query: Therefore, CO2 levels could not have forced temperatures to rise.

positive: Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas .   As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product .   Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas .   It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting .   Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .

positive: Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect .   Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture .   It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .

positive: Anoxic event Oceanic anoxic events or anoxic events ( anoxia conditions ) refer to intervals in the Earth 's past where portions of oceans become depleted in oxygen ( O2 ) at depths over a large geographic area . During some of these events , euxinia , waters that contained hydrogen sulfide , developed . Although anoxic events have not happened for millions of years , the geological record shows that they happened many times in the past . Anoxic events coincided with several mass extinctions and may have contributed to them . These mass extinctions include some that geobiologists use as time markers in biostratigraphic dating . Many geologists believe oceanic anoxic events are strongly linked to slowing of ocean circulation , climatic warming , and elevated levels of greenhouse gases . Researchers have proposed enhanced volcanism ( the release of CO2 ) as the `` central external trigger for euxinia '' .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: The Greening of Planet Earth The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .

negative: Thermotropic crystal A liquid crystal ( LC ) is thermotropic if the order of its components is determined or changed by temperature .   If temperature is too high , the rise in energy and therefore in motion of the components will induce a phase transition : the LC will become an isotropic liquid .  If , on the contrary , temperature is too low to support a thermotropic phase , the LC will change to glass phase .   There is therefore a range of temperatures at which we observe thermotropic LCs ; and most of these have several `` subphases '' ( nematic , smectic ... ) , which we may observe by modifying the temperature .

negative: Lime kiln A lime kiln is a kiln used for the calcination of limestone ( calcium carbonate ) to produce the form of lime called quicklime ( calcium oxide ) . The chemical equation for this reaction is   CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2   This reaction takes place at 900 ° C ( 1650 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 1 atmosphere ) , but a temperature around 1000 ° C ( 1800 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 3.8 atmospheres ) is usually used to make the reaction proceed quickly . Excessive temperature is avoided because it produces unreactive , `` dead-burned '' lime .   Slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ) can be formed by mixing water with quicklime .

negative: James Hansen James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest .   In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''

negative: Sunken Forests of New Hampshire The Sunken Forests of New Hampshire are two large areas of tree stumps submerged off New Hampshire 's coast . They sank below sea level after the ending of the Wisconsin Glaciation and subsequent rise in temperature ; isostatic rebound has not kept pace with the rise in sea level , and former coastal forests were overtaken by the Atlantic Ocean .   The trees could not thrive , even when they were in the early stages of sinking , because they can not live in salt water for very long . All that is left of the forests are stumps .

negative: Carbonated drink Carbonated drinks are beverages that contain dissolved carbon dioxide . The dissolution of CO2 in a liquid , gives rise to fizz or effervescence . The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure . When the pressure is removed , the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles , which causes the solution to become effervescent , or fizzy . A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water , resulting in carbonated water . Carbon dioxide is only weakly soluble in water , therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released .   Carbonated beverages are prepared by mixing flavored syrup with carbonated water , both chilled . Carbonation levels range up to 5 volumes of CO2 per liquid volume . Ginger ale , colas , and related drinks are carbonated with 3.5 volumes . Other drinks , often fruity ones , are carbonated less .

negative: Compensation point The ( light ) compensation point is the amount of light intensity on the light curve where the rate of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of respiration . At this point , the uptake of CO2 through photosynthetic pathways is exactly matched to the respiratory release of carbon dioxide , and the uptake of O2 by respiration is exactly matched to the photosynthetic release of oxygen .   In assimilation terms , at compensation point , the net carbon dioxide assimilation is zero . Leaves release CO2 by photorespiration and day respiration , but CO2 is also converted into carbohydrate by photosynthesis . Assimilation is therefore the difference in the rate of these processes . At a normal partial pressure of CO2 ( 0.343 hPa in 1980 ) , there is an irradiation at which the net assimilation of CO2 is zero . For instance , in the early morning and late evenings , the compensation point may be reached as photosynthetic activity decreases and respiration increases . Therefore , the partial pressure of CO2 at the compensation point , also known as gamma , is a function of irradiation . The irradiation dependence of the compensation point is explained by the RuBP ( ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ) concentration . When the acceptor RuBP is in saturated concentration , gamma is independent of irradiation . However at low irradiation , only a small fraction of the sites on RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase enzyme ( Rubisco ) have the electron acceptor RuBP . This decreases the photosynthetic activity and therefore affects gamma . The intracellular concentration of CO2 affects the rates of photosynthesis and photo respiration . At higher carbon dioxide concentrations , the photosynthesis rate is higher , while at low CO2 concentrations , photo respiration is higher .

negative: Desulfobacter hydrogenophilus Desulfobacter hydrogenophilus is a strictly anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacterium . It was isolated and characterized in 1987 by Friedrich Widdel of the University of Konstanz ( Germany ) . Like most sulfate-reducing bacteria ( SRB ) , D. hydrogenophilus is capable of completely oxidizing organic compounds ( specifically acetate , pyruvate and ethanol ) to CO2 , and therefore plays a key role in biomineralization in anaerobic marine environments . However , unlike many SRB , D. hydrogenophilus is a facultative lithoautotroph , and can grow using H2 as an electron donor and CO2 as a carbon source . D. hydrogenophilus is also unique because it is psychrophilic ( and has been shown to grow at temperatures as low as 0 C ) . It is also diazotrophic , or capable of fixing nitrogen .

negative: Climate change in New York City Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse .   Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .

negative: Incubator (culture) In biology , an incubator is a device used to grow and maintain microbiological cultures or cell cultures . The incubator maintains optimal temperature , humidity and other conditions such as the carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and oxygen content of the atmosphere inside . Incubators are essential for a lot of experimental work in cell biology , microbiology and molecular biology and are used to culture both bacterial as well as eukaryotic cells .   Louis Pasteur used the small opening underneath his staircase as an incubator . Incubators are also used in the poultry industry to act as a substitute for hens . This often results in higher hatch rates due to the ability to control both temperature and humidity . Various brands of incubators are commercially available to breeders .   The simplest incubators are insulated boxes with an adjustable heater , typically going up to 60 to 65 ° C ( 140 to 150 ° F ) , though some can go slightly higher ( generally to no more than 100 ° C ) . The most commonly used temperature both for bacteria such as the frequently used E. coli as well as for mammalian cells is approximately 37 ° C , as these organisms grow well under such conditions . For other organisms used in biological experiments , such as the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a growth temperature of 30 ° C is optimal .   More elaborate incubators can also include the ability to lower the temperature ( via refrigeration ) , or the ability to control humidity or CO2 levels . This is important in the cultivation of mammalian cells , where the relative humidity is typically > 80 % to prevent evaporation and a slightly acidic pH is achieved by maintaining a CO2 level of 5 % .

negative: Nautilia profundicola Nautilia profundicola is a Gram-negative chemolithoautotrophic epsilonproteobacterium found around hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean . It was first discovered in 1999 on the East Pacific Rise at depth of 2500 m , on the surface of the polychaete worm Alvinella pompejana . Nautilia profundicola lives symbiotically on the dorsal hairs of A. pompejana but they may also form biofilms and live independently on the walls of hydrothermal vents . The ability of N. profundicola to survive in an anaerobic environment rich in sulfur , H2 and CO2 of varying temperature makes it a useful organism to study , as these are the conditions that are theorized to have prevailed around the time of the earliest life on earth .

negative: Temperature Rising Temperature Rising may refer to :   Temperature Rising ( album ) , a 2006 album by Tata Young  Temperature 's Rising , an album by Loverboy  `` Temperature 's Rising '' ( song ) , a 1995 song by Mobb Deep from The Infamous  Temperatures Rising , an American television situation comedy

negative: Grand unification epoch In physical cosmology , assuming that nature is described by a Grand unification theory , the grand unification epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe following the Planck epoch , starting at about 10 − 43 seconds after the Big Bang , in which the temperature of the universe was comparable to the characteristic temperatures of grand unified theories . If the grand unification energy is taken to be 1015 GeV , this corresponds to temperatures higher than 1027 K . During this period , three of the four fundamental interactions -- electromagnetism , the strong interaction , and the weak interaction -- were unified as the electronuclear force . Gravity had separated from the electronuclear force at the end of the Planck era . During the grand unification epoch , physical characteristics such as mass , charge , flavour and colour charge were meaningless .   The grand unification epoch ended at approximately 10 − 36 seconds after the Big Bang . At this point several key events took place . The strong force separated from the other fundamental forces . The temperature fell below the threshold at which X and Y bosons could be created , and the remaining X and Y bosons decayed .  It is possible that some part of this decay process violated the conservation of baryon number and gave rise to a small excess of matter over antimatter ( see baryogenesis ) . This phase transition is also thought to have triggered the process of cosmic inflation that dominated the development of the universe during the following inflationary epoch .

negative: Maximum parcel level The maximum parcel level ( MPL ) is the highest level in the atmosphere that a moist convectively rising air parcel will reach after ascending from the level of free convection ( LFC ) through the free convective layer ( FCL ) and reaching the equilibrium level ( EL ) , near the tropopause . As the parcel rises through the FCL it expands adiabatically causing its temperature to drop , often below the temperature of its surroundings , and eventually lose buoyancy . Because of this , the EL is approximately the region where the distinct flat tops ( called anvils ) often observed on cumulonimbus clouds form . If the air parcel ascended quickly enough then it retains momentum after it has cooled and continues rising past the EL , ceasing at the MPL ( visually represented by the overshooting top , above the anvil ) .

negative: Absolute hot Absolute hot is a concept of temperature that postulates the existence of a highest attainable temperature of matter .  The concept has been popularized by the television series Nova . In this presentation , absolute hot is assumed to be the high end of a temperature scale starting at absolute zero , which is the temperature at which entropy is minimal and classical thermal energy is zero .   Contemporary models of physical cosmology postulate that the highest possible temperature is the Planck temperature , which has the value , or 142 quintillion kelvins ( 142 nonillion on the short scale ) . Above about , particle energies become so large that gravitational forces between them would become as strong as other fundamental forces according to current theories . There is no existing scientific theory for the behavior of matter at these energies . A quantum theory of gravity would be required . The models of the origin of the universe based on the Big Bang theory assume that the universe passed through this temperature about 10 − 42 seconds after the Big Bang as a result of enormous entropy expansion .   Another theory of absolute hot is based on the Hagedorn temperature , where the thermal energies of the particles exceed the mass-energy of a hadron particle-antiparticle pair . Instead of temperature rising , at the Hagedorn temperature more and heavier particles are produced by pair production , thus preventing effective further heating , given that only hadrons are produced . However , further heating is possible ( with pressure ) if the matter undergoes a phase change into a quark -- gluon plasma . Therefore , this temperature is more akin to a boiling point rather than an insurmountable barrier . For hadrons , the Hagedorn temperature is 2 × 1012 K , which has been reached and exceeded in LHC and RHIC experiments . However , in string theory , a separate Hagedorn temperature can be defined , where strings similarly provide the extra degrees of freedom . However , it is so high ( 1030 K ) that no current or foreseeable experiment can reach it .   Quantum physics formally assumes infinitely positive or negative temperatures in descriptions of spin system undergoing population inversion from the ground state to a higher energy state by excitation with electromagnetic radiation . The temperature function in these systems exhibits a singularity , meaning the temperature tends to positive infinity , before discontinuously switching to negative infinity . However , this applies only to specific degrees of freedom in the system , while others would have normal temperature dependency . If equipartitioning were possible , such formalisms ignore the fact that the spin system would be destroyed by the decomposition of ordinary matter before infinite temperature could be reached uniformly in the sample .

negative: Pyrenoid Pyrenoids are sub-cellular micro-compartments found in chloroplasts of many algae , and in a single group of land plants , the hornworts . Pyrenoids are associated with the operation of a carbon-concentrating mechanism ( CCM ) . Their main function is to act as centres of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) fixation , by generating and maintaining a CO2 rich environment around the photosynthetic enzyme ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase ( Rubisco ) . Pyrenoids therefore seem to have a role analogous to that of carboxysomes in cyanobacteria .   Algae are restricted to aqueous environments , even in terrestrial habitats , and this has implications for their ability to access CO2 for photosynthesis . CO2 diffuses 10,000 times slower in water than in air , and is also slow to equilibrate . The result of this is that water , as a medium , is often easily depleted of CO2 and is slow to gain CO2 from the air . Finally , CO2 equilibrates with bicarbonate ( HCO3 − ) when dissolved in water , and does so on a pH-dependent basis . In sea water for example , the pH is such that dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) is mainly found in the form of HCO3 − . The net result of this is a low concentration of free CO2 that is barely sufficient for an algal Rubisco to run at a quarter of its maximum velocity , and thus , CO2 availability may sometimes represent a major limitation of algal photosynthesis .

negative: LOWERN LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate .   Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator .  Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature .  Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it .  Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool .  Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows .  Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation .   Category : Climatology

negative: Chromatic Spring Chromatic Spring is a hot spring in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States .   It is connected to the nearby Beauty Pool . When the water level in one of the two pools rises and overflows , the water level in the other decreases . These fluctuations in water level take place over periods ranging from a few weeks to several years . During this energy shift , the temperatures can change about 10 F-change . Its temperature ranges from 164 to .

negative: Global warming in Tuvalu Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .

negative: Beauty Pool Beauty Pool is a hot spring in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States .   It is connected to the nearby Chromatic Spring . When the water level in one of the two pools rises and overflows , the water level in the other decreases . These fluctuations in water level take place over periods ranging from a few weeks to several years . During this energy shift , the temperatures can change about 10 ° F. Its temperature ranges from 164 to

negative: Calcium reactor __ NOTOC __   In marine and reef aquariums , a calcium reactor creates a balance of alkalinity . An acidic solution is produced by injecting carbon dioxide into a chamber with salt water and calcium rich media . The carbon dioxide lowers the pH by producing a solution high in carbonic acid , and dissolves calcium . The effluent is returned to the reef aquarium where the calcium is consumed by organisms , primarily corals when building skeletons . A calcium reactor is an efficient method to supply calcium to a reef aquarium . Reactors may be used in elaborate freshwater and brackish aquariums where freshwater clams and other invertebrates need a constant supply of calcium .   The reactor dissolves the calcium-laden media to provide bicarbonates HCO3 − ( alkalinity ) and calcium ( Ca + + ) ions at the sames rate as consumed during calcification . Effectively dissolving the media requires an acidic pH. Saltwater may have a pH of 7.8 or higher , so to reduce the pH carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) is used . The reaction formula is :   CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 < -- -- > Ca2 + + 2HCO3 −   Inside the reaction chamber , a calcium rich media ( aragonite ) , mainly CaCO3 , is forced into contact with water injected with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in order to create carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This increases the solubility of the calcium carbonate . The reaction frees the calcium and carbonate , supplying the aquarium with water rich in Ca2 + and CO32 − , important for maintaining alkalinity and calcium levels .   The bubble counter measures carbon dioxide . The flow rate of carbon dioxide is monitored so that the dissolved gas goes into the solution , with a minimum unconsumed . A needle valve or solenoid valve regulates the CO2 bubble rate . Valves with precise adjustment abilities improve bubble control .   The feed pump controls the volume of water exchange . This is important because a high rate of water flow into the reactor reduces its efficiency , thus resulting in underproduction and a waste of CO2 .   Some reactors siphon water into the input of the reactor 's re-circulation pump . A potential complication is the medium in the reactor becoming compacted , increasing back pressure onto the pump and reducing water into the reactor . Placing a gate or needle valve on the reactor 's outlet side will improve flow characteristics compared to control from the inlet side .   A peristaltic pumps are effective operating against pressure , capable of supplying an adjustable and continuous flow over flow rates with minimal maintenance .   The pH control is connected to a probe in the reactor and adjusts the rate at which the calcium media dissolves . This probe monitors the pH level in the calcium reactor . The pH range for the typical calcium reactor is 6.5 - 6.8 . When the pH rises above a certain level , a valve opens , allowing carbon dioxide to enter the reactor . The control closes the valve as the pH falls below this level .   Some pH controllers have an interface for an air pump . This air pump is connected to an airstone in the sump or main tank . If the probe detects a low pH level , the pump activates . The bubbles raise the pH by dissipating the CO2 gas .

negative: IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) .   The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established .   Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums  Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths  Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies   Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports .   The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes :   We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it .  We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ...  Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade .  There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets .  Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more .  under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .

negative: Inconel 625 Inconel Alloy 625 ( UNS designation N06625 ) is a nickel-based superalloy that possesses high strength properties and resistance to elevated temperatures . It also demonstrates remarkable protection against corrosion and oxidation . Its ability to withstand high stress and a wide range of temperatures , both in and out of water , as well as being able to resist corrosion while being exposed to highly acidic environments makes it a fitting choice for nuclear and marine applications .   Inconel 625 was developed in the 1960 's with the purpose of creating a material that could be used for steam-line piping . Some modifications were made to its original composition that have enabled it to be even more creep-resistant and weldable . Because of this , the uses of Inconel 625 have expanded into a wide range of industries such as the chemical processing industry , and for marine and nuclear applications to make pumps and valves and other high pressure equipment .   Because of the metal 's high Niobium ( Nb ) levels as well as its proposed exposure to harsh environments and high temperatures , there was concern about the weldability of Inconel 625 . Studies were therefore conducted to test the metal 's weldability , tensile strength and creep resistance , and Inconel 625 was found to be an ideal choice for welding .

negative: Singosari Singosari is a district in Malang Regency , East Java , Indonesia . It is situated about 400 m above sea-level , and is therefore quite cool especially from June to August . Temperature hovers around 18 -- 20 degrees Celsius at night .

negative: Heat-based contraception An experimental male contraceptive method involves heating the testicles so that they can not produce sperm . Sperm are best produced at a temperature slightly below body temperature . The muscles around a male 's scrotum involuntarily tighten if the man 's body temperature drops , and they loosen , allowing the testes to hang , if the body temperature rises . This is the body 's way of keeping the sperm at an ideal temperature . Although research has not addressed methods of applying heat , sperm production can be disrupted with increased temperature . Some suggest exposure to high temperatures ( 116 ° F ) can affect fertility for months .   Methods used include hot water applied to the scrotum , heat generated by ultrasound , and artificial cryptorchidism ( holding the testicles inside the abdomen ) using specialized briefs . One of the initial experiments resulted in partial infertility lasting more than four years . Initial experiments suggest it is effective and safe , though there have not been long-term studies to determine if it has any side effects on the body after reversal . The optimal heat level and time period of exposure are not known .   One method under investigation is ultrasound , which involves the application of high-frequency sound waves to animal tissue , which in turn absorb the sound waves ' energy as heat . The possibility for ultrasound 's use for contraception is based on the idea that briefly heating the testes can halt sperm production , leading to temporary infertility for about six months . Additionally , ultrasound could affect cells ' absorption rates of ions , which itself could create an environment unfavorable to spermatogenesis . Its extremely localized effects on animal tissues make ultrasound an attractive candidate for research , but so far studies have only been performed on non-human animals , such as dogs .

negative: Microplasma A microplasma is a plasma of small dimensions , ranging from tens to thousands of micrometers . Microplasmas can be generated at a variety of temperatures and pressures , existing as either thermal or non-thermal plasmas . Non-thermal microplasmas that can maintain their state at standard temperatures and pressures are readily available and accessible to scientists as they can be easily sustained and manipulated under standard conditions . Therefore , they can be employed for commercial , industrial , and medical applications , giving rise to the evolving field of microplasmas .

negative: Hypercapnia Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs .   Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome .   Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .

negative: CERINA-Plan CERINA Plan is the abbreviation for `` CO2 Emissions and Renewable Investment Action Plan '' . It is a CO2 reduction concept developed by the German renewable energy institute IWR . The CERINA Plan proposes a technical investment approach linking a country 's CO2 emissions to its investment in renewable energy technology . Therefore , it is an alternative model to approaches like the Kyoto idea of mere cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . The model is meant to be flexible and to adapt to the special national circumstances of each country .

negative: Archaeoglobus profundus Archaeoglobus profundus is a sulphate-reducing archaea . Archaeoglobus can be found in high-temperature oil fields where it may contribute to oil field souring . A. profundus grows lithotrophically , and while it needs acetate and CO2 for biosynthesis it is heterotrophic .

negative: Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly .   Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. .  Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century .   Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .

negative: Heat detector A heat detector is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the convected thermal energy of a fire increases the temperature of a heat sensitive element . The thermal mass and conductivity of the element regulate the rate flow of heat into the element . All heat detectors have this thermal lag . Heat detectors have two main classifications of operation , `` rate-of-rise '' and `` fixed temperature '' . The Heat detector is used to help in the reduction of damaged property . It is triggered when temperature increases .

negative: Polar High The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex .   Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' .   Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .


query: Postma's model contains many simple errors; in no way does Postma undermine the existence or necessity of the greenhouse effect.

positive: Occam's razor Occam 's razor ( also Ockham 's razor ; Latin : lex parsimoniae `` law of parsimony '' ) is a problem-solving principle attributed to William of Ockham ( c. 1287 -- 1347 ) , who was an English Franciscan friar , scholastic philosopher , and theologian . His principle can be interpreted as stating Among competing hypotheses , the one with the fewest assumptions should be selected .   In science , Occam 's razor is used as a heuristic guide in the development of theoretical models , rather than as a rigorous arbiter between candidate models . In the scientific method , Occam 's razor is not considered an irrefutable principle of logic or a scientific result ; the preference for simplicity in the scientific method is based on the falsifiability criterion . For each accepted explanation of a phenomenon , there may be an extremely large , perhaps even incomprehensible , number of possible and more complex alternatives , because one can always burden failing explanations with ad hoc hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified ; therefore , simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they are more testable .

positive: Population genetics Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations , and is a part of evolutionary biology . Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation , speciation , and population structure .   Population genetics was a vital ingredient in the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis . Its primary founders were Sewall Wright , J. B. S. Haldane and Ronald Fisher , who also laid the foundations for the related discipline of quantitative genetics . Traditionally a highly mathematical discipline , modern population genetics encompasses theoretical , lab , and field work . Population genetic models are used both for statistical inference from DNA sequence data and for proof/disproof of concept .   What sets population genetics apart today from newer , more phenotypic approaches to modelling evolution , such as evolutionary game theory and adaptive dynamics , is its emphasis on genetic phenomena as dominance , epistasis , and the degree to which genetic recombination breaks up linkage disequilibrium . This makes it appropriate for comparison to population genomics data .

negative: Postma Postma is a surname of Frisian origin . In 2007 there were 12,395 people in the Netherlands with the surname , most concentrated in the province of Friesland . The form Postema ( 2,069 people ) is more common in the neighboring province of Groningen . The surname 's origin may be in `` posthumous '' ( a child born after the death of his father ) , occupational ( mailman , guard ) or toponymic ( from an outpost , etc. ) . People with the name include :   Angela Postma ( born 1971 ) , Dutch freestyle swimmer  Anni Friesinger-Postma ( born 1977 ) , German world-champion speed skater , married to Ids Postma  Antoon Postma ( 1929 -- 2016 ) , Dutch anthropologist living among the Hanunó ' o tribe in the Philippines  ( born 1951 ) , Dutch pathophysiologist  Erik Postma ( 1953-2002 ) , Dutch mayor  Gerriet Postma ( 1932 -- 2009 ) , Dutch painter  Herman Postma ( 1933-2004 ) , American scientist and educator  Ids Postma ( born 1973 ) , Dutch world-champion speed skater , married to Anni Friesinger  ( 1895-1944 ) , Dutch Communist politician  ( born 1983 ) , Dutch ice hockey player  Mariska Kramer-Postma ( born 1974 ) , Dutch triathlete  Martine Postma -RSB- ( born 1970 ) , Dutch founder of Repair Café  ( 1868-1963 ) , Dutch West-Frisian poet  Paul Postma ( born 1989 ) , Canadian ice hockey player  Pieter-Jan Postma ( born 1982 ) , Dutch Olympic sailor  Stefan Postma ( born 1976 ) , Dutch footballer  Tineke Postma ( born 1978 ) , Dutch saxophonist  Willy Postma ( born 1932 ) , Dutch track-and-field athlete  Postema  ( 1919 -- 2013 ) , Dutch author  ( born 1932 ) , Dutch television reporter and presenter  Pam Postema ( born 1954 ) , American baseball umpire

negative: Stefan Postma Stefan Postma ( born 6 October 1976 ) is a Dutch former footballer who played as a goalkeeper . He is currently a goalkeeping coach at his last club , AGOVV Apeldoorn .

negative: Gerriet Postma Gerriet Postma ( 30 October 1932 -- 27 February 2009 ) was a Dutch painter .   Postma was born in Twijzelerheide , Friesland , the Netherlands . He was a vehement man who painted bold paintings , with explosions of paint and abstract knots of color , with a distant figurative strain running through it .   His last large-scale work comprised four panels , painted on the four main sails of the traditional and historic cargo barge `` Klipper Anna '' . The painting is two-sided and is about 270 m2 in area . The 106-year-old ship was provided by its owners , Gijs en Inge van Hesteren from Harlingen , Friesland , the Netherlands . All summer long in 2004 , the painting could be seen everywhere around the Dutch Wadden Sea .   By 2009 Postma had become the best-known Frisian painter . His work is on display in galleries of Paris , Brussels and Barcelona .   Postma died in Groningen on 27 February 2009 .

negative: Tineke Postma Tineke Postma ( Heerenveen , August 31 , 1978 ) is a Dutch saxophonist .

negative: Antoon Postma Antoon Postma ( 28 March 1929 -- 22 October 2016 ) was a Dutch anthropologist who married into and lived among the Hanunuo , a Mangyan sub-tribe in southeastern Mindoro , Philippines . He is best known for being the first to decipher the Laguna Copperplate Inscription , and for documenting the Hanunó ' o script , paving the way for its preservation .

negative: Pieter-Jan Postma Pieter-Jan Postma ( born 10 January 1982 in Heerenveen ) is a sailor from the Netherlands , who represented his country for the first time at the Sailing at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Qingdao . There he took the 14th place in the Finn . Postma second Olympic appearance was during the 2012 Olympics in Weymouth . In this competition Postma took het 4th place , again in the Finn .

negative: Ids Postma Ids Hylke Postma ( born 28 December 1973 ) is a Dutch former speed skater . He is an Olympic gold medalist and former world champion .   In 1993 Postma finished 2nd at the Speedskating World Championships for Juniors . In his first year as senior skater , he became Dutch Allround Champion , finished second behind Johann Olav Koss at the World Allround Championships , and came 4th in the European Championships , but nevertheless did not qualify for the Dutch Olympic team . In 1997 Postma won both the European Allround Championships and the World Allround Championships .   His greatest success came in 1998 when he became World Allround Champion again , also setting a world record in the point-sum combination , and won two Olympic medals at the Olympic Games in Nagano . He won the 1,000 meters event and placed second at his specialty , the 1,500 meters , just behind Ådne Søndrål from Norway . Also in 1998 , he was the first skater who skated an official world record on the 1,500 meters below 1:50.00 : Postma did this in Berlin . Erben Wennemars had done the same the summer before , but that time was not ratified by the International Skating Union . Postma 's record did not last long , because a few hours later Kevin Overland skated to a new record in Calgary .   Postma is also a three-time World Champion in the World Single Distance Championships . He won the 5,000 meters in 1996 and the 1,500 meters in 1999 and 2000 .   In October 2004 Postma announced his retirement and nowadays he lives on his farm in Deersum . He married German speed skater Anni Friesinger on 11 August 2009 in Salzburg . The couple will not live together on the farm until renovations are complete . In August 2011 , she gave birth to a daughter . He previously had a relationship with Renske Vellinga , until she died in a car crash in 1994 .

negative: Angela Postma Angela Postma ( born August 6 , 1971 ) is a former freestyle swimmer from the Netherlands , who won the gold medal in the 50 m butterfly at the European Sprint Swimming Championships 1994 in Stavanger , Norway . At the same tournament the sprinter , coached by Henk Tempelman , also captured a silver medal ( 50 m freestyle ) and a bronze medal ( 4 × 50 m freestyle relay ) . Postma competed at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , Georgia , where she finished in tenth position in the 50 m freestyle .

negative: Paul Postma Paul Edward Postma ( born February 22 , 1989 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing for the Winnipeg Jets of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was drafted 205th overall in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft by the Atlanta Thrashers . During his major junior career with the Swift Current Broncos and Calgary Hitmen of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) Postma won the WHL Plus-Minus Award and was a WHL East First Team All-Star in 2009 .

negative: Erik Postma Erik Postma ( 15 December 1953 , Rotterdam - 25 September 2002 , Middenbeemster ) was a Dutch politician of the Democrats 66 party .   In 1992 he was elected as city manager ( gemeentesecretaris ) of Budel . After the municipal reorganization of North Brabant on January 1 , 1997 , Budel was incorporated along with the municipality Maarheeze in the new municipality Cranendonck , and Postma was made city manager .   In April 1998 Postma was appointed mayor of the northern Dutch municipality of Beemster . During his mayoral term , he died suddenly of cardiac arrest in September 2002 . He was succeeded in his position by Harry Brinkman .   Category :1953 births  Category :2002 deaths  Category : Democrats 66 politicians  Category : Mayors of places in the Netherlands  Category : People from Beemster  Category : People from Rotterdam

negative: Friesinger Friesinger may refer to :   People  Janina Urszula Friesinger , née Korowicka , ( born 1954 ) , a former ice speed skater from Poland  Anni Friesinger-Postma ( born 1977 , Bad Reichenhall ) , a German female speed skater , daughter of the above   Companies  Friesinger 's Candies , an Ohio based confectionery company   Category : German-language surnames

negative: The Witch's Garden The Witch 's Garden is a children 's picture book written and illustrated by Lidia Postma . It was first published in the Netherlands in 1978 under the title De Heksentuin , and was distributed in the United States by McGraw-Hill the following year .

negative: Katrin Mattscherodt Katrin Mattscherodt ( born 26 October 1981 ) is a German long track speed skater who participates in international competitions . In the team pursuit final against Japan at the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics , she was a replacement for Anni Friesinger-Postma in the final ( after Friesinger-Postma had problems finishing in the semifinal ) , and won a gold medal as part of the German team .

negative: Anni Friesinger-Postma Anna ( `` Anni '' ) Christine Friesinger-Postma ( born 11 January 1977 ) is a German former speed skater . Her father Georg Friesinger , of Germany , and mother Janina ( `` Jana '' ) Korowicka , of Poland , were both skaters ; Jana was on the Polish team at the 1976 Winter Olympics . Her brother Jan is also a speed skater . Her sister Agnes is a former speed skater . In July 2010 , Friesinger retired from her active sports career when she had to be treated for severe cartilage damage in her right knee joint .   On 11 August 2009 Friesinger married former Dutch skater Ids Postma , her long-term boyfriend , at Schloss Mirabell . The celebration took place at Schloss Aigen . As of November 2013 , Friesinger lives in Salzburg , Austria , and is planning to move to the Netherlands to live with Postma on his farm in Dearsum . In August 2011 she gave birth to a daughter . In May 2014 , her second daughter was born .

negative: Cover Story (2011 film) Cover Story is an Hindi thriller film directed by Laurence Postma starring Anjum Nayar and Jackie Shroff . It is the second official remake of the acclaimed Dutch film Interview , directed by Theo Van Gogh in 2003 , the first being Interview by Steve Buscemi in 2007 .

negative: 1998 World Allround Speed Skating Championships The 1998 World Allround Speed Skating Championships were held on 13 -- 15 March 1998 in the Thialf stadium in Heerenveen , Netherlands .   Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann and Ids Postma were the world title holders from the previous year and successfully defended their titles . It was Niemann-Stirnemann 's seventh all-round world title .

negative: Willy Lust Wilhelmina Maria `` Willy '' Lust ( later Postma , born 19 June 1932 ) is a retired Dutch track-and-field athlete . She won a silver medal in the long jump at the 1950 European Athletics Championships . Two years later she competed at the 1952 Summer Olympics , in the 80 m hurdles , long jump and 4 × 100 m relay ; she finished in fifth place in the long jump and in sixth place in the relay . She was also successful in the pentathlon , holding national records and winning two national titles in 1950 and 1951 . In 1954 , together with her husband Jan Postma she immigrated to Australia and retired from competitions . She has a daughter , Ingrid Postma .

negative: Johnny Fourie Jan Carel Fourie ( 1937 -- 2007 ) was a South African Jazz guitarist born in Postmas in the Northern Cape province .

negative: Janina Korowicka Janina Urszula Korowicka ( born 14 April 1954 ) is a former Polish speed skater , who represented her native country at the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck , Austria . She is the mother of the German champion speed skater Anni Friesinger-Postma .

negative: Overjustification effect The overjustification effect occurs when an expected external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person 's intrinsic motivation to perform a task . The overall effect of offering a reward for a previously unrewarded activity is a shift to extrinsic motivation and the undermining of pre-existing intrinsic motivation . Once rewards are no longer offered , interest in the activity is lost ; prior intrinsic motivation does not return , and extrinsic rewards must be continuously offered as motivation to sustain the activity .

negative: Computationally bounded adversary In information theory , the computationally bounded adversary problem is a different way of looking at the problem of sending data over a noisy channel . In previous models the best that could be done was ensuring correct decoding for up to d/2 errors , where d was the Hamming distance of the code . The problem with doing it this way is that it does not take into consideration the actual amount of computing power available to the adversary . Rather , it only concerns itself with how many bits of a given code word can change and still have the message decode properly . In the computationally bounded adversary model the channel -- the adversary -- is restricted to only being able to perform a reasonable amount of computation to decide which bits of the code word need to change . In other words , this model does not need to consider how many errors can possibly be handled , but only how many errors could possibly be introduced given a reasonable amount of computing power on the part of the adversary . Once the channel has been given this restriction it becomes possible to construct codes that are both faster to encode and decode compared to previous methods that can also handle a large number of errors .

negative: Tom Prinsen Tom Prinsen ( born September 11 , 1982 in Hengelo ) is a Dutch long track speedskater specialised in the longer distances . In 2003 he became Dutch neo junior champion . By beating Postma , Romme and Ritsma in a skateoff , he qualified himself for the World Championship of 2004 in Hamar , Norway . He ended in sixth place .

negative: Toy train A toy train is a toy that represents a train . It is distinguished from a model train by an emphasis on low cost and durability , rather than scale modeling . A toy train can be as simple as a pull toy that does not even run on track , or it might be operated by clockwork or a battery . By the way , many of today 's model trains might be signed as toy ones as well , providing they are not strictly scale ones in favor of a robustness appropriate for children or a reasonable manufacturing .

negative: Metaphysical necessity In philosophy , metaphysical necessity , sometimes called broad logical necessity , is one of many different kinds of necessity , which sits between logical necessity and nomological ( or physical ) necessity , in the sense that logical necessity entails metaphysical necessity , but not vice versa , and metaphysical necessity entails physical necessity , but not vice versa . A proposition is said to be necessary if it could not have failed to be the case . Nomological necessity is necessity according to the laws of physics and logical necessity is necessity according to the laws of logic , while metaphysical necessities are necessary in the sense that the world could not possibly have been otherwise . What facts are metaphysically necessary , and on what basis we might view certain facts as metaphysically but not logically necessary are subjects of substantial discussion in contemporary philosophy .   The concept of a metaphysically necessary being plays an important role in certain arguments for the existence of God , especially the ontological argument , but metaphysical necessity is also one of the central concepts in late 20th century analytic philosophy . Metaphysical necessity has proved a controversial concept , and criticized by David Hume , Immanuel Kant , J. L. Mackie , and Richard Swinburne , among others .   Metaphysical necessity is contrasted with other types of necessity . For example , the philosophers of religion John Hick and William L. Rowe distinguished the following three :  factual necessity ( existential necessity ) : a factually necessary being is not causally dependent on any other being , while any other being is causally dependent on it .  causal necessity ( subsumed by Hicks under the former type ) : a causally necessary being is such that it is logically impossible for it to be causally dependent on any other being , and it is logically impossible for any other being to be causally independent of it .  logical necessity : a logically necessary being is a being whose non-existence is a logical impossibility , and which therefore exists either timeless or eternally in all possible worlds .  While many theologians ( e.g. Anselm of Canterbury , René Descartes , and Gottfried Leibniz ) considered God as logically or metaphysically necessary being , Richard Swinburne argued for factual necessity , and Alvin Plantinga argues that God is a causally necessary being . Because a factually or causally necessary being does not exist by logical necessity , it does not exist in all logically possible worlds . Therefore , Swinburne used the term `` ultimate brute fact '' for the existence of God .

negative: Threshold model In mathematical or statistical modelling a threshold model is any model where a threshold value , or set of threshold values , is used to distinguish ranges of values where the behaviour predicted by the model varies in some important way . A particularly important instance arises in toxicology , where the model for the effect of a drug may be that there is zero effect for a dose below a critical or threshold value , while an effect of some significance exists above that value . Certain types of regression model may include threshold effects .   Classic threshold models were developed by Schelling , Axelrod , and Granovetter to model collective behavior . Schelling attempted to model the dynamics of segregation motivated by individual interactions in America ( Schelling , 1971 ) by constructing two simulation models . Schelling demonstrated that `` there is no simple correspondence of individual incentive to collective results , '' and that the dynamics of movement influenced patterns of segregation . In doing so Schelling highlighted the significance of `` a general theory of ` tipping ''' .   Mark Granovetter , following Schelling , proposed the threshold model ( Granovetter & Soong , 1983 , 1986 , 1988 ) , which assumes that individuals ' behavior depends on the number of other individuals already engaging in that behavior ( both Schelling and Granovetter classify their term of `` threshold '' as behavioral threshold . ) . He used the threshold model to explain the riot , residential segregation , and the spiral of silence . In the spirit of Granovetter 's threshold model , the `` threshold '' is `` the number or proportion of others who must make one decision before a given actor does so '' .  It is necessary to emphasize the determinants of threshold . A threshold is different for individuals , and it may be influenced by many factors : social economic status , education , age , personality , etc. . Further , Granovetter relates `` threshold '' with utility one gets from participating collective behavior or not , using the utility function , each individual will calculate his cost and benefit from undertaking an action . And situation may change the cost and benefit of the behavior , so threshold is situation-specific .  The distribution of the thresholds determines the outcome of the aggregate behavior ( for example , public opinion ) .

negative: Interview (2003 film) Interview is a 2003 Dutch drama film , directed by Theo van Gogh , starring Katja Schuurman and Pierre Bokma . The film is about a war correspondent having an interview with a soap opera actress .   Katja Schuurman was nominated for a Golden Calf for Best Actress at the 2003 Netherlands Film Festival .   Steve Buscemi 's remake of the same name premiered in 2007 .   Laurence Postma 's Hindi remake Cover Story was released in August 2011 .

negative: 1997 World Allround Speed Skating Championships The 1997 World Allround Speed Skating Championships were held on 14 -- 16 February 1997 in the M-Wave stadium in Nagano , Japan .   Title defenders were the 1996 world champions Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann from Germany and Rintje Ritsma from the Netherlands .   Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann from Germany and Ids Postma from the Netherlands became world champions .

negative: ATHEANA A Technique for Human Event Analysis ( ATHEANA ) is a technique used in the field of human reliability assessment ( HRA ) . The purpose of ATHEANA is to evaluate the probability of human error while performing a specific task . From such analyses , preventative measures can then be taken to reduce human errors within a system and therefore lead to improvements in the overall level of safety .   There exist three primary reasons for conducting a HRA ; error identification , error quantification and error reduction . As there exist a number of techniques used for such purposes , they can be split into one of two classifications ; first generation techniques and second generation techniques .   First generation techniques work on the basis of the simple dichotomy of ` fits/doesn ' t fit ' in the matching of the error situation in context with related error identification and quantification and second generation techniques are more theory based in their assessment and quantification of errors . ` HRA techniques have been utilised in a range of industries including healthcare , engineering , nuclear , transportation and business sector ; each technique has varying uses within different disciplines .   ATHEANA is used following the occurrence of an incident . The various drivers of an incident and the possible outcomes are categorised into one of the following groupings : organisational influences ; performance shaping factors ; error mechanisms ; unsafe actions ; human failure event ; unacceptable outcome ( s ) . The resultant model may indicate solutions to improve reliability , however there are no numerical aspects involved in the methodology used to construct the model . Due to this characteristic , the technique is thus not considered to be suitable for use in certain fields such as comparative design work or sensitivity analysis . The methodology of ATHEANA is not predictive but does serve as a diagnostic modelling tool . Furthermore , its lack of Human Error Probability ( HEP ) as an output is a marked difference of the method compared to first generation HRA methodologies . The outcome provided by ATHEANA identifies various human actions within a system while also eliciting many contextual situations within this system , which influence whether the action will be carried out successfully or will lead to failure .

negative: Postmasburg Postmasburg is a town in the Northern Cape province of South Africa , located approximately 170 km east of Upington .   Town 67 km north of Griquatown and 58 km west-south-west of Daniëlskuil . Originally a station of the London Missionary Society called Sibiling , it became a Griqua village with the name Blinkklip . It was proclaimed a town on 6 June 1892 and named after the Reverend Dirk Postma ( 1818-1890 ) , founder of the Reformed Church .   The town achieved municipal status in 1936 .   The South African Army 's Combat Training Centre is located nearby , at Lohatla

negative: 1999 World Allround Speed Skating Championships The 1999 World Allround Speed Skating Championships was held on 6 -- 7 February 1999 in the Vikingskipet arena in Hamar , Norway .   It was the first tournament with 24 participants .   Title defenders were the 1998 world champions Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann from Germany and Ids Postma from the Netherlands .   Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann from Germany and Rintje Ritsma from the Netherlands became world champions .

negative: Klaas Bruinsma (translator) Klaas Bruinsma ( born 1931 , Easterein ) is a West Frisian language translator of historical works from Dutch , Spanish and Greek , among others .   He has translated the works Karel ende Elegast and Beatrijs . In 1993 he was awarded the Obe Postma prize for his translation from Greek of the tragedies of Sophocles . In 2005 he obtained this prize for the second time for his translation of Virgil 's Georgics and especially for his translations of the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer .   Until his retirement , Bruinsma was a lecturer of English and history at the Ichthus College in Drachten , amongst others .

negative: NER model The NER model is one of a number of methods for determining the accuracy of live subtitles in television broadcasts and events that are produced using speech recognition . The three letters stand for number , edition error and recognition error . It is an alternative to the WER model ( Word Error Rate ) used in several countries .   The model contains a formula to determine the quality of live subtitles : a NER value of 100 indicates that the content was subtitled entirely correctly . This overall score is calculated as follows : Firstly , the number of edit and recognition errors is deducted from the total number of words in the live subtitles . This number is then divided by the total number of words in the live subtitles and finally multiplied by one hundred .   .   The acronyms stand for the following :  N ( number ) = total number of words in the live subtitles  E ( Edition error ) = edition error  R ( Recognition error ) = recognition error   This measurement process is already used for public television broadcasts in several European countries like Italy and Switzerland . Other countries and authorities like British Ofcom have already expressed an interest .   By way of contrast , the WER model is static , since it simply measures the textual discrepancy between that which was written and spoken .