query: Around 97% of climate experts agree that humans are causing global warming.

positive: Climate change denial Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism .   Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming .   Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none .   Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks .  The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation .   Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .

positive: Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.  Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

positive: 21st century The 21st century is the current century of the Anno Domini era , in accordance with the Gregorian calendar . It began on January 1 , 2001 and will end on December 31 , 2100 . It is the first century of the 3rd millennium . It is distinct from the time span known as the 2000s , which began on January 1 , 2000 and will end on December 31 , 2099 .

negative: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''

negative: Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity .   Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option .   Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .

negative: Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are :  increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases  global changes to land surface , such as deforestation  increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols .   There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity .   According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence .   Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities :  A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established .  Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual .  Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included .  Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming .   The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .

negative: History of climate change science The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .   Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .

negative: Effects of global warming on humans Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate .   To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative .   The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .

negative: Global warming conspiracy theory A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus .  Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .

negative: Media coverage of global warming Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media.  Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.

negative: Economics of global warming The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge .   One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions .   The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial .   The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) .   One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples .   Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .

negative: Climate change Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming .   Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .

negative: The Real Global Warming Disaster The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated .   From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' .   The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions .   The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .

negative: Public opinion on climate change Public opinion on climate change is the aggregate of attitudes or beliefs held by the adult population concerning the science , economics , and politics of global warming . It is affected by media coverage of climate change .

negative: Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.

negative: Copenhagen Diagnosis The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date .   The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 .   In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are :   Surging Greenhouse gas emissions  Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % .  Human-induced warming  Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun .  Acceleration of melting ice caps  Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise .  Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline  According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 .  Underestimation of changing sea levels  In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted .  Damage due to inaction  A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more .  Turning point must come soon  The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . ''  The Future  By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .

negative: Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally .   Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be .   Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .

negative: International Conference on Climate Change The International Conference on Climate Change is a conference series organized and sponsored by The Heartland Institute which aims to bring together global warming skeptics who `` dispute that the science is settled on the causes , consequences , and policy implications of climate change . ''  The first conference took place in 2008 . As at 2017 there have been twelve conferences . Most of the events have been held in the United States , but there has been one in Australia and two in Germany .

negative: Low-carbon economy A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems .   Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts .   Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .

negative: Climate change in popular culture The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century .   Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .

negative: Climatic Research Unit documents Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations .   The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''

negative: Runaway climate change Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus .   Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .

negative: Effects of climate change The effects of climate change may refer to :  Effects of global warming , the effects of current climate change  Historical impacts of climate change , during the early evolution and history of humans , prior to current global warming

negative: Climate change opinion by country Climate change opinion is the aggregate of public opinion held by the adult population . Cost constraints often restrict surveys to sample only one or two countries from each continent or focus on only one region . Because of differences among questions , wording , and methods -- it is difficult to reliably compare results or to generalize them to opinions held worldwide .   In 2007 -- 2008 , the Gallup Poll surveyed individuals from 128 countries in the first comprehensive study of global opinions . The Gallup Organization aggregated opinion from the adult population fifteen years of age and older , either through the telephone or personal interviews , and in both rural and urban areas except in areas where the safety of interviewer was threatened and in scarcely populated islands . Personal interviews were stratified by population size or geography and cluster sampling was achieved through one or more stages . Although error bounds vary , they were all below ± 6 % with 95 % confidence .   Weighting countries to a 2008 World Bank population estimate , sixty-one percent of individuals worldwide were aware of global warming , developed countries more aware than developing , with Africa the least aware . The median of people perceiving it as a threat was 47 % . Latin America and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change was a result of human activities , while Africa , parts of Asia and the Middle East , and countries from the Former Soviet Union led in the opposite . Awareness often translates to concern , although of those aware , individuals in Europe and developed countries in Asia perceived global warming as a greater threat than others .

negative: Global warming (disambiguation) Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate .   Global warming may also refer to :  Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull  Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins  Global warming game , several games based on the concept   Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .

negative: Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect .   Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture .   It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .

negative: Effects of global warming on human health The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .

negative: Climate change in Europe Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe .  According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown .   European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .

negative: ExxonMobil climate change controversy The ExxonMobil climate change controversy is the controversy around ExxonMobil 's activities related to climate change , especially their promotion of climate change denial . Since the 1970s , ExxonMobil engaged in research , lobbying , advertising , and grant making , some of which were conducted with the purpose of delaying widespread acceptance and action on global warming .   From the late 1970s and through the 1980s , Exxon funded internal and university collaborations , broadly in line with the developing public scientific approach . After the 1980s , the company was a leader in climate change denial , opposing regulations to curtail global warming . ExxonMobil funded organizations critical of the Kyoto Protocol and seeking to undermine public opinion about the scientific consensus that global warming is caused by the burning of fossil fuels . Exxon helped to found and lead the Global Climate Coalition of businesses opposed to the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions .

negative: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .

negative: Ozone depletion and climate change Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books .   There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided .   There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .

negative: Water resources Water resources are sources of water that are potentially useful . Uses of water include agricultural , industrial , household , recreational and environmental activities . The majority of human uses require fresh water .   97 % of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water ; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps . The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater , with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air .   Fresh water is a renewable resource , yet the world 's supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing , with depletion occurring most prominently in Asia , South America and North America , although it is still unclear how much natural renewal balances this usage , and whether ecosystems are threatened . The framework for allocating water resources to water users ( where such a framework exists ) is known as water rights .

negative: Climate ethics Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice .   Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects .   Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .

negative: Media coverage of climate change Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions .   The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 .   A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference .   Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .

negative: Climate engineering Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation .   Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility .   Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy .   Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts .  Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .


query: There seems to be evidence for a link between solar activity and water levels.

positive: Lakes on Mars In summer 1965 , the first close-up pictures from Mars showed a cratered desert with no signs of water . However , over the decades , as more parts of the planet were imaged with better cameras on more sophisticated satellites , Mars showed evidence of past river valleys , lakes , and ice in glaciers and in the ground . It was discovered that the climate of Mars displays huge changes over geologic time because its axis is not stabilized by a large moon , as Earth 's is . Also , some researchers maintain that water could exist for periods of time due to geothermal effects or asteroid impacts .   Besides seeing features that were signs of past water , researchers found other types of evidence for past water . Minerals detected in many locations needed water to form . An instrument in the Mars Odyssey , an orbiting spacecraft , mapped the distribution of water in the near surface . When the Phoenix spacecraft fired its rockets to land in the far north , ice was exposed .   When water enters a large body of water , such as a lake , a delta may form . Many craters and other depressions on Mars show deltas that resemble those on Earth . In addition , if a lake lies in a depression , channels entering it will all stop at the same altitude . Such an arrangement is visible around places on Mars that are supposed to have contained large bodies of water -- including around a possible ocean in the North .   Lake formation has been proposed by various researchers for quite some time . One study found 205 possible closed-basin lakes in craters on Mars . The basins have an inlet valley that cuts the crater rim and flows into the basin , but they have no visible outlet valley . The total volume of the basins is equivalent to a depth of 1.2 meters spread evenly over the Martian surface . However , this amount is a small fraction of the current water ice stores on Mars . Another study found 210 open-basin lakes . These were lakes with both an inlet and an outlet ; hence water must have entered the basin , and reached the height of the outlet . Some of these lakes had volumes similar to Earth 's Caspian Sea , Black Sea , and Lake Baikal .   Moreover , some basins on Mars form part of long chains of lakes . The Naktong/Scamander/Mamers Valles lake-chain system is about 4500 km ( 2800 miles ) long , with a drainage area similar to that of the Missouri-Mississippi rivers . Another , the Samara/Himera Vallis system , is 1800 km long . Many of the long chains of lakes are found in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle .   Some of the lakes appear to have had a high volume as compared to their drainage area ; hence , it is believed that some of the water was groundwater . Further evidence is the existence of knobby material on the basin floors . These knobs can be formed when large amounts of water left the ground .   This article describes some of the places that could have held large lakes .

positive: Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .

positive: Aeolis quadrangle The Aeolis quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) Astrogeology Research Program . The Aeolis quadrangle is also referred to as MC-23 ( Mars Chart-23 ) .  The Aeolis quadrangle covers 180 ° to 225 ° W and 0 ° to 30 ° south on Mars , and contains parts of the regions Elysium Planitia and Terra Cimmeria . A small part of the Medusae Fossae Formation lies in this quadrangle .   The name refers to the name of a floating western island of Aiolos , the ruler of the winds . In Homer 's account , Odysseus received the west wind Zephyr here and kept it in bags , but the wind got out .   It is famous as the site of two spacecraft landings : the Spirit rover landing site in Gusev crater ( January 4 , 2004 ) , and the Curiosity rover in Gale Crater ( August 6 , 2012 ) .   A large , ancient river valley , called Ma'adim Vallis , enters at the south rim of Gusev Crater , so Gusev Crater was believed to be an ancient lake bed . However , it seems that a volcanic flow covered up the lakebed sediments . Apollinaris Patera , a large volcano , lies directly north of Gusev Crater .   Gale Crater , in the northwestern part of the Aeolis quadrangle , is of special interest to geologists because it contains a 2 -- 4 km ( 1.2 -- 2.5 mile ) high mound of layered sedimentary rocks , named `` Mount Sharp '' by NASA in honor of Robert P. Sharp ( 1911 -- 2004 ) , a planetary scientist of early Mars missions . More recently , on 16 May 2012 , `` Mount Sharp '' was officially named Aeolis Mons by the USGS and IAU .   Some regions in the Aeolis quadrangle show inverted relief . In these locations , a stream bed may be a raised feature , instead of a valley . The inverted former stream channels may be caused by the deposition of large rocks or due to cementation . In either case erosion would erode the surrounding land but leave the old channel as a raised ridge because the ridge will be more resistant to erosion   Yardangs are another feature found in this quadrangle They are generally visible as a series of parallel linear ridges , caused by the direction of the prevailing wind .

positive: Gale (crater) Gale is a crater , and probable dry lake on Mars near the northwestern part of the Aeolis quadrangle at . It is 154 km in diameter and estimated to be about 3.5-3 .8 billion years old . The crater was named after Walter Frederick Gale , an amateur astronomer from Sydney , Australia , who observed Mars in the late 19th century . Aeolis Mons is a mountain in the center of Gale and rises 5.5 km high . Aeolis Palus is the plain between the northern wall of Gale and the northern foothills of Aeolis Mons . Peace Vallis , a nearby outflow channel , ` flows ' down from the Gale crater hills to the Aeolis Palus below and seems to have been carved by flowing water .   The NASA Mars rover , Curiosity , of the Mars Science Laboratory ( MSL ) mission , landed in `` Yellowknife '' Quad 51 of Aeolis Palus in Gale at 05:32 UTC August 6 , 2012 . NASA named the landing location Bradbury Landing on August 22 , 2012 . Curiosity is exploring Aeolis Mons and surrounding areas .

negative: Energy Efficient Homes Package The Energy Efficient Homes Package was an Australian government program implemented by the Rudd Government . It was designed by the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet and was administered by the Department of the Environment , Water , Heritage and the Arts . The program consisted of two streams :   Home Insulation Program , which was beset by controversy when the deaths of four workers in separate incidents were linked to the program , and the government under-estimated the level of risk involved ; and  Solar Hot Water Rebate Program .   Other programs that were closely tied in with the Energy Efficient Homes Package were the Green Loans Scheme ( changed to the Green Loans Program and then the Green Start program , and later abolished ) , Living Greener , National Solar Schools , and the National Rainwater and Greywater Initiative ( administered by the Department of Sustainability , Environment , Water , Population and Communities ) .

negative: Prehistory of Sri Lanka This article deals with the prehistory of Sri Lanka since human habitation and covers the Palaeolithic , Mesolithic and early Iron ages until the ancient history of Sri Lanka .   There is evidence of Paleolithic ( Homo erectus ) people in Sri Lanka from about 300,000 BP and possibly even as early as 500,000 BP . There is strong evidence of prehistoric settlements in Sri Lanka by about 125,000 BP . Evidence of a transition between the Mesolithic and the Iron Age is scant .   Fluctuations in sea level led to Sri Lanka being linked to the Indian subcontinent from time to time over the past million years . The last such link occurred about 5000 BC .

negative: Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective Food , Nutrition , Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer : a Global Perspective , also known as the Expert Report , was an expert report published by the World Cancer Research Fund global network in 2007 .  It reviewed all the evidence about the links between cancer and diet , physical activity and body fat and contains 10 recommendations for reducing cancer risk .

negative: Schottky junction solar cell In a basic Schottky-junction ( Schottky-barrier ) solar cell , the interface is formed between a metal and a semiconductor . Traditional solar cells are composed of p-type and n-type semiconductor layers sandwiched together , forming the source of built-in voltage ( a p-n junction ) . Due to differing energy levels between the Fermi level of the metal and the conduction band of the semiconductor , an abrupt potential difference is created , instead of the smooth band transition observed across a p-n junction in a standard solar cell , and this is a Schottky height barrier . Although vulnerable to higher rates of thermionic emission , manufacturing of Schottky barrier solar cells proves to be cost-effective and industrially scalable .   However , recent research has shown thin insulating layers between metal and semiconductors improve solar cell performance , generating interest in metal-insulator-semiconductor Schottky junction solar cells . A thin insulating layer , such as silicon dioxide , can reduce rates of electron-hole pair recombination and dark current by allowing the possibility of minority carriers to tunnel through this layer .   The Schottky-junction is an attempt to increase the efficiency of solar cells by introducing an impurity energy level in the band gap . This impurity can absorb more lower energy photons , which improves the power conversion efficiency of the cell . This type of solar cell allows enhanced light trapping and faster carrier transport compared to more conventional photovoltaic cells .

negative: Flex links Flex links is a network switch feature in Cisco equipment which enables redundancy and load balancing at the layer 2 level . The feature serves as an alternative to Spanning Tree Protocol or link aggregation . A pair of layer 2 interfaces , such as switch ports or port channels has one interface configured as a backup to the other . If the primary link fails , the backup link takes over traffic forwarding .   At any point of time only one interface will be in linkup state and actively forwarding traffic . If the primary link shuts down , the standby link takes up the duty and starts forwarding traffic and becomes the primary link . When the failing link comes back up active , it goes into standby mode and does not participate in traffic forwarding and becomes the backup link . This behaviour can be changed with pre-emption mode which makes the failed link the primary link when it becomes available again .   Load balancing in Flex links work at VLAN level . Both the ports in the Flex link pair can be made to forward traffic simultaneously . One port in the flex links pair can be configured to forward traffic belonging to VLANs 1-50 and the other can forward traffic for VLANs 51-100 . Mutually exclusive VLANs are load sharing the traffic between the Flex link pairs . If one of the ports fails , the other active link forwards all the traffic .

negative: Levi Yissar Levi Yissar was an Israeli engineer and entrepreneur . He built the first prototype Israeli solar water heater . In the 1950s there was a fuel and electricity shortage in the new Israeli state , and the government forbade heating water between 10 p.m. and 6 p.m. . As the situation worsened , Yissar proposed that instead of building more electrical generators , homes should switch to solar water heaters . He built a prototype in his home , and in 1953 he started NerYah Company , Israel 's first commercial manufacturer of solar water heaters . By 1967 around one in twenty households heated their water with the sun and 50,000 solar heaters had been sold . However , cheap oil from Iran and from oil fields captured in the Six-Day War made Israeli electricity cheaper and the demand for solar heaters to drop . Following the energy crisis in the 1970s , the Israeli Knesset passed a law requiring the installation of solar water heaters in all new homes ( except high towers with insufficient roof area ) . As a result , Israel is now the world leader in the use of solar energy per capita ( 3 % of the primary national energy consumption ) .

negative: Link level Link level : In the hierarchical structure of a primary or secondary station , the conceptual level of control or data processing logic that controls the data link .   Note : Link-level functions provide an interface between the station high-level logic and the data link . Link-level functions include ( a ) transmit bit injection and receive bit extraction , ( b ) address and control field interpretation , ( c ) command response generation , transmission and interpretation , and ( d ) frame check sequence computation and interpretation .

negative: Luxovius In Gallo-Roman religion , Luxovios , Latinized as Luxovius was the god of the waters of Luxeuil , worshipped in Gaul . He was a consort of Bricta . The thermal spring sanctuary at Lexeuil produced evidence of the worship of other deities , including the sky-horseman who bears a solar wheel , and Sirona , another deity associated with healing springs .

negative: Solar hot water in New Zealand Solar hot water in New Zealand is increasingly used on both new and existing buildings .   Solar thermal technologies had a sizable initial uptake in the pioneering days of the 1970s . By 2001 more than 40GWhr was produced from solar hot water technologies , equating to 0.1 % of the total electricity consumption in New Zealand .  In 2006 the government announced an investment of $ 15.5 million over the first three and a half years of a five-year Solar Water Heating program to increase the number of solar hot water heating installations . As of 2006 there were about 35,000 solar hot water installations on domestic and commercial buildings .   There are now eleven manufacturers and importers in the industry with most of the collector system being locally made .

negative: Renewable energy in Albania Renewable energy in Albania ranges from biomass , geothermal , hydropower , solar , wind energy in Albania . Albania relies mostly on hydroelectric resources , therefore , it has difficulties when water levels are low . Albania has a great potential for solar , wind , and geothermal energy . The climate in Albania is Mediterranean so it possesses considerable potential for solar energy . Similarly , the mountain elevations provide good areas for wind projects . There is also potential for geothermal energy because Albania has natural wells .

negative: Mukul Kundu Mukul R. Kundu ( 10 February 1930 - 16 June 2010 ) , was an Indian solar physicist , known best as a pioneer of radio observations of the Sun . Early in his career , he showed that the Sun 's 10.7 centimetre radio flux is correlated with the level of ionisation in the Earth 's ionosphere . The 10.7 cm flux is now used as a standard proxy for the level of magnetic activity on the Sun . He served on the editorial board of the journal Solar Physics and was awarded the George Ellery Hale Prize in 2007 .

negative: Religion and personality Viewing religiosity through the lenses of differing personality characteristics provides a relatively empirical way to study a difficult concept . Over time , the act of being religious has been a consistent behavior across almost every culture , and thus provides evidence that our personality can help explain the seeming predisposition that religious people have .   With the ability to use modern , empirically tested personality measures , researchers can link results with religiosity . In linking personality measures with religion , it is possible to quantitatively study results , which can provide insight into how , and why religion is such an important element of being human . However , more research is needed to definitively say that there is a correlation between personality characteristics and religion .

negative: New Cut Landfill Located in Ellicott City , Howard County , Maryland , United States , New Cut Landfill , is also referred to as Worthington Park , Worthington Dog Park , and Worthington Elementary .   Rock Hill College operated a recreation facility named `` Forty Acres on New Cut '' between 1894 and 1922 .   The 83 acre new cut landfill closed in 1980 . In 1985 the county sought bids from a Pennsylvania company to burn methane gas in generators . New Cut groundwater was found to be contaminated from deposits of paint solvents . In 1993 , the county approved installation of city water around New Cut after contaminates including trichloroethane exceeded federal drinking water levels .   In September 2011 , 2,000 solar panels were installed on landfill property converted to parkland and later a solar farm . The panels were paid for by a Maryland Department of Energy Grant .

negative: TRNSYS TRNSYS is a simulation program primarily used in the fields of renewable energy engineering and building simulation for passive as well as active solar design . TRNSYS is a commercial software package developed at the University of Wisconsin . One of its original applications was to perform dynamic simulation of the behaviour of a solar hot water system for a typical meteorological year so that the long-term cost savings of such a system could be ascertained .

negative: HR 7578 HR 7578 ( V4200 Sgr ) is a BY Draconis variable binary star located in the night sky at RA 19h 54m 17s and Dec − 23 ° 56 ′ 28 ″ in the constellation of Sagittarius . The stars have a total Proper Motion of 0.426 '' / yr .   At a distance of 46.4 light Years ( 13.61 ± 1.70 pc ) and an absolute magnitude of 5.46 these stars have a combined apparent magnitude of 6.23 when viewed from earth .   The two stars , aged between 5x108 and 2x109 years old , appear to be remarkably similar . Both seem to be K3 V or K4V class stars . Both stars appear to have a mass of not less than 0.85 ± 0.03 Solar masses , and an abundance of heavier elements .   They seem , on current evidence , to rotate in 16.35 ± 1 days .   The star system is also known as HD 188088 , HIP 97944 , CD − 24 ° 15668 A , Gliese 770 A , YPC 4686.00 and V4200 Sgr .

negative: Solar Decathlon The U.S. Department of Energy Solar Decathlon is an international collegiate competition made up of 10 contests that challenge student teams to design and build full-size , solar-powered houses . The winner of the competition is the team that best blends design excellence and smart energy production with innovation , market potential , and energy and water efficiency .   The first Solar Decathlon was held in 2002 . The competition has since occurred biennially in 2005 , 2007 , 2009 , 2011 , 2013 and 2015 . The Solar Decathlon 2017 will be located in Denver , Colorado , adjacent to the 61st & Peña station on the University of Colorado A line commuter train connecting Denver International Airport to downtown Union Station . In addition to the competition , Solar Decathlon 2017 will also feature a sustainability expo , professional development and consumer workshops , middle-school education events , and a community festival .   Open to the public and free of charge , the Solar Decathlon allows visitors to tour energy - and water-efficient houses , and gather ideas to save energy and conserve water in their own homes .   The Solar Decathlon 2017 competition is presented by the U.S. Department of Energy and administered by Energetics , Incorporated , a subsidiary of VSE Corporation . Previous competitions were administered by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( NREL ) .   Since the first competition in 2002 , the Solar Decathlon has expanded internationally to include four additional worldwide competitions in Europe , China , Latin America and Caribbean , and the Middle East . Solar Decathlon Europe was established under a 2007 memorandum of understanding between the United States and Spain , which hosted competitions in 2010 and 2012 . France hosted in 2014 . The Solar Decathlon China was established with the signing of a memorandum of understanding between the U.S. Department of Energy , China 's National Energy Administration , Peking University and Applied Materials on January 20 , 2011 . The first Solar Decathlon China took place in August 2013 in the city of Datong . The next Solar Decathlon China will take place in summer 2017 and was formed through a memorandum of understanding among the United States Department of Energy , the People 's Republic of China , and the China Overseas Development Corporation .   Solar Decathlon Latin America and Caribbean was established under a memorandum of understanding between the United States Department of Energy and the government of Colombia in 2014 . The first competition was held in Cali in December 2015 .   Solar Decathlon Middle East , to be held in Dubai , United Arab Emirates , in 2018 , was formed by a memorandum of understanding between the United States Department of Energy and the Dubai Electricity and Water Authority in 2015 .

negative: R v Strachan R v Strachan , -LSB- 1988 -RSB- 2 S.C.R. 980 is a leading Supreme Court of Canada decision on the exclusion of evidence under section 24 ( 2 ) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms subsequent to a violation of a Charter right . The Court held that there does not need to be a causal connection between the violation and the evidence , but rather there need only be a temporal link between the two .

negative: Exhibit (legal) An exhibit , in a criminal prosecution or a civil trial , is physical or documentary evidence brought before the jury . The artifact or document itself is presented for the jury 's inspection . Examples may include a weapon allegedly used in the crime , an invoice or written contract , a photograph , or a video recording .   The main concept behind correct evidence handling is that the item recovered is the same as that produced in the court room .   The usual term applied to such handling is `` chain of custody '' . The term denotes the links in the handling of the exhibit in question . For example , details of the item , the place , date , time it was recovered , and by whom it was recovered - the first link . The subsequent links in the chain refer to anyone required to handle the exhibit , mainly for identification purposes . The final link is the production of the item in court . This particular level of auditable handling is paramount when dealing with items of a forensic nature , as it reduces the opportunity for the defense to challenge the authenticity of the item .   The chain of custody can be less stringent when dealing with property which has a unique identifying feature like a serial number . In such a case , the physical security becomes the main concern of the person recovering the item . Such security is normally achieved by booking the item into a central evidence room .   The exhibits in any one law case are often labelled Exhibit A , Exhibit B , Exhibit C , etc. to distinguish between them .

negative: Link Valley, Houston Link Valley is a community in southwestern Houston , Texas that consists of many apartment complexes . In the late 1980s it was nicknamed `` Death Valley '' due to high levels of drug-related and violent crime . Since a 1989 raid Link Valley has not had significant criminal activity .

negative: Trekanten (Stockholm) Trekanten ( The Triangle ) is a small lake in southern-central Stockholm , Sweden .   With a small drainage area with no major feeders and originally lacking natural beauty , Trekanten is today located in a park furnished with an artificial bathing beach and various planted-out fish species . As such it is considered as of great recreational value and is popular for bathing and fishing . In the early 1980s , potable water was begun to be poured into the lake while water from the bottom of the lake was pumped out , operations resulting in a significant reduction in levels of phosphorus but which failed to affect levels of nutrients and oxygen depletion in bottom layers . Levels of lead and copper are among the highest documented in any lake in Stockholm . Whilst the lake flora and fauna is roughly representative for Stockholm , the lake forms an important natural link between the bays Årstaviken and Vinterviken .

negative: Activ Solar Activ Solar GmbH , headquartered in Vienna , Austria was a developer of solar energy . It was engaged in the production of polycrystalline silicon ( polysilicon ) for the solar PV industry and the development of large-scale photovoltaic power stations in Ukraine . The company is a member of the European Photovoltaic Industry Association . In February 2016 , it filed for insolvency .

negative: History of Las Rozas According to some historians Las Rozas de Madrid could have been a Roman mansion or staging-post called Miacum , from which the name Madrid may have derived . This is somewhat speculative , although there is evidence of occupation locally in about the 3rd century of the Common Era when the Roman Empire was active in Spain .   Las Rozas is located on the Roman Military Route between Segovia and Titulcia and eventually to Emerita Augusta , and is adjacent to the Rio Guadarrama , which provided plentiful fresh water all year round . The modern name means ` the clearings ' which may have related to military activity , as the agricultural value if the area is low , and the traditional economic activity seems to have been sheep rearing .   The first document that refers to Las Rozas itself dates from 1376 , although it would appear that the town existed earlier than that . The town of `` Las Rozas '' appears in Volume V of the `` Relaciones Historico-Geografico-Estadisticas '' ( `` Historical , Geographical , and Statistical List '' ) of the towns of Spain that was written during the reign of Felipe II and that is now kept in the library at the El Escorial Monastery .

negative: Metsähovi Radio Observatory The Metsähovi Radio Observatory is an astronomical observatory in Finland , affiliated with the Aalto University . Its main premises are in Metsähovi , Kirkkonummi , 35 kilometers west of the university 's Otaniemi campus .   The observatory currently operates one 13.7 m diameter radio telescope , staffed by some 20 researchers , engineers , research assistants , undergraduate and postgraduate students , and supporting personnel . Operational since 1974 , the observatory is active in the fields of :  Fundamental research in radio astronomy  Development of instruments needed in radio astronomy  Development of methods for radio astronomical measurements  Applied scientific computing  Space research  Education   The equipment at the observatory is focused primarily on extrasolar radio signals between 2 and 150 GHz . The primary subjects of the research are variable quasars , active galaxies , molecular line radiation , geodetic and astronomic very long baseline interferometry as a member of the European VLBI Network . Secondary subjects are solar observations , solar system 22 GHz water maser and spacecraft related analysis .   The observatory observed the near-total Solar eclipse of March 20 , 2015 at 11.2 and 37 GHz .

negative: Barbados–Nigeria relations Barbadian -- Nigerian relations are foreign relations between Barbados and Nigeria . Barbados and Nigeria formally established diplomatic relations on 24 April 1970 . Nigeria is accredited to Barbados from its Embassy in Port of Spain , ( Trinidad and Tobago ) . Currently the Barbadian Government does not have foreign accreditation for Nigeria , however the Nigerian Government has said that it was highly desirous of Barbados establishing an embassy directly to Nigeria .   In 2006 the Governor Otunba Gbenga Daniel of the Nigerian state of Ogun announced that Barbadians would be given free land if they wished to move to Nigeria . Nigeria has pushed for more investment from Barbadian companies and investors and in 2008 for the establishment of direct flights between both nations .   In 2006 Barbadian solar company Aqua Sol Components Ltd. formed a 50-50 joint venture partnership with the Nigerian state of Akwa Ibom . The partnership makes use of Barbados ' experience with solar energy given its high usage of solar hot water heaters across the island . Through the venture , Akwa Ibom hopes to raise the level of solar usage in Nigeria . The deal was facilitated through Commission for Pan-African Affairs within the Barbados Prime Minister 's office .

negative: Wolf 424 Wolf 424 is a binary star system comprising two red dwarf stars at a distance of approximately 14.2 light years from the Sun . It is located in the constellation Virgo , between the stars ε Virginis and ο Virginis .   The close binary nature of this star was discovered by Dutch American astronomer Dirk Reuyl in 1941 , based upon an elongation of the star found in photographs . The two stars in the Wolf 424 system orbit about each other with a semi-major axis of 4.1 AU and an eccentricity of 0.3 . The stars have an orbital period of 15.5 years and have a combined apparent magnitude of about 12.5 .   Wolf 424A is a cool main sequence red dwarf star of approximately 0.14 solar masses ( 147 Jupiters ) and a radius of 0.17 solar radii . Its companion , Wolf 424B , is a cool main sequence red dwarf star of approximately 0.13 solar masses ( 136 Jupiters ) and a radius of 0.14 solar radii . They are two of the dimmest known objects within 15 light years of the Sun . In 1967 , it was discovered that both are flare stars that undergo random increases in luminosity . The system has been designated FL Virginis , and may experience sunspot activity . The stars may undergo variation in the level of flare activity over periods lasting several years .

negative: River Witham The River Witham is a river almost entirely in the county of Lincolnshire in the east of England . It rises south of Grantham close to South Witham at , passes Lincoln at and at Boston , , flows into The Haven , a tidal arm of The Wash , near RSPB Frampton Marsh . The name `` Witham '' seems to be extremely old and of unknown origin . Archaeological and documentary evidence shows the importance of the Witham as a navigation from the Iron Age onwards . From Roman times it was navigable to Lincoln , from where the Fossdyke was constructed to link it to the River Trent . The mouth of the river moved in 1014 following severe flooding , and Boston became important as a port .   From 1142 onwards , sluices were constructed to prevent flooding by the sea , and this culminated in the Great Sluice , which was constructed in 1766 . It maintained river levels above Boston , and helped to scour the channel below it . The land through which the lower river runs has been the subject of much land drainage , and many drains are connected to the Witham by flood doors , which block them off if river levels rise rapidly . The river is navigable from Brayford Pool in Lincoln to Boston . Its locks are at Lincoln , Bardney and the Grand/Great Sluice . Passage through the latter is restricted typically to 12-hour intervals during daylight when the tidal levels are suitable . The river provides access for boaters to the Witham Navigable Drains , to the north of Boston , and to the South Forty-Foot Drain to the south , which was reopened as part of the Fens Waterways Link , a project to link the river to the Nene flowing through the city of Peterborough . From Brayford Pool the Fossdyke Navigation links to the Trent .

negative: Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam is characterized by challenges and achievements . Among the achievements is a substantial increase in access to water supply and sanitation between 1990 and 2010 , nearly universal metering , and increased investment in wastewater treatment since 2007 . Among the challenges are continued widespread water pollution , poor service quality , low access to improved sanitation in rural areas , poor sustainability of rural water systems , insufficient cost recovery for urban sanitation , and the declining availability of foreign grant and soft loan funding as the Vietnamese economy grows and donors shift to loan financing . The government also promotes increased cost recovery through tariff revenues and has created autonomous water utilities at the provincial level , but the policy has had mixed success as tariff levels remain low and some utilities have engaged in activities outside their mandate .

negative: Solar Millennium Solar Millennium is a German globally active company in the renewable energy sector founded in 1998 in Erlangen , Germany , which is specialized in the designing and implementation of solar thermal power plants . The main activities are site selection , project development , planning , design and construction of parabolic trough power plants .

negative: Abengoa Solar Abengoa Solar ( formerly Solúcar Energía ) is a subsidiary of Abengoa . Its primary activities include designing , promotion , financing attainment , construction and operation of solar power stations that use photovoltaics , concentrated photovoltaics , or concentrated solar thermal technologies .

negative: GE Energy Financial Services GE Energy Financial Services ( EFS ) , a division of General Electric ( GE ) , provides financial and technological investment in energy infrastructure projects around the world . EFS is active within industries such as power generation and distribution , oil and gas , pipelines and storage , water , venture capital , and renewable energy . EFS portfolios include deepwater oil and gas exploration in Brazil and water pipeline projects in Jordan .   GE EFS has invested billions of dollars in solar industry . One of their most recent investment is 127-megawatt solar farm in Arlington , Arizona which is about 40 miles west of Phoenix .

negative: Global High-Level Panel on Water and Peace The Global High-Level Panel on Water and Peace was established on 16 November 2015 in Geneva at the initiative of 15 co-convening UN Member States , i.e. Cambodia , Colombia , Costa Rica , Estonia , France , Ghana , Hungary , Jordan , Kazakhstan , Morocco , Oman , Senegal , Slovenia , Spain and . Following the establishment of the Panel and in response to the high interest generated , a Group of Friends on Water and Peace was created in early 2016 . The Geneva Water Hub acts as the Secretariat of both the Panel and the Group of Friends .   The focus of the Panel is the nexus between water and cooperation and maintenance of peace and security . This includes preventive activities and arrangements , such as trans-border water cooperation regimes and institutions , protection of water infrastructure during armed conflicts and water arrangements in the context of post-conflict peace-building .   Following the establishment of the Panel and in response to the high level of interest generated , a Group of Friends on Water and Peace was created in early 2016 . It provides a group of countries with an opportunity to interact with the work of the Panel and offers them a platform for regular dialogue on these issues . The Water Hub acts as the Secretariat of both the Panel and the Group of Friends .   The Global High-Level Panel on Water and Peace will present a set of recommendations at the United Nations General Assembly in September 2017 .

negative: Quay Valley, California Quay Valley is a proposed 75,000-resident solar power city in Kings County , California developed by GROW Land and Water LLC ( originally Kings County Ventures LLC ) , halfway between Los Angeles and San Francisco . In 2008 , the developers of Quay Valley Ranch put the project on hold pending signs of an economic recovery . Planned as the largest new town in California on private land , as of April 2010 , the Quay Valley project was tied up in litigation over water rights and it was unknown at that time if the project would move forward . In 2014 , a court suit about water rights was settled in favor of the project ; a new application for zoning was submitted in February 2015 .   In 2015 , the project is still active , promising construction in 2016 .