query: "[T]he influence of  so-called greenhouse gases on near-surface temperature - is not yet  absolutely proven.

positive: Greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere .   If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains .   On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect .   Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming .   The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .

positive: Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect .   Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture .   It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: Satellite temperature measurements The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites .   Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 .   Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .

negative: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect .   These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .

negative: Greenhouse gas removal Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .

negative: Climate sensitivity Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered .   Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so .   The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere .   For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter .   The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ .   It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .

negative: IPCC list of greenhouse gases This is a list of LLGHG ( long-lived greenhouse gases ) greenhouse gases as used by the IPCC TAR .

negative: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in .   For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter .   The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .

negative: Solar gain Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation .   Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .

negative: Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility The Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility ( ZOTTO ) is a climatic research station in the Siberian taiga in the proximity of Zotino , Russia , established and operated by the Max Planck Society and the Sukachev Institute of Forest , it serves as a long-term observing platform to be operated for at least 30 years .   Far from human influences , researchers aim to determine how the concentration of greenhouse gases , aerosols , and the rising temperatures of the terrestrial atmosphere affect each other mutually .   The heart of the station is a 302 m tower on which precision instruments measure the concentration of carbon dioxide , methane and other greenhouse gases . The measurement data are processed directly in the station at the foot of the tower and then transferred to the Institute of Forest , in Krasnoyarsk , Russia , as well as to the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena , Germany . The station has been operational since September 2006 . It extended the project Terrestrial Carbon Observing System and was funded by the 5th framework programme of the European Union , uniting 8 European and 4 Russian partners . A main conclusion of the project is that Siberian forests constitute a substantially smaller carbon-sink than so far assumed .

negative: (10302) 1989 ML ( 10302 ) 1989 ML is an as yet unnamed near-Earth asteroid . It is approximately 0.6 km in diameter . An Amor asteroid , it orbits between Earth and Mars . It is an X-type asteroid , so its surface composition is yet unknown . It was discovered by Eleanor F. Helin and Jeff T. Alu at Palomar Observatory on June 29 , 1989 .

negative: Methane Methane ( -LSB- ˈmɛθeɪn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmiːθeɪn -RSB- ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ( one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen ) . It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane , and is the main constituent of natural gas . The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel , though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure .   Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor . When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere , it is known as atmospheric methane . The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750 , and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases ( these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect ) .

negative: Materials for use in vacuum Materials for use in vacuum are materials showing very low rate of outgassing in vacuum , and , where applicable , tolerant to the bake-out temperatures . The requirements grow increasingly stringent with the desired degree of vacuum achievable in the vacuum chamber .  The materials can produce gas by several mechanisms . Molecules of gases and water can be adsorbed on the material surface ( therefore materials with low affinity to water have to be chosen , which eliminates many plastics ) . Materials may sublimate in vacuum ( this excludes some metals and their alloys , most notably cadmium and zinc ) . Or the gases can be released from porous materials or from cracks and crevices . Traces of lubricants , residues from machining , can be present on the surfaces . A specific risk is outgassing of solvents absorbed in plastics after cleaning .   The gases liberated from the materials not only lower the vacuum quality , but also can be reabsorbed on other surfaces , creating deposits and contaminating the chamber .   Yet another problem is diffusion of gases through the materials themselves . Atmospheric helium can diffuse even through Pyrex glass , even if slowly ; this however is usually not an issue . Some materials might also expand or increase in size causing problems in delicate equipment .   In addition to the gas-related issues , the materials have to maintain adequate strength through the entire required temperature range ( sometimes reaching cryogenic temperatures ) , maintain their properties ( elasticity , plasticity , electrical and thermal conductivity or lack of it , etc. ) , be machinable , and if possible not be overly expensive . Yet another concern is the thermal expansion coefficient match of adjacent parts .

negative: Rate of heat flow The rate of flow of heat between two systems is measured in watts ( joules per second ) .  The formula for rate of heat flow is ∆ Q / ∆ t = - K × A × ∆ T/x ,  where ∆ Q / ∆ t is the rate of heat flow ; - K is the thermal conductivity factor ; A is the surface area ; ∆ T is the change in temperature and x is the thickness of the material ( ∆ T/x is called the temperature gradient and is always negative because of the heat of flow always goes from more thermal energy to less ) .

negative: Atmosphere of Venus The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts .   Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia .   Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell .   Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases .   Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization .   On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''

negative: Earth's energy budget Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things .   Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate .   Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable .   Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .

negative: Flashover A flashover is the near-simultaneous ignition of most of the directly exposed combustible material in an enclosed area . When certain organic materials are heated , they undergo thermal decomposition and release flammable gases . Flashover occurs when the majority of the exposed surfaces in a space are heated to their autoignition temperature and emit flammable gases ( see also flash point ) . Flashover normally occurs at 500 C or 1100 F for ordinary combustibles , and an incident heat flux at floor level of 20 kW/m2 .   An example of flashover is ignition of a piece of furniture in a domestic room . The fire involving the initial piece of furniture can produce a layer of hot smoke which spreads across the ceiling in the room . The hot buoyant smoke layer grows in depth , as it is bounded by the walls of the room . The radiated heat from this layer heats the surfaces of the directly exposed combustible materials in the room , causing them to give off flammable gases via pyrolysis . When the temperatures of the evolved gases become high enough , these gases will ignite throughout their extent .

negative: Transient climate simulation A transient climate simulation is a mode of running a global climate model ( GCM ) in which a period of time ( typically 1850 -- 2100 ) is simulated with continuously-varying concentrations of greenhouse gases so that the climate of the model represents a realistic mode of possible change in the real world .

negative: Charles's law Charles ' law ( also known as the law of volumes ) is an experimental gas law that describes how gases tend to expand when heated . A modern statement of Charles 's law is :  When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant , the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be directly related .  This directly proportional relationship can be written as :   or   where :  V is the volume of the gas ,  T is the temperature of the gas ( measured in kelvins ) ,  k is a constant .   This law describes how a gas expands as the temperature increases ; conversely , a decrease in temperature will lead to a decrease in volume . For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions , the law can be written as :   The equation shows that , as absolute temperature increases , the volume of the gas also increases in proportion .

negative: Fermi gas A Fermi gas is a phase of matter which is an ensemble of a large number of fermions ( named after Enrico Fermi ) . Fermions are particles that obey Fermi -- Dirac statistics . These statistics determine the energy distribution of fermions in a Fermi gas in thermal equilibrium , and is characterized by their number density , temperature , and the set of available energy states .   By the Pauli exclusion principle , no quantum state can be occupied by more than one fermion with an identical set of quantum numbers . Thus a non-interacting Fermi gas , unlike a Bose gas , is prohibited from condensing into a Bose -- Einstein condensate , although interacting Fermi gases might . The total energy of the Fermi gas at absolute zero is larger than the sum of the single-particle ground states because the Pauli principle implies a sort of interaction or pressure that keeps fermions separated and moving . For this reason , the pressure of a Fermi gas is non-zero even at zero temperature , in contrast to that of a classical ideal gas . This so-called degeneracy pressure stabilizes a neutron star ( a Fermi gas of neutrons ) or a white dwarf star ( a Fermi gas of electrons ) against the inward pull of gravity , which would ostensibly collapse the star into a black hole . Only when a star is sufficiently massive to overcome the degeneracy pressure can it collapse into a singularity .   It is possible to define a Fermi temperature below which the gas can be considered degenerate ( its pressure derives almost exclusively from the Pauli principle ) . This temperature depends on the mass of the fermions and the density of energy states . For metals , the electron gas 's Fermi temperature is generally many thousands of kelvins , so in human applications they can be considered degenerate . The maximum energy of the fermions at zero temperature is called the Fermi energy . The Fermi energy surface in momentum space is known as the Fermi surface .

negative: Effective temperature The effective temperature of a body such as a star or planet is the temperature of a black body that would emit the same total amount of electromagnetic radiation . Effective temperature is often used as an estimate of a body 's surface temperature when the body 's emissivity curve ( as a function of wavelength ) is not known .   When the star 's or planet 's net emissivity in the relevant wavelength band is less than unity ( less than that of a black body ) , the actual temperature of the body will be higher than the effective temperature . The net emissivity may be low due to surface or atmospheric properties , including greenhouse effect .

negative: Vertical farming Vertical farming is the practice of producing food and medicine in vertically stacked layers , vertically inclined surfaces and/or integrated in other structures ( such as in a skyscraper , used warehouse , or shipping container ) . The modern ideas of vertical farming use indoor farming techniques and controlled-environment agriculture ( CEA ) technology , where all environmental factors can be controlled . These facilities utilize artificial control of light , environmental control ( humidity , temperature , gases ... ) and fertigation . Some vertical farms use techniques similar to greenhouses , where natural sunlight can be augmented with artificial lighting and metal reflectors .

negative: Mean radiant temperature __ NOTOC __  The mean radiant temperature ( MRT ) is defined as the uniform temperature of an imaginary enclosure in which the radiant heat transfer from the human body is equal to the radiant heat transfer in the actual non-uniform enclosure .   MRT is a concept arising from the fact that the net exchange of radiant energy between two objects is approximately proportional to their temperature difference multiplied by their ability to emit and absorb heat ( emissivity ) .  It is simply the area weighted mean temperature of all the objects surrounding the body . This is valid as long as the absolute temperatures of objects in question are large compared to the temperature differences , allowing linearization of the Stefan-Boltzmann Law in the relevant temperature range .   MRT also has a strong influence on thermophysiological comfort indexes such as physiological equivalent temperature ( PET ) or predicted mean vote ( PMV ) .   What we experience and feel relating to thermal comfort in a building is related to the influence of both the air temperature and the temperature of surfaces in that space . The mean radiant temperature is expressed as this surface temperature and is controlled by enclosure performances .  Maintaining a balance between the operative temperature and the mean radiant temperature can create a more comfortable space . This is done with effective design of the building , interior and with the use of high temperature radiant cooling and low temperature radiant heating .

negative: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .

negative: Atmosphere of Pluto The atmosphere of Pluto is the tenuous layer of gases surrounding Pluto . It consists mainly of nitrogen ( N2 ) , with minor amounts of methane ( CH4 ) and carbon monoxide ( CO ) , all of which are vaporized from their ices on Pluto 's surface . It contains layered haze , probably consisting of heavier compounds which form from these gases due to high-energy radiation . The atmosphere of Pluto is notable for its strong and not completely clear seasonal changes caused by peculiarities of the orbital and axial rotation of Pluto .   Surface pressure of the atmosphere of Pluto , measured by New Horizons in 2015 , is about , roughly 100,000 times less than Earth 's atmospheric pressure . Temperature on the surface is 40 to , but it quickly grows with altitude due to methane-generated greenhouse effect . Near the altitude it reaches 110 K , and then slowly decreases .   Pluto is the only trans-Neptunian object with a known atmosphere . Its closest analog is the atmosphere of Triton , although in some aspects it resembles even the atmosphere of Mars .   The atmosphere of Pluto has been studied since the 1980s by way of earth-based observation of occultations of stars by Pluto and spectroscopy . In 2015 , it was studied from a close distance by the spacecraft New Horizons .

negative: Rocket engine nozzle A rocket engine nozzle is a propelling nozzle ( usually of the de Laval type ) used in a rocket engine to expand and accelerate the combustion gases produced by burning propellants so that the exhaust gases exit the nozzle at hypersonic velocities .   Simply : the rocket ( pumps and a combustion chamber ) generates high pressure , a few hundred atmospheres ( Bar ) . The nozzle turns the static high pressure high temperature gas into rapidly moving gas at near-ambient pressure .

negative: Carbon rift Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift .   Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed .   Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .

negative: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure Standard conditions for temperature and pressure are standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements to be established to allow comparisons to be made between different sets of data . The most used standards are those of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) , although these are not universally accepted standards . Other organizations have established a variety of alternative definitions for their standard reference conditions .   In chemistry , IUPAC has changed the definition of standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) in 1982 :  Until 1982 , STP was defined as a temperature of 273.15 K ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of exactly 1 atm ( 1.01325 × 105 Pa ) .  Since 1982 , STP is defined as a temperature of 273.15 K ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of exactly 105 Pa ( 101.3 kPa , 1 bar ) .   STP should not be confused with the standard state commonly used in thermodynamic evaluations of the Gibbs energy of a reaction .   NIST uses a temperature of 20 ° C ( 293.15 K , 68 ° F ) and an absolute pressure of 1 atm ( 14.696 psi , 101.325 kPa ) . This standard is also called normal temperature and pressure ( abbreviated as NTP ) .   The International Standard Metric Conditions for natural gas and similar fluids are 288.15 K and 101.325 kPa .   In industry and commerce , standard conditions for temperature and pressure are often necessary to define the standard reference conditions to express the volumes of gases and liquids and related quantities such as the rate of volumetric flow ( the volumes of gases vary significantly with temperature and pressure ) . However , many technical publications ( books , journals , advertisements for equipment and machinery ) simply state `` standard conditions '' without specifying them , often leading to confusion and errors . Good practice always incorporates the reference conditions of temperature and pressure .

negative: Hampson–Linde cycle The Hampson -- Linde cycle is used in the liquefaction of gases , especially for air separation . William Hampson and Carl von Linde independently filed for patent of the cycle in 1895 .   Hampson-Linde systems introduced regenerative cooling , a positive-feedback cooling system . The heat exchanger arrangement permits an absolute temperature difference ( e.g. J-T cooling for air ) to go beyond a single stage of cooling , and reach the low temperatures required to liquefy `` fixed '' gasses .   The Hampson-Linde cycle differs from the Siemens cycle only in the expansion step . Where the Siemens cycle has the gas do external work to reduce its temperature , the Hampson-Linde cycle relies solely on the Joule-Thomson effect . This has the advantage that the cold side needs no moving parts .

negative: Fluorinated gases Fluorinated gases ( F-gases ) are man-made gases that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries and contribute to a global greenhouse effect . There are four types : hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) and nitrogen trifluoride ( NF3 ) .

negative: Absolute temperature scale Absolute temperature scale can refer to :  Kelvin scale , an absolute-temperature scale related to the Celsius scale  Rankine scale , an absolute-temperature scale related to the Fahrenheit scale   For a type of measuring system that begins at an absolute minimum ( not necessarily a temperature scale ) see :   Absolute scale

negative: John Herapath John Herapath ( 30 May 1790 -- 24 February 1868 ) was an English physicist who gave a partial account of the kinetic theory of gases in 1820 though it was neglected by the scientific community at the time . He was the cousin of William Herapath , the chemist and William Bird Herapath , the physician who discovered herapathite .   Herapath 's scientific interests started with an attempt to provide a mechanistic explanation for gravity . Motivated by his search for a mechanical explanation of gravitation , he started to consider how a system of colliding particles could give rise to action at a distance . In considering the effect of the high temperatures near the Sun on his gravific particles he was led to a relationship between temperature and particle velocity .   Herapath postulated that the momentum of a particle in a gas is a measure of the absolute temperature of the gas . He used momentum , rather than the kinetic energy on which the later established theory is based , as it seemed to him to avoid some difficulties around whether elastic collisions were possible between indivisible atoms . Apparently ignorant of Daniel Bernoulli 's work , he was led to the incorrect , but suggestive , relationship that expresses the product of pressure P and volume V as proportional to the square of his true temperature . The correct relationship is proportional to the absolute temperature , not its square , the error arising from his identification of momentum , rather than energy , with temperature .

negative: David Parker (climatologist) David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England .   He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' .   In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .


query: “Every day, nature puts twenty times as much carbon dioxide into the atmosphere as all of Earth industries.

positive: Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas .   As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product .   Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas .   It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting .   Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .

positive: Nature Nature , in the broadest sense , is the natural , physical , or material world or universe . `` Nature '' can refer to the phenomena of the physical world , and also to life in general . The study of nature is a large part of science . Although humans are part of nature , human activity is often understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena .   The word nature is derived from the Latin word natura , or `` essential qualities , innate disposition '' , and in ancient times , literally meant `` birth '' . Natura is a Latin translation of the Greek word physis , which originally related to the intrinsic characteristics that plants , animals , and other features of the world develop of their own accord . The concept of nature as a whole , the physical universe , is one of several expansions of the original notion ; it began with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre-Socratic philosophers , and has steadily gained currency ever since . This usage continued during the advent of modern scientific method in the last several centuries .   Within the various uses of the word today , `` nature '' often refers to geology and wildlife . Nature can refer to the general realm of living plants and animals , and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects -- the way that particular types of things exist and change of their own accord , such as the weather and geology of the Earth . It is often taken to mean the `` natural environment '' or wilderness -- wild animals , rocks , forest , and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention , or which persist despite human intervention . For example , manufactured objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature , unless qualified as , for example , `` human nature '' or `` the whole of nature '' . This more traditional concept of natural things which can still be found today implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial , with the artificial being understood as that which has been brought into being by a human consciousness or a human mind . Depending on the particular context , the term `` natural '' might also be distinguished from the unnatural or the supernatural .

positive: Coal Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams . The harder forms , such as anthracite coal , can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure . Coal is composed primarily of carbon , along with variable quantities of other elements , chiefly hydrogen , sulfur , oxygen , and nitrogen . A fossil fuel , coal forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat , which in turn is converted into lignite , then sub-bituminous coal , after that bituminous coal , and lastly anthracite . This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time .   Throughout human history , coal has been used as an energy resource , primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat , and is also used for industrial purposes , such as refining metals . Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide , as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases . The extraction of coal , its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change .   Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining . Since 1983 , the world 's top coal producer has been China . In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal -- 47.7 % of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production . In 2015 other large producers were United States ( 813 million tonnes ) , India ( 678 ) , European Union ( 539 ) and Australia ( 503 ) . In 2010 the largest exporters were Australia with 328 million tonnes ( 27.1 % of world coal export ) and Indonesia with 316 million tonnes ( 26.1 % ) , while the largest importers were Japan with 207 million tonnes ( 17.5 % of world coal import ) , China with 195 million tonnes ( 16.6 % ) and South Korea with 126 million tonnes ( 10.7 % ) .

positive: Air pollution Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth 's atmosphere . It may cause diseases , allergies or death in humans ; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops , and may damage the natural or built environment . Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution .   Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world 's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World 's Worst Polluted Places report . According to the 2014 WHO report , air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide , an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

negative: Outline of Venus The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Venus :   Venus -- second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellite . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth .

negative: Carbonate–silicate cycle The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere .   The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) .   The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature .   The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .

negative: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions .   As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas .   An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .

negative: The Nitrogen Fix The Nitrogen Fix is a 1980 science fiction novel by Hal Clement . The plot revolves around a nomadic family in a future where all oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere has combined with nitrogen , so the atmosphere is mostly nitrogen with traces of water , nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide , and the seas are very dilute nitric acid .

negative: Lead carbonate Lead ( II ) carbonate is the chemical compound PbCO3 . It is prepared industrially from lead ( II ) acetate and carbon dioxide .   It occurs naturally as the mineral cerussite .

negative: Mars regional atmospheric modeling system The Mars Regional Atmospheric Modeling System ( MRAMS ) is a computer program that simulates the circulations of the Martian atmosphere at regional and local scales . MRAMS , developed by Scot Rafkin and Timothy Michaels , is derived from the Regional Atmospheric Modeling System ( RAMS ) developed by William R. Cotton and Roger A. Pielke to study atmospheric circulations on the Earth .   Key features of MRAMS include a non-hydrostatic , fully compressible dynamics , explicit bin dust , water , and carbon dioxide ice atmospheric physics model , and a fully prognostic regolith model that includes carbon dioxide deposition and sublimation . Several Mars exploration projects , including the Mars Exploration Rovers , the Phoenix Scout Mission , and the Mars Science Laboratory have used MRAMS to study a variety of atmospheric circulations .

negative: Enhanced weathering Enhanced weathering refers to geoengineering approaches that use the dissolution of natural or artificially created minerals to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Since the carbon dioxide is usually first removed from ocean water , these approaches would attack the problem by first reducing ocean acidification .

negative: SpectraSensors SpectraSensors , Inc. is a manufacturer of optical-based gas sensors for the industrial process , environmental monitoring and clean technology markets . The company 's sensors measure the absorption of laser light at specific wavelengths to detect carbon dioxide and water vapor in industrial process control and environmental monitoring applications . Such applications include non-contact measurement of moisture , carbon dioxide , and other corrosives in the energy industry , petrochemical industry , arsenic and other impurities in drinking water ( Water Quality ) , and airborne water vapor and other atmospheric measurements from commercial aircraft for the U.S. and International Weather Services ( Atmospheric ) . Clean tech applications include identifying and harvesting methane ( CH4 ) as a clean energy source , as well as mounting sensors on commercial airliners to enable real-time monitoring of weather conditions to avoid commercial flight delays totaling $ 1 billion per year in wasted time and fuel .

negative: Mazuku In geology , a mazuku ( Swahili : evil wind ) is a pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside . Mazuku are created when carbon dioxide accumulates in pockets low to the ground . CO2 is heavier than air , which causes it to stay close to the ground , and is also undetectable by human olfactory or visual senses in most conditions .   Mazuku can be related to volcanic activity or to a natural disaster known as a limnic eruption . In the first case , noxious gases are released from the Earth 's crust into the atmosphere , whereas in the second case the gases originate deep in a lake and boil rapidly to the surface . Because of their nature as sporadic and subtle events , few mazuku have been recorded , but there is a growing understanding of them based on historical and fossil evidence .

negative: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .

negative: Capnophile Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide .   Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic .   For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) .   In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .

negative: Huygens (crater) Huygens is an impact crater on Mars named in honour of the Dutch astronomer , mathematician and physicist Christiaan Huygens .   The crater is approximately 456 km in diameter and can be found at 304.4 ° W 14.0 ° S , in the Iapygia quadrangle .   Scientists were delighted to see branched channels in pictures taken with spacecraft that were sent in orbit around Mars . The existence of these channels is strong evidence that much water once flowed on the surface of the planet . Simple organisms may have once lived where water once was . An excellent group of these channels is shown in the picture below from the rim of Huygens taken with THEMIS .   Carbonates ( calcium or iron carbonates ) were discovered in a crater on the rim of Huygens . The impact on the rim exposed material that had been dug up from the impact that created Huygens . These minerals represent evidence that Mars once had a thicker carbon dioxide atmosphere with abundant moisture . Carbonates of these kinds only form when there is a lot of water . They were found with the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars ( CRISM ) instrument on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . Earlier , the instrument had detected clay minerals . The carbonates were found near the clay minerals . Both of these minerals form in wet environments . It is supposed that billions of years ago Mars was much warmer and wetter . At that time , carbonates would have formed from water and the carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere . Later the deposits of carbonate would have been buried . The double impact has now exposed the minerals . Earth has vast carbonate deposits in the form of limestone .

negative: Huronian glaciation The Huronian glaciation ( or Makganyene glaciation ) was a glaciation that extended from 2.4 billion years ago ( Ga ) to 2.1 Ga , during the Siderian and Rhyacian periods of the Paleoproterozoic era . The Huronian glaciation followed after the Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE ) , a time when increased atmospheric oxygen decreased atmospheric methane . The oxygen combined with the methane to form carbon dioxide and water , which does not retain heat as well as methane does .   It is the oldest and longest ice age , occurring at a time when , in a biological sense , only simple , unicellular life existed on Earth . This ice age led to a mass-extinction on Earth .

negative: Water vapor Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds .   Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution .   Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects .

negative: Atmosphere of Venus The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts .   Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia .   Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell .   Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases .   Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization .   On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''

negative: Kenneth Hare Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .

negative: V.E. Zuev Institute of Atmospheric Optics The V.E. Zuev Institute of Atmospheric Optics is a Russian research organisation based in Tomsk . Its purpose is to study the atmosphere . The Laboratory of Optical Signals Propagation gathers satellite data on aerosols , ozone , and Earth reflectivity over Siberia . The Laboratory of Aerosol Optics collects information on temperature , humidity , soot , and atmospheric scattering at Tomsk . The TOR Station measures gas constituents in the atmosphere , in cluding carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide , ozone , nitrogen oxides , methane and hydrogen sulfide at two locations . The Siberian lidar station can measure the temperature in the stratosphere and troposphere . Aerosol particle size is measured by using six different wavelengths for the laser .   The institute was founded in 1969 by Vladimir Yevseyevich Zuev who became its director . The parent organisation was the Laboratory of Infrared Radiations of the Siberian Physical-Technical Institute of the Tomsk State University .   A journal is published called Atmospheric and Oceanic Optics .

negative: Stephen E. Schwartz Stephen E. Schwartz ( born 1941 ) is an atmospheric scientist at Brookhaven National Laboratory . He served from 2004 to 2009 as the Chief Scientist of the Atmospheric Science Program of the United States Department of Energy . The program is charged with developing a comprehensive understanding of how the atmosphere processes energy related trace chemicals , such as nitrogen oxides , sulfur , aerosols and carbon dioxide . The current focus is on aerosols and carbon dioxide .

negative: Klaus Lackner Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 .   Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''

negative: Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 Photoelectrochemical reduction of CO2 is a chemical process whereby carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons by the energy of incident light . This process needs to be catalyzed either homogeneously or heterogeneously in order to proceed , and current research is aimed at developing these catalysts , most of which are semiconducting materials . Semiconducting catalysts provide favourable electron transfer kinetics .   Motivation for research in this area is strong due to the current attention to atmospheric carbon dioxide as the reduction of carbon dioxide would be one route for removal and sequestration . Furthermore , the reduced species may prove to be a valuable feedstock for other processes . If the incident light utilized is solar in nature then this process also potentially represents energy routes which combine renewable energy with CO2 reduction .

negative: TanSat TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) .   TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .

negative: Henry's law In chemistry , Henry 's law is one of the gas laws formulated by the English chemist William Henry , who studied the topic in the early 19th century . In his publication about the quantity of gases absorbed by water , he described the results of his experiments :   ... `` water takes up , of gas condensed by one , two , or more additional atmospheres , a quantity which , ordinarily compressed , would be equal to twice , thrice , & c. the volume absorbed under the common pressure of the atmosphere . ''   In other words , the amount of dissolved gas is proportional to its partial pressure in the gas phase . The proportionality factor is called the Henry 's law constant .   An example where Henry 's law is at play is in the depth-dependent dissolution of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood of underwater divers that changes during decompression , leading to decompression sickness . An everyday example is given by one 's experience with carbonated soft drinks , which contain dissolved carbon dioxide . Before opening , the gas above the drink in its container is almost pure carbon dioxide , at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure . After the bottle is opened , this gas escapes , moving the partial pressure of carbon dioxide above the liquid to be much lower , resulting in degassing as the dissolved carbon dioxide comes out of solution .

negative: Atmosphere of Mars The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km .   The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity .   The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter .   On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost .   On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars .   On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .

negative: Dry ice Dry ice , sometimes referred to as `` cardice '' ( chiefly by British chemists ) , is the solid form of carbon dioxide . It is used primarily as a cooling agent . Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue ( other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere ) . It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable .   Dry ice sublimates at − 78.5 ° C ( − 109.3 ° F ) at Earth atmospheric pressures . This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing ( frostbite ) . While generally not very toxic , the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia ( abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood ) due to buildup in confined locations .

negative: Carbon-13 Carbon-13 ( 13C ) is a natural , stable isotope of carbon with a nucleus containing six protons and seven neutrons . One of the environmental isotopes , it makes up about 1.1 % of all natural carbon on Earth .

negative: Calcium bicarbonate Calcium bicarbonate , also called calcium hydrogen carbonate , has a chemical formula Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 . The term does not refer to a known solid compound ; it exists only in aqueous solution containing the calcium ( Ca2 + ) , bicarbonate ( HCO3 − ) , and carbonate ( CO32 − ) ions , together with dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . The relative concentrations of these carbon-containing species depend on the pH ; bicarbonate predominates within the range 6.36-10 .25 in fresh water .   All waters in contact with the atmosphere absorb carbon dioxide , and as these waters come into contact with rocks and sediments they acquire metal ions , most commonly calcium and magnesium , so most natural waters that come from streams , lakes , and especially wells , can be regarded as dilute solutions of these bicarbonates . These hard waters tend to form carbonate scale in pipes and boilers and they react with soaps to form an undesirable scum .   Attempts to prepare compounds such as calcium bicarbonate by evaporating its solution to dryness invariably yield the solid calcium carbonate , instead : Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ( aq ) → CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) + CaCO3 ( s ) . Very few solid bicarbonates other than those of the alkali metals and ammonium ion are known to exist .   The above reaction is very important to the formation of stalactites , stalagmites , columns , and other speleothems within caves , and for that matter , in the formation of the caves themselves . As water containing carbon dioxide ( including extra CO2 acquired from soil organisms ) passes through limestone or other calcium carbonate-containing minerals , it dissolves part of the calcium carbonate , hence becomes richer in bicarbonate . As the groundwater enters the cave , the excess carbon dioxide is released from the solution of the bicarbonate , causing the much less soluble calcium carbonate to be deposited .   In the reverse process , dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in rainwater ( H2O ) reacts with limestone calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) to form soluble calcium bicarbonate ( Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 ) . This soluble compound is then washed away with the rainwater . This form of weathering is called carbonation .   In medicine , calcium bicarbonate is sometimes administered intravenously to immediately correct the cardiac depressor effects of hypokalemia by increasing calcium concentration in serum , and at the same time , correcting the acid usually present .

negative: Carbon dioxide sensor A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .

negative: Katsuko Saruhashi was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout .

negative: Joseph Kaplan Joseph Kaplan ( September 8 , 1902 -- October 3 , 1991 ) was a Hungarian-born American physicist .   Kaplan was notable for his studies of atmospheric phenomena , for his international activities in geophysics .  Kaplan also participated in efforts to launch the first Earth satellite .  Kaplan was a member of the National Academy of Sciences ,  a fellow of the Institute of Aeronautical Sciences ,  chairman of the U.S. National Committee for the International Geophysical Year ,  the founder and first director of the Institute of Geophysics at the University of California ( later known as the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics ) ,  an aerospace adviser to Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard M. Nixon ,  a recipient of the Smithsonian Institution 's Hodgkins Medal in 1967 ,  the head of the Air Force 's Air Weather Service during World War II ,  a professor and professor emeritus of physics at the University of California , Los Angeles ,  a fellow of American Geophysical Union ,  an honorary member of American Meteorological Society ,  a fellow of American Physical Society ,  an honorary member of National Association of Science Writers , and a founding member of the International Academy of Astronautics .   The Los Angeles Times said that Kaplan was `` a pioneer in the chemistry and physics of the stratosphere '' .  The Baltimore Sun called him `` an expert on auroras and similar lights in the sky '' .  In 1956 , Kaplan warned of anthropogenic climate change . He was quoted in the New York Times saying that `` during the next fifty years industrial burning of coal , oil and gas will produce 1,700 billion tons of new carbon dioxide . If all this carbon dioxide stays in the atmosphere , the slight general warming that has occurred in northern latitudes may be intensified . ''

negative: Boudouard reaction The Boudouard reaction , named after Octave Leopold Boudouard , is the redox reaction of a chemical equilibrium mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide at a given temperature . It is the disproportionation of carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide and graphite or its reverse :  2CO + C   The Boudouard Reaction to form carbon dioxide and carbon is exothermic at all temperatures . However , the standard enthalpy of the Boudouard reaction becomes less negative with increasing temperature , as shown to the side .   While the formation enthalpy of is higher than that of , the formation entropy is much lower . Consequently , the standard free energy of formation of from its component elements is almost constant and independent of the temperature , while the free energy of formation of decreases with temperature . At high temperatures , the forward reaction is therefore endergonic , favoring the ( exergonic ) reverse reaction toward CO , even though the forward reaction is still exothermic .   The effect of temperature on the extent of the Boudouard reaction is indicated better by the value of the equilibrium constant than by the standard free energy of reaction . The value of log10 ( Keq ) for the reaction ( valid between 500 -- ) is :   has a value of zero at .   The implication of the change in Keq with temperature is that a gas containing may form elemental carbon if the mixture cools below a certain temperature . The thermodynamic activity of carbon may be calculated for a / mixture by knowing the partial pressure of each species and the value of Keq . For instance , in a high temperature reducing environment , such as that created for the reduction of iron oxide in a blast furnace or the preparation of carburizing atmospheres , carbon monoxide is the stable oxide of carbon . When a gas rich in is cooled to the point where the activity of carbon exceeds one , the Boudouard Reaction can take place . Carbon monoxide then tends to disproportionate into carbon dioxide and graphite , which forms soot .   In industrial catalysis , this is not just an eyesore ; sooting ( also called coking ) can cause serious and even irreversible damage to catalysts and catalyst beds . This is a problem in the catalytic reforming of petroleum and the steam reforming of natural gas .   The reaction is named after the French chemist , Octave Leopold Boudouard ( 1872 -- 1923 ) , who investigated this equilibrium in 1905 .

negative: Carboxysome Carboxysomes are bacterial organelles consisting of polyhedral protein shells filled with the enzyme Ribulose-1 ,5 - biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase ( RuBisCO ) - the predominant enzyme in carbon fixation and the rate limiting enzyme in the Calvin Cycle-and a carbonic anhydrase . Carboxysomes are thought to have evolved as a consequence of the increase in oxygen concentration in the ancient atmosphere ; this is because oxygen is a competing substrate to carbon dioxide in the RuBisCO reaction . To overcome the inefficiency of RuBisCO , carboxysomes concentrate carbon dioxide inside the shell by means of co-localized carbonic anhydrase activity , which produces carbon dioxide from the bicarbonate that diffuses into the carboxysome . The resulting production of carbon dioxide near RuBisCO decreases the proportion of ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate oxygenation and thereby avoids costly photorespiratory reactions . The surrounding shell provides a barrier to carbon dioxide loss , helping to increase its concentration around RuBisCO . The carboxysome is an essential part of the carbon-concentrating mechanism ( CCM ) .   Carboxysomes are the best studied example of a bacterial microcompartment ( BMC ) , the term for functionally diverse organelles that are alike in having a protein shell .

negative: Climate sensitivity Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered .   Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so .   The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere .   For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter .   The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ .   It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .