query: Over the three years from 1979 to 1982 when CO2 emissions were decreasing due to the rapid increase in the price of oil that drastically reduced consumption, there was no change in the rate of increase in atmospheric concentration of CO2 proving that humans were not the primary source for the increase in concentration.'

positive: Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas .   As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product .   Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas .   It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting .   Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .

positive: Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect .   Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture .   It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .

positive: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years .   Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds .   The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .

positive: Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.  Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.

positive: World energy consumption World energy consumption is the total energy used by the entire human civilization . Typically measured per year , it involves all energy harnessed from every energy source applied towards humanity 's endeavours across every single industrial and technological sector , across every country . It does not include energy from food , and the extent to which direct biomass burning has been accounted for is poorly documented . Being the power source metric of civilization , World Energy Consumption has deep implications for humanity 's socio-economic-political sphere .   Institutions such as the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) , the U.S. Energy Information Administration ( EIA ) , and the European Environment Agency record and publish energy data periodically . Improved data and understanding of World Energy Consumption may reveal systemic trends and patterns , which could help frame current energy issues and encourage movement towards collectively useful solutions .   Closely related to energy consumption is the concept of total primary energy supply ( TPES ) , which - on a global level - is the sum of energy production minus storage changes . Since changes of energy storage over the year are minor , TPES values can be used as an estimator for energy consumption . However , TPES ignores conversion efficiency , overstating forms of energy with poor conversion efficiency ( e.g. coal , gas and nuclear ) and understating forms already accounted for in converted forms ( e.g. photovoltaic or hydroelectricity ) . The IEA estimates that , in 2013 , total primary energy supply ( TPES ) was 1.575 × 1017 Wh ( = 157.5 PWh , 5.67 × 1020 joules , or 13,541 Mtoe ) . From 2000 -- 2012 coal was the source of energy with the largest growth . The use of oil and natural gas also had considerable growth , followed by hydropower and renewable energy . Renewable energy grew at a rate faster than any other time in history during this period . The demand for nuclear energy decreased , in part due to nuclear disasters ( e.g. Three Mile Island 1979 , Chernobyl 1986 , and Fukushima 2011 ) .   In 2011 , expenditures on energy totalled over 6 trillion USD , or about 10 % of the world gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Europe spends close to one-quarter of the world 's energy expenditures , North America close to 20 % , and Japan 6 % .

negative: Low-carbon emission The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change .   The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle :   The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score .  There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles .   CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .

negative: IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) .   The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established .   Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums  Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths  Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies   Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports .   The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes :   We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it .  We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ...  Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade .  There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets .  Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more .  under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .

negative: Carbon dioxide flooding Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil .   When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs .  By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well .   As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased .   In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone .   CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .

negative: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 .   At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .

negative: Compensation point The ( light ) compensation point is the amount of light intensity on the light curve where the rate of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of respiration . At this point , the uptake of CO2 through photosynthetic pathways is exactly matched to the respiratory release of carbon dioxide , and the uptake of O2 by respiration is exactly matched to the photosynthetic release of oxygen .   In assimilation terms , at compensation point , the net carbon dioxide assimilation is zero . Leaves release CO2 by photorespiration and day respiration , but CO2 is also converted into carbohydrate by photosynthesis . Assimilation is therefore the difference in the rate of these processes . At a normal partial pressure of CO2 ( 0.343 hPa in 1980 ) , there is an irradiation at which the net assimilation of CO2 is zero . For instance , in the early morning and late evenings , the compensation point may be reached as photosynthetic activity decreases and respiration increases . Therefore , the partial pressure of CO2 at the compensation point , also known as gamma , is a function of irradiation . The irradiation dependence of the compensation point is explained by the RuBP ( ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ) concentration . When the acceptor RuBP is in saturated concentration , gamma is independent of irradiation . However at low irradiation , only a small fraction of the sites on RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase enzyme ( Rubisco ) have the electron acceptor RuBP . This decreases the photosynthetic activity and therefore affects gamma . The intracellular concentration of CO2 affects the rates of photosynthesis and photo respiration . At higher carbon dioxide concentrations , the photosynthesis rate is higher , while at low CO2 concentrations , photo respiration is higher .

negative: Soil respiration Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna .   Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration .   The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures .   Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth .   Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .

negative: Climate change mitigation scenarios Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases .   An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .

negative: Mesopause The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . )   Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation .   In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .

negative: Cap carbonate Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record .   The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation .   High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting .   Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain .   This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock .   A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .

negative: Estuarine acidification Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation :   CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +

negative: Respiratory acidosis Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) .   Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.

negative: Fink effect The Fink effect , also known as `` diffusion anoxia '' , `` diffusion hypoxia '' ,  or the `` third gas effect '' ,  is a factor that influences the pO2 ( partial pressure of oxygen ) within the alveolus . When soluble gases ( e.g. nitrous oxide , N2O ) are breathed in large quantities they can be dissolved in body fluids rapidly . This can lead to a temporary increase in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolus , causing an increase in their respective partial pressures .   The effect is named for Bernard Raymond Fink ( 1914 -- 2000 ) , whose 1955 paper first explained it .  When a patient is recovering from N2O anaesthesia , large quantities of this gas cross from the blood into the alveolus ( down its concentration gradient ) and so for a short period of time , the O2 and CO2 in the alveolus are diluted by this gas . This could cause the partial pressure of oxygen to decrease and could temporarily lead to hypoxia . The decrease in CO2 could also potentiate this effect as ventilation would be suppressed , leading to potential hypoxaemia . Nonetheless , this effect would only last a couple of minutes and hypoxia can be avoided by increasing the fractional inspired oxygen concentration when recovering from N2O anaesthesia .

negative: 350.org 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .

negative: Sustainable Silicon Valley Sustainable Silicon Valley ( SSV ) is a collaboration of businesses , governments , and non-governmental organizations that are identifying and addressing environmental and resource pressures in Silicon Valley . As its first initiative , SSV engaged Valley organizations , who are the SSV Partners , to work towards a goal of reducing regional carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions 20 % below 1990 levels by 2010 . The SSV approach to reaching this goal is to facilitate strategies to reduce CO2 emissions through increased energy and fuel efficiency and through the use of renewable sources of energy .

negative: Disinflation Disinflation is a decrease in the rate of inflation -- a slowdown in the rate of increase of the general price level of goods and services in a nation 's gross domestic product over time . It is the opposite of reflation . Disinflation occurs when the increase in the `` consumer price level '' slows down from the previous period when the prices were rising .   If the inflation rate is not very high to start with , disinflation can lead to deflation -- decreases in the general price level of goods and services . For example , if the annual inflation rate for the month of January is 5 % and it is 4 % in the month of February , the prices disinflated by 1 % but are still increasing at a 4 % annual rate . Again if the current rate is 1 % and it is -- 2 % for the following month , prices disinflated by 3 % i.e. -LSB- 1 % -- ( -2 ) % -RSB- and are decreasing at a 2 % annual rate .

negative: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial .   According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) .   In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date .   The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . ''   According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .

negative: Electricity sector in Italy The electricity sector in Italy describes the production , sale , and use of electrical power in Italy . The country 's total electricity consumption was 297.3 TWh in 2013 , of which 278.8 TWh ( 93.7 % ) was produced domestically ( the remaining 6.3 % was imported ) .   According to its national energy plan , Italy plans to increase renewable power generation from all renewable sources to 26 % of all electricity produced by 2020 , covering 17 % of its total energy consumption . In 2014 , 38.2 % of the national electric energy consumption came from renewable sources ( in 2005 this value was 15.4 % ) , covering 16.2 % of the total energy consumption of the country ( 5.3 % in 2005 ) . Solar energy production alone accounted for almost 9 % of the total electric consumption in the country in 2014 , making Italy the country with the highest contribution from solar energy in the world .   Italy has abandoned nuclear power following a referendum in the wake of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster , and nuclear power in Italy has never been greater than a few percent of total power generation .   Italy has a high share of electricity in the total final energy consumption . The share of primary energy dedicated to electricity production is above 35 % , and grew steadily since the 1970s .   Emissions of carbon dioxide per capita in 2007 were 7.4 tons , below the EU27 average of 7.9 tons CO2 . Emission change 1990/2007 was 10 % increase .

negative: List of terms of lung size and activity Following are terms that specify a type of lung size and/or activity . More specific definitions may be found in individual articles .  Eupnea - normal breathing  Apnea - absence of breathing  Bradypnea - decreased breathing rate  Dyspnea or shortness of breath - sensation of respiratory distress  Hyperaeration/Hyperinflation - increased lung volume  Hyperpnea - fast and deep breathing  Hyperventilation - increased breathing that causes CO2 loss  Hypopnea - slow and shallow breathing  Hypoventilation - decreased breathing that causes CO2 gain  Labored breathing - physical presentation of respiratory distress  Tachypnea - increased breathing rate  Orthopnea - Breathlessness in lying down position relieved by sitting up or standing  Platypnea - Breathlessness when seated or standing , relieved by lying flat  Trepopnea - Breathlessness when lying flat relieved by lying in a lateral position  Ponopnea - Painful breathing

negative: Sustainable tourism Sustainable tourism is the concept of visiting a place as a tourist and trying to make only a positive impact on the environment , society and economy . Tourism can involve primary transportation to the general location , local transportation , accommodations , entertainment , recreation , nourishment and shopping . It can be related to travel for leisure , business and what is called VFR ( visiting friends and relatives ) . There is now broad consensus that tourism development should be sustainable ; however , the question of how to achieve this remains an object of debate .   Without travel there is no tourism , so the concept of sustainable tourism is tightly linked to a concept of sustainable mobility . Two relevant considerations are tourism 's reliance on fossil fuels and tourism 's effect on climate change . 72 percent of tourism 's CO2 emissions come from transportation , 24 percent from accommodations , and 4 percent from local activities . Aviation accounts for 55 % of those transportation CO2 emissions ( or 40 % of tourism 's total ) . However , when considering the impact of all greenhouse gas emissions from tourism and that aviation emissions are made at high altitude where their effect on climate is amplified , aviation alone accounts for 75 % of tourism 's climate impact .   The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) considers an annual increase in aviation fuel efficiency of 2 percent per year through 2050 to be realistic . However , both Airbus and Boeing expect the passenger-kilometers of air transport to increase by about 5 percent yearly through at least 2020 , overwhelming any efficiency gains . By 2050 , with other economic sectors having greatly reduced their CO2 emissions , tourism is likely to be generating 40 percent of global carbon emissions . The main cause is an increase in the average distance travelled by tourists , which for many years has been increasing at a faster rate than the number of trips taken . `` Sustainable transportation is now established as the critical issue confronting a global tourism industry that is palpably unsustainable , and aviation lies at the heart of this issue ( Gossling et al. , 2010 ) . ''

negative: Wind-assisted propulsion Wind assisted propulsion is the practice of decreasing the fuel consumption of a merchant vessel through the use of sails or some other wind capture device . Sails used to be the primary means of propelling ships , but with the advent of the steam engine and the diesel engine , sails came to be used for recreational sailing only . In recent years with increasing fuel costs and an increased focus on reducing emissions , there has been increased interest in harnessing the power of the wind to propel commercial ships .

negative: Environmental impact of aviation The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere .   Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 .   Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less .   There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .

negative: Keith E. Idso Keith E. Idso is a botanist and vice president of the Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change . He is the brother of Craig D. Idso and son of Sherwood B. Idso . He received his B.S. in Agriculture with a major in Plant Sciences from the University of Arizona and his M.S. from the same institution with a major in Agronomy and Plant Genetics . He completed his Ph.D. in Botany at Arizona State University . In 1994 , Idso , along with his father , published a review paper on the topic of increased CO2 levels and their effects on plant growth . The paper concluded that not only did other factors not diminish the ability of CO2 to increase plant growth rates , that `` the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe . '' As of 1999 , he was teaching biology in the Maricopa County Community College District as an adjunct professor , a post to which he was appointed in 1996 .   In 1998 , Idso spoke at the Doctors for Disaster Preparedness ' annual meeting in Scottsdale , Arizona . His talk was entitled `` Direct Biological Effects of Increasing Levels of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide . '' In 1999 , Idso was appointed by the Arizona Speaker of the House of Representatives to serve on the Arizona Advisory Council on Environmental Education .

negative: Lysocline The lysocline is the depth in the ocean below which the rate of dissolution of calcite increases dramatically .   Shallow marine waters are generally supersaturated in calcite , CaCO3 , so as marine organisms ( which often have shells made of calcite or its polymorph , aragonite ) die , they will tend to fall downwards without dissolving . As depth and pressure increases within the water column , the corresponding calcite saturation of seawater decreases and the shells start to dissolve . The reaction involved , though more complex , can be thought of as : CaCO3 ( s ) + H2O + CO2 → Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 − ( aq ) . At the lysocline , the rate of dissolution increases dramatically . Below this , there exists a depth known as the carbonate compensation depth ( CCD ) below which the rate of supply of calcite equals the rate of dissolution , such that no calcite is deposited . This depth is the equivalent of a marine snow-line , and averages about 4,500 meters below sea level . Hence , the lysocline and CCD are not equivalent . The lysocline and compensation depth occur at greater depths in the Atlantic ( 5000-6000 m ) than in the Pacific ( 4000 - 5000 m ) , and at greater depths in equatorial regions than in polar regions .   The depth of the CCD varies as a function of the chemical composition of the seawater and its temperature . Specifically , it is the deep waters that are undersaturated with calcium carbonate primarily because its solubility increases strongly with increasing pressure and salinity and decreasing temperature . Furthermore , it is not constant over time , having been globally much shallower in the Cretaceous through to Eocene . If the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide continues to increase , the CCD can be expected to rise , along with the ocean 's acidity .

negative: Limescale Limescale is the hard , off-white , chalky deposit found in kettles , hot-water boilers and the inside of inadequately maintained hot-water central heating systems .   It is also often found as a similar deposit on the inner surface of old pipe and other surfaces where `` hard water '' has evaporated . In addition to being unsightly and hard to clean , limescale seriously impairs the operation or damages various components .   The type found deposited on the heating elements of water heaters has a main component of calcium carbonate . Hard water contains calcium ( and often magnesium ) bicarbonate or similar ions . Calcium salts , such as calcium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate are both more soluble in hot water than cold water . Thus , heating water does not cause calcium carbonate to precipitate per se . However , there is an equilibrium between dissolved calcium bicarbonate and dissolved calcium carbonate :   Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − ⇋ Ca2 + + CO32 − + CO2 + H2O   where the equilibrium is driven by the carbonate/bicarbonate , not the calcium . Note that the CO2 is dissolved in the water .   There is also an equilibrium of carbon dioxide between dissolved in water ( dis ) and the gaseous state ( g ) :  CO2 ( dis ) ⇋ CO2 ( g )   The equilibrium of CO2 also moves to the right towards gaseous CO2 when the water temperature rises . When water that contains dissolved calcium carbonate is warmed , CO2 is removed from the water as gas causing the equilibrium of bicarbonate and carbonate to shift to the right , increasing the concentration of dissolved carbonate . As the concentration of carbonate increases , calcium carbonate precipitates as the salt : Ca2 + + CO32 − ⇋ CaCO3 .   As new cold water with dissolved calcium carbonate/bicarbonate is added and heated , CO2 gas is removed , carbonate concentration increases , and more calcium carbonate precipitates .   Descaling agents are used to remove scale . Prevention of scale build-up relies on the technologies of water softening .

negative: Cattle urine patches Urine patches in cattle pastures generate large concentrations of the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide through nitrification and denitrification processes in urine-contaminated soils . Over the past few decades , the cattle population has increased more rapidly than the human population . Between the years 2000 and 2050 , the cattle population is expected to increase from 1.5 billion to 2.6 billion . When large populations of cattle are packed into pastures , excessive amounts of urine soak into soils . This increases the rate at which nitrification and denitrification occur and produce nitrous oxide . Currently , nitrous oxide is one of the single most important ozone-depleting emissions and is expected to remain the largest throughout the 21st century .

negative: Ethanol from coal Ethanol from coal is the ethanol produced using coal as its carbon source . The anaerobic bacterium Clostridium ljungdahlii produces ethanol and acetic acid from CO , CO2 , and H2 in synthesis gas . Early studies with C. ljungdahlii showed that relatively high concentrations of ethanol were produced . This process involves three main steps :  Gasification : Thermal gasification at temperatures of up to 2,200 ° F in a reducing , very low oxygen atmosphere transforms organic materials into simple CO , CO2 and H2 gases .  Fermentation : The acetogenic C. ljungdahlii convert the carbon monoxide into ethanol .  Distillation : Ethanol is separated from hydrogen and water .

negative: Carbon price Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' .   Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain .   The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions .   The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .

negative: Air pollution in Germany Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % .   In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change .   The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics .   __ TOC __

negative: Ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean .   Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level .   While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins .   Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .

negative: Supply shock A supply shock is an event that suddenly increases or decreases the supply of a commodity or service , or of commodities and services in general . This sudden change affects the equilibrium price of the good or service or the economy 's general price level .   In the short run , an economy-wide negative supply shock will shift the aggregate supply curve leftward , decreasing the output and increasing the price level . For example , the imposition of an embargo on trade in oil would cause an adverse supply shock , since oil is a key factor of production for a wide variety of goods . A supply shock can cause stagflation due to a combination of rising prices and falling output .   In the short run , an economy-wide positive supply shock will shift the aggregate supply curve rightward , increasing output and decreasing the price level . A positive supply shock could be an advance in technology ( a technology shock ) which makes production more efficient , thus increasing output .

negative: Bohr effect The Bohr effect is a physiological phenomenon first described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian Bohr , stating that haemoglobin 's oxygen binding affinity ( see Oxygen -- haemoglobin dissociation curve ) is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide . Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid , an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH , resulting in hemoglobin proteins releasing their load of oxygen . Conversely , a decrease in carbon dioxide provokes an increase in pH , which results in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen .

negative: Concentration cell A concentration cell is a limited form of a galvanic cell that has two equivalent half-cells of the same composition differing only in concentrations . One can calculate the potential developed by such a cell using the Nernst Equation . A concentration cell produces a small voltage as it attempts to reach chemical equilibrium , which occurs when the concentration of reactant in both half-cells are equal . Because an order of magnitude concentration difference produces less than 60 millivolts at room temperature , concentration cells are not typically used for energy storage .   A concentration cell generates electricity from the reduction in the thermodynamic free energy of the electrochemical system as the difference in the chemical concentrations in the two half-cells is reduced . The same reaction occurs in the half-cells but in opposite directions , increasing the lower and decreasing the higher concentration . The energy is generated from thermal energy that the cell absorbs as heat , as the electricity flows . This generation of electricity from ambient thermal energy , without a temperature gradient , is possible because the convergence of the chemical concentrations in the two half-cells increases entropy , and this increase more than compensates for the entropy decrease when heat is converted into electrical energy .   Concentration cell methods of chemical analysis compare a solution of known concentration with an unknown , determining the concentration of the unknown via the Nernst Equation or comparison tables against a group of standards .   Concentration cell corrosion occurs when two or more areas of a metal surface are in contact with different concentrations of the same solution . There are three general types of concentration cells .