query: Sea level rise is not going to happen.

positive: Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly .   Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. .  Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century .   Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .

negative: James O'Brien (oceanographer) James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''

negative: Sea level Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location .   Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming .   The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .

negative: Marine transgression A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load .   During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean .   The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .

negative: Raised shoreline A raised shoreline is an ancient shoreline exposed above current water level . These landforms are formed by a relative change in sea level due to global sea level rise , isostatic rebound , and/or tectonic uplift . These surfaces are usually exposed above modern sea level when a heavily glaciated area experiences a glacial retreat , causing water levels to rise . This area will then experience post-glacial rebound , effectively  raising the shoreline surface .  Examples of raised shorelines can be found along the coasts of formerly glaciated areas in Ireland and Scotland , as well as in North America . Raised shorelines are exposed at various locations around the Puget Sound of Washington State .

negative: Ice2sea Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level .   The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' .   Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections .   The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .

negative: Climate inertia Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .

negative: Past sea level Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence .   Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago .   Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .

negative: Coastal management Coastal management is defense against flooding and erosion , and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands .   Coastal zones occupy less than 15 % of the Earth 's land area , while they host more than 40 % of the world population . Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 km of a shoreline and 100 m of sea level , with an average density nearly 3 times higher than the global average for population . With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025 , human activities originating from this small land area will impose heavy pressure on coasts . Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities .   In the European Union , almost half of the population lives within 50 kilometres of the sea and coastal resources produce much of the Union 's economic wealth . The fishing , shipping and tourism industries all compete for space along Europe 's estimated 89,000 km of coastline and coastal zones contain some of Europe 's most fragile and valuable natural habitats .   Protection against sea level rise in the 21st century will be especially important , as sea level rise accelerates . Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems . Coastal sediments are disturbed and suspended by wave and tide energy .

negative: Josh Willis Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .

negative: Economics of global warming The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge .   One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions .   The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial .   The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) .   One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples .   Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .

negative: Hundred-year wave A hundred-year wave is a statistically projected water wave , the height of which , on average , is met or exceeded once in a hundred years for a given location . The likelihood of this wave height being attained at least once in the hundred-year period is 63 % . As a projection of the most extreme wave which can be expected to occur in a given body of water , the hundred-year wave is a factor commonly taken into consideration by designers of oil platforms and other offshore structures . Periods of time other than a hundred years may also be taken into account , resulting in , for instance , a fifty-year wave .   Various methods are employed to predict the possible steepness and period of these waves , in addition to their height .

negative: Meltwater pulse 1A Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .

negative: Tide Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth .   The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible .   Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level .   While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts .   Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements .

negative: Climate change Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming .   Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .

negative: Clade (novel) Clade is a science fiction novel written by Mark Budz , published in 2003 . In Clade , an environmental disaster called the Ecocaust has caused sea levels to rise and causing additional strains on human resources . The government , in response , becomes more restrictive on human freedoms , and this novel explores what happens after the Ecocaust .

negative: Campbell Plateau The Campbell Plateau is a large oceanic plateau south of New Zealand and the Chatham Rise . It originated in the Gondwanan breakup and is part of Zealandia , a largely submerged continent . The above sea level parts of the plateau -- the Bounty Islands , Antipodes Islands , Auckland Islands and Campbell Island -- form part of the New Zealand Subantarctic Islands which were declared a World Heritage Site in 1998 .  Large parts of the Campbell Plateau lies less than 1000 m below sea level . It rises to 500 m at the Pukaki Rise and emerges above sea level at the Auckland and Campbell Islands .   Covering an area of 800000 km2 , the Campbell Plateau has a gently undulating bathymetry with major rises trending east-west : Campbell Island Rise , Pukaki Rise , and Bounty Island Ridge . There are two near-parallel rises on the western margin : Stewart Island -- Snare Island Rise and Auckland Island platform . The continental slopes are steep on western and southern margins while the northern margin slowly falls into the Bounty Trough .

negative: Gjesværstappan Gjesværstappan is a group of high , steep-sided , grass-covered islands which are located north of the village of Gjesvær in Nordkapp Municipality in Finnmark county , Norway . The three main islands are Storstappen , Kjerkestappen , and Bukkstappen .   Storstappan rises to a height of 283 m above sea level and has a peninsula called Stauren that rises to 165 m. Kjerkestappen rises to an elevation of 166 m above sea level and Bukkstappen rises to 92 m above sea level . Historically , there were people that lived on the islands and there was a church on Kjerkestappen .

negative: Annual cycle of sea level height The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .

negative: Global warming in Tuvalu Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .

negative: Argyrodes chionus Argyrodes chionus is a species of tangle-web spider that is endemic to Aldabra in the Seychelles . It is found in dry shrubland at sea level . It is threatened by habitat deterioration due to sea level rise .

negative: Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .

negative: Don't Make a Wave Committee The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was the name of the anti-nuclear organization which later evolved into Greenpeace , a global environmental organization . The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was founded in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada to protest and attempt to halt further underground nuclear testing by the United States in the National Wildlife refuge at Amchitka in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska . The Do n't Make a Wave Committee was first formed in October 1969 and officially established in early 1970 .

negative: Climate change opinion by country Climate change opinion is the aggregate of public opinion held by the adult population . Cost constraints often restrict surveys to sample only one or two countries from each continent or focus on only one region . Because of differences among questions , wording , and methods -- it is difficult to reliably compare results or to generalize them to opinions held worldwide .   In 2007 -- 2008 , the Gallup Poll surveyed individuals from 128 countries in the first comprehensive study of global opinions . The Gallup Organization aggregated opinion from the adult population fifteen years of age and older , either through the telephone or personal interviews , and in both rural and urban areas except in areas where the safety of interviewer was threatened and in scarcely populated islands . Personal interviews were stratified by population size or geography and cluster sampling was achieved through one or more stages . Although error bounds vary , they were all below ± 6 % with 95 % confidence .   Weighting countries to a 2008 World Bank population estimate , sixty-one percent of individuals worldwide were aware of global warming , developed countries more aware than developing , with Africa the least aware . The median of people perceiving it as a threat was 47 % . Latin America and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change was a result of human activities , while Africa , parts of Asia and the Middle East , and countries from the Former Soviet Union led in the opposite . Awareness often translates to concern , although of those aware , individuals in Europe and developed countries in Asia perceived global warming as a greater threat than others .

negative: Sadika Sàdika is a tributary of the Vrbanja river in Bosnia and Herzegovina . It rises on the northeastern slopes of Zastinje Mountain , at 1000 m above sea level . The river 's confluence with the Vrbanja is below Gigovići , a village close to the Kotor Varoš -- Šiprage road , at 496 m above sea level .

negative: Holybourne Hill Holybourne Hill or Holybourne Down is one of the highest points in the county of Hampshire , England , and in the Hampshire Downs , rising to 225 m above sea level .   Holybourne Hill rises not far from the village of Holybourne in Hampshire .

negative: Rising Tide North America Rising Tide North America is a grassroots network of groups and individuals in North America organizing action against the root causes of climate change and work towards a non-carbon society . Rising Tide North America is part of an international network dedicated to building a climate justice and anti-extraction movement . Rising Tide generally takes a strongly `` no compromise '' stance on the environment and a vehement opposition to solutions proposed by corporations who , they say , are responsible for creating environmental problems in the first place .

negative: Effects of global warming on Australia Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast .   Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .

negative: Verdi Range The Verdi Range is a mountain range in Sierra County , California , that rises to 8444 ft above sea level .

negative: Equilibrium level In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment .   This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .

negative: Future sea level The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming .   The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .

negative: Catherine Ritz Catherine Ritz is a French Antarctic researcher , best known for her work on ice sheets and their impact on sea level rise .

negative: Besh Barmag Mountain Besh Barmag ( Beş Barmaq ) literally translated as Five Finger Mountain , is in Siazan District of Azerbaijan , not far from the Caspian Sea .   It rises to 382 m above the sea level overlooking the Baku-Quba Highway . The mountain is a solid rock and is one of the most famous mountains in the Caucasus , known for its mythical stories . It is a sacred place for regular visitation by pilgrims .   Tide marks on the mount attest to meltwater inundation from the northern glacial ice caps and date back to the end of the last ice age . The tidelines confirm the theory of a Holocene outflow of meltwater from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea , rather than a direct incursion of sea water into the Black Sea as a result of global sea level rise . Estimates of the increase in Caspian Sea level height are between + 20 and 30 meters .


query: Satellite error inflated Great Lakes temperatures

positive: Lake Superior Lake Superior ( Lac Supérieur ) is the largest of the Great Lakes of North America . The lake is shared by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north , the US state of Minnesota to the west , and Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to the south . It is generally considered the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area . It is the world 's third-largest freshwater lake by volume and the largest by volume in North America .

positive: Great Lakes Storm of 1913 The Great Lakes Storm of 1913 , historically referred to as the `` Big Blow , '' the `` Freshwater Fury , '' or the `` White Hurricane , '' was a blizzard with hurricane-force winds that devastated the Great Lakes Basin in the Midwestern United States and the province of Ontario in Canada from November 7 through November 10 , 1913 . The storm was most powerful on November 9 , battering and overturning ships on four of the five Great Lakes , particularly Lake Huron . Deceptive lulls in the storm and the slow pace of weather reports contributed to the storm 's destructiveness .   The deadliest and most destructive natural disaster to hit the lakes in recorded history , the Great Lakes Storm killed more than 250 people , destroyed 19 ships , and stranded 19 others . The financial loss in vessels alone was nearly US $ 5 million ( or about $ in today 's dollars ) . This included about $ 1 million at current value in lost cargo totalling about 68,300 tons , such as coal , iron ore , and grain .   The storm , an extratropical cyclone , originated as the convergence of two major storm fronts , fueled by the lakes ' relatively warm waters -- a seasonal process called a `` November gale '' . It produced 90 mph ( 145 km/h ) wind gusts , waves over 35 feet ( 11 m ) high , and whiteout snowsqualls . Analysis of the storm and its impact on humans , engineering structures , and the landscape led to better forecasting and faster responses to storm warnings , stronger construction ( especially of marine vessels ) , and improved preparedness .

positive: Great Lakes The Great Lakes ( les Grands-Lacs ) , also called the Laurentian Great Lakes and the Great Lakes of North America , are a series of interconnected freshwater lakes located primarily in the upper mid-east region of North America , on the Canada -- United States border , which connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence River . Consisting of Lakes Superior , Michigan , Huron ( or Michigan -- Huron ) , Erie , and Ontario , they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth by total area , and second largest by total volume containing 21 % of the world 's surface fresh water by volume . The total surface is 94250 sqmi , and the total volume ( measured at the low water datum ) is 5439 cumi . Due to their sea-like characteristics ( rolling waves , sustained winds , strong currents , great depths , and distant horizons ) the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas . Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area , and Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country . The southern half of the Great Lakes is bordered by the Great Lakes Megalopolis .   The Great Lakes began to form at the end of the last glacial period around 14,000 years ago , as retreating ice sheets exposed the basins they had carved into the land which then filled with meltwater . The lakes have been a major highway for transportation , migration and trade , and they are home to a large number of aquatic species . Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade , and some threaten the region 's biodiversity .

positive: Lake Erie Lake Erie ( -LSB- ˈɪəri -RSB- Lac Érié ) is the fourth-largest lake ( by surface area ) of the five Great Lakes in North America , and the thirteenth-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area . It is the southernmost , shallowest , and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time . At its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 ft deep . Lake Erie 's northern shore is bounded by the Canadian province of Ontario , with the U.S. states of Ohio , Pennsylvania , and New York on its southern and easternmost shores and the Lower Peninsula of Michigan on the west . These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake by water boundaries . The lake was named by the Erie people , a Native Americans people who lived along its southern shore . That Iroquoian tribe called it `` Erige '' ( `` cat '' ) because of its unpredictable and sometimes violently dangerous nature . It is a matter of conjecture whether the lake was named after the tribe , or if the tribe was called `` Erie '' because of its proximity to the lake .   Situated below Lake Huron , Erie 's primary inlet is the Detroit River . The main natural outflow from the lake is via the Niagara River , which provides hydroelectric power to Canada and the U.S. as it spins huge turbines near Niagara Falls at Lewiston , New York and Queenston , Ontario . Some outflow occurs via the Welland Canal which diverts water for ship passages from Port Colborne , Ontario on Lake Erie , to St. Catharines on Lake Ontario , an elevation difference of 326 ft. Lake Erie 's environmental health has been an ongoing concern for decades , with issues such as overfishing , pollution , algae blooms and eutrophication generating headlines .

negative: Balloon satellite A balloon satellite ( also occasionally referred to as a `` satelloon '' , which is a trademarked name owned by Gilmore Schjeldahl 's G.T. Schjeldahl Company ) is a satellite that is inflated with gas after it has been put into orbit .

negative: Vanguard SLV-5 Vanguard SLV-5 , also called Vanguard Satellite Launch Vehicle Five hoped to be the third successful flight of the American Vanguard rocket following successful Vanguard 2 satellite on rocket Vanguard SLV-4 . Vanguard SLV-5 launched on April 14 , 1959 02:49 GMT , from Launch Complex 18A at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . The rocket was unsuccessful in its attempt to place an unnamed satellite into earth orbit . There was damage to stage 2 at separation , thus the satellite failed to achieve orbit . The underlying cause of the error is unknown . This was a set back in the space race between the USA and Soviet Union .   Vanguard SLV-5 hoped to put into orbit two satellites : Vanguard 3A satellite , a magnetometer and 30 in round inflatable sphere with an air density measurement device . Vanguard SLV-5 only reached an altitude of 100 km , the goal was 3840 km to orbit .

negative: Great Atlanta fire of 1917 The Great Atlanta Fire of 1917 began just after noon on 21 May 1917 in the Old Fourth Ward of Atlanta , Georgia . It is unclear just how the fire started , but it was fueled by hot temperatures and strong winds which propelled the fire . The fire , which burned for nearly 10 hours , destroyed 300 acre and 1,900 structures displacing over 10,000 people . Damages were estimated at $ 5 million , ( $ million when adjusted for inflation ) .

negative: Misty (satellite) Misty is reportedly the name of a classified project by the United States National Reconnaissance Office to operate stealthy reconnaissance satellites . The satellites are conjectured to be photo reconnaissance satellites and the program has been the subject of atypically public debates about its worthiness in the defense budget since December 2004 . The estimated project costs in 2004 dollars are US$ 9.5 billion ( inflation adjusted US$ billion in ) .

negative: Highest temperature recorded on Earth The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air , 1.5 meters above the ground , and shielded from direct sunlight . The highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 C in Furnace Creek Ranch , California , located in the Death Valley desert in the United States , on July 10 , 1913 .   The former highest official temperature on Earth , held for 90 years by ` Aziziya , Libya , was de-certified by the WMO ( World Meteorological Organization ) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature ( this temperature of 57.8 ° C ( 136 ° F ) , registered on 13 September 1922 , is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error ) . Christopher C. Burt , the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification , believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is `` a myth '' , and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high , as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid . Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley , but is instead 53.9 C recorded five times : 20 July 1960 , 18 July 1998 , 20 July 2005 , 7 July 2007 , and 30 June 2013 .   Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C . A ground temperature of 84 ° C ( 183.2 ° F ) has been recorded in Port Sudan , Sudan . A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C ( 201 ° F ) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972 ; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded . The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C for dry , darkish soils of low thermal conductivity .   Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers . There is a satellite record of 66.8 C measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008 . Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009 , taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite , found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C ( 159.3 ° F ) , which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert , Iran . The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured ( 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2009 ) . These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature .

negative: Satellite geolocation Satellite geolocation is the process of locating the origin of a signal appearing on a satellite communication channel . Typically , this process is used to mitigate interference on communication satellites . Usually , these interference signals are caused by human error or equipment failure , but can also be caused by deliberate jamming . Identifying the geographical location of an interfering signal informs the mitigation activity .

negative: Inflatable Antenna Experiment The Inflatable Antenna Experiment ( IAE ) was a NASA experiment that began on May 19 , 1996 , consisting of an inflatable antenna made of mylar which was launched from the Space Shuttle Endeavour during the 1996 STS-77 mission , in cooperation with the satellite Spartan-207 .   The antenna correctly inflated , separating from Spartan-207 , before re-entering Earth 's atmosphere a few days later , on 22 May . IAE was intended to pave the way for the development of lightweight inflatable structures for space applications . The IAE was constructed by LGarde , Inc. , an American aerospace company based in Orange County , CA .

negative: Adaptive expectations In economics , adaptive expectations is a hypothesized process by which people form their expectations about what will happen in the future based on what has happened in the past . For example , if inflation has been higher than expected in the past , people would revise expectations for the future .   One simple version of adaptive expectations is stated in the following equation , where is the next year 's rate of inflation that is currently expected ; is this year 's rate of inflation that was expected last year ; and is this year 's actual rate of inflation :   where is between 0 and 1 . This says that current expectations of future inflation reflect past expectations and an `` error-adjustment '' term , in which current expectations are raised ( or lowered ) according to the gap between actual inflation and previous expectations . This error-adjustment is also called `` partial adjustment . ''   The theory of adaptive expectations can be applied to all previous periods so that current inflationary expectations equal :   where equals actual inflation years in the past . Thus , current expected inflation reflects a weighted average of all past inflation , where the weights get smaller and smaller as we move further in the past .   Once a forecasting error is made by agents , due to a stochastic shock , they will be unable to correctly forecast the price level again even if the price level experiences no further shocks since they only ever incorporate part of their errors . The backward nature of expectation formulation and the resultant systematic errors made by agents ( see Cobweb model ) was unsatisfactory to economists such as John Muth , who was pivotal in the development of an alternative model of how expectations are formed , called rational expectations . This has largely replaced adaptive expectations in macroeconomic theory since its assumption of optimality of expectations is consistent with economic theory . However , it must be stressed that confronting adaptivity and rationality is not necessarily justified , in other words , there are situations in which following the adaptive scheme is a rational response .   Adaptive expectations were instrumental in the Phillips curve outlined by Milton Friedman . For Friedman , workers form adaptive expectations , so the government can easily surprise them through unexpected monetary policy changes . As agents are trapped by the money illusion , they are unable to correctly perceive price and wage dynamics , so , for Friedman , unemployment can always be reduced through monetary expansions . The result is an increasing level of inflation if the government chooses to fix unemployment at a low rate for an extended period of time . However , in this framework it is clear why and how adaptive expectations are problematic . Agents are arbitrarily supposed to ignore sources of information which , otherwise , would affect their expectations . For example , government announcements are such sources : agents are expected to modify their expectations and break with the former trends when changes in economic policy necessitate it . This is the reason why the theory of adaptive expectations is often regarded as a deviation from the rational tradition of economics .

negative: Cold inflation pressure Cold inflation pressure is the inflation pressure of tires before the car is driven and the tires warmed up . Recommended cold inflation pressure is displayed on the owner 's manual and on the placard ( or sticker ) attached to the vehicle door edge , pillar , glovebox door or fuel filler flap . Drivers are encouraged to make sure their tires are adequately inflated , as suboptimal tire pressure can greatly reduce fuel economy , increase emissions , increased wear on the edges of the tire surface , and can lead to premature failure of the tire . Excessive pressure , on the other hand , may lead to impact-breaks , decrease braking performance , and cause uneven wear ( i.e. greater wear on the center part of the tire surface ) .   Tire pressure is commonly measured in psi in the imperial and US customary systems , bar , which is deprecated but accepted for use with SI or the kilopascal ( kPa ) , which is an SI unit .   Ambient temperature affects the cold tire pressure . Absolute cold tire pressure ( gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure ) varies directly with the absolute temperature , measured in kelvins .   From physics , the ideal gas law states that PV = nRT where P is absolute pressure , T is absolute temperature ( Kelvin ) , V is the volume ( assumed to be relatively constant in the case of a tire ) , and nR is constant for a given number of molecules of gas . To understand this , assume the tire was filled when it was 300 kelvin ( 80 degrees Fahrenheit ) . If the temperature varies 10 % , i.e. by 30 kelvin ( also 30 Celsius degrees or 54 Fahrenheit degrees ) , the pressure varies 10 % . So if the tire was filled at 80F to 32 psi ( or 47 psi absolute when we add atmospheric pressure ) , the change would be 4.7 psi for this 30 Celsius degree change , or .16 psi per Celsius degree or .1 psi per Fahrenheit degree or 1 psi for every 10 Fahrenheit degrees . Using SI units , that would be 1.1 kPa per kelvin .   Hence , for a tire filled to 32 psi , the approximation usually made is that within the range of normal atmospheric temperatures and pressures :  Tire pressure increases 1 psi for each 10 Fahrenheit degree increase in temperature , or conversely decreases 1 psi for each 10 Fahrenheit degree decrease in temperature and  in SI units , tire pressure increases 1.1 kPa for each 1 Celsius degree increase in temperature , or conversely decreases 1.1 kPa for each 1 Celsius degree decrease in temperature . For tires that need inflation greater than 32psi it might be easier to use a Rule of Thumb of 2 % pressure change for a change of 10 degrees Fahrenheit .  From the table below , one can see that these are only approximations .

negative: Design effect In statistics , the design effect ( or estimates of unit variance ) is an adjustment used in some kinds of studies , such as cluster randomised trials , to allow for the design structure . The adjustment inflates the variance of parameter estimates , and therefore their standard errors , which is necessary to allow for correlations among clusters of observations . It is similar to the variance inflation factor and is used in sample size calculations . The term was introduced by Leslie Kish in 1965 .

negative: Prognostic chart A prognostic chart is a map displaying the likely weather forecast for a future time . Such charts generated by atmospheric models as output from numerical weather prediction and contain a variety of information such as temperature , wind , precipitation and weather fronts . They can also indicate derived atmospheric fields such as vorticity , stability indices , or frontogenesis . Forecast errors need to be taken into account and can be determined either via absolute error , or by considering persistence and absolute error combined .

negative: Pseudorange The pseudorange ( from pseudo - and range ) is the pseudo distance between a satellite and a navigation satellite receiver ( see GNSS positioning calculation ) -- for instance Global Positioning System ( GPS ) receivers .   To determine its position , a satellite navigation receiver will determine the ranges to ( at least ) four satellites as well as their positions at time of transmitting . Knowing the satellites ' orbital parameters , these positions can be calculated for any point in time . The pseudoranges of each satellite are obtained by multiplying the speed of light by the time the signal has taken from the satellite to the receiver . As there are accuracy errors in the time measured , the term pseudo-ranges is used rather than ranges for such distances .

negative: Meteor (satellite) The Meteor spacecraft are weather observation satellites launched by the USSR and Russia . The Meteor satellite series was developed during the 1960s . The Meteor satellites were designed to monitor atmospheric and sea-surface temperatures , humidity , radiation , sea ice conditions , snow-cover , and clouds .

negative: MSU temperature measurements Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform .   Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult .   To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 :  RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade .  UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade .   An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set .   Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade .  A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) .  Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel .   The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .

negative: Airag Lake Airag Lake ( Айраг нуур , Airag Nuur , lit . `` airag '' ) is a lake in western Mongolia in the Great Lakes Depression . It is in a system of the interconnected lakes : Khar-Us , Khar , Dörgön , and Khyargas .   The lake was in the same basin as the Khyargas Lake in ancient times .   The depth of the lake generally varies with the inflow river flow . The lake flows into Khyargas Lake along a 5 km long , 200 -- 300 m wide canal , which does not freeze in winter .   In summer , the lake warms up almost to the very bottom . Even in winter , the temperature remains fairly constant , 1 - 2.5 ° C. Compared to other lakes , the water is not very clear .

negative: Androscoggin Lake Androscoggin Lake ( photo ) is a body of water located in the towns of Wayne and Leeds , Maine . The surface area of the lake is 3826 acre . Its greatest length is 4.5 mi and its greatest width is 2.8 mi . The lake is very shallow with a mean depth of 15 ft and maximum depth of 38 ft. The lake temperature is therefore quite warm during summer , and the temperature is the same on the bottom as it is on the top , making it a homothermous body of water . There are 4 islands on the lake : Androscoggin Island , Blodgett Island , Lothrop Island and Norris Island . The islands support a diverse assemblage of rare species and natural communities . The most extensive areas are along and around the Dead River , ( photo ) which connects the lake to the Androscoggin River . The islands also provide important nesting habitat for bald eagles , ospreys and great blue herons . Lothrop Island 's black sand beaches are of geological interest and are also home to several rare plants .

negative: Lake Mackay Lake Mackay ( Pitjantjatjara : Wilkinkarra ) is the largest of hundreds of ephemeral salt lakes scattered throughout Western Australia and the Northern Territory . The satellite image documents the appearance of the dry parts of Western Australia 's Great Sandy Desert , Gibson Desert , and Tanami Desert .   The lake is the largest in Western Australia and has a surface area of 3494 km2 . Its elevation ranges between 355 m and 370 m above mean sea-level .

negative: S-56 (satellite) S-56 was an American satellite launched by NASA on 4 December 1960 as part of the Explorers program . The satellite was composed of a 3.66 meter ( 12 foot ) diameter inflatable sphere , and was intended to study the density of the upper atmosphere . S-56 was launched on a Scout X-1 rocket , but failed to reach orbit due to the second stage not igniting . It was replaced by the identical Explorer 9 ( S 56A ) spacecraft .

negative: Error analysis for the Global Positioning System The analysis of errors computed using the Global Positioning System is important for understanding how GPS works , and for knowing what magnitude of errors should be expected . The Global Positioning System makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other effects but there are still residual errors which are not corrected . The Global Positioning System ( GPS ) was created by the United States Department of Defense ( DOD ) in the 1970s . It has come to be widely used for navigation both by the U.S. military and the general public .   GPS receiver position is computed based on data received from the satellites . Errors depend on geometric dilution of precision and the sources listed in the table below .

negative: Medicine Lake, Montana Medicine Lake is a town in Sheridan County , Montana , United States . The population was 225 at the 2010 census .   On July 5 , 1937 , Medicine Lake recorded a temperature of 117 ° F ( 47 ° C ) , setting the record for the highest temperature ever recorded in Montana .

negative: Block error A block error is a common type of error in certain types of digital television transmission , particularly those that use image compression . Its presence in a television image is a telltale sign that 1 ) the signal is broadcast digitally , as this type of error can not occur in analog transmission , and 2 ) that there is a significant amount of noise , as digital television is designed to tolerate a certain amount of interference . Block errors are usually detected , but not corrected , by the receiving device and are commonly displayed as empty black boxes in the television image .   Because of how television images are usually compressed , a block error in a single frame often results in black boxes in several subsequent frames . In the worst case , a few block errors per frame could render the video from a television broadcast unviewable .   Block errors are most common in digital satellite television , where bad weather or motion of the satellite dish can cause interference outside the broadcaster 's control .   Block errors can occur at levels of interference where an analog transmission would be fuzzy but still viewable . Thus , block errors are a fine example of the consequences of trade offs in engineering . Although in ideal conditions , digital transmission far exceeds analog transmission in performance , below a certain threshold of signal to noise ratio , digital transmission becomes untenable .   Category : Television terminology

negative: Community Radiative Transfer Model Community Radiative Transfer Model ( CRTM ) is a fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave radiometers .   Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties CRTM calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory inputs in terms of variable gases are water vapor and ozone . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used .   CRTM contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules are used in inversion methods , including variational assimilation and satellite retrievals .   One of several applications of CRTM are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .

negative: Medical-bill advocacy Medical-bill advocacy is the name generally attributed to the industry that has developed in response to a growing problem of erroneous charges on medical bills . According to the Medical Billing Advocates of America ( MBAA ) , as many as 9 out of 10 bills from hospitals and medical providers include errors that may erroneously inflate the cost of actual healthcare received .

negative: Rate Based Satellite Control Protocol In computer networking , Rate Based Satellite Control Protocol ( RBSCP ) is a tunneling method proposed by Cisco to improve the performance of satellite network links with high latency and error rates .   The problem RBSCP addresses is that the long RTT on the link keeps TCP virtual circuits in slow start for a long time . This , in addition to the high loss give a very low amount of bandwidth on the channel . Since satellite links may be high-throughput , the overall link utilized may be below what is optimal from a technical and economic view .

negative: ZK ZK may refer to :  ZK ( framework ) , an AJAX/XUL Web Application Framework  Great Lakes Airlines ( IATA airline designator ZK )  Zentralkomitee , the executive body of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany  Zero-knowledge , a cryptographic proof concept  Zero-K , an open source RTS computer game  Zettakelvin , an SI unit of temperature

negative: The Four Great Errors The Four Great Errors are four mistakes of human reason regarding causal relationships that the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche argues are the basis of all moral and religious propositions . Set forth in his book Twilight of the Idols , first published in 1889 , these errors are key in implementing his program of the `` revaluation of all values . '' Nietzsche wanted to liberate people from traditional moral and religious systems by denying the concept of `` human accountability , '' which , he argues , is nothing more than an invention of theologians who wanted to exert power over other people . Unlike most religions and moral systems which hold that virtuous behavior results in happiness , Nietzsche argued the opposite . For Nietzsche , Internal psychological states that we can not consciously control such as `` happiness '' are actually the true causes of virtuous behavior , not the human will .   The Four Great Errors are as follows :   The error of confusing cause and consequence  The error of a false causality  The error of imaginary causes  The error of free will

negative: John Christy John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .

negative: Monetary inflation Monetary inflation is a sustained increase in the money supply of a country ( or currency area ) . Depending on many factors , especially public expectations , the fundamental state and development of the economy , and the transmission mechanism , it is likely to result in price inflation , which is usually just called `` inflation '' , which is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services .   There is general agreement among economists that there is a causal relationship between monetary inflation and price inflation . But there is neither a common view about the exact theoretical mechanisms and relationships , nor about how to accurately measure it . This relationship is also constantly changing , within a larger complex economic system . So there is a great deal of debate on the issues involved , such as how to measure the monetary base and price inflation , how to measure the effect of public expectations , how to judge the effect of financial innovations on the transmission mechanisms , and how much factors like the velocity of money affect the relationship . Thus there are different views on what could be the best targets and tools in monetary policy .   However , there is a general consensus on the importance and responsibility of central banks and monetary authorities in setting public expectations of price inflation and in trying to control it .   Keynesian economists believe the central bank can sufficiently assess the detailed economic variables and circumstances in real time in order to control monetary policy in detail . These economists favor monetary policies that attempt to even out the ups and downs of business cycles and economic shocks in a precise fashion .  Followers of the monetarist school think that Keynesian style monetary policies produce a lot of overshooting , time-lag errors and other unwanted effects , sometimes making things even worse . They doubt the central bank 's capacity to analyse economic problems in real time and its ability to influence the economy with correct timing and the right monetary policy measures . So monetarists advocate less intrusive and complex monetary policies , like inflation targeting or a constant growth rate of money supply .  Some followers of Austrian School economics advocate either the return to free markets in money , called free banking , or a 100 % gold standard and the abolition of central banks .   Currently , most central banks follow a monetarist or Keynesian approach , or more often a mix of both . There is a trend of central banks towards the monetarist approach , with inflation targeting .

negative: NATO Satellite Ground Terminal Folly Lake The NATO Satellite Ground Terminal Folly Lake , also known as SGT Folly Lake , is a now-decommissioned Canadian military satellite communications facility located in Wentworth , Cumberland County , Nova Scotia . At one time it was one of 24 satellite communication facilities for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) that were located in NATO countries .   SGT Folly Lake was one of two such facilities in Canada and was located on the west slope of an unnamed hill along the eastern side of the concave-shaped Wentworth Valley , opposite Higgins Mountain . The second facility was located in Carp , Ontario . SGT Folly Lake 's location was approximately 500 m north of the county line and is closest to the community of Folly Lake in Colchester County and approximately 3.2 km north from the northern edge of the lake of the same name .  SGT Folly Lake was built in 1982 and decommissioned in December 2006 . It was owned by the Department of National Defence and operated by Canadian Forces personnel as a lodger unit of CFB Halifax .

negative: Dimictic lake Dimictic lakes mix from the surface to bottom twice each year . Dimictic lakes are holomictic , a category which includes all lakes which mix one or more times per year . During winter , they are covered by ice . During summer , they are thermally stratified , with temperature-derived density differences separating the warm surface waters ( the epilimnion ) , from the colder bottom waters ( the hypolimnion ) .   Mixing ( overturning ) typically occurs during the spring and autumn , when the lake is `` isothermal '' ( i.e. at the same temperature from the top to the bottom ) . At this time , the water throughout the lake is about 4 ° C , and , in the absence of any temperature or density differences , the lake readily mixes from top to bottom . These lakes are common in regions with temperate climates .

negative: Liawenee Liawenee ( / laɪɑ : wi : ni : / ) is a small town in Tasmania , Australia built near Great Lake and the River Ouse , and was established on 11 June 1920 . The town is known for its fishing at nearby Great Lake and hosts several fishing events .   Liawenee and surrounding Miena Dam experience annual mean maximum temperatures of 12.6 and 10.1 respectively and are thus amongst the coldest permanently inhabited places in Australia ; irrespective of Miena Dam Liawenee is colder on this metric than notable mainland sites of a similar altitude such as Nimmitabel ( 15.6 ) and Cooma ( 19.4 ) as well as Thredbo village ( 13.5 ) - a station of considerably greater altitude ( 1380m AMSL ) . Within Tasmania , only the uninhabited summits of Mount Wellington ( Kunanyi ) and Mount Read record lower annual mean maximum temperatures ( 7.8 and 8.7 respectively ) although other mountains of Tasmania that currently lack weather stations may experience similar or colder conditions also .

negative: Thorny skate The thorny skate ( Amblyraja radiata ) is a species of fish in Rajidae family . It mainly lives near the bottom of the coastline of North Atlantic Ocean in depths ranging from 20 to 1000 metres and temperatures from 1 to 10 degrees Celsius . It was also located in Lake Melville , near Goose Bay , Labrador . Rivers empty into the lake and the lake bottom is mostly made up of sand . Thorny skates have been caught in this lake in the 1980s by ice fishermen when outside temperatures were -30 degrees C.


query: When life is considered, ocean acidification is often found to be a non-problem, or even a benefit.

positive: Ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean .   Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level .   While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins .   Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .

negative: Yeshe Walmo Yeshe Walmo is a deity of the Bon religion .   Yeshe Walmo is considered the wisdom aspect of Sipe Gyalmo . Throughout the ages , whenever the Bon religion suffered persecution , lamas would hide Bon texts and sacred ritual objects in mountains . Yeshe Walmo is the deity in charge of keeping Bon texts and sacred items safe . She is the preserver and protector of all Bon wisdom and allows these objects to be found when times are ripen . These hidden objects are known as `` terma '' and the finder , usually a dakini , is known as a `` terton '' . Dakinis , feminine spirit beings , often manifest in human form . There are many stories of termas being discovered by tertöns in Tibet even in this modern day .   Yeshe Walmo is in the same color as Sipe Gyalmo , but has only one face and two arms . She stands on one foot dressed in peacock feathers , which symbolize the transmutation of poison ( ignorance ) . In her right hand , she holds a flaming thunderbolt sword , which cuts away ignorance . Her left hand holds a vase filled with the waters of long life . She wears a tiger skin , which displays her prowess over the most ferocious energies of nature . She stands upon a lotus flower representing the purity of her wisdom and is surrounded by flames burning all ignorance .   Yeshe Walmo works swiftly when called upon for any assistance ( health problems , business problems , life problems , etc. ) and is an especially good aide to students and scholars .

negative: Quaker music In the early days of Quakerism , music was rejected as a non-spontaneous part of worship . As the early Quakers tried to distance themselves from the practices of the English Church at the time , they also distanced themselves from the church traditions of singing music , even Psalms , together . Absolute honesty and integrity was important to them , and people singing words together were often expressing thoughts that even if they were spiritually profound were not actually expressing true experience and profound beliefs of the singers , who were often merely parroting them . Music was at times also viewed as frivolous , and not in line with the value of Simplicity , in other words a distraction from what was really important in life . However , they did approve of `` singing in the spirit , '' when the act of singing and making music was a natural and organic method of expressing belief .

negative: Ottho Gerhard Heldringstichting Ottho Gerhard Heldringstichting ( Dutch : Ottho Gerhard Heldring Foundation ) is a Dutch orthopaedic institution in Zetten , Netherlands . The facility is a private ( non governmental ) managed centre for youth with severe behaviour and often also psychiatric problems . The facility caters for youth from 12 -- 18 years old ( sometime max 24 at end of stay , normal intelligent and without very serious addiction problems . Youth living at the facility are sent via the ( juvenile ) court when the judge decides that juvenile needs treatment ( for his ( mis ) behaviour / behaviour problems ) in a closed setting .

negative: Malarial nephropathy Malarial nephropathy is renal failure attributed to malarial infection . Among various complications due to infection , renal-related disorders are often the most life-threatening . Including malaria-induced renal lesions , infection may lead to both tubulointerstitial damage and glomerulonephritis . In addition , malarial acute renal failure has emerged as a serious problem due to its high mortality rate in non-immune adult patients .

negative: Brown Fellowship Society The Brown Fellowship Society was founded in Charleston , South Carolina in 1790 with the motto `` Charity and Benevolence '' . It was founded by five free non-whites who attended St. Philip 's Episcopal Church . It was founded `` to provide benefits which the white church denied them like a proper burial ground , widow and orphan care , and assistance in times of sickness '' The group 's cemetery was an important part of its function . Those who joined the club considered themselves `` brown '' , mulattoes , an important distinction at the time when society in Charleston recognized three races : White , Mulatto , and Negro .   Unlike some mutual self-help organization in the African-American community , the Brown Society was not linked to any church , even banning discussion of religion . Many of the members of the Brown Fellowship Society had their own businesses and some were prosperous . In 1843 , another group was formed by African American men in Charleston , the Humane Brotherhood , modeled after the Brown Fellowship Society , but less class conscious .   `` After the Civil War , the Brown Fellowship Society expanded to include more African Americans , including women and those of darker skin '' . The Society was renamed the `` Century Fellowship Society '' about 100 years after its founding . It sold the original BFS cemetery in 1945 when the land was sold to a developing Catholic school , and the Society was officially dissolved .

negative: Life of Samuel Johnson The Life of Samuel Johnson , LL.D . ( 1791 ) is a biography of Dr. Samuel Johnson written by James Boswell . The work was a popular and critical success when first published . It is regarded as an important stage in the development of the modern genre of biography ; many have claimed it as the greatest biography written in English , but some modern critics object that the work can not be considered a proper biography . While Boswell 's personal acquaintance with his subject only began in 1763 , when Johnson was 54 years old , Boswell covered the entirety of Johnson 's life by means of additional research . The biography takes many critical liberties with Johnson 's life , as Boswell makes various changes to Johnson 's quotations and even censors many comments . Nonetheless , modern biographers have found Boswell 's biography an important source of information on Johnson and his times .