Case-law of the European Court of Human Rights
II. RELEVANT DOMESTIC LAW AND PRACTICE A. The Constitution of the Russian Federation 17. Article 59 of the Constitution reads, in the relevant part, as follows: “1. The defence of the Fatherland shall be the duty and obligation of citizens of the Russian Federation. ... 3. A citizen of the Russian Federation shall have the right to replace military service with alternative civilian service in the case that his convictions or religious beliefs preclude military service, and also in other cases provided by the federal law.” B. Civilian Service Act 18. Alternative civilian service in Russia is regulated by the Civilian Service Act, Law No. 113-FZ of 25 July 2002 ( Федеральный закон от 25.07.2002 N 113-ФЗ « Об альтернативной гражданской службе » ). 19. Section 2 of the Act provides that all citizens are entitled to have compulsory military service replaced by its civilian alternative if their personal convictions or religious beliefs conflict with the duty to perform military service. 20. Section 10 ( 1 ) sets out a process by which citizens are assigned to alternative civilian service: an application is lodged for the replacement of military service by civilian service; the application is examined by a military recruitment commission; a medical examination is carried out; and the individual concerned is dispatched to his or her assigned duty station. 21. Section 11 ( 1 ) indicates, inter alia, that individuals are to lodge such applications at least six months before the beginning of their scheduled draft service. Those who enjoy draft deferments ( such as for the purpose of university studies) are to lodge their applications within ten days of such deferment coming to an end. 22. Under section 11 ( 1 ) ( in fine ), individuals have to substantiate that their beliefs are in conflict with the duty to perform military service. 23. An application for the replacement of military service must indicate the reasons and circumstances prompting an individual to lodge it. The request should be accompanied by a curriculum vitae and a personal reference from that individual ’ s place of work and/or study. Other documents may be attached to the application, and the individual may give the names of persons willing to testify in support of his application ( section 11 ( 2 ) ). 24. Section 12 provides that the military recruitment commission should only examine an application for the replacement of military service in the presence of an applicant. The military recruitment commission should consider : oral statements made by an applicant, together with statements by any individuals who have agreed to testify in support of his application; documents provided; and any additional material obtained by the commission. Decisions on applications are to be adopted by a simple majority. Two-thirds of the members of the military recruitment commission must be present in order to constitute a quorum. An application may be dismissed if, inter alia, the documents and other material submitted do not prove that the applicant ’ s personal convictions or beliefs are in conflict with the obligation to serve in the army. Where an application for the replacement of civilian service by military service is dismissed, the commission must produce a reasoned decision and provide a copy thereof to the applicant. 25. All decisions adopted by the military recruitment commission may be challenged before the courts of general jurisdiction under Chapter 22 of the Code of Administrative Procedure. A disputed decision is automatically suspended pending the adoption of a final judgment by a domestic court ( section 15). C. Compulsory Military Service Act 26. Section 2 5 § 1 of the Compulsory Military Service Act, Law No. 53 ‑ FZ of 28 March 2002 ( Федеральный закон от 28.03.1998 N 53-ФЗ «О воинской обязанности и военной службе » ) provides that as a general rule the military draft takes place twice a year : from 1 April until 15 July and from 1 October until 15 December. 27. A military recruitment commission consists of: the head or a deputy head of a municipal entity, who serves as the president of the military recruitment commission; an officer of a military commissariat, who serves as the deputy president of the military recruitment commission; the secretary of the commission; a medical officer responsible for the medical certification of individuals liable to be called up for military service; a representative of a local internal affairs agency ( орган внутренних дел – a police body); a representative of an “ education governing agency ” ( орган, осуществляющий управление в сфере образования ); and a representative of an employment office ( section 27 ( 1). 28. Under section 27 ( 2 ) of the Act, representatives of other agencies and organisations may sit on a military recruitment commission. D. Code of Administrative Procedure 29. Under Article 186 § 1, a judgment becomes final upon the expiry of the time-limit set for parties to lodge an appeal, if that judgment has not been appealed against. Under Article 298 § 1, parties have one month to lodge an appeal from the moment of adoption of a judgment. 30. Article 186 § 2 provides that where an appeal has been lodged, a judgment enters into force on the day on which it is upheld by the appeal court. In the event that the appeal court quashes or modifies the first ‑ instance judgment and adopts a new decision, the latter enters into force immediately. 31. Chapter 22 of the Code of Administrative Procedure governs proceedings whereby individuals challenge decisions and acts by ( or inaction on the part of ) the public authorities. 32. Under Article 226 § 8, domestic courts examine the lawfulness of a challenged decision ( or act / failure to act). Courts are not bound by arguments raised by claimants and are required to fully examine matters listed in paragraphs 9 and 10 of the same Article. In particular, courts must assess whether the rights and freedoms of a claimant were breached, whether domestic authorities acted ultra vires, and whether the requirements regarding ( i ) the grounds for a contested decision (or act/failure to act) and (ii) the procedure by that decision was adopted were observed. 33. Courts are empowered to rule a decision or act ( or failure to act) challenged before them unlawful, in full or in part. In such a case a court may, where necessary, indicate steps required to be made by the relevant authorities in order to remedy a breach of the domestic law and the rights and freedoms of a claimant (Article 227 § 2). E. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 663 of 11 November 2006 34. The Decree lays down procedural arrangements for the organisation of biannual military drafts. Section 22 of the Decree provides that at the end of a draft period a military recruitment commission, inter alia, must cancel all those of its military conscription decisions that have subsequently been overturned during that period by a regional military recruitment commission or a court. 35. The Decree is furthermore complemented by Order of the Minister of Defence no. 400 of 2 October 2007, which specified the procedure to be followed in respect of its implementation. Section 7 of annex no. 33 to the Order provides that upon the end of a draft period all unimplemented military conscription decisions are to be revoked by a regional military recruitment commission. F. Ruling of the Constitutional Court no. 447-O of 17 October 2006 36. Examining the compatibility of section 11 of the Civilian Service Act with the Constitution, the Constitutional Court ruled as follows: “ [It ] is not possible to limit by means of procedural rules an individual ’ s freedom of conscience and religion and, accordingly, his right [to be assigned to ] alternative civilian service .... Therefore, section 11 of the Civilian Service Act ... cannot be interpreted as laying down time - limits ... that cannot be renewed for good reasons.” III. RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL DOCUMENT 37. On 9 April 1987 the Committee of Ministers adopted Recommendation No. R (87) 8 to Member States Regarding Conscientious Objection to Compulsory Military Service, which laid down, inter alia, the following basic principles: “A. Basic principle 1. Anyone liable to conscription for military service who, for compelling reasons of conscience, refuses to be involved in the use of arms, shall have the right to be released from the obligation to perform such service, under the conditions set out hereafter. Such persons may be liable to perform alternative service; B. Procedure 2. States may lay down a suitable procedure for the examination of applications for conscientious objector status or accept a declaration by the person concerned giving his reasons; 3. With a view to the effective application of the principles and rules of this recommendation, persons liable to conscription shall be informed in advance of their rights. For this purpose, the state shall provide them with all relevant information directly or allow the private organisations concerned to furnish that information; 4. Applications for conscientious objector status shall be made in ways and within time-limits to be determined having due regard to the requirement that the procedure for the examination of an application should, as a rule, be completed before the individual concerned is actually conscripted into the armed forces; 5. The examination of applications shall include all the necessary guarantees for a fair procedure; 6. An applicant shall have the right to appeal against the decision at first instance; 7. The appeal authority shall be separate from the military administration and composed in such a manner as to ensure its independence.” THE LAW I. ALLEGED VIOLATION OF ARTICLE 9 OF THE CONVENTION 38. The applicant complained under Article 9 of the Convention that his application for the replacement of his compulsory military service with its civilian alternative had been arbitrarily dismissed. 39. Article 9 of the Convention reads as follows: “1. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief, in worship, teaching, practice and observance. 2. Freedom to manifest one ’ s religion or beliefs shall be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of public safety, for the protection of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.” A. Submissions by the parties 1. The applicant 40. The applicant submitted that the denial of permission for him to perform alternative civilian service had interfered with his right under Article 9 of the Convention. He argued that the interference had not been prescribed by law and had not been necessary in a democratic society because there had been no independent mechanism in Russia for the examination of applications for the replacement of compulsory military service by its civilian alternative and that, in any event, the applicant ’ s application to be assigned to alternative civilian service had not been treated in a manner that had been in full compliance with the domestic procedure. 41. The applicant indicated that the insignificant number of annual applications to be assigned to alterative civil service and the hardships attached to performing that service (such as its lengthier duration and the particular conditions under which such service is performed ) require that all applicants applying for such replacement should be presumed to be sincere in their beliefs. However, the authorities required him to provide evidence to substantiate his convictions. 42. As regards the existence of an effective mechanism for the examination of applications for the replacement of the compulsory military service by civilian service, the applicant submitted that military recruitment commissions in Russia were not independent of the military authorities, given certain aspects of their composition and functioning. 43. In particular, the applicant stressed that the standard composition of a recruitment commission comprised exclusively government officials. Typically they did not contain either any independent experts acting in a personal capacity or members of the public. 44. Furthermore, the applicant indicated that recruitment commissions did not have their own funding and relied heavily on the administrative support of military commissariats. All decision made during recruitment commissions ’ sessions were de facto made by the heads of military commissariats. 45. Referring to the circumstances of his case, the applicant submitted that, contrary to the requirements of the domestic law, he had not been given the full reasoning for the decision of the recruitment commission. That had rendered the subsequent judicial review (see paragraphs 14-16 above) ineffective. 46. The applicant also disagreed with the statistical information provided by the respondent Government. According to the information obtained by the applicant ’ s representative from the St Petersburg Military Commissariat and the St Petersburg City administration, out of 560 applications for alternative civilian service lodged in St Petersburg from 2014 until 2017, only 325 were granted. That ran counter to the information provided by the Government in their observations (see below). 47. He also observed that some of the examples of the domestic courts ’ rulings submitted by the Government (see below) were not relevant to the subject matter of the present case. At the same time, the applicant cited 123 cases considered between 2014 and 2017 where domestic courts had upheld decisions of the military recruitment commissions dismissing applications to be assigned to civilian service. 48. Lastly, the applicant claimed that the judicial review process in Russia was overall ineffective, as courts were not empowered to allow applications for the replacement of military service with civilian service and were forced to return them to the commissions for reconsideration. 2. The Government 49. The Government submitted that the Russian law guaranteed the right of an individual to ask for the replacement of compulsory military service with its civilian alternative. 50. They furthermore stated that there was an effective and independent domestic mechanism in Russia for the examination of replacement applications. Referring to the provisions of the law (see paragraphs 17 ‑ 28 above) they described the composition of military recruitment commissions, and the procedure for the examination of replacement applications. 51. The Government furthermore indicated that the military recruitment commission in the applicant ’ s case had been created by a decree issued by the Governor of St Petersburg. The commission had consisted of seven members. Three of them were representatives of the Ministry of Defence. The remaining four members were independent of the military authorities. 52. Both at the meeting of the recruitment commission on 25 November 2014 and during the court proceedings the applicant had been provided with an opportunity to present his explanations, to submit evidence and to question witnesses in support of his claims. The Government noted that the applicant had failed to secure presence of a witness in his support during the first instance hearing. They further stated that the replacement application had been dismissed, in full compliance with the domestic law, because he had failed to prove that he had held beliefs preventing him from serving in the army. The proceedings had not been tainted by arbitrariness or bias. 53. The Government also provided statistical data on alternative civil service in Russia. According to information from the Ministry of Defence, from 2014 until 2017 individuals had made 4, 110 applications to be assigned to alternative civilian service. Almost 98 % of them had been allowed. 54. As regards judicial review of refusals to replace military service with civilian service, the Government indicated that from 2014 until 2017 courts had allowed forty-four appeals against refusals by military recruitment commissions to allow the replacement of military service with its civilian alternative. 3. Submissions by the third - party intervener 55. The Movement of Conscientious Objectors, a non-governmental organisation working with conscientious objectors in Russia, acting as a third party, argued that recruitment commissions were not independent of the military authorities. Commissions relied on administrative and financial support from commissariats. In practice, the head of each military commissariat made all the decisions and the remaining members simply concurred with him. Procedural rules were quite frequently violated during the commissions ’ sessions. 56. The third-party intervener provided statistics on applications to be assigned to alternative civil service lodged with its assistance from 2015 until 2017. Out of 242 applications only 115 had been allowed. 57. The Movement of Conscientious Objectors also referred to fifty-six domestic court decisions delivered in 2016. Only four of those decisions had allowed appeals against decisions issued by military recruitment commissions. B. Assessment by the Court 1. Admissibility 58. The Court notes that the complaint is not manifestly ill-founded within the meaning of Article 35 § 3 (a) of the Convention. It furthermore notes that it is not inadmissible on any other grounds. It must therefore be declared admissible. 2. Merits (a) The Court ’ s approach in the present case 59. The Court reiterates that opposition to military service, where it is motivated by a serious and insurmountable conflict between the obligation to serve in the army and a person ’ s conscience or his deeply and genuinely held religious or other beliefs, constitutes a conviction or belief of sufficient cogency, seriousness, cohesion and importance to attract the guarantees of Article 9 of the Convention. Whether and to what extent objection to military service falls within the ambit of that provision must be assessed in the light of the particular circumstances of the case (see Bayatyan v. Armenia [GC], no. 23459/03, §110, ECHR 2011 ). 60. The Court furthermore notes that States are bound by primarily negative undertaking to abstain from any interference with the rights guaranteed by Article 9 of the Convention. The Court finds that interference will take place where an individual ’ s request, motivated by religious beliefs or convictions, to be drafted for alternative civilian service is dismissed by national authorities. Such interference will be contrary to Article 9 of the Convention unless it is “ prescribed by law”, pursues one or more of the legitimate aims set out in paragraph 2 and is “necessary in a democratic society” (see, mutatis mutandis, Adyan and Others v. Armenia, no. 75604/11, § 60, 12 October 2017). 61. In this regard, the Court also reiterates that it has previously found that denying an individual an opportunity to perform alternative civilian service would not be necessary in a democratic society within the meaning of Article 9 of the Convention, where, inter alia, this individual had provided solid and convincing reasons justifying his exemption from military service (see Bayatyan, cited above, §§ 125-28) 62. At the same time, the Court is mindful that were an individual requests a special exemption bestowed upon him due to his religious beliefs or convictions, it is not oppressive or in fundamental conflict with freedom of conscience to require some level of substantiation of genuine belief and, if that substantiation is not forthcoming, to reach a negative conclusion ( see Kosteski v. the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, no. 55170/00, § 39, 13 April 2006; Enver Aydemir v. Turkey, no. 26012/11, § 81, 7 June 2016; Papavasilakis v. Greece, no. 66899/14, § 54, 15 September 2016 ). 63. Accordingly, States are allowed to establish procedures to assess the seriousness of the individual ’ s beliefs and to thwart any attempt to abuse the possibility of an exemption on the part of individuals who are in a position to perform their military service (see Papavasilakis, cited above, § 54). At the same time, there is a corresponding positive obligation on domestic authorities to ensure that procedures for establishing whether an applicant is entitled to conscientious objector status are effective and accessible (see Papavasilakis, cited above, §§ 50-53; Savda v. Turkey, no. 42730/05, § 99, 12 June 2012). One of the fundamental conditions for such procedure to be considered effective is the independence of the individuals examining requests for the replacement of military service (see Papavasilakis, cited above, § 60). 64. In the light of the above observations, in order to establish whether the requirements of Article 9 of the Convention were met in the present case the Court will examine, firstly, whether domestic authorities managed to establish an appropriate framework in Russia and, secondly, whether the respondent State complied with their negative obligations in the applicant ’ s case. (b) Positive obligations of the respondent State ( i ) Proceedings before a military commission 65. The Court notes that the Constitution of the Russian Federation expressly provides the general right of conscientious objectors to have their obligatory military service replaced with its civilian alternative (see paragraph 17 above ). 66. The replacement of military service is not unconditional. Applications are subject to the approval of a recruitment commission, in accordance with the provisions of the Civilian Service Act (see paragraphs 18 - 25 above ). In this regard the Court reiterates that an assessment of the seriousness of an individual ’ s convictions cannot in itself be regarded as being contrary to Article 9 of the Convention, given the necessity to identify conscripts who are simply pretending to be conscientious objectors (see Papavasilakis, cited above, § 54). 67. The examination of a replacement application is undertaken by a recruitment commission in the presence of the claimant, who is able to present evidence and witness testimony without any restrictions. A commission is also able to collect on its own motion any information that it deems necessary. 68. The Court furthermore reiterates that one of the fundamental conditions for an investigation to be considered effective is the independence of the individuals conducting it (see Papavasilakis, cited above, § 6 0 ). 69. The Court observes that under the Compulsory Military Service Act (see paragraph 27 above ) a military recruitment commission is composed of at least seven members. Three of them are representatives of the Ministry of Defence. The remaining four members, including the president of the military commission, are officials of public bodies that are structurally independent of the military authorities. 70. It follows that Russian military recruitment commissions are comprised of government officials ( either military or civil ). They do not comprise any civil society experts acting in a personal capacity or members of the public. The Court is mindful that the Compulsory Military Service Act provides for the possibility to have representatives of other agencies and organisations in the composition of recruitment commissions. However, the parties did not provide examples of such cases. 71. Assessing the procedure further, the Court notes that, under the Civilian Service Act, a commission can deliver decisions if no less than two-thirds of its members are present. That could result in situations where the majority of its members are military officials. 72. Therefore, in practice, the composition of a recruitment commission may vary not only from one region to another – it can also change between sessions. While such variability in the composition of the body that is responsible for deciding on replacement applications may be unfortunate, the question for the Court is whether the requirement that the military recruitment commission be independent has been complied with in the specific circumstances of the present case. 73. In this connection, the Court also does not lose sight of the argument put forward both by the applicant and the third- party intervener that recruitment commissions relied heavily on administrative support from military commissariats and it was the heads of commissariats who de facto made all decisions during sessions of recruitment commissions. 74. While it appears that military commissariats indeed provide premises for commissions ’ sessions, nothing suggests that individual members obtain any payments or incentives from the military authorities. They remain employed by their own State agencies and are not subject to any pressure or receive any instructions from the Ministry of Defence. Accordingly, the Court finds that the provision of ordinary administrative support cannot in itself be seen as affecting the independence of a commission ’ s members. 75. Furthermore, the Court considers that the allegation (see the submissions of the applicant and the third party in paragraphs 4 4 and 5 5 above) that members of recruitment commissions did not have true voting powers and that all decisions were de facto made by the heads of the military commissariats is speculative and cannot be regarded as valid in the absence of any credible evidence to support it. ( ii ) Proceedings before the domestic courts 76. The Court observes that all decisions adopted by a military recruitment commission are amenable to an appeal before the national courts of general jurisdiction (see paragraph 25 above ). Courts are vested with broad powers of review with regard to military commissions ’ decisions. Judicial scrutiny covers all matters of fact and law as well as observance of the rights and freedoms of a claimant. Courts are empowered to declare a contested decision unlawful, as well as to order measures to remedy breaches of the law and individual rights and freedoms (see paragraphs 31 - 33 above). 77. The Court furthermore notes that commissions ’ decisions are automatically suspended pending the adoption of a final judgment by a domestic court. This is an important safeguard preventing individuals from being conscripted into military service while court proceedings are still ongoing. 78. The Court is mindful that under the Russian Code of Administrative Procedure a judgment becomes final on the day that it is upheld by an appeal court (see paragraphs 29 and 30 ). Consequently, a two-tier review in cassation proceedings before the regional courts and the Supreme Court has no suspensive effect. However, this would not automatically render cassation proceedings ineffective. Moreover, the applicant never argued that cassation appeal had not in practice been accessible to him or had otherwise been ineffective owing to the lack of any suspensive effect. ( iii ) Statistical information 79. The Court observes that both the applicant and the respondent Government relied on statistical data. However, there was a significant discrepancy between the respective information submitted. 80. According to the applicant, from 2014 until 2017 approximately 60 % of all applications for the replacement of military service lodged in St Petersburg were granted (325 applications out of 560). By contrast, the Government indicated an almost 98 % approval rate regarding such applications for the entire country in the same period, which would amount to a total of approximately eighty-eight dismissals out of 4, 110 replacement applications lodged country-wide. Information provided by the third - party intervener indicated that approximately 50 % of all applications lodged with their assistance were approved in the period in question. 81. The Court is not in a position to determine whether the reasons for such a significant discrepancy were due to the differences in statistical technology or to calculation errors. Nonetheless, all three approaches confirm the absence of institutional bias against individuals seeking the replacement of military service with its civilian alternative. The Court will, therefore, proceed with that in mind. ( iv ) Conclusion 82. To sum up, the Court considers that the existing mechanism in Russia for the examination of applications for the replacement of compulsory military service with its alternative civilian version provides wide scope for an examination of individual circumstances and encompasses sufficient procedural guarantees for a fair procedure as required by international standards (see paragraph 37 ) and the Court ’ s case law (see paragraph 6 3 ). While in practice, in certain circumstances, the composition of a commission may raise doubts as to its independence, the general rule, as can be seen from the regulatory framework and the examples provided by the parties, is that a recruitment commission, given the structural detachment of the majority of its members from the military authorities, satisfies the prima facie requirement of independence (see, a contrario, Papavasilakis, cited above, §§ 61-64). 83. Furthermore, any procedural defects occurring at the commission level could be subsequently remedied during the judicial proceedings, given the scope of the judicial review process and the courts ’ wide powers. 84. Accordingly, the Court concludes that the Russian authorities complied with their positive obligations under Article 9 of the Convention to establish an effective and accessible procedure for determining whether an applicant is entitled to conscientious objector status. (c) Negative obligations of the respondent State 85. The Court reiterates that interference will take place where an individual ’ s request for the replacement of the compulsory military service by civilian service, motivated by serious religious beliefs or convictions, is dismissed by national authorities (see paragraph 6 0 above). 86. The Court furthermore notes that States are generally allowed to assess the seriousness of the individual ’ s beliefs while examining whether he is entitled to conscientious objector status (see paragraphs 62 and 63 above). 87. The Court must retain its supervisory function. It is not its task to evaluate the meaning of an applicant ’ s statements before domestic authorities and the way in which they were interpreted, this being first and foremost the role of the national authorities (see Papavasilakis, cited above, § 58 in fine ). Accordingly, save for the instances of arbitrariness or manifest unreasonableness, the Court will rely on the conclusions reached by an effective domestic mechanism after examination of an individual request. 88. Turning to the circumstances of the present case, the Court observes that the military recruitment commission in the applicant ’ s case had a standard composition and consisted of seven members. Four of them, including the president of the commission, were structurally independent of the Ministry of Defence (see paragraph 10 above). 89. Consequently, the Court is satisfied that the composition of the commission afforded the requisite guarantees of independence to the applicant ( compare Papavasilakis, cited above, § 61). 90. The Court furthermore notes that the applicant ’ s request for the replacement of military service was dismissed by the commission as not sufficiently persuasive. The applicant challenged the dismissal in courts. He did not complain about scarcity of reasons before the national authorities. 91. The domestic courts did not limit the scope of the review to the decision of the commission. The applicant ’ s replacement application was examined anew. The applicant was afforded an opportunity to put forward arguments and to adduce evidence of his beliefs ( including by introducing witness testimony ). However, he did not bring any new evidence or witnesses before the domestic courts. He adduced his curriculum vitae and a letter of recommendation (see paragraphs 12 and 15). 92. Moreover, neither party argued that the judicial proceedings had been tainted by a violation of fair-trial guarantees; nor was there any indication that the courts held any presumptions of facts or of law against the applicant. 93. The Court reiterates that it is not its task to substitute its own assessment of factual evidence for that of the national courts. The Court sees no reason to doubt the domestic authorities ’ assessment of the seriousness of the applicant ’ s convictions. 94. The Court therefore accepts that the applicant has failed to substantiate the existence of a serious and insurmountable conflict between the obligation to serve in the army and his convictions. 95. Accordingly, there has been no violation of Article 9 of the Convention.
The Court held that there had been no violation of Article 9 of the Convention in the applicant’s case. In particular, it could see no reason to doubt the authorities’ assessment of the seriousness of the applicant’s convictions. Indeed, he had not provided sufficient evidence, only submitting a curriculum vitae and a letter of recommendation from his employer, to prove that his opposition to serving in the army was motivated by a serious and insurmountable conflict with his convictions. Overall, the Court found that the framework in Russia for deciding on cases concerning opposition to military service, involving a military commission and the possibility for judicial review, was appropriate. The military commissions satisfied the prima facie requirement of independence, while the courts had wide powers to then review a case if there were any procedural defects at the commission level.