with production data . Improving the competitiveness of products means often to the producer lower product prices and therefore losses in incomes which are to compensated with the growth of sales volume .   Economic well-being also increases due to the growth of incomes that are gained from the growing and more efficient market production . Market production is the only production form which creates and distributes incomes to stakeholders . Public production and household production are financed by the incomes generated in market production . Thus market production has a double role in creating well-being , i.e. the role of producing goods and services and the role of creating income . Because of this double role market production is the `` primus motor '' of economic well-being and therefore here under review .

negative: Climate change mitigation scenarios Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases .   An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .

negative: Allanblackia oil Allanblackia oil is a vegetable oil that comes from the seeds of the Allanblackia tree . This tree can be found in the wet tropical belt of Africa . Because of its unique blend of fatty acids , the oil from Allanblackia seeds has melting properties that make it excellent to use as structuring fat in food products , e.g. margarines .   Currently , Allanblackia seeds are harvested in the wild to produce the oil , but these producers can not produce enough oil to meet market demand . Finding sustainable ways to increase production could bring many social , environmental , and economic benefits to the communities which produce Allanblackia . To ensure increased production is sustainable and benefits the communities growing the trees , a number of organizations have collaborated to develop a set of standards and methods as guidelines for increasing Allanblackia production . Other organizations are working to establish tree nurseries and other sustainable means of domesticating Allanblackia .

negative: Catalpol Catalpol is an iridoid glucoside . This natural product falls in the class of iridoid glycosides , which are simply monoterpenes with a glucose molecule attached . Although the pharmacological action of catalpol as well as many other iridoids has not been fully established , there is evidence that their primary function is to stimulate the production of adrenal cortical hormones , which increases the production of sex hormones . Catalpol also exhibits anti-inflammatory activity and has shown to increase the production of androgens yielded by the adrenal gland , which can lead to increases in muscle mass .

negative: Carbon diet A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .

negative: Differentiation (sociology) Differentiation is a term in system theory ( found in sociology . ) From the viewpoint of this theory , the principal feature of modern society is the increased process of system differentiation as a way of dealing with the complexity of its environment . This is accomplished through the creation of subsystems in an effort to copy within a system the difference between it and the environment . The differentiation process is a means of increasing the complexity of a system , since each subsystem can make different connections with other subsystems . It allows for more variation within the system in order to respond to variation in the environment . Increased variation facilitated by differentiation not only allows for better responses to the environment , but also allows for faster evolution ( or perhaps sociocultural evolution ) , which is defined sociologically as a process of selection from variation ; the more differentiation ( and thus variation ) that is available , the better the selection .

negative: Kappa mechanism The κ -- mechanism is the driving mechanism behind the changes in luminosity of many types of pulsating variable stars . Here , the Greek letter kappa is used to indicate the radiative opacity at any particular depth of the stellar atmosphere . In a normal star , an increase in compression of the atmosphere causes an increase in temperature and density ; this produces a decrease in the opacity of the atmosphere , allowing heat energy to escape more rapidly . The result is an equilibrium condition where temperature and pressure are maintained in a balance . However , in cases where the opacity increases with temperature , the atmosphere becomes unstable against pulsations . If a layer of a stellar atmosphere moves inward , it becomes denser and more opaque , causing heat flow to be checked . In return , this heat increase causes a build-up of pressure that pushes the layer back out again . The result is a cyclic process as the layer repeatedly moves inward and then is forced back out again .   Stellar non-adiabatic pulsation resulting from the κ -- mechanism occurs in regions where hydrogen and helium are partly ionized , or where there are negative hydrogen ions . An example of such a zone is in RR Lyrae variables where the partial second ionization of helium occurs . Hydrogen ionization is most likely the cause of pulsation activity in Mira variables , rapidly oscillating Ap stars ( roAp ) and ZZ Ceti variables . In Beta Cephei variables , stellar pulsations occur at a depth where the temperature reaches approximately 200,000 K and there is an abundance of iron . The increase in the opacity of iron at this depth is known as the Z bump , where Z is the astronomical symbol for elements other than hydrogen and helium .

negative: Stratosphere The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .

negative: Rationalization (economics) In economics , rationalization is an attempt to change a pre-existing ad hoc workflow into one that is based on a set of published rules . There is a tendency in modern times to quantify experience , knowledge , and work . Means -- end ( goal-oriented ) rationality is used to precisely calculate that which is necessary to attain a goal . Its effectiveness varies with the enthusiasm of the workers for the changes being made , the skill with which management applies the rules , and the degree to which the rules fit the job .   Rationalization aims at an efficiency increase by better use of existing possibilities : A same effect can with fewer means , or with same means to be obtained . In the industry thereby frequently the replacement of manpower is designated by machines ( rationalization investment ) . It is the reasonable , appropriate organization of operational conditions under changing conditions to increase with the goal , productivity and economy .   Julien Freund defines rationalization as `` the organization of life through a division and coordination of activities on the basis of exact study of men 's relations with each other , with their tools and their environment , for the purpose of achieving greater efficiency and productivity '' .   The rationalization process is the practical application of knowledge to achieve a desired end . Its purpose is to bring about efficiency , coordination , and control of the natural and social environment . It is a product of `` scientific specialization and technical differentiation '' that seems to be a characteristic of Western culture . Rationalization is the guiding principle behind bureaucracy and the increasing division of labor , and has led to an increase in both the production and distribution of goods and services . It is also associated with secularization without its more positive component of humanism , with depersonalization and with oppressive routine .   Increasingly , human behavior is to be guided by observation , experiment , and reason ( zweckrational ) . Change in human character is expected to be part of the process ; rationalization and bureaucratization promote efficiency , and materialism , both of which are subsumed under Weber 's concept of zweckrational .

negative: Sustainable product development Sustainable product development ( SPD ) is a method for product development that incorporates a Framework for Strategic Sustainable Development ( FSSD ) , also known as The Natural Step ( TNS ) framework . As the demand for products continues to increase around the world and environmental factors like climate change increasingly affect policies - and thus business - it becomes more and more of a competitive advantage for businesses to consider sustainability aspects early on in the product development process .

negative: Atmosphere of Earth The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) .   By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres .   The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition .   The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .

negative: Aridification Aridification is the process of a region becoming increasingly dry . It refers to long term change rather than seasonal variation .   It is often measured as the reduction of average soil moisture content .  It can be caused by natural or anthropogenic means such as climate change , reduced precipitation , increased evaporation , lowering of water tables or changes in ground cover .  Its major consequences include reduced agricultural production , soil degradation , ecosystem changes and decreased water catchment runoff .