query: A recent study in Nature Geoscience, for instance, called into question whether the Arctic’s melting, and in particular its sea ice loss, has been causing winter cooling over Eurasia, another idea that has been swept up in the debate over the jet stream and weather extremes.”

positive: Rossby wave Rossby waves , also known as planetary waves , are a natural phenomenon in the atmosphere and oceans of planets that largely owe their properties to rotation of the planet . Rossby waves are a subset of inertial waves .   Atmospheric Rossby waves on Earth are giant meanders in high-altitude winds that have a major influence on weather . These waves are associated with pressure systems and the jet stream . Oceanic Rossby waves move along the thermocline : the boundary between the warm upper layer and the cold deeper part of the ocean .

positive: Polar amplification Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict .   In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .

positive: Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .

positive: Arctic sea ice decline Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .

negative: Arctic geoengineering Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release .   Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss .   In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .

negative: Arctic Ocean The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean .   Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .

negative: Arctic The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places .   The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .

negative: Arctic policy of Russia The Arctic policy of Russia is the domestic and foreign policy of the Russian Federation with respect to the Russian region of the Arctic . The Russian region of the Arctic is defined in the `` Russian Arctic Policy '' as all Russian possessions located north of the Arctic Circle . ( About one-fifth of Russia 's landmass is north of the Arctic Circle . ) Russia is one of five countries bordering the Arctic Ocean . In 2011 , out of 4 million inhabitants of the Arctic , roughly 2 million lived in arctic Russia , making it the largest arctic country by population . However , in recent years Russia 's Arctic population has been declining .   The main goals of Russia in its Arctic policy are to utilize its natural resources , protect its ecosystems , use the seas as a transportation system in Russia 's interests , and ensure that it remains a zone of peace and cooperation . Russia currently maintains a military presence in the Arctic and has plans to improve it , as well as strengthen the Border Guard/Coast Guard presence there . Using the Arctic for economic gain has been done by Russia for centuries for shipping and fishing . Russia has plans to exploit the large offshore resource deposits in the Arctic . The Northern Sea Route is of particular importance to Russia for transportation , and the Russian Security Council is considering projects for its development . The Security Council also stated a need for increasing investment in Arctic infrastructure .   Russia conducts extensive research in the Arctic region , notably the manned drifting ice stations and the Arktika 2007 expedition , which was the first to reach the seabed at the North Pole . The research is partly aimed to back up Russia 's territorial claims , in particular those related to Russia 's extended continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean .

negative: Extreme weather Extreme weather includes unexpectable , unusual , unpredictable severe or unseasonal weather ; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution -- the range that has been seen in the past . Often , extreme events are based on a location 's recorded weather history and defined as lying in the most unusual ten percent . In recent years some extreme weather events have been attributed to human-induced global warming , with studies indicating an increasing threat from extreme weather in the future .

negative: Penny Ice Cap The Penny Ice Cap is a 6000 km2 ice cap in Auyuittuq National Park of Baffin Island , Nunavut , Canada . It forms a 2000 m high barrier on the Cumberland Peninsula , an area of deep fiords and glaciated valleys . It is a remnant of the last ice age . During the mid-1990s , Canadian researchers studied the glacier 's patterns of freezing and thawing over centuries by drilling ice core samples .   The ice cap has been thinning and its valley glaciers have been retreating in recent decades related to rising summer and winter air temperatures across the eastern Arctic .   The ice cap is named after Captain William Penny , a Whaling captain from Aberdeen in Scotland who pioneered over-wintering with native Inuit at Cumberland Sound in order to be able to start whaling ( in the nineteenth century ) much earlier in the season . He was also engaged by Lady Franklin to search for her husband John , lost with all souls in the search for the North West Passage .

negative: Labyrintovye Islands The Labyrintovye Islands ( Russian : Лабиринтовые острова ; Labyrintovye Ostrova ) is a group of flat islands in the Pyasino Gulf of the Kara Sea . They are located at the mouth of the Pyasina River . Their latitude is 73 ° 50 ' N and its longitude 86 ° 45 ' E.   These islands form a compact group that has been formed by river sediments . Rogozyna ( Ru . Rogozynskogo ) is the largest and southernmost island and it is 15 km in length . Other important islands are Chaek and Bolshoy Labyrintovy . All these islands are marshy and covered with tundra vegetation and lakes .   The sea surrounding the Labyrintovye Islands is covered with pack ice with some polynias in the winter and there are many ice floes even in the summer .   The climate in the area is Arctic , with long bitter winters and a short warmer period which barely allows the ice to melt .   These islands belong to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation .   The Labyrintovye group is part of the Great Arctic State Nature Reserve of Russia and there is much aquatic life in the marshes , especially birds .

negative: Abstract structure An abstract structure in mathematics is a formal object that is defined by a set of laws , properties , and relationships in a way that is logically if not always historically independent of the structure of contingent experiences , for example , those involving physical objects . Abstract structures are studied not only in logic and mathematics but in the fields that apply them , as computer science , and in the studies that reflect on them , such as philosophy and especially the philosophy of mathematics . Indeed , modern mathematics has been defined in a very general sense as the study of abstract structures ( by the Bourbaki group : see discussion there , at algebraic structure and also structure ) .   An abstract structure may be represented ( perhaps with some degree of approximation ) by one or more physical objects -- this is called an implementation or instantiation of the abstract structure . But the abstract structure itself is defined in a way that is not dependent on the properties of any particular implementation .   An abstract structure has a richer structure than a concept or an idea . An abstract structure must include precise rules of behaviour which can be used to determine whether a candidate implementation actually matches the abstract structure in question . Thus we may debate how well a particular government fits the concept of democracy , but there is no room for debate over whether a given sequence of moves is or is not a valid game of chess .

negative: Northern Sea Route The Northern Sea Route ( Се́верный морско́й путь , Severnyy morskoy put , shortened to Севморпуть , Sevmorput ) is a shipping route officially defined by Russian legislation as lying east of Novaya Zemlya and specifically running along the Russian Arctic coast from the Kara Sea , along Siberia , to the Bering Strait . The entire route lies in Arctic waters and within Russia 's Exclusive Economic Zone ( EEZ ) . Parts are free of ice for only two months per year . The overall route on Russia 's side of the Arctic between North Cape and the Bering Strait has been called the Northeast Passage , analogous to the Northwest Passage on the Canada side .   While the Northeast Passage includes all the East Arctic seas and connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans , the Northern Sea Route does not include the Barents Sea , and it therefore does not reach the Atlantic .   Melting Arctic ice caps are likely to increase traffic in and the commercial viability of the Northern Sea Route . One study , for instance , projects , `` remarkable shifts in trade flows between Asia and Europe , diversion of trade within Europe , heavy shipping traffic in the Arctic and a substantial drop in Suez traffic . Projected shifts in trade also imply substantial pressure on an already threatened Arctic ecosystem . ''

negative: Philosophy of space and time Philosophy of space and time is the branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology , epistemology , and character of space and time . While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception , the philosophy of space and time was both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early analytic philosophy . The subject focuses on a number of basic issues , including whether time and space exist independently of the mind , whether they exist independently of one another , what accounts for time 's apparently unidirectional flow , whether times other than the present moment exist , and questions about the nature of identity ( particularly the nature of identity over time ) .

negative: Unit of selection A unit of selection is a biological entity within the hierarchy of biological organization ( for example , an entity such as : a self-reproducing molecule , a gene , a cell , an organism , a group , or a species ) that is subject to natural selection . There is debate among evolutionary biologists about the extent to which evolution has been shaped by selective pressures acting at these different levels .   There is debate over the relative importance of the units themselves . For instance , is it group or individual selection that has driven the evolution of altruism ? Where altruism reduces the fitness of individuals , individual-centered explanations for the evolution of altruism become complex and rely on the use of game theory , for instance ; see kin selection and group selection . There also is debate over the definition of the units themselves , and the roles for selection and replication , and whether these roles may change in the course of evolution .

negative: Extreme Cold Weather Clothing Extreme Cold Weather clothing ECW for short , normally refers to clothing for Arctic or mountainous areas on land . The basic approach is to insulate one 's body from heat loss , and keep liquid water or ice out of the insulation .

negative: Pine Island Glacier Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay .   The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream .   The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force .

negative: Greenland Sea The Greenland Sea is a body of water that borders Greenland to the west , the Svalbard archipelago to the east , Fram Strait and the Arctic Ocean to the north , and the Norwegian Sea and Iceland to the south . The Greenland Sea is often defined as part of the Arctic Ocean , sometimes as part of the Atlantic Ocean . However , definitions of the Arctic Ocean and its seas tend to be imprecise or arbitrary . In general usage the term `` Arctic Ocean '' would exclude the Greenland Sea . In oceanographic studies the Greenland Sea is considered part of the Nordic Seas , along with the Norwegian Sea . The Nordic Seas are the main connection between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans and , as such , could be of great significance in a possible shutdown of thermohaline circulation . In oceanography the Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas are often referred to collectively as the `` Arctic Mediterranean Sea '' , a marginal sea of the Atlantic .   The sea has Arctic climate with regular northern winds and temperatures rarely rising above 0 ° C . It previously contained the Odden ice tongue ( or Odden ) area , which extended eastward from the main East Greenland ice edge in the vicinity of 72 -- 74 ° N during the winter and acted as a key winter ice formation area in the Arctic . The West Ice forms in winter in the Greenland Sea , north of Iceland , between Greenland and Jan Mayen island . It is a major breeding ground of harp seal and hooded seal that has been used for seal hunting for more than 200 years .

negative: Arctic Refuge drilling controversy The question of whether to drill for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ( ANWR ) has been an ongoing political and media controversy in the United States since 1977 .   ANWR comprises 19000000 acre of the north Alaskan coast .  The land is situated between the Beaufort Sea to the north , Brooks Range to the south , and Prudhoe Bay to the west . It is the largest protected wilderness in the United States and was created by Congress under the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 . Section 1002 of that act deferred a decision on the management of oil and gas exploration and development of 1500000 acre in the coastal plain , known as the `` 1002 area '' . The controversy surrounds drilling for oil in this subsection of ANWR .   Much of the debate over whether to drill in the 1002 area of ANWR rests on the amount of economically recoverable oil , as it relates to world oil markets , weighed against the potential harm oil exploration might have upon the natural wildlife , in particular the calving ground of the Porcupine caribou . In their documentary Being Caribou the Porcupine herd was followed in its yearly migration by author and wildlife biologist Karsten Heuer and filmmaker Leanne Allison to provide a broader understanding of what is at stake if the oil drilling should happen , and educating the public .   President Barack Obama once proposed to declare an additional 5 million acres of the refuge as a wilderness area , which would put a total of 12.8 million acres of the refuge permanently off-limits to drilling or other development , including the coastal plain where oil exploration has been sought .

negative: Whalers Bay (Svalbard) Whaler 's Bay is a bay in Svalbard in the Arctic Ocean .   The former whaling grounds to the north of Nordaustlandet ( roughly ) , the second largest island of the Svalbard archipelago are called Whaler 's Bay and the bowhead whale has been abundant in this region .  The West Spitsbergen Current ( WSC ) transports salt and internal energy through Fram Strait into Whaler 's bay . Oceanographic field-studies suggest that the waters on the surface are mainly influenced by atmospheric cooling . Other studies claim that the warm temperature correlates with the sea ice extent in this area .

negative: Winter-over syndrome The winter-over syndrome is a condition found in individuals who `` winter-over '' throughout the Antarctic ( or Arctic ) winter . It has been observed in inhabitants of research stations in Antarctica , as well as in polar bases such as Thule , Alert and Eureka . It consists of a variety of behavioral and medical disturbances , including irritability , depression , insomnia , absentmindedness , aggressive behavior , and irritable bowel syndrome .   Possible contributing causes of winter-over syndrome include stress , social isolation , subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder and polar T3 syndrome .

negative: Zveroboy Islands The Zveroboy Islands ( Остров Зверобой , or Ostrov Zveroboy ) is a group consisting of a large island ( Zveroboy Island ) and a few scattered small islets . The main island is 17 km in length . It is covered with tundra vegetation and has a lake .  This island group is located in the Pyasino Gulf , in the Kara Sea , northeast of Dikson , off the coast of Siberia .   The sea surrounding the Zveroboy Islands is covered with pack ice with some polynias in the winter and there are many ice floes even in the summer .   The climate in the area is Arctic , with long bitter winters and a short warmer period which barely allows the ice to melt .   These islands belong to the Krasnoyarsk Krai administrative division of the Russian Federation .  The Zveroboy group is part of the Great Arctic State Nature Reserve of Russia .

negative: Climate of the Arctic The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer .   The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .

negative: Lake Ojibway Lake Ojibway was a prehistoric lake in what is now northern Ontario and Quebec in Canada . Ojibway was the last of the great proglacial lakes of the last ice age . Comparable in size to Lake Agassiz ( to which it is likely to be linked ) , and north of the Great Lakes , it was at its greatest extent c. 8,500 years BP . The former lakebed forms the modern Clay Belt , an area of fertile land .   Lake Ojibway was relatively short-lived . The lake drained in what must have been a catastrophic and dramatic manner around 8,200 years BP . One hypothesis is that a weakening ice dam separating it from Hudson Bay broke , as the lake was roughly 250 m above sea level . A comparable mechanism produced the Missoula floods that created the channeled scablands of the Columbia River basin .   A recent analysis states it has not been conclusively determined whether the lake drained by a breach of the ice dam , by water spilling over the glacier , or by a flood under the glacier . It is also not conclusively known whether there were one or more pulses , and the route the water took to reach Hudson 's Bay has not been determined .   The draining of Lake Ojibway is a possible cause of the 8.2 kiloyear event , a major global cooling that occurred 8,200 years BP .

negative: Ice shelf An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters .   In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica .   Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss .   Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf .   The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica .   The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .

negative: Climate of Scotland The climate of Scotland is temperate and oceanic ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) , and tends to be very changeable , but not normally extreme . It is warmed by the Gulf Stream from the Atlantic , and given its northerly latitude it is warmer than areas on similar latitudes , for example Labrador in Canada -- where the sea freezes over in winter and icebergs are a common feature in spring and early summer , or Fort McMurray , Canada -- where -35 ° C is not uncommon during winter . Even though most of the country has a temperate climate , the Northern islands and Highlands experience a type of weather close to the climate of the Faroe Islands or Southern Norway .

negative: Weather Weather is the state of the atmosphere , to the degree that it is hot or cold , wet or dry , calm or stormy , clear or cloudy . Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere , the troposphere , just below the stratosphere . Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity , whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time . When used without qualification , `` weather '' is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth .   Weather is driven by air pressure , temperature and moisture differences between one place and another . These differences can occur due to the sun 's angle at any particular spot , which varies with latitude . The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations : the Hadley Cell , the Ferrel Cell , the Polar Cell , and the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow . Because the Earth 's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane , sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year . On Earth 's surface , temperatures usually range ± 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F to 100 ° F ) annually . Over thousands of years , changes in Earth 's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth , thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change .   Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences . Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth 's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant . Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location . The Earth 's weather system is a chaotic system ; as a result , small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole . Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history , and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns .   Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth . A famous landmark in the Solar System , Jupiter 's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years . However , weather is not limited to planetary bodies . A star 's corona is constantly being lost to space , creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System . The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind .

negative: Canadian sovereignty The sovereignty of Canada is a major cultural matter in Canada . Several issues currently define Canadian sovereignty : the Canadian monarchy , telecommunication , the autonomy of provinces , and Canada 's Arctic border .   Canada is a Commonwealth realm , meaning that Queen Elizabeth II is the head of state . However , while several powers are the sovereign 's alone , most of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties in Canada are carried out by the Queen 's representative , the Governor General , as such , the Governor General is sometimes referred to as the de facto head of state . In each of Canada 's provinces the monarch is represented by a lieutenant-governor . The greater autonomy of each province and territory - Canadian federalism - is also important to Canadian sovereignty . Quebec has twice voted about seceding from Canada .   Under Canada 's Telecommunications Act , telecommunication carriers must be nationally owned . The most recent issue affecting Canadian sovereignty has been caused by the melting of Arctic ice . As Arctic ice in Northern Canada has melted , several countries have struggled to come to an agreement on who owns certain areas in the oil-rich Arctic .

negative: Salvadorian Magpie The Salvadorian Magpie is a bird found in Jamaica . It is not related to El Salvador , but the word that means thin winged in Latin . The bird is black and has yellow eyes . In the sun it appears that the bird is a dark blue .   The Salvadorian Magpie was only discovered in the late 20th Century by little know American naturalist and geologist John Hackett . Although the discovery never appeared in official publications it has been a topic of debate by experts in renowned institutions like Kellogg - Chicago . The bird is thought to have fled its natural habitat due to the melting ice of the North Pole - an event also called the Brown Polar Bear Phenomenon . Similar migration of bird species have been witnessed in recent years - like the Pelicans returning to Capistran .

negative: Water sky Water sky is a phenomenon that is closely related to ice blink . It forms in regions with large areas of ice and low-lying clouds and so is limited mostly to the extreme northern and southern sections of earth , in Antarctica and in the Arctic .   When light hits the blue oceans or seas , some of it bounces back and enables the observer to physically see the water . However , some of the light also is reflected back up on to the bottoms of low-lying clouds and causes a dark spot to appear underneath some clouds . These clouds may be visible when the seas are not and can show alert and knowledgeable travelers the general direction of water . The dark clouds over open water have long been used by polar explorers and scientists to navigate in sea ice . For example , Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his assistant Hjalmar Johansen used the phenomenon to find lanes of water in their failed expedition to the North Pole as did Bernacchi and Sir Douglas Mawson in the Antarctica .

negative: Volcano A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object , such as Earth , that allows hot lava , volcanic ash , and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface .   Earth 's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major , rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter , softer layer in its mantle . Therefore , on Earth , volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging , and most are found underwater . For example , a mid-oceanic ridge , such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart ; the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together . Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust 's , e.g. , in the East African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in North America . This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of `` plate hypothesis '' volcanism . Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes . These so-called `` hotspots '' , for example Hawaii , are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core -- mantle boundary , 3,000 km deep in the Earth . Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another .   Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards , not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption . One such hazard is that volcanic ash can be a threat to aircraft , in particular those with jet engines where ash particles can be melted by the high operating temperature ; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape , disrupting the operation of the turbine . Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the sun and cool the Earth 's lower atmosphere ( or troposphere ) ; however , they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth , thereby warming the upper atmosphere ( or stratosphere ) . Historically , so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines .

negative: Data discrimination Data Discrimination is the selective filtering of information by a service provider over a network . This has been an issue in the recent debate over net neutrality . Non-discrimination mandates that one class of customers may not be favored over another so the network that is built is the same and every network user has equal upload and download capabilities .

negative: Ecological Economics (journal) Ecological Economics is a peer-reviewed academic journal published by Elsevier on behalf of the International Society for Ecological Economics . It covers research on ecological economics . The journal was established in 1989 by founding editor-in-chief Robert Costanza . The current editor-in-chief is Richard B. Howarth ( Dartmouth College ) . The journal aims to `` extend and integrate the study and management of nature 's household ( ecology ) and humankind 's household ( economics ) '' .   The contents and management of Ecological Economics as a journal has been controversial . Inge Røpke has cited the expulsion of social ecological economists from the Board by Cutler Cleveland when he became Editor . On taking over in 2008 , Rich Howarth stated his desire for a more inclusive approach , and reappointed some of those previously removed . However , this inclusiveness has also apparently resulted in further loss of focus as the journal seems to accept anything to do with the environment and economics from any field . In particular , questions have been raised by Clive Spash over the direction of the journal and its influence on the broader movement because of the inclusion of much which is mainstream orthodox environmental and resource economics and shows no awareness of debates within ecological economics nor makes any use of its heterodox theoretical foundations . A good example is the work appearing in the journal on climate change as discussed by Anderson and M'Gonigle .

negative: Cordilleran Ice Sheet The Cordilleran ice sheet was a major ice sheet that periodically covered large parts of North America during glacial periods over the last ~ 2.6 million years . This included the following areas :   Western Montana  The Idaho Panhandle  Northern Washington state down to about Olympia and Spokane  All of British Columbia  The southwestern third or so of Yukon Territory  All of the Alaska Panhandle  South Central Alaska  The Alaska Peninsula  Almost all of the continental shelf north of the Strait of Juan de Fuca   The ice sheet covered up to 2.5 million square kilometres at the Last Glacial Maximum and probably more than that in some previous periods , when it may have extended into the northeast extremity of Oregon and the Salmon River Mountains in Idaho . It is probable , though , that its northern margin also migrated south due to the influence of starvation caused by very low levels of precipitation .   At its eastern end the Cordilleran ice sheet merged with the Laurentide ice sheet at the Continental Divide , forming an area of ice that contained one and a half times as much water as the Antarctic ice sheet does today . At its western end it is believed nowadays that several small glacial refugia existed during the last glacial maximum below present sea level in the now-submerged Hecate Strait and on the Brooks Peninsula in northern Vancouver Island . However , evidence of ice-free refugia above present sea level north of the Olympic Peninsula has been refuted by genetic and geological studies since the middle 1990s . The ice sheet faded north of the Alaska Range because the climate was too dry to form glaciers .   Unlike the Laurentide ice sheet , which is believed to have taken as much as eleven thousand years to fully melt , it is believed the Cordilleran ice sheet , except for areas that remain glaciated today , melted very quickly , probably in four thousand years or less . This rapid melting caused such floods as the overflow of Lake Missoula and shaped the topography of the extremely fertile Inland Empire of Eastern Washington .

negative: Centre points of the United Kingdom There has long been debate over the exact location of the geographical centre of the United Kingdom , and its constituent countries , due to the complexity and method of the calculation , such as whether to include offshore islands , and the fact that erosion will cause the position to change over time . There are two main methods of calculating this `` centre '' : either as the centroid of the two-dimensional shape made by the country ( projected to the Airy ellipsoid then flattened using the Transverse Mercator projection ) , or as the point farthest from the boundary of the country ( either the sea , or , in the case of constituent countries , a land border ) . These two methods give quite different answers .

negative: Fluvio-thermal erosion In geomorphology fluvio-thermal erosion is the combined mechanical and thermal erosion of an unfrozen river or stream against ice-rich soils and sediments . The erosional process includes the thawing of ice sediments by a strong water flow and once the surface is unfrozen , mechanical erosion occurs only if hydraulic forces are powerful enough to incise the riverbank material . This kind of erosion sometimes causes the banks to collapse into the river , and when this occurs collapses are commonly controlled by ice wedges . Rivers where this process has been observed include the Lena , the Colville River delta , and the Yukon River .   The Yakutia region in Central Siberia , where the Lena River is located , is an exceptional point of interest to study this type of erosion based on its record low temperatures and extreme thickness of permafrost . During the winter when water level is low , a thick sheet of ice forms on top of the Lena River , that is sometimes as much as 2m thick . Seasonal floods caused by rapid snowmelt and irregular storms then break the ice apart in the summer , exposing the banks of the river to the power of erosion . There are two stages to this process : the first is the breakup of the ice and the second is the flooding . Over the course of just a few days in May or June , water discharge can increase by 10x its velocity . The force of the water causes the ice sitting on top of the river to break apart , and these broken pieces are thrust up onto the riverbanks , sometimes forming an ice barrier that as high as 10m tall that will protect the banks from erosion for a short time . However , as the flood continues , the warmth and mechanical energy from the water melts the ice barrier , giving way for the fluvio-thermal erosion of the frozen riverbanks . For the Lena , the banks are observed to retreat approximately 40m per year .   Based on lab models carried out in a cold room , high water temperature , ice temperature , and discharge are shown to be the main contributors of thermal erosion , whereas high ice content in the soil is shown to slow down the thermal erosion process . Melting of the ice within a porous material reduces the strength of the material , rendering it easily breakable and removable . During the melting period of a periglacial river in the summer , due to a relatively high water discharge , the unfrozen sediments are weathered away . In conclusion , water discharge in permanent contact with permafrost banks creates a combination of thermal and mechanical erosion .


query: Arctic sea ice is also falling at an accelerated rate.

positive: Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .

positive: Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly .   Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. .  Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century .   Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .

positive: Arctic The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places .   The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .

positive: Arctic sea ice decline Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .

negative: Arctic ice pack The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .

negative: Arctic resources race The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) .   The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .

negative: Sea ice Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .

negative: Antarctic sea ice Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not .   Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .

negative: Arctic sea ice ecology and history The Arctic sea ice covers less area in the summer than in the winter . The multi-year ( i.e. perennial ) sea ice covers nearly all of the central deep basins . The Arctic sea ice and its related biota are unique , and the year-round persistence of the ice has allowed the development of ice endemic species , meaning species not found anywhere else .   There are differing scientific opinions about how long perennial sea ice has existed in the Arctic . Estimates range from 120,000 , 700,000 or 4 million years ago .

negative: Arctic Ocean The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean .   Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .

negative: Measurement of sea ice Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe .   The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice .   Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions .

negative: Arctic geoengineering Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release .   Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss .   In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .

negative: Icing (nautical) Icing on ships is a serious hazard where cold temperatures ( below about -10 C ) combined with high wind speed ( typically force 8 or above on the Beaufort scale ) result in spray blown off the sea freezing immediately on contact with the ship . If not frequently knocked off , the ice can soon build up on the ship 's superstructure to a sufficient weight to cause the ship to capsize .   It is typically a problem in Arctic and Antarctic seas , but can also occur in other seas such as the Gulf of Saint Lawrence , the Sea of Japan , the Baltic Sea , and very rarely , the North Sea .

negative: Climate of the Arctic The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer .   The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .

negative: Arctic dipole anomaly The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .

negative: Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 The Great Arctic Cyclone , or `` Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 , '' was an extratropical cyclone which centered on the Arctic Ocean in early August , 2012 . Such storms are rare in the Arctic summer , although common in the winter . The Great Arctic Cyclone was the strongest summer storm and the 13th strongest storm observed at any time since satellite observations began in 1979 .   Although the Great Arctic Cyclone did not cause the record melting of sea ice which occurred in 2012 , turbulence resulting from the storm is believed to have contributed to melting of sea ice due to the rise of warmer saltier water from below .

negative: Transpolar Drift Stream The Transpolar Drift Stream is a major ocean current of the Arctic Ocean , transporting sea ice from the Laptev Sea and the East Siberian Sea towards Fram Strait . Drift experiments with ships like Fram or Tara showed that the drift takes between two and four years .   In 1937 , Pyotr Shirshov at the Soviet drift ice station North Pole-1 described this drift . The stream conveys water in roughly two major routes to the northern Atlantic Ocean at a rate of about 1.5 mi per day . Primarily wind-driven , it flows roughly from the northern coast of Russia and Alaska , sometimes curving toward the Beaufort Sea before exiting to the Atlantic Ocean . It has been cited as a major factor in the North Atlantic Oscillation and Arctic oscillation atmospheric changes . The drift typically takes one of two paths before exiting into the northern Atlantic Ocean .   On decadal and longer timescales , the North Atlantic Oscillation ( NAO ) and the Arctic Oscillation ( AO ) indices affect the flow pattern of the transpolar drift stream . During times of positive NAO ( NAO + ) and positive AO ( AO + ) , there is a weak Arctic high and the associated surface winds produce a cyclonic ( anti-clockwise ) ice drift motion in eastern Arctic Ocean . In this case , the drift flows from the Laptev Sea towards the Beaufort Sea before exiting the Arctic Ocean through the Fram Strait . Conversely , during periods of NAO - and AO - , there is a strong Arctic high and ice motion flows in an anticyclonic ( clockwise ) motion in the Eurasian Basin . In this phase , the drift flows directly from the Laptev Sea through the Fram Strait .

negative: Drift ice Drift ice is any sea ice other than fast ice , the latter being attached ( `` fastened '' ) to the shoreline or other fixed objects ( shoals , grounded icebergs , etc. ) . Drift ice is carried along by winds and sea currents , hence its name . When drift ice is driven together into a large single mass ( > 70 % coverage ) , it is called pack ice . Wind and currents can pile up that ice to form ridges up to several metres in height . These represent a challenge for icebreakers and offshore structures operating in cold oceans and seas .   Drift ice consists of floes , individual pieces of sea ice 20 m or more across . There are names for various floe sizes : small -- 20 m to 100 m ; medium -- 100 m to 500 m ; big -- 500 m to 2000 m ; vast -- 2 km to 10 km ; and giant -- more than 10 km .   Seasonal ice drift in the Sea of Okhotsk by the northern coast of Hokkaidō , Japan has become a tourist attraction of this area with harsh climate , and is one of the 100 Soundscapes of Japan . The Sea of Okhotsk is the southernmost area in the Northern hemisphere where drift ice may be observed .   Drift ice affects :  Security of navigation  Climatic impact ( see Polar ice packs )  Geological impact  Biosphere influence ( see Ecology of sea ice )   The two major ice packs are the Arctic ice pack and the Antarctic ice pack . The most important areas of pack ice are the polar ice packs formed from seawater in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs significantly change their size during seasonal changes of the year . Because of vast amounts of water added to or removed from the oceans and atmosphere , the behavior of polar ice packs has a significant impact on global changes in climate .

negative: Arctic methane emissions Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas .   The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits .   Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .

negative: Polar seas Polar seas is a collective term for the Arctic Ocean ( about 4-5 percent of Earth 's oceans ) and the southern part of the Southern Ocean ( south of Antarctic Convergence , about 10 percent of Earth 's oceans ) . In the coldest years , sea ice can cover around 13 percent of the Earth 's total surface at its maximum , but out of phase in the two hemispheres . The polar seas contain a huge biome with many organisms .   Among the species that inhabit various polar seas and surrounding land areas are polar bear , penguin , reindeer ( caribou ) , muskox , wolverine , ermine , lemming , Arctic hare , Arctic ground squirrel , whale , harp seal , and walrus . These species have unique adaptations to the extreme conditions . Many might be endangered if they can not adapt to changing conditions . Contrary to popular opinion , the World Wildlife Fund studies for polar bears show that this species has prospered since 1950 , attaining five times the numbers found in 1950 . In general , Arctic ecosystems are relatively fragile and slow to recover from serious damage .

negative: Ice-albedo feedback Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming .   The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt .   The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice .   Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .

negative: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years .   The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 .   The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .

negative: Fast ice Fast ice ( also called land-fast ice , landfast ice , and shore-fast ice ) is sea ice that is `` fastened '' to the coastline , to the sea floor along shoals or to grounded icebergs . Fast ice may either grow in place from the sea water or by freezing pieces of drifting ice to the shore or other anchor sites . Unlike drift ( or pack ) ice , fast ice does not move with currents and winds .   The width ( and the presence ) of this ice zone is usually seasonal and depends on ice thickness , topography of the sea floor and islands . It ranges from a few meters to several hundred kilometers . Seaward expansion is a function of a number of factors , notably water depth , shoreline protection , time of year and pressure from the pack ice . The topography of the fast ice varies from smooth and level to rugged ( when submitted to large pressures ) . The ice foot refers to ice that has formed at the shoreline , through multiple freezing of water between ebb tides , and is separated by the remainder of the fast ice surface by tidal cracks . Further away from the coastline , the ice may become anchored to the sea bottom -- it is then referred to as bottomfast ice . Fast ice can survive one or more melting seasons ( i.e. summer ) , in which case it can be designated following the usual age-based categories : first-year , second-year , multiyear . The fast ice boundary is the limit between fast ice and drift ( or pack ) ice -- in places , this boundary may coincide with a shear ridge . Fast ice may be delimited or enclose pressure ridges which extend sufficiently downward so as to be grounded -- these features are known as stamukhi .

negative: Sea ice thickness Sea ice thickness spatial extent , and open water within ice packs can vary rapidly in response to weather and climate . Sea ice concentration are measured by satellites , with the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , and the European Space Agency 's Cryosat-2 satellite to map the thickness and shape of the Earth 's polar ice cover . The sea ice volume is calculated with the Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System ( PIOMAS ) , which blends satellite-observed data , such as sea ice concentrations into model calculations to estimate sea ice thickness and volume . Sea ice thickness determines a number of important fluxes such as heat flux between the air and ocean surface -- see below -- as well as salt and fresh water fluxes between the ocean since saline water ejects much of its salt content when frozen -- see sea ice growth processes . It is also important for navigators on icebreakers since there is an upper limit to the thickness of ice any ship can sail through .

negative: Northern Sea Route The Northern Sea Route ( Се́верный морско́й путь , Severnyy morskoy put , shortened to Севморпуть , Sevmorput ) is a shipping route officially defined by Russian legislation as lying east of Novaya Zemlya and specifically running along the Russian Arctic coast from the Kara Sea , along Siberia , to the Bering Strait . The entire route lies in Arctic waters and within Russia 's Exclusive Economic Zone ( EEZ ) . Parts are free of ice for only two months per year . The overall route on Russia 's side of the Arctic between North Cape and the Bering Strait has been called the Northeast Passage , analogous to the Northwest Passage on the Canada side .   While the Northeast Passage includes all the East Arctic seas and connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans , the Northern Sea Route does not include the Barents Sea , and it therefore does not reach the Atlantic .   Melting Arctic ice caps are likely to increase traffic in and the commercial viability of the Northern Sea Route . One study , for instance , projects , `` remarkable shifts in trade flows between Asia and Europe , diversion of trade within Europe , heavy shipping traffic in the Arctic and a substantial drop in Suez traffic . Projected shifts in trade also imply substantial pressure on an already threatened Arctic ecosystem . ''

negative: Polar ice packs (disambiguation) Polar ice packs may refer to :  Sea ice  Arctic ice pack  Antarctic sea ice

negative: List of research stations in the Arctic A number of governments maintain permanent research stations in the Arctic and these bases are widely distributed . Historically many research stations , also known as Arctic bases or Polar stations , were temporary , while only a few are permanent . Some of these research facilities are constructed on land or on ice that rests on land , while others are drifting ice stations built on the sea ice of the high latitudes of the Arctic Ocean .

negative: Antarctic ice sheet The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there .   In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .

negative: Ice Ice is water frozen into a solid state . Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air , it can appear transparent or a more or less opaque bluish-white color .   In the Solar System , ice is abundant and occurs naturally from as close to the Sun as Mercury to as far away as the Oort cloud objects . Beyond the Solar System , it occurs as interstellar ice . It is abundant on Earth 's surfaceparticularly in the polar regions and above the snow lineand , as a common form of precipitation and deposition , plays a key role in Earth 's water cycle and climate . It falls as snowflakes and hail or occurs as frost , icicles or ice spikes .   Ice molecules can exhibit seventeen or more different phases ( packing geometries ) that depend on temperature and pressure . When water is cooled rapidly ( quenching ) , up to three different types of amorphous ice can form depending on the history of its pressure and temperature . When cooled slowly correlated proton tunneling occurs below 20 K giving rise to macroscopic quantum phenomena . Virtually all the ice on Earth 's surface and in its atmosphere is of a hexagonal crystalline structure denoted as ice I ( spoken as `` ice one h '' ) with minute traces of cubic ice denoted as ice I . The most common phase transition to ice I occurs when liquid water is cooled below at standard atmospheric pressure . It may also be deposited directly by water vapor , as happens in the formation of frost . The transition from ice to water is melting and from ice directly to water vapor is sublimation .   Ice is used in a variety of ways , including cooling , winter sports and ice sculpture .

negative: Greenland Sea The Greenland Sea is a body of water that borders Greenland to the west , the Svalbard archipelago to the east , Fram Strait and the Arctic Ocean to the north , and the Norwegian Sea and Iceland to the south . The Greenland Sea is often defined as part of the Arctic Ocean , sometimes as part of the Atlantic Ocean . However , definitions of the Arctic Ocean and its seas tend to be imprecise or arbitrary . In general usage the term `` Arctic Ocean '' would exclude the Greenland Sea . In oceanographic studies the Greenland Sea is considered part of the Nordic Seas , along with the Norwegian Sea . The Nordic Seas are the main connection between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans and , as such , could be of great significance in a possible shutdown of thermohaline circulation . In oceanography the Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas are often referred to collectively as the `` Arctic Mediterranean Sea '' , a marginal sea of the Atlantic .   The sea has Arctic climate with regular northern winds and temperatures rarely rising above 0 ° C . It previously contained the Odden ice tongue ( or Odden ) area , which extended eastward from the main East Greenland ice edge in the vicinity of 72 -- 74 ° N during the winter and acted as a key winter ice formation area in the Arctic . The West Ice forms in winter in the Greenland Sea , north of Iceland , between Greenland and Jan Mayen island . It is a major breeding ground of harp seal and hooded seal that has been used for seal hunting for more than 200 years .

negative: Grease ice Grease ice is a very thin , soupy layer of frazil crystals clumped together , which makes the ocean surface resemble an oil slick . Grease ice is the second stage in the formation of solid sea ice after ice floes and then frazil ice .   New sea ice formation takes place throughout the winter in the Arctic . The first ice that forms in a polynya are loose ice crystals called frazil ice . If the level of turbulence is sufficient , the frazil ice will be mixed down into the upper layer and form a surface layer of grease ice .   The term ` grease ice ' follows World Meteorological Organization nomenclature . Grease ice differs from ` slush ' , where slush is similarly created by snow falling into the top layer of an ocean basin , river , or lake . The two terms are related due to the process of ice crystals being blown into a polynya which can be the initiation of the grease ice layer , given a minimum level of mixing and cooling of the ocean surface .

negative: Deglaciation Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene .   The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .

negative: Marine transgression A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load .   During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean .   The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .

negative: Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .

negative: Lincoln Sea Lincoln Sea is a body of water in the Arctic Ocean , stretching from Cape Columbia , Canada , in the west to Cape Morris Jesup , Greenland , in the east . The northern limit is defined as the great circle line between those two headlands . It is covered with sea ice throughout the year , the thickest sea ice in the Arctic Ocean , which can be up to 15 m thick . Water depths range from 100 m to 300 m. Water and ice from Lincoln Sea empty into Robeson Channel , the northernmost part of Nares Strait , most of the time .   The sea was named after Robert Todd Lincoln , then United States Secretary of War , on Adolphus W. Greely 's 1881 -- 1884 Arctic expedition into Lady Franklin Bay .   Alert , the northernmost station of Canada , is the only populated place on the shore of Lincoln Sea .   The body of water to the east of Lincoln Sea ( east of Cape Morris Jesup ) is Wandel Sea .

negative: Ice-ice Ice-ice is a disease condition of seaweed . Ice-ice is caused when changes in salinity , ocean temperature and light intensity cause stress to seaweeds , making them produce a `` moist organic substance '' that attracts bacteria in the water and induces the characteristic `` whitening '' and hardening of the seaweed 's tissues . Bacteria involved include those in the Vibrio-Aeromonas and Cytophaga-Flavobacteria complexes . The bacteria lyse epidermal cells and chloroplasts , turning the seaweed tissue white . The disease is known from seaweeds including Kappaphycus alvarezii and Eucheuma denticulatum , economically important sources of carrageenan . In countries where seaweed is harvested as a crop , ice-ice can wreak havoc on yields . Zamboanga , Philippines , had an outbreak of ice-ice in 2004 , and Bali , Indonesia , experienced an outbreak in 2009 . A rise in surface sea temperatures of 2-3 degrees Celsius can trigger ice-ice outbreaks .