Supreme Court of the United States

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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Supreme Court of the United States</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
				<DIV id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</DIV>				<DIV id="contentSub"></DIV>
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				<DIV id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><DIV class="mw-parser-output"><DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"SCOTUS" redirects here. For other uses, see <A href="/wiki/SCOTUS_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="SCOTUS (disambiguation)">SCOTUS (disambiguation)</A>.</DIV>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;font-size:125%;font-weight:bold"><SPAN class="nowrap">Supreme Court of the United States</SPAN></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.4em; border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;"><A href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="Seal of the United States Supreme Court.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/180px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" width="180" height="180" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/270px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/360px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Established</TH>
<TD>March 4, 1789<SPAN class="noprint"><BR />
(228 years ago)</SPAN><SPAN style="display:none"> (<SPAN class="bday dtstart published updated">1789-03-04</SPAN>)</SPAN><SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Country</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Location</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</A>, United States</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row"><A href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</A></TH>
<TD><SPAN class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><A class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&params=38_53_26_N_77_00_16_W_"><SPAN class="geo-default"><SPAN class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><SPAN class="latitude">38°53′26″N</SPAN> <SPAN class="longitude">77°00′16″W</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="geo-multi-punct"> / </SPAN><SPAN class="geo-nondefault"><SPAN class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">38.89056°N 77.00444°W</SPAN><SPAN style="display:none"> / <SPAN class="geo">38.89056; -77.00444</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></A></SPAN><SPAN style="font-size: small;"><SPAN id="coordinates"><A href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</A>: <SPAN class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><A class="external text" href="//tools.wmflabs.org/geohack/geohack.php?pagename=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&params=38_53_26_N_77_00_16_W_"><SPAN class="geo-default"><SPAN class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><SPAN class="latitude">38°53′26″N</SPAN> <SPAN class="longitude">77°00′16″W</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="geo-multi-punct"> / </SPAN><SPAN class="geo-nondefault"><SPAN class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">38.89056°N 77.00444°W</SPAN><SPAN style="display:none"> / <SPAN class="geo">38.89056; -77.00444</SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></A></SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Composition method</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Presidential</A> nomination with <A href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</A> <A href="/wiki/Advice_and_consent" title="Advice and consent">confirmation</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Authorized by</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Judge term length</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#Tenure" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Life tenure</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row"><ABBR title="Number">No.</ABBR> of positions</TH>
<TD>9, <A href="#Size_of_the_Court">by statute</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Website</TH>
<TD><SPAN class="url"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov">www<WBR />.supremecourt<WBR />.gov</A></SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background-color: #E7E7FF; border-top:solid 1px #aaa;"><A href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice of the United States</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Currently</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John G. Roberts</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row">Since</TH>
<TD>September 29, 2005</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<TABLE class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">This article is part of the series on the</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><A class="mw-selflink selflink">United States<BR />
Supreme Court</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH class="navbox-title" style="padding:0.1em">The Court</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD class="plainlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;text-align:center">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lists_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" title="Lists of United States Supreme Court cases">Decisions</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Procedures_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States">Procedure</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="History of the Supreme Court of the United States">History</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">Court Building</A></LI>
</UL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH class="navbox-title" style="padding:0.1em">Current membership</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD class="plainlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left">
<DL>
<DT><A href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</A></DT>
<DD><A href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</A></DD>
<DT><A href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</A></DT>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</A></DD>
<DT><A href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#Retired_associate_justices" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Retired Associate Justices</A></DT>
<DD><A href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John Paul Stevens</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">David Souter</A></DD>
</DL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH class="navbox-title" style="padding:0.1em">All members</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD class="plainlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left">
<DL>
<DT><A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of all members</A></DT>
<DD><A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_court_composition" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition">by court</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_seat" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by seat">by seat</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices_by_time_in_office" title="List of United States Supreme Court Justices by time in office">by time in office</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_attended_by_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices" title="List of law schools attended by United States Supreme Court Justices">by education</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Succession of the Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">Succession</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">Timeline</A></DD>
<DT><A href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States#List_of_Chief_Justices" title="Chief Justice of the United States">List of Chief Justices</A></DT>
<DT><A href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#List_of_Associate_Justices" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of Associate Justices</A></DT>
<DT>Specialty lists</DT>
<DD><A href="/wiki/List_of_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">All nominations</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Unsuccessful_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Unsuccessful nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">Unsuccessful nominations</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/List_of_people_nominated_to_U.S._Supreme_Court_in_last_year_of_presidency" title="List of people nominated to U.S. Supreme Court in last year of presidency">Nominations late in presidency</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States">Court demographics</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices_who_also_served_in_Congress" title="List of United States Supreme Court Justices who also served in Congress">Justices who served in Congress</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Ideological_leanings_of_U.S._Supreme_Court_justices" title="Ideological leanings of U.S. Supreme Court justices">Ideological leanings of justices</A></DD>
</DL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH class="navbox-title" style="padding:0.1em">Court functionaries</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD class="plainlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;text-align:center">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Clerk_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States">Clerks</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reporter_of_Decisions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States">Reporter of Decisions</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Police" title="Supreme Court Police">Supreme Court Police</A></LI>
</UL>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
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<P>The <B>Supreme Court of the United States</B> is the <A href="/wiki/Supreme_court" title="Supreme court">highest</A> <A href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal court of the United States</A>. Established pursuant to <A href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article Three of the United States Constitution</A> in 1789, it has ultimate (and largely <A href="/wiki/Procedures_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States">discretionary</A>) <A href="/wiki/Appellate_jurisdiction" title="Appellate jurisdiction">appellate jurisdiction</A> over all federal courts and <A href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">state court</A> cases involving issues of <A href="/wiki/U.S._federal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. federal law">federal law</A> plus <A href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original jurisdiction</A> over a small range of cases. In the <A href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">legal system of the United States</A>, the Supreme Court is generally the final interpreter of <A href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">federal law</A> including the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</A>, but it may act only within the context of a case, in which it has jurisdiction. The Court may decide cases having political overtones but does not have power to decide <A href="/wiki/Justiciability" title="Justiciability">nonjusticiable</A> <A href="/wiki/Political_question" title="Political question">political questions</A>, and <A href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">its enforcement arm</A> is in the executive rather than judicial branch of government.</P>
<P>According to federal statute, the Court normally consists of the <A href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice of the United States</A> and eight <A href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">associate justices</A> who are nominated by the <A href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</A> and confirmed by the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</A>. Once appointed, justices have <A href="/wiki/Life_tenure" title="Life tenure">lifetime tenure</A> unless they resign, retire, or are removed after <A href="/wiki/Impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Impeachment in the United States">impeachment</A> (though no justice has ever been removed).<SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP> In modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having <A href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States#Courts" title="Conservatism in the United States">conservative</A>, <A href="/wiki/Moderate" title="Moderate">moderate</A>, or <A href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_the_United_States#Courts" title="Liberalism in the United States">liberal</A> <A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" title="Philosophy of law">philosophies of law</A> and of <A href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">judicial interpretation</A>. Each justice has one vote, and it is worth noting that while a far greater number of cases in recent history have been decided unanimously, decisions in cases of the highest profile have often come down to just one single vote, thereby exposing the justices' ideological beliefs that track with those philosophical or political categories. The Court meets in the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">Supreme Court Building</A> in <A href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</A></P>
<P>The Supreme Court is sometimes colloquially referred to as <I>SCOTUS</I> (<I><B>S</B></I>upreme <I><B>C</B></I>ourt <I><B>o</B></I>f <I><B>t</B></I>he <I><B>U</B></I>nited <I><B>S</B></I>tates) similar to and in line with other <A href="/wiki/Acronyms" class="mw-redirect" title="Acronyms">acronyms</A> such as <I><A href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">POTUS</A></I> (<I><B>P</B></I>resident <I><B>o</B></I>f <I><B>t</B></I>he <I><B>U</B></I>nited <I><B>S</B></I>tates).<SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP></P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#History"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">History</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><A href="#Earliest_beginnings_to_Marshall"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Earliest beginnings to Marshall</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#From_Taney_to_Taft"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">From Taney to Taft</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#The_New_Deal_era"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">The New Deal era</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><A href="#Warren_and_Burger"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Warren and Burger</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><A href="#Rehnquist_and_Roberts"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Rehnquist and Roberts</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><A href="#Composition"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Composition</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><A href="#Size_of_the_Court"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Size of the Court</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><A href="#Appointment_and_confirmation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Appointment and confirmation</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><A href="#Recess_appointments"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Recess appointments</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Tenure"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Tenure</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><A href="#Membership"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Membership</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><A href="#Current_justices"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Current justices</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><A href="#Court_demographics"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Court demographics</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><A href="#Retired_justices"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Retired justices</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><A href="#Seniority_and_seating"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Seniority and seating</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><A href="#Salary"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Salary</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><A href="#Judicial_leanings"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Judicial leanings</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><A href="#Facilities"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Facilities</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><A href="#Jurisdiction"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Jurisdiction</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><A href="#Justices_as_Circuit_Justices"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Justices as Circuit Justices</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><A href="#Process"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Process</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><A href="#Case_selection"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Case selection</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><A href="#Oral_argument"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Oral argument</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><A href="#Supreme_Court_bar"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Supreme Court bar</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><A href="#Decision"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Decision</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><A href="#Published_opinions"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Published opinions</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><A href="#Citations_to_published_opinions"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.5.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Citations to published opinions</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><A href="#Institutional_powers_and_constraints"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Institutional powers and constraints</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><A href="#Law_clerks"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Law clerks</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><A href="#Politicization_of_the_Court"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Politicization of the Court</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><A href="#Criticism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Criticism</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><A href="#Judicial_activism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Judicial activism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><A href="#Failing_to_protect_individual_rights"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Failing to protect individual rights</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><A href="#Supreme_Court_has_too_much_power"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Supreme Court has too much power</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><A href="#Courts_are_poor_check_on_executive_power"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Courts are poor check on executive power</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><A href="#Federal_versus_state_power"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Federal versus state power</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-38"><A href="#Secretive_proceedings"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Secretive proceedings</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><A href="#Judicial_interference_in_political_disputes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Judicial interference in political disputes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><A href="#Not_choosing_enough_cases_to_review"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Not choosing enough cases to review</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><A href="#Lifetime_tenure"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Lifetime tenure</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><A href="#Accepting_gifts"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9.10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Accepting gifts</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-45"><A href="#Bibliography"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Bibliography</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-46"><A href="#Further_reading"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Further reading</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-47"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">13</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="History">History</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="History of the Supreme Court of the United States">History of the Supreme Court of the United States</A></DIV>
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Supreme Court of the United States</DIV>
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<P>The ratification of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</A> established the Supreme Court in 1789. Its powers are detailed in <A href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article Three of the Constitution</A>. The Supreme Court was the only court specifically established by the Constitution while all other federal courts were created by <A href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</A>. Congress is also responsible for conferring the title of "justice" to its members, who are known to scold lawyers for inaccurately referring to them as "judge", even though it is the term used in the Constitution.<SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Court first convened on February 2, 1790<SUP id="cite_ref-overview_5-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-overview-5">[5]</A></SUP> with six judges where only five of its six initial positions were filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session: "[T]he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the <A href="/wiki/Royal_Exchange,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Exchange, New York">Royal Exchange Building</A> on Broad Street, a few steps from Federal Hall. Symbolically, the moment was pregnant with promise for the republic, this birth of a new national institution whose future power, admittedly, still existed only in the eyes and minds of just a few visionary Americans. Impressively bewigged and swathed in their robes of office, Chief Justice John Jay and three associate justices — William Cushing of Massachusetts, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, and John Blair of Virginia — sat augustly before a throng of spectators and waited for something to happen. Nothing did. They had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, and everyone went home."<SUP id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-6">[6]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The sixth member, <A href="/wiki/James_Iredell" title="James Iredell">James Iredell</A>, was not confirmed until May 12, 1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was also made by two-thirds (voting four to two).<SUP id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-7">[7]</A></SUP> However, Congress has always allowed less than the Court's full membership to make decisions, starting with a <A href="/wiki/Quorum" title="Quorum">quorum</A> of four justices in 1789.<SUP id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-8">[8]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Earliest_beginnings_to_Marshall">Earliest beginnings to Marshall</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Earliest beginnings to Marshall">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Jay_Court" title="Jay Court">Jay Court</A>, <A href="/wiki/Rutledge_Court" title="Rutledge Court">Rutledge Court</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Court" title="Ellsworth Court">Ellsworth Court</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">Marshall Court</A></DIV>
<P>Under Chief Justices <A href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">Jay</A>, <A href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">Rutledge</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Ellsworth</A> (1789–1801), the Court heard few cases; its first decision was <I><A href="/wiki/West_v._Barnes" title="West v. Barnes">West v. Barnes</A></I> (1791), a case involving a procedural issue.<SUP id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-9">[9]</A></SUP> The Court lacked a home of its own and had little prestige,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct01_10-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct01-10">[10]</A></SUP> a situation not helped by the highest-profile case of the era, <I><A href="/wiki/Chisholm_v._Georgia" title="Chisholm v. Georgia">Chisholm v. Georgia</A></I> (1793), which was reversed within two years by the adoption of the <A href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-11">[11]</A></SUP></P>
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Chief Justice Marshall</DIV>
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<P>The Court's power and prestige grew substantially during the <A href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">Marshall</A> Court (1801–35).<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct02_12-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct02-12">[12]</A></SUP> Under Marshall, the Court established the power of <A href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">judicial review</A> over acts of Congress,<SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[13]</A></SUP> including specifying itself as the supreme expositor of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</A></I>)<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct05_14-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct05-14">[14]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct09_15-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct09-15">[15]</A></SUP> and made several important constitutional rulings giving shape and substance to the <A href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" title="Balance of power (federalism)">balance of power</A> between the federal government and the states (prominently, <I><A href="/wiki/Martin_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Martin v. Hunter's Lessee">Martin v. Hunter's Lessee</A></I>, <I><A href="/wiki/McCulloch_v._Maryland" title="McCulloch v. Maryland">McCulloch v. Maryland</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Gibbons_v._Ogden" title="Gibbons v. Ogden">Gibbons v. Ogden</A></I>).<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct03_16-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct03-16">[16]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct08_17-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct08-17">[17]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct04_18-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct04-18">[18]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct06_19-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct06-19">[19]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion <I><A href="/wiki/Seriatim" title="Seriatim">seriatim</A></I>,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct11_20-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct11-20">[20]</A></SUP> a remnant of British tradition,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct10_21-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct10-21">[21]</A></SUP> and instead issuing a single majority opinion.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct11_20-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct11-20">[20]</A></SUP> Also during Marshall's tenure, although beyond the Court's control, the impeachment and acquittal of Justice <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Samuel Chase</A> in 1804–05 helped cement the principle of <A href="/wiki/Judicial_independence" title="Judicial independence">judicial independence</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct12_22-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct12-22">[22]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct13_23-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct13-23">[23]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="From_Taney_to_Taft">From Taney to Taft</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: From Taney to Taft">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Taney_Court" title="Taney Court">Taney Court</A>, <A href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">Chase Court</A>, <A href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">Waite Court</A>, <A href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">Fuller Court</A>, <A href="/wiki/White_Court_(judges)" title="White Court (judges)">White Court</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">Taft Court</A></DIV>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Taney</A> Court (1836–64) made several important rulings, such as <I><A href="/wiki/Sheldon_v._Sill" title="Sheldon v. Sill">Sheldon v. Sill</A></I>, which held that while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, it may limit the jurisdiction of the lower federal courts to prevent <I>them</I> from hearing cases dealing with certain subjects.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct16_24-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct16-24">[24]</A></SUP> Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in <I><A href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</A></I>,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct21_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct21-25">[25]</A></SUP> which helped precipitate the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Civil War">Civil War</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws4494_26-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws4494-26">[26]</A></SUP> In the <A href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction era of the United States">Reconstruction era</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Chase</A>, <A href="/wiki/Morrison_Waite" title="Morrison Waite">Waite</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Melville_Fuller" title="Melville Fuller">Fuller</A> Courts (1864–1910) interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct06_19-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct06-19">[19]</A></SUP> and developed the doctrine of <A href="/wiki/Substantive_due_process" title="Substantive due process">substantive due process</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</A></I>;<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct24_27-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct24-27">[27]</A></SUP> <I><A href="/wiki/Adair_v._United_States" title="Adair v. United States">Adair v. United States</A></I>).<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct100_28-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct100-28">[28]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Under the <A href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">White</A> and <A href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft</A> Courts (1910–30), the Court held that the <A href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</A> had <A href="/wiki/Incorporation_(Bill_of_Rights)" class="mw-redirect" title="Incorporation (Bill of Rights)">incorporated</A> some guarantees of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</A> against the states (<I><A href="/wiki/Gitlow_v._New_York" title="Gitlow v. New York">Gitlow v. New York</A></I>),<SUP id="cite_ref-twsff4frj_29-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-twsff4frj-29">[29]</A></SUP> grappled with the new <A href="/wiki/Antitrust" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitrust">antitrust</A> statutes (<I><A href="/wiki/Standard_Oil_Co._of_New_Jersey_v._United_States" title="Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States">Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States</A></I>), upheld the constitutionality of <A href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_States" title="Conscription in the United States">military conscription</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/Selective_Draft_Law_Cases" title="Selective Draft Law Cases">Selective Draft Law Cases</A></I>)<SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[30]</A></SUP> and brought the substantive due process doctrine to its first apogee (<I><A href="/wiki/Adkins_v._Children%27s_Hospital" title="Adkins v. Children's Hospital">Adkins v. Children's Hospital</A></I>).<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct101_31-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct101-31">[31]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="The_New_Deal_era">The New Deal era</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The New Deal era">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">Hughes Court</A>, <A href="/wiki/Stone_Court_(judges)" title="Stone Court (judges)">Stone Court</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">Vinson Court</A></DIV>
<P>During the <A href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</A>, <A href="/wiki/Harlan_Fiske_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan Fiske Stone">Stone</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Vinson</A> Courts (1930–53), the Court gained <A href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_building" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court building">its own accommodation</A> in 1935<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct_32-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct-32">[32]</A></SUP> and <A href="/wiki/The_switch_in_time_that_saved_nine" title="The switch in time that saved nine">changed its interpretation of the Constitution</A>, giving a broader reading to the powers of the federal government to facilitate President <A href="/wiki/Franklin_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Roosevelt">Franklin Roosevelt</A>'s <A href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</A> (most prominently <I><A href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co._v._Parrish" title="West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish</A>, <A href="/wiki/Wickard_v._Filburn" title="Wickard v. Filburn">Wickard v. Filburn</A></I>, <I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Darby" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. Darby">United States v. Darby</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Butler" title="United States v. Butler">United States v. Butler</A></I>).<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct103_33-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct103-33">[33]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct107_34-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct107-34">[34]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct109_35-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct109-35">[35]</A></SUP> During <A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</A>, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens (<I><A href="/wiki/Korematsu_v._United_States" title="Korematsu v. United States">Korematsu v. United States</A></I>) and the mandatory pledge of allegiance (<I><A href="/wiki/Minersville_School_District_v._Gobitis" title="Minersville School District v. Gobitis">Minersville School District v. Gobitis</A></I>). Nevertheless, <I>Gobitis</I> was soon repudiated (<I><A href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_Board_of_Education_v._Barnette" title="West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette">West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette</A></I>), and the <I><A href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Steel Seizure Case</A></I> restricted the pro-government trend.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Warren_and_Burger">Warren and Burger</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Warren and Burger">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</A> and <A href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">Burger Court</A></DIV>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Warren</A> Court (1953–69) dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional <A href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct110_36-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct110-36">[36]</A></SUP> It held that <A href="/wiki/Desegregation" title="Desegregation">segregation in public schools</A> violates <A href="/wiki/Equal_protection_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Equal protection clause">equal protection</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</A></I>, <I><A href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Bd.</A></I>)<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct113_37-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct113-37">[37]</A></SUP> and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote (<I><A href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</A></I>). It created a general right to privacy (<I><A href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</A></I>),<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct114_38-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct114-38">[38]</A></SUP> limited the role of religion in public school (most prominently <I><A href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Abington_School_District_v._Schempp" title="Abington School District v. Schempp">Abington School District v. Schempp</A></I>),<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct120_39-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct120-39">[39]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct121_40-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct121-40">[40]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporated</A> most guarantees of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</A> against the States—prominently <I><A href="/wiki/Mapp_v._Ohio" title="Mapp v. Ohio">Mapp v. Ohio</A></I> (the <A href="/wiki/Exclusionary_rule" title="Exclusionary rule">exclusionary rule</A>) and <I><A href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</A></I> (<A href="/wiki/Public_defender" title="Public defender">right to appointed counsel</A>),<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct131_41-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct131-41">[41]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct203_42-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct203-42">[42]</A></SUP>—and required that criminal suspects be apprised of all these rights by police (<I><A href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</A></I>);<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct132_43-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct132-43">[43]</A></SUP> At the same time, however, the Court limited <A href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">defamation</A> suits by public figures (<I><A href="/wiki/New_York_Times_v._Sullivan" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times v. Sullivan">New York Times v. Sullivan</A></I>) and supplied the government with an unbroken run of antitrust victories.<SUP id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-44">[44]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Burger</A> Court (1969–86) marked a conservative shift.<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[45]</A></SUP> It also expanded <I>Griswold'</I>s right to privacy to strike down abortion laws (<I><A href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</A></I>),<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct204_46-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct204-46">[46]</A></SUP> but divided deeply on <A href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" class="mw-redirect" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Regents of the University of California v. Bakke</A></I>)<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct205_47-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct205-47">[47]</A></SUP> and campaign finance regulation (<I><A href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</A></I>),<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct207_48-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct207-48">[48]</A></SUP> and dithered on the <A href="/wiki/Death_penalty_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty in the United States">death penalty</A>, ruling first that most applications were defective (<I><A href="/wiki/Furman_v._Georgia" title="Furman v. Georgia">Furman v. Georgia</A></I>),<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct208_49-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct208-49">[49]</A></SUP> then that the death penalty itself was <I>not</I> unconstitutional (<I><A href="/wiki/Gregg_v._Georgia" title="Gregg v. Georgia">Gregg v. Georgia</A></I>).<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct208_49-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct208-49">[49]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-history1_50-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-history1-50">[50]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct2122_51-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct2122-51">[51]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Rehnquist_and_Roberts">Rehnquist and Roberts</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Rehnquist and Roberts">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">Rehnquist Court</A> and <A href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">Roberts Court</A></DIV>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</A> Court (1986–2005) was noted for its revival of judicial enforcement of <A href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalism</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct2brn2b_52-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct2brn2b-52">[52]</A></SUP> emphasizing the limits of the Constitution's affirmative grants of power (<I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lopez" title="United States v. Lopez">United States v. Lopez</A></I>) and the force of its restrictions on those powers (<I><A href="/wiki/Seminole_Tribe_v._Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminole Tribe v. Florida">Seminole Tribe v. Florida</A></I>, <I><A href="/wiki/City_of_Boerne_v._Flores" title="City of Boerne v. Flores">City of Boerne v. Flores</A></I>).<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31octrtr45_53-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31octrtr45-53">[53]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct309_54-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct309-54">[54]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct310_55-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct310-55">[55]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct4004_56-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct4004-56">[56]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct555_57-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct555-57">[57]</A></SUP> It struck down single-sex state schools as a violation of equal protection (<I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Virginia" title="United States v. Virginia">United States v. Virginia</A></I>), laws against <A href="/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy">sodomy</A> as violations of <A href="/wiki/Substantive_due_process" title="Substantive due process">substantive due process</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</A></I>),<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct34654_58-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct34654-58">[58]</A></SUP> and the <A href="/wiki/Line_item_veto" class="mw-redirect" title="Line item veto">line item veto</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/Clinton_v._New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinton v. New York">Clinton v. New York</A></I>), but upheld <A href="/wiki/School_vouchers" class="mw-redirect" title="School vouchers">school vouchers</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/Zelman_v._Simmons-Harris" title="Zelman v. Simmons-Harris">Zelman v. Simmons-Harris</A></I>) and reaffirmed <I>Roe'</I>s restrictions on abortion laws (<I><A href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</A></I>).<SUP id="cite_ref-tws31octffsfs_59-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31octffsfs-59">[59]</A></SUP> The Court's decision in <I><A href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</A></I>, which ended the electoral recount during the <A href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_election,_2000" title="United States presidential election, 2000">presidential election of 2000</A>, was especially controversial.<SUP id="cite_ref-rds21nov12_60-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-rds21nov12-60">[60]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws31oct44454_61-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws31oct44454-61">[61]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/John_G._Roberts" class="mw-redirect" title="John G. Roberts">Roberts</A> Court (2005–present) is regarded by some as more conservative than the Rehnquist Court.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws1nov01_62-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws1nov01-62">[62]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws1nov02_63-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws1nov02-63">[63]</A></SUP> Some of its major rulings have concerned <A href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">federal preemption</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/Wyeth_v._Levine" title="Wyeth v. Levine">Wyeth v. Levine</A></I>), civil procedure (<I><A href="/wiki/Bell_Atlantic_Corp._v._Twombly" title="Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly">Twombly</A>-<A href="/wiki/Ashcroft_v._Iqbal" title="Ashcroft v. Iqbal">Iqbal</A></I>), <A href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/Gonzales_v._Carhart" title="Gonzales v. Carhart">Gonzales v. Carhart</A></I>),<SUP id="cite_ref-tws1nov04_64-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws1nov04-64">[64]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/Massachusetts_v._Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency">Massachusetts v. EPA</A></I>), <A href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in the United States">same-sex marriage</A> (<I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Windsor" title="United States v. Windsor">United States v. Windsor</A></I> and <I><A href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</A></I>) and the Bill of Rights, notably in <I><A href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission">Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission</A></I> (<A href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</A>),<SUP id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-65">[65]</A></SUP> <I><A href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">Heller</A>-<A href="/wiki/McDonald_v._Chicago" class="mw-redirect" title="McDonald v. Chicago">McDonald</A></I> (<A href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment</A>)<SUP id="cite_ref-tws1nov13_66-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws1nov13-66">[66]</A></SUP> and <I><A href="/wiki/Baze_v._Rees" title="Baze v. Rees">Baze v. Rees</A></I> (<A href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighth Amendment</A>).<SUP id="cite_ref-tws1nov21_67-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws1nov21-67">[67]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws1nov22_68-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws1nov22-68">[68]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Composition">Composition</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Composition">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Size_of_the_Court">Size of the Court</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Size of the Court">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Article III of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</A> does not specify the number of justices. The <A href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</A> called for the appointment of six "judges". Although an <A href="/wiki/Midnight_Judges_Act" title="Midnight Judges Act">1801 act</A> would have reduced the size of the court to five members upon its next vacancy, an <A href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1802" title="Judiciary Act of 1802">1802 act</A> promptly negated the 1801 act, legally restoring the court's size to six members before any such vacancy occurred. As the nation's boundaries grew, Congress added justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits: <A href="/wiki/Seventh_Circuit_Act_of_1807" title="Seventh Circuit Act of 1807">seven in 1807</A>, <A href="/wiki/Eighth_and_Ninth_Circuits_Act_of_1837" title="Eighth and Ninth Circuits Act of 1837">nine in 1837</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Tenth_Circuit_Act_of_1863" title="Tenth Circuit Act of 1863">ten in 1863</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-69">[69]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 1866, at the behest of Chief Justice <A href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Chase</A>, Congress passed <A href="/wiki/Judicial_Circuits_Act" title="Judicial Circuits Act">an act</A> providing that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced, which would thin the bench to seven justices by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. In 1869, however, the <A href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1869" title="Judiciary Act of 1869">Circuit Judges Act</A> returned the number of justices to nine,<SUP id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-70">[70]</A></SUP> where it has since remained.</P>
<P>President <A href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</A> attempted to expand the Court in 1937. His proposal envisioned appointment of one additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement, up to a maximum bench of 15 justices. The proposal was ostensibly to ease the burden of the docket on elderly judges, but the actual purpose was widely understood as an effort to "pack" the Court with justices who would support Roosevelt's <A href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-71">[71]</A></SUP> The plan, usually called the "<A href="/wiki/Judicial_Procedures_Reform_Bill_of_1937" title="Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937">court-packing plan</A>", failed in Congress.<SUP id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-72">[72]</A></SUP> Nevertheless, the Court's balance began to shift within months when Justice <A href="/wiki/Willis_Van_Devanter" title="Willis Van Devanter">van Devanter</A> retired and was replaced by Senator <A href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</A>. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven justices and elevated <A href="/wiki/Harlan_Fiske_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan Fiske Stone">Harlan Fiske Stone</A> to Chief Justice.<SUP id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-73">[73]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Appointment_and_confirmation">Appointment and confirmation</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Appointment and confirmation">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Appointment_and_confirmation_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Appointment and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States">Appointment and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States</A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2017.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2017.jpg/300px-Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2017.jpg" width="300" height="190" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2017.jpg/450px-Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2017.jpg/600px-Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2898" data-file-height="1838" /></A>
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<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_-_Roberts_Court_2017.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
The Roberts Court (April 2017 – present). Front row (left to right): <A href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</A>, <A href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</A>, <A href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</A> (Chief Justice), <A href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</A>. Back row (left to right): <A href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</A>, <A href="/wiki/Samuel_A._Alito" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel A. Alito">Samuel A. Alito</A>, <A href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</A>.</DIV>
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<P>The U.S. Constitution states that the President "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</A>, shall appoint Judges of the Supreme Court."<SUP id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-74">[74]</A></SUP> Most presidents nominate candidates who broadly share their ideological views, although a justice's decisions may end up being contrary to a president's expectations. Because the Constitution sets no qualifications for service as a justice, a president may nominate anyone to serve, subject to Senate confirmation.</P>
<P>In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from the press and advocacy groups, which <A href="/wiki/Lobbying" title="Lobbying">lobby</A> senators to confirm or to reject a nominee depending on whether their track record aligns with the group's views. The <A href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary" title="United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary">Senate Judiciary Committee</A> conducts hearings and votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report. The committee's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent. The first nominee to appear before the committee was <A href="/wiki/Harlan_Fiske_Stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan Fiske Stone">Harlan Fiske Stone</A> in 1925, who sought to quell concerns about his links to <A href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</A>, and the modern practice of questioning began with <A href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan II</A> in 1955.<SUP id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-75">[75]</A></SUP> Once the committee reports out the nomination, the full Senate considers it. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected <A href="/wiki/List_of_failed_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of failed nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">twelve</A> Supreme Court nominees, most recently <A href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</A>, nominated by President Ronald Reagan in 1987.</P>
<P>Although Senate rules do not necessarily allow a negative vote in committee to block a nomination, prior to 2017 a nomination could be blocked by <A href="/wiki/Filibuster" title="Filibuster">filibuster</A> once debate had begun in the full Senate. President <A href="/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</A>'s nomination of sitting Associate Justice <A href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Abe Fortas</A> to succeed <A href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</A> as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas's ethics. President <A href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</A>'s nomination of <A href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</A> to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against <A href="/wiki/Cloture#United_States" title="Cloture">cloture</A> on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority's prior refusal to take up President <A href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Merrick_Garland_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Merrick Garland Supreme Court nomination">nomination of Merrick Garland</A> to fill the vacancy.<SUP id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-76">[76]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-77">[77]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-78">[78]</A></SUP> This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations.<SUP id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-79">[79]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of <A href="/wiki/Harriet_Miers" title="Harriet Miers">Harriet Miers</A> in 2006. The Senate may also fail to act on a nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President <A href="/wiki/Dwight_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwight Eisenhower">Dwight Eisenhower</A>'s first nomination of <A href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan II</A> in November, 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, as previously noted, the Senate failed to act on the March 2016 nomination of <A href="/wiki/Merrick_Garland" title="Merrick Garland">Merrick Garland</A>; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President <A href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</A>'s appointment of <A href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-80">[80]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Once the Senate confirms a nomination, the president must prepare and sign a commission, to which the Seal of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</A> must be affixed, before the new justice can take office.<SUP id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-81">[81]</A></SUP> The seniority of an associate justice is based on the commissioning date, not the confirmation or swearing-in date.<SUP id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-82">[82]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Before 1981, the approval process of justices was usually rapid. From the <A href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Truman</A> through <A href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</A> administrations, justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. Some believe this is because Congress sees justices as playing a more political role than in the past.<SUP id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-83">[83]</A></SUP> According to the <A href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</A>, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months).<SUP id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-84">[84]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-85">[85]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Recess_appointments">Recess appointments</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Recess appointments">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<P>When the Senate is in recess, a president may make temporary appointments to fill vacancies. <A href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointees</A> hold office only until the end of the next Senate session (less than two years). The Senate must confirm the nominee for them to continue serving; of the two chief justices and eleven associate justices who have received recess appointments, only Chief Justice <A href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</A> was not subsequently confirmed.<SUP id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-86">[86]</A></SUP></P>
<P>No president since <A href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</A> has made a recess appointment to the Court, and the practice has become rare and controversial even in lower federal courts.<SUP id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-87">[87]</A></SUP> In 1960, after Eisenhower had made three such appointments, the Senate passed a "sense of the Senate" resolution that recess appointments to the Court should only be made in "unusual circumstances."<SUP id="cite_ref-recessapp_88-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-recessapp-88">[88]</A></SUP> Such resolutions are not legally binding but are an expression of Congress's views in the hope of guiding executive action.<SUP id="cite_ref-recessapp_88-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-recessapp-88">[88]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-89">[89]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The 2014 Supreme Court ruling in <A href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board_v._Noel_Canning" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning">National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning</A> limited the ability of the President to make recess appointments (including appointments to the Supreme Court), ruling that the Senate decides when the Senate is in session (or in recess). Justice <A href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Breyer</A> writing for the Court, stated, "We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business."<SUP id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-90">[90]</A></SUP> This ruling allows the Senate to prevent recess appointments through the use of <A href="/wiki/Pro_forma#United_States" title="Pro forma">pro-forma sessions</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-91">[91]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Tenure">Tenure</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Tenure">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior" (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior" is understood to mean justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, unless they are <A href="/wiki/Impeachment" title="Impeachment">impeached and convicted</A> by Congress, <A href="/wiki/Resignation" title="Resignation">resign</A>, or <A href="/wiki/Retirement" title="Retirement">retire</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-92">[92]</A></SUP> Only one justice has been impeached by the House of Representatives (<A href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Samuel Chase</A>, March 1804), but he was acquitted in the Senate (March 1805).<SUP id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-93">[93]</A></SUP> Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, <A href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</A> was the subject of hearings twice, in 1953 and again in 1970; and <A href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Abe Fortas</A> resigned while hearings were being organized in 1969), but they did not reach a vote in the House. No mechanism exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, but unable (or unwilling) to resign.<SUP id="cite_ref-hufpost_94-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-hufpost-94">[94]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Because justices have indefinite tenure, timing of vacancies can be unpredictable. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when <A href="/wiki/Lewis_Franklin_Powell,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr.">Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr.</A> and William Rehnquist were nominated to replace <A href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</A> and <A href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan II</A>, who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations, such as the eleven years between <A href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</A>'s nomination in 1994 to succeed <A href="/wiki/Harry_Blackmun" title="Harry Blackmun">Harry Blackmun</A> and the nomination of <A href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</A> in 2005 to fill the seat of <A href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</A> (though Roberts' nomination was withdrawn and resubmitted for the role of Chief Justice after Rehnquist died).</P>
<P>Despite the variability, all but four presidents have been able to appoint at least one justice. <A href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</A> died a month after taking office, though his successor (<A href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</A>) made an appointment during that presidential term. Likewise, <A href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</A> died 16 months after taking office, but his successor (<A href="/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</A>) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. <A href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</A>, who became president after the <A href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">assassination of Abraham Lincoln</A>, was denied the opportunity to appoint a justice by a reduction in the <A href="#Size_of_the_Court">size of the Court</A>. <A href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</A> is the only person elected president to have left office after at least one full term without having the opportunity to appoint a justice. Somewhat similarly, presidents <A href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</A>, <A href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</A>, and <A href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</A> each served a full term without an opportunity to appoint a justice, but made appointments during their subsequent terms in office. No president who has served more than one full term has gone without at least one opportunity to make an appointment.</P>
<P>Three presidents have appointed justices who together served more than a century. <A href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</A>, <A href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-congressorg_95-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-congressorg-95">[95]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Membership">Membership</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Membership">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States</A></DIV>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Current_justices">Current justices</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Current justices">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The court is currently filled with nine justices. The most recent justice to join to the court was <A href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</A>, who was nominated by President <A href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</A> on January 31, 2017, and confirmed on April 7, 2017, by the Senate.</P>
<TABLE class="wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter" style="text-align:center">
<THEAD><TR>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Name</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Date of birth</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Appointed by</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Senate confirmation vote</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Age at appointment</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Current age</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">First day /<BR />
Length of service</TH>
<TH class="unsortable">Previous positions</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Succeeded</TH>
</TR></THEAD><TBODY>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg" class="image" title="Roberts"><IMG alt="Roberts" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg/100px-File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg" width="100" height="123" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg/150px-File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg/200px-File-Official_roberts_CJ_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1722" /></A>
<P><B><SPAN class="sortkey">Roberts, John</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</A></SPAN></SPAN></B><BR />
(<A href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</A>)</P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001955-01-27-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">January 27, 1955</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</A></TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey">Bush, George W.</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</A></SPAN></SPAN></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/John_Roberts_Supreme_Court_nomination#Full_Senate_vote" title="John Roberts Supreme Court nomination">78–22</A></TD>
<TD>50</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001620000000000000♠</SPAN>62</TD>
<TD style="white-space:nowrap"><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000002005-09-29-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">September 29, 2005</SPAN><BR />
12 years, 2 months</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit</A> (2003–2005);<BR />
<A href="/wiki/United_States_Solicitor_General" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Solicitor General">Principal Deputy Solicitor General</A> (1989–1993);<BR />
<A href="/wiki/White_House_Counsel" title="White House Counsel">Associate Counsel to the President</A> (1982–1986)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg" class="image" title="Kennedy"><IMG alt="Kennedy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/100px-Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg" width="100" height="125" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/150px-Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/200px-Anthony_Kennedy_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1396" data-file-height="1745" /></A>
<P><B><SPAN class="sortkey">Kennedy, Anthony</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</A></SPAN></SPAN></B></P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001936-07-23-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">July 23, 1936</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Sacramento,_California" title="Sacramento, California">Sacramento, California</A></TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey">Reagan, Ronald</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</A></SPAN></SPAN></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy_Supreme_Court_nomination#Appointment_to_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Kennedy Supreme Court nomination">97–0</A></TD>
<TD>51</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001810000000000000♠</SPAN>81</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001988-02-18-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">February 18, 1988</SPAN><BR />
29 years, 10 months</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit">Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit</A> (1975–1988);<BR />
Private practice (1963–1975)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Lewis_F._Powell_Jr." title="Lewis F. Powell Jr.">Lewis Powell</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Clarence_Thomas,_official_SCOTUS_portrait,_crop.jpg" class="image" title="Thomas"><IMG alt="Thomas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Clarence_Thomas%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg/100px-Clarence_Thomas%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg" width="100" height="125" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Clarence_Thomas%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg/150px-Clarence_Thomas%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Clarence_Thomas%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg/200px-Clarence_Thomas%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1118" data-file-height="1398" /></A>
<P><B><SPAN class="sortkey">Thomas, Clarence</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</A></SPAN></SPAN></B></P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001948-06-23-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">June 23, 1948</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Pin_Point,_Georgia" title="Pin Point, Georgia">Pin Point, Georgia</A></TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey">Bush, George H. W.</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</A></SPAN></SPAN></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas_Supreme_Court_nomination#Senate_confirmation" title="Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination">52–48</A></TD>
<TD>43</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001690000000000000♠</SPAN>69</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001991-10-23-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">October 23, 1991</SPAN><BR />
26 years, 1 month</TD>
<TD>Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (1990–1991);<BR />
Chairman, <A href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</A> (1982–1990);<BR />
<A href="/wiki/Missouri_Attorney_General" title="Missouri Attorney General">Assistant Attorney General</A> in <A href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</A> under <A href="/wiki/State_Attorney_General" class="mw-redirect" title="State Attorney General">State Attorney General</A> <A href="/wiki/John_Danforth" title="John Danforth">John Danforth</A> (1974–1977)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg,_official_SCOTUS_portrait,_crop.jpg" class="image" title="Ginsburg"><IMG alt="Ginsburg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg/100px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg" width="100" height="125" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg/150px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg/200px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg%2C_official_SCOTUS_portrait%2C_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="1530" /></A>
<P><B><SPAN class="sortkey">Ginsburg, Ruth Bader</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</A></SPAN></SPAN></B></P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001933-03-15-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">March 15, 1933</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn, New York</A></TD>
<TD rowspan="2"><SPAN class="sortkey">Clinton, Bill</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</A></SPAN></SPAN></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg#Nomination_and_confirmation" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">96–3</A></TD>
<TD>60</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001840000000000000♠</SPAN>84</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001993-08-10-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">August 10, 1993</SPAN><BR />
24 years, 4 months</TD>
<TD>Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit (1980–1993);<BR />
General Counsel, <A href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</A> (1973–1980)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">Byron White</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg" class="image" title="Breyer"><IMG alt="Breyer" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/100px-Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg" width="100" height="125" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/150px-Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/200px-Stephen_Breyer_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1008" data-file-height="1260" /></A>
<P><B><SPAN class="sortkey">Breyer, Stephen</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</A></SPAN></SPAN></B></P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001938-08-15-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">August 15, 1938</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco, California</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer#Judicial_career" title="Stephen Breyer">87–9</A></TD>
<TD>55</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001790000000000000♠</SPAN>79</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001994-08-03-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">August 3, 1994</SPAN><BR />
23 years, 4 months</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_First_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit">Chief Judge, Court of Appeals for the First Circuit</A> (1990–1994);<BR />
<A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_First_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit">Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the First Circuit</A> (1980–1990)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Harry_Blackmun" title="Harry Blackmun">Harry Blackmun</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:010_alito_cropped.jpg" class="image" title="Alito"><IMG alt="Alito" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/010_alito_cropped.jpg/100px-010_alito_cropped.jpg" width="100" height="131" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/010_alito_cropped.jpg/150px-010_alito_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/010_alito_cropped.jpg/200px-010_alito_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="1300" /></A>
<P><B><SPAN class="sortkey">Alito, Samuel</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</A></SPAN></SPAN></B></P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001950-04-01-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">April 1, 1950</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Trenton,_New_Jersey" title="Trenton, New Jersey">Trenton, New Jersey</A></TD>
<TD>George W. Bush</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito_Supreme_Court_nomination#Full_Senate" title="Samuel Alito Supreme Court nomination">58–42</A></TD>
<TD>55</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001670000000000000♠</SPAN>67</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000002006-01-31-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">January 31, 2006</SPAN><BR />
11 years, 10 months</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Third_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit">Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit</A> (1990–2006);<BR />
<A href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. Attorney</A> for the District of New Jersey (1987–1990);<BR />
<A href="/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Attorney_General" title="United States Assistant Attorney General">Deputy Assistant Attorney General</A> (1985–1987);<BR />
<A href="/wiki/United_States_Solicitor_General" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Solicitor General">Assistant to the Solicitor General</A> (1981–1985)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg" class="image" title="Sotomayor"><IMG alt="Sotomayor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg/100px-Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg" width="100" height="125" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg/150px-Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg/200px-Sonia_Sotomayor_in_SCOTUS_robe_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="1410" /></A>
<P><B><SPAN class="sortkey">Sotomayor, Sonia</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</A></SPAN></SPAN></B></P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001954-06-25-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">June 25, 1954</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/The_Bronx" title="The Bronx">The Bronx, New York</A></TD>
<TD rowspan="2"><SPAN class="sortkey">Obama, Barack</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</A></SPAN></SPAN></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor_Supreme_Court_nomination#Full_Senate" title="Sonia Sotomayor Supreme Court nomination">68–31</A></TD>
<TD>55</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001630000000000000♠</SPAN>63</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000002009-08-08-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">August 8, 2009</SPAN><BR />
8 years, 4 months</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit</A> (1998–2009);<BR />
<A href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Southern_District_of_New_York" title="United States District Court for the Southern District of New York">District Judge, District Court for the Southern District of New York</A> (1992–1998)</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">David Souter</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg" class="image" title="Kagan"><IMG alt="Kagan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg/100px-Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg" width="100" height="125" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg/150px-Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg/200px-Elena_Kagan-1-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1938" /></A>
<P><B><SPAN class="sortkey">Kagan, Elena</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</A></SPAN></SPAN></B></P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001960-04-28-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">April 28, 1960</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan, New York</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan_Supreme_Court_nomination#Full_Senate" title="Elena Kagan Supreme Court nomination">63–37</A></TD>
<TD>50</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001570000000000000♠</SPAN>57</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000002010-08-07-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">August 7, 2010</SPAN><BR />
7 years, 4 months</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States" title="Solicitor General of the United States">Solicitor General of the United States</A> (2009–2010);<BR />
<A href="/wiki/Dean_of_Harvard_Law_School" title="Dean of Harvard Law School">Dean of Harvard Law School</A> (2003–2009);<BR />
Associate <A href="/wiki/White_House_Counsel" title="White House Counsel">White House Counsel</A> (1995–1999);<BR />
Deputy Director of the <A href="/wiki/Domestic_Policy_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic Policy Council">Domestic Policy Council</A> (1995–1999);</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John Paul Stevens</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_(cropped_2).jpg" class="image" title="Gorsuch"><IMG alt="Gorsuch" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/100px-Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg" width="100" height="128" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/150px-Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/200px-Associate_Justice_Neil_Gorsuch_Official_Portrait_%28cropped_2%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="867" /></A>
<P><B><SPAN class="sortkey">Gorsuch, Neil</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</A></SPAN></SPAN></B></P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001967-08-29-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">August 29, 1967</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Denver" title="Denver">Denver, Colorado</A></TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey">Trump, Donald</SPAN><SPAN class="vcard"><SPAN class="fn"><A href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</A></SPAN></SPAN></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch_Supreme_Court_nomination#Confirmation_vote" title="Neil Gorsuch Supreme Court nomination">54–45</A></TD>
<TD>49</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001500000000000000♠</SPAN>50</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000002017-04-10-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">April 10, 2017</SPAN><BR />
8 months and 8 days</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Tenth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit">Circuit Judge, Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit</A> (2006–2017);<BR />
<A href="/wiki/United_States_Associate_Attorney_General" title="United States Associate Attorney General">Principal Deputy Associate Attorney General and Acting Associate Attorney General</A> (2005–2006);</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</A></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY><TFOOT></TFOOT></TABLE>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Court_demographics">Court demographics</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Court demographics">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States">Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States</A></DIV>
<P>The Court currently has six male and three female justices. Among the nine justices, there is one African-American (Justice Thomas) and one Hispanic (Justice Sotomayor). Two of the justices were born to at least one immigrant parent: Justice Alito's parents were born in Italy,<SUP id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-96">[96]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-97">[97]</A></SUP> and Justice Ginsburg's father was born in Russia.<SUP id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-98">[98]</A></SUP> At least five justices are <A href="/wiki/Roman_Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholics">Roman Catholics</A> and three are <A href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish</A>; it is unclear whether Neil Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian.<SUP id="cite_ref-gorsuchreligion_99-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-gorsuchreligion-99">[99]</A></SUP> The average age is 67 years and 4 months. Every current justice has an <A href="/wiki/Ivy_League" title="Ivy League">Ivy League</A> background.<SUP id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-100">[100]</A></SUP> Four justices are from the state of New York, two from California, one from New Jersey, one from Georgia, and one from Colorado.<SUP id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-101">[101]</A></SUP> In the 19th century, every justice was a man of European descent (usually Northern European), and almost always Protestant. Concerns about diversity focused on geography, to represent all <A href="/wiki/Regionalism_(politics)" title="Regionalism (politics)">regions</A> of the country, rather than religious, ethnic, or gender diversity.<SUP id="cite_ref-obrien46_102-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-obrien46-102">[102]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Most justices have been Protestants, including 36 <A href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Episcopal Church in the United States of America">Episcopalians</A>, 19 <A href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterians</A>, 10 <A href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarians</A>, 5 <A href="/wiki/Methodist" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist">Methodists</A>, and 3 <A href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-103">[103]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-104">[104]</A></SUP> The first <A href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Catholic</A> justice was Roger Taney in 1836,<SUP id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-105">[105]</A></SUP> and 1916 saw the appointment of the first Jewish justice, <A href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_106-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-106">[106]</A></SUP> Several Catholic and Jewish justices have since been appointed, and in recent years the situation has reversed. The Court currently has at least five Catholic justices.<SUP id="cite_ref-gorsuchreligion_99-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-gorsuchreligion-99">[99]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity began to increase in the late 20th century. <A href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</A> became the first <A href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African American</A> justice in 1967.<SUP id="cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_106-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-106">[106]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</A> became the first female justice in 1981.<SUP id="cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_106-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-106">[106]</A></SUP> Marshall was succeeded by African-American <A href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</A> in 1991.<SUP id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-107">[107]</A></SUP> O'Connor was joined by <A href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</A> in 1993.<SUP id="cite_ref-Four_Justices_108-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Four_Justices-108">[108]</A></SUP> After O'Connor's retirement Ginsburg was joined in 2009 by <A href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</A>, the first <A href="/wiki/Hispanic" title="Hispanic">Hispanic</A> and <A href="/wiki/Latina" class="mw-redirect" title="Latina">Latina</A> justice;<SUP id="cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_106-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-106">[106]</A></SUP> and in 2010 by <A href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</A>, for a total of four female justices in the Court's history.<SUP id="cite_ref-Four_Justices_108-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Four_Justices-108">[108]</A></SUP></P>
<P>There have been six foreign-born justices in the Court's history: <A href="/wiki/James_Wilson" title="James Wilson">James Wilson</A> (1789–1798), born in <A href="/wiki/Ceres,_Fife" title="Ceres, Fife">Caskardy</A>, <A href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</A>; <A href="/wiki/James_Iredell" title="James Iredell">James Iredell</A> (1790–1799), born in <A href="/wiki/Lewes" title="Lewes">Lewes</A>, <A href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</A>; <A href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</A> (1793–1806), born in <A href="/wiki/County_Antrim" title="County Antrim">County Antrim</A>, <A href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</A>; <A href="/wiki/David_Josiah_Brewer" title="David Josiah Brewer">David Brewer</A> (1889–1910), born in <A href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</A>, <A href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</A>; <A href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">George Sutherland</A> (1922–1939), born in <A href="/wiki/Buckinghamshire" title="Buckinghamshire">Buckinghamshire</A>, England; and <A href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</A> (1939–1962), born in <A href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</A>, <A href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_106-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-106">[106]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Retired_justices">Retired justices</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Retired justices">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>There are currently three living retired justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: <A href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John Paul Stevens</A>, <A href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</A> and <A href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">David Souter</A>. As retired justices, they no longer participate in the work of the Supreme Court, but may be designated for temporary assignments to sit on lower federal courts, usually the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Courts_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Courts of Appeals">United States Courts of Appeals</A>. Such assignments are formally made by the <A href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</A>, on request of the <A href="/wiki/Chief_Judge" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Judge">chief judge</A> of the lower court and with the consent of the retired justice. In recent years, Justice O'Connor has sat with several Courts of Appeals around the country, and Justice Souter has frequently sat on the <A href="/wiki/First_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="First Circuit">First Circuit</A>, the court of which he was briefly a member before joining the Supreme Court.</P>
<P>The status of a retired justice is analogous to that of a circuit or district court judge who has taken <A href="/wiki/Senior_status" title="Senior status">senior status</A>, and eligibility of a supreme court justice to assume retired status (rather than simply resign from the bench) is governed by the same age and service criteria.</P>
<P>In recent times, justices tend to strategically plan their decisions to leave the bench with personal, institutional, ideological, partisan and sometimes even political factors playing a role.<SUP id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-109">[109]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-110">[110]</A></SUP> The fear of mental decline and death often motivates justices to step down. The desire to maximize the Court's strength and legitimacy through one retirement at a time, when the Court is in recess, and during non-presidential election years suggests a concern for institutional health. Finally, especially in recent decades, many justices have timed their departure to coincide with a philosophically compatible president holding office, to ensure that a like-minded successor would be appointed.<SUP id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-111">[111]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-112">[112]</A></SUP></P>
<TABLE class="wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter" style="text-align:center">
<THEAD><TR>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Name</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Date of birth</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Appointed by</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Retired under</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Confirmation vote</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Age at appointment</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Current age</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">First day</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Date of retirement</TH>
<TH class="headerSort" tabindex="0" role="columnheader button" title="Sort ascending">Length of service</TH>
</TR></THEAD><TBODY>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:John_Paul_Stevens_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg" class="image" title="Stevens"><IMG alt="Stevens" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/John_Paul_Stevens_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/100px-John_Paul_Stevens_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg" width="100" height="125" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/John_Paul_Stevens_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg/150px-John_Paul_Stevens_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/John_Paul_Stevens_official_SCOTUS_portrait_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="197" data-file-height="246" /></A>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John Paul Stevens</A></B></P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001920-04-20-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">April 20, 1920</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</A>, <A href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</A></TD>
<TD>98–0</TD>
<TD>55</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001970000000000000♠</SPAN>97</TD>
<TD>December 19, 1975</TD>
<TD>June 29, 2010</TD>
<TD>34 years, 6 months and 10 days</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg" class="image" title="O'Connor"><IMG alt="O'Connor" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg/100px-Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg" width="100" height="152" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg/150px-Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg/200px-Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="380" /></A>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</A></B></P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001930-03-26-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">March 26, 1930</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/El_Paso,_Texas" title="El Paso, Texas">El Paso, Texas</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</A></TD>
<TD>99–0</TD>
<TD>51</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001870000000000000♠</SPAN>87</TD>
<TD>September 25, 1981</TD>
<TD>January 31, 2006</TD>
<TD>24 years, 4 months and 6 days</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/File:DavidSouter.jpg" class="image" title="Souter"><IMG alt="Souter" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/DavidSouter.jpg/100px-DavidSouter.jpg" width="100" height="131" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/DavidSouter.jpg/150px-DavidSouter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/DavidSouter.jpg/200px-DavidSouter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="383" data-file-height="500" /></A>
<P><B><A href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">David Souter</A></B></P>
</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001939-09-17-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">September 17, 1939</SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Melrose,_Massachusetts" title="Melrose, Massachusetts">Melrose, Massachusetts</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</A></TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</A></TD>
<TD>90–9</TD>
<TD>51</TD>
<TD><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001780000000000000♠</SPAN>78</TD>
<TD><SPAN class="sortkey" style="display:none;speak:none">000000001990-10-09-0000</SPAN><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap">October 9, 1990</SPAN></TD>
<TD>June 29, 2009</TD>
<TD>18 years, 8 months and 20 days</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY><TFOOT></TFOOT></TABLE>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Seniority_and_seating">Seniority and seating</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Seniority and seating">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Many of the internal operations of the Court are organized by <A href="/wiki/Seniority" title="Seniority">seniority</A> of justices; the chief justice is considered the most senior member of the court, regardless of the length of his or her service. The associate justices are then ranked by the length of their service.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="The interior of the United States Supreme Court" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg/220px-Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg" width="220" height="126" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg/330px-Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg/440px-Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4200" data-file-height="2400" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Inside_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
The interior of the United States Supreme Court</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>During Court sessions, the justices sit according to seniority, with the Chief Justice in the center, and the Associate Justices on alternating sides, with the most senior Associate Justice on the Chief Justice's immediate right, and the most junior Associate Justice seated on the left farthest away from the Chief Justice. Therefore, the current court sits as follows from left to right, from the perspective of those facing the Court: Kagan, Alito, Ginsburg, Kennedy (most senior Associate Justice), Roberts (Chief Justice), Thomas, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Gorsuch. In the official yearly Court photograph, justices are arranged similarly, with the five most senior members sitting in the front row in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (The most recent photograph includes Ginsburg, Kennedy, Roberts, Thomas, Breyer), and the four most junior justices standing behind them, again in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (Kagan, Alito, Sotomayor, Gorsuch).</P>
<P>In the justices' private conferences, current practice is for them to speak and vote in order of seniority to begin with the chief justice first and end with the most junior associate justice. The most junior associate justice in these conferences is charged with any menial tasks the justices may require as they convene alone, such as answering the door of their conference room, serving beverages and transmitting orders of the court to the clerk.<SUP id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-113">[113]</A></SUP> Justice <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Joseph Story</A> served the longest as junior justice, from February 3, 1812, to September 1, 1823, for a total of 4,228 days. Justice <A href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</A> follows very closely behind serving from August 3, 1994, to January 31, 2006, for a total of 4,199 days.<SUP id="cite_ref-juniorjustice_114-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-juniorjustice-114">[114]</A></SUP> Justice <A href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</A> comes in at a distant third serving from August 6, 2010, to April 10, 2017, for a total of 2439 days.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Salary">Salary</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Salary">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Federal_judge_salaries_in_the_United_States" title="Federal judge salaries in the United States">Federal judge salaries in the United States</A></DIV>
<P>As of 2017, associate justices are paid $251,800 and the chief justice $263,300.<SUP id="cite_ref-salary_115-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-salary-115">[115]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Compensation_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Compensation Clause">Article III, Section 1</A> of the U.S. Constitution prohibits Congress from reducing the pay for incumbent justices. Once a justice meets <A href="/wiki/United_States_federal_judge#Retirement" title="United States federal judge">age and service requirements</A>, the justice may retire. Judicial pensions are based on the same formula used for federal employees, but a justice's pension, as with other federal courts judges, can never be less than their salary at the time of retirement.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Judicial_leanings">Judicial leanings</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Judicial leanings">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Ideological_leanings_of_U.S._Supreme_Court_justices" title="Ideological leanings of U.S. Supreme Court justices">Ideological leanings of U.S. Supreme Court justices</A></DIV>
<P>Although justices are nominated by the president in power, justices do not represent or receive official endorsements from political parties, as is accepted practice in the legislative and executive branches. Jurists are, however, informally categorized in legal and political circles as being judicial conservatives, moderates, or liberals. Such leanings, however, generally refer to legal outlook rather than a political or legislative one. The nominations of justices are endorsed by individual politicians in the legislative branch who vote their approval or disapproval of the nominated justice.</P>
<P>Following the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch in 2017, the Court consists of five justices appointed by Republican presidents and four appointed by Democratic presidents. It is popularly accepted that Chief Justice <A href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">Roberts</A> and associate justices <A href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas</A> and <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</A> (appointed by Republican presidents) comprise the Court's conservative wing. Justices <A href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ginsburg</A>, <A href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Breyer</A>, <A href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</A> and <A href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Kagan</A> (appointed by Democratic presidents) comprise the Court's liberal wing. Justice <A href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Kennedy</A> (appointed by <A href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">President Reagan</A>) is generally considered "a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals",<SUP id="cite_ref-Lane2006_116-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Lane2006-116">[116]</A></SUP> and up until Justice Scalia's death, he was often the <A href="/wiki/Swing_vote" title="Swing vote">swing vote</A> that determined the outcome of cases divided between the conservative and liberal wings.<SUP id="cite_ref-Toobin2007_117-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Toobin2007-117">[117]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-SCOTUSblog30June2012_118-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SCOTUSblog30June2012-118">[118]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-StatPack_119-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-StatPack-119">[119]</A></SUP> Gorsuch had a track record as a reliably conservative judge in the 10th circuit.<SUP id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-120">[120]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Tom_Goldstein" title="Tom Goldstein">Tom Goldstein</A> argued in an article in <A href="/wiki/SCOTUSblog" title="SCOTUSblog">SCOTUSblog</A> in 2010, that the popular view of the Supreme Court as sharply divided along ideological lines and each side pushing an agenda at every turn is "in significant part a caricature designed to fit certain preconceptions."<SUP id="cite_ref-Goldstein2010_121-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Goldstein2010-121">[121]</A></SUP> He pointed out that in the 2009 term, almost half the cases were decided unanimously, and only about 20% were decided by a 5-to-4 vote. Barely one in ten cases involved the narrow liberal/conservative divide (fewer if the cases where Sotomayor recused herself are not included). He also pointed to several cases that defied the popular conception of the ideological lines of the Court.<SUP id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-122">[122]</A></SUP> Goldstein further argued that the large number of pro-criminal-defendant <A href="/wiki/Summary_judgment" title="Summary judgment">summary dismissals</A> (usually cases where the justices decide that the lower courts significantly misapplied precedent and reverse the case without briefing or argument) were an illustration that the conservative justices had not been aggressively ideological. Likewise, Goldstein stated that the critique that the liberal justices are more likely to invalidate acts of Congress, show inadequate deference to the political process, and be disrespectful of precedent, also lacked merit: Thomas has most often called for overruling prior precedent (even if long standing) that he views as having been wrongly decided, and during the 2009 term Scalia and Thomas voted most often to invalidate legislation.</P>
<P>According to statistics compiled by SCOTUSblog, in the twelve terms from 2000 to 2011, an average of 19 of the opinions on major issues (22%) were decided by a 5–4 vote, with an average of 70% of those split opinions decided by a Court divided along the traditionally perceived ideological lines (about 15% of all opinions issued). Over that period, the conservative bloc has been in the majority about 62% of the time that the Court has divided along ideological lines, which represents about 44% of all the 5–4 decisions.<SUP id="cite_ref-2011fivefour_123-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2011fivefour-123">[123]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In the October 2010 term, the Court decided 86 cases, including 75 signed opinions and 5 summary reversals (where the Court reverses a lower court without arguments and without issuing an opinion on the case).<SUP id="cite_ref-scotusblogstatpack_124-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-scotusblogstatpack-124">[124]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-scotusblogmemo_125-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-scotusblogmemo-125">[125]</A></SUP> Four were decided with unsigned opinions, two cases affirmed by <A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#Decision" title="Supreme Court of the United States">an equally divided Court</A>, and two cases were dismissed as improvidently granted. Justice Kagan <A href="/wiki/Judicial_disqualification" title="Judicial disqualification">recused</A> herself from 26 of the cases due to her prior role as <A href="/wiki/United_States_Solicitor_General" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Solicitor General">United States Solicitor General</A>. Of the 80 cases, 38 (about 48%, the highest percentage since the October 2005 term) were decided unanimously (9–0 or 8–0), and 16 decisions were made by a 5–4 vote (about 20%, compared to 18% in the October 2009 term, and 29% in the October 2008 term).<SUP id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-126">[126]</A></SUP> However, in fourteen of the sixteen 5–4 decisions, the Court divided along the traditional ideological lines (with Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan on the liberal side, and Roberts, Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on the conservative, and Kennedy providing the "swing vote"). This represents 87% of those 16 cases, the highest rate in the past 10 years. The conservative bloc, joined by Kennedy, formed the majority in 63% of the 5–4 decisions, the highest cohesion rate of that bloc in the Roberts court.<SUP id="cite_ref-scotusblogstatpack_124-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-scotusblogstatpack-124">[124]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-127">[127]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-128">[128]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-129">[129]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-130">[130]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In the October 2011 term, the Court decided 75 cases. Of these, 33 (44%) were decided unanimously, and 15 (20%, the same percentage as in the previous term) were decided by a vote of 5–4. Of the latter 15, the Court divided along the perceived ideological lines 10 times with Justice Kennedy joining the conservative justices (Roberts, Scalia, Thomas and Alito) five times and with the liberal justices (Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan) five times.<SUP id="cite_ref-2011fivefour_123-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2011fivefour-123">[123]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-131">[131]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-132">[132]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In the October 2012 term, the Court decided 78 cases. Five of them were decided <A href="/wiki/Per_curiam_decision" title="Per curiam decision">in unsigned opinions</A>. 38 out of the 78 decisions (representing 49% of the decisions) were unanimous in judgement, with 24 decisions being completely unanimous (a single opinion with every justice that participated joining it). This was the largest percentage of unanimous decisions that the Court had in ten years, since the October 2002 term (when 51% of the decisions handed down were unanimous). The Court split 5–4 in 23 cases (29% of the total); of these, 16 broke down along the traditionally perceived ideological lines, with Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on one side, Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan on the other, and Justice Kennedy holding the balance. Of these 16 cases, Justice Kennedy sided with the conservatives on 10 cases, and with the liberals on 6. Three cases were decided by an interesting alignment of justices, with Chief Justice Roberts joined by Justices Kennedy, Thomas, Breyer and Alito in the majority, with Justices Scalia, Ginsburg, Sotomayor, and Kagan in the minority. The greatest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Kagan, who agreed on 72 of the 75 (96%) cases, in which both voted; the lowest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Alito, who agreed only on 45 out of 77 (54%) cases, in which they both participated. Justice Kennedy was in the majority of 5–4 decisions on 20 out of 24 (83%) cases, and in 71 of 78 (91%) cases during the term, in line with his position as the "swing vote" of the Court.<SUP id="cite_ref-stats2012_133-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-stats2012-133">[133]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-stapack2012_134-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-stapack2012-134">[134]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Facilities">Facilities</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Facilities">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<A href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_building" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court building">The present U.S. Supreme Court building</A> as viewed from the front</DIV>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b1/SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg/220px-SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg" width="220" height="149" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b1/SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg/330px-SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b1/SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg/440px-SCOTUS-oldsenate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="405" /></A>
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From the 1860s until the 1930s, the court sat in the <A href="/wiki/Old_Senate_Chamber" title="Old Senate Chamber">Old Senate Chamber</A> of the <A href="/wiki/U.S._Capitol" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Capitol">U.S. Capitol</A>.</DIV>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">United States Supreme Court Building</A></DIV>
<P>The Supreme Court first met on February 1, 1790, at the Merchants' Exchange Building in <A href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</A>. When Philadelphia became the capital, the Court met briefly in <A href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</A> before settling in <A href="/wiki/Old_City_Hall_(Philadelphia)" title="Old City Hall (Philadelphia)">Old City Hall</A> from 1791 until 1800. After the government moved to Washington, D.C., the Court occupied various spaces in the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">United States Capitol</A> building until 1935, when it moved into its own purpose-built home. The four-story building was designed by <A href="/wiki/Cass_Gilbert" title="Cass Gilbert">Cass Gilbert</A> in a classical style sympathetic to the surrounding buildings of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">Capitol</A> and <A href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</A>, and is clad in marble. The building includes the courtroom, justices' chambers, an extensive <A href="/wiki/Law_library" title="Law library">law library</A>, various meeting spaces, and auxiliary services including a gymnasium. The Supreme Court building is within the ambit of the <A href="/wiki/Architect_of_the_Capitol" title="Architect of the Capitol">Architect of the Capitol</A>, but maintains its <A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Police" title="Supreme Court Police">own police force</A> separate from the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct204_135-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct204-135">[135]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Located across First Street from the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol" title="United States Capitol">United States Capitol</A> at One First Street NE and Maryland Avenue,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct201_136-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct201-136">[136]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct211_137-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct211-137">[137]</A></SUP> the building is open to the public from 9 am to 4:30 pm weekdays but closed on weekends and <A href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">holidays</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct201_136-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct201-136">[136]</A></SUP> Visitors may not tour the actual courtroom unaccompanied. There is a cafeteria, a gift shop, exhibits, and a half-hour informational film.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct204_135-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct204-135">[135]</A></SUP> When the Court is not in session, lectures about the courtroom are held hourly from 9:30 am to 3:30 pm and reservations are not necessary.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct204_135-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct204-135">[135]</A></SUP> When the Court is in session the public may attend oral arguments, which are held twice each morning (and sometimes afternoons) on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays in two-week intervals from October through late April, with breaks during December and February. Visitors are seated on a first-come first-served basis. One estimate is there are about 250 seats available.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct209_138-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct209-138">[138]</A></SUP> The number of open seats varies from case to case; for important cases, some visitors arrive the day before and wait through the night. From mid-May until the end of June, the court releases orders and opinions beginning at 10 am, and these 15 to 30-minute sessions are open to the public on a similar basis.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct204_135-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct204-135">[135]</A></SUP> Supreme Court Police are available to answer questions.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct201_136-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct201-136">[136]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Jurisdiction">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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Inscription on the wall of the Supreme Court Building from <I><A href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</A></I>, in which Chief Justice John Marshall outlined the concept of judicial review</DIV>
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<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Procedures_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States">Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States</A></DIV>
<P>Congress is authorized by Article III of the federal Constitution to regulate the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has <A href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction" title="Original jurisdiction">original</A> and exclusive jurisdiction over cases between two or more states,<SUP id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-139">[139]</A></SUP> but may decline to hear such cases.<SUP id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-140">[140]</A></SUP> It also possesses original, but not exclusive, jurisdiction to hear "all actions or proceedings to which ambassadors, other public ministers, consuls, or vice consuls of foreign states are parties; all controversies between the United States and a State; and all actions or proceedings by a State against the citizens of another State or against aliens."<SUP id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-141">[141]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In 1906, the Court asserted its original jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for <A href="/wiki/Contempt_of_court" title="Contempt of court">contempt of court</A> in <I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Shipp" title="United States v. Shipp">United States v. Shipp</A></I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-142">[142]</A></SUP> The resulting proceeding remains the only contempt proceeding and only criminal trial in the Court's history.<SUP id="cite_ref-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp_143-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp-143">[143]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Humanities_144-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Humanities-144">[144]</A></SUP> The contempt proceeding arose from the <A href="/wiki/Lynching_of_Ed_Johnson" title="Lynching of Ed Johnson">lynching of Ed Johnson</A> in <A href="/wiki/Chattanooga" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattanooga">Chattanooga</A>, <A href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</A> the evening after Justice <A href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan" title="John Marshall Harlan">John Marshall Harlan</A> granted Johnson a stay of execution to allow his lawyers to file an appeal. Johnson was removed from his jail cell by a lynch mob—aided by the local sheriff who left the prison virtually unguarded—and hung from a bridge, after which a deputy sheriff pinned a note on Johnson's body reading: "To Justice Harlan. Come get your nigger now."<SUP id="cite_ref-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp_143-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp-143">[143]</A></SUP> The local sheriff, John Shipp, cited the Supreme Court's intervention as the rationale for the lynching. The Court appointed its deputy clerk as <A href="/wiki/Special_master" title="Special master">special master</A> to preside over the trial in Chattanooga with closing arguments made in Washington before the Supreme Court justices, who found nine individuals guilty of contempt, sentencing three to 90 days in jail and the rest to 60 days in jail.<SUP id="cite_ref-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp_143-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp-143">[143]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Humanities_144-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Humanities-144">[144]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-145">[145]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In all other cases, however, the Court has only appellate jurisdiction, including the ability to issue <A href="/wiki/Writ_of_mandamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Writ of mandamus">writs of mandamus</A> and <A href="/wiki/Writ_of_prohibition" title="Writ of prohibition">writs of prohibition</A> to lower courts. It considers cases based on its original jurisdiction very rarely; almost all cases are brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. In practice, the only original jurisdiction cases heard by the Court are disputes between two or more states.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>The Court's appellate jurisdiction consists of appeals from <A href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">federal courts of appeal</A> (through <A href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">certiorari</A>, <A href="/wiki/Certiorari_before_judgment" title="Certiorari before judgment">certiorari before judgment</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Certified_question#Certification_of_questions_to_the_United_States_Supreme_Court" title="Certified question">certified questions</A>),<SUP id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-146">[146]</A></SUP> the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Armed_Forces" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces">United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces</A> (through certiorari),<SUP id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-147">[147]</A></SUP> the <A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Supreme Court of Puerto Rico">Supreme Court of Puerto Rico</A> (through certiorari),<SUP id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-148">[148]</A></SUP> the <A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands">Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands</A> (through certiorari),<SUP id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-149">[149]</A></SUP> the <A href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Court_of_Appeals" title="District of Columbia Court of Appeals">District of Columbia Court of Appeals</A> (through certiorari),<SUP id="cite_ref-USC|28|1257_150-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-USC|28|1257-150">[150]</A></SUP> and "final judgments or decrees rendered by the highest court of a State in which a decision could be had" (through certiorari).<SUP id="cite_ref-USC|28|1257_150-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-USC|28|1257-150">[150]</A></SUP> In the last case, an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court from a lower state court if the state's highest court declined to hear an appeal or lacks jurisdiction to hear an appeal. For example, a decision rendered by one of the <A href="/wiki/Florida_District_Courts_of_Appeal" title="Florida District Courts of Appeal">Florida District Courts of Appeal</A> can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court if (a) the <A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Florida" title="Supreme Court of Florida">Supreme Court of Florida</A> declined to grant certiorari, e.g. <I><A href="/wiki/Florida_Star_v._B._J._F." title="Florida Star v. B. J. F.">Florida Star v. B. J. F.</A></I>, or (b) the district court of appeal issued a <A href="/wiki/Per_curiam_decision" title="Per curiam decision">per curiam</A> decision simply affirming the lower court's decision without discussing the merits of the case, since the Supreme Court of Florida lacks jurisdiction to hear appeals of such decisions.<SUP id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-151">[151]</A></SUP> The power of the Supreme Court to consider appeals from state courts, rather than just federal courts, was created by the <A href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</A> and upheld early in the Court's history, by its rulings in <I><A href="/wiki/Martin_v._Hunter%27s_Lessee" title="Martin v. Hunter's Lessee">Martin v. Hunter's Lessee</A></I> (1816) and <I><A href="/wiki/Cohens_v._Virginia" title="Cohens v. Virginia">Cohens v. Virginia</A></I> (1821). The Supreme Court is the only federal court that has jurisdiction over direct appeals from state court decisions, although there are several devices that permit so-called "collateral review" of state cases. It has to be noted that this "collateral review" often only applies to individuals on death row and not through the regular judicial system.<SUP id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-152">[152]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Since Article Three of the United States Constitution stipulates that federal courts may only entertain "cases" or "controversies", the Supreme Court cannot decide cases that are moot and it does not render <A href="/wiki/Advisory_opinion" title="Advisory opinion">advisory opinions</A>, as the supreme courts of some states may do. For example, in <I><A href="/wiki/DeFunis_v._Odegaard" title="DeFunis v. Odegaard">DeFunis v. Odegaard</A></I>, <A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_416" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 416">416</A> <A href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/416/312/">312</A> (1974), the Court dismissed a lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of a law school affirmative action policy because the plaintiff student had graduated since he began the lawsuit, and a decision from the Court on his claim would not be able to redress any injury he had suffered. However, the Court recognizes some circumstances where it is appropriate to hear a case that is seemingly moot. If an issue is "capable of repetition yet evading review", the Court will address it even though the party before the Court would not himself be made whole by a favorable result. In <I>Roe v. Wade</I>, <A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_410" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 410">410</A> <A href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/410/113/">113</A> (1973), and other abortion cases, the Court addresses the merits of claims pressed by pregnant women seeking abortions even if they are no longer pregnant because it takes longer than the typical human gestation period to appeal a case through the lower courts to the Supreme Court. Another mootness exception is voluntary cessation of unlawful conduct, in which the Court considers the probability of recurrence and plaintiff's need for relief.<SUP id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-153">[153]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Justices_as_Circuit_Justices">Justices as Circuit Justices</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Justices as Circuit Justices">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The United States is divided into thirteen <A href="/wiki/United_States_court_of_appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="United States court of appeals">circuit courts of appeals</A>, each of which is assigned a "circuit justice" from the Supreme Court. Although this concept has been in continuous existence throughout the history of the republic, its meaning has changed through time.</P>
<P>Under the <A href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</A>, each justice was required to "ride circuit", or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice encountered opposition from many justices, who cited the difficulty of travel. Moreover, there was a potential for a conflict of interest on the Court if a justice had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding was abolished in 1891.</P>
<P>Today, the circuit justice for each circuit is responsible for dealing with certain types of applications that, under the Court's rules, may be addressed by a single justice. These include applications for emergency stays (including stays of execution in death-penalty cases) and injunctions pursuant to the <A href="/wiki/All_Writs_Act" title="All Writs Act">All Writs Act</A> arising from cases within that circuit, as well as routine requests such as requests for extensions of time. In the past, circuit justices also sometimes ruled on motions for <A href="/wiki/Bail" title="Bail">bail</A> in criminal cases, writs of <A href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</A>, and applications for <A href="/wiki/Writ_of_error" class="mw-redirect" title="Writ of error">writs of error</A> granting permission to appeal. Ordinarily, a justice will resolve such an application by simply endorsing it "granted" or "denied" or entering a standard form of order. However, the justice may elect to write an opinion—referred to as an <A href="/wiki/In-chambers_opinion" title="In-chambers opinion">in-chambers opinion</A>—in such matters if he or she wishes.</P>
<P>A circuit justice may sit as a judge on the <A href="/wiki/Court_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="Court of Appeals">Court of Appeals</A> of that circuit, but over the past hundred years, this has rarely occurred. A circuit justice sitting with the Court of Appeals has seniority over the chief judge of the circuit.</P>
<P>The chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the <A href="/wiki/Federal_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Circuit">Federal Circuit</A>. Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits.</P>
<P>As of June 27, 2017, the allotment of the justices among the circuits is:<SUP id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-154">[154]</A></SUP></P>
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<TH>Circuit</TH>
<TH>Justice</TH>
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<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">District of Columbia Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Chief Justice Roberts</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_First_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit">First Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Justice Breyer</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">Second Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Justice Ginsburg</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Third_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit">Third Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Justice Alito</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fourth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit">Fourth Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Chief Justice Roberts</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit">Fifth Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Justice Alito</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Sixth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit">Sixth Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Justice Kagan</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Seventh_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit">Seventh Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Justice Kagan</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit">Eighth Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Justice Gorsuch</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit">Ninth Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Justice Kennedy</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Tenth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit">Tenth Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Justice Sotomayor</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eleventh_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit">Eleventh Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Justice Thomas</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Federal_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit">Federal Circuit</A></TD>
<TD>Chief Justice Roberts</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P>Four of the current justices are assigned to circuits on which they previously sat as circuit judges: Chief Justice Roberts (D.C. Circuit), Justice Breyer (First Circuit), Justice Alito (Third Circuit), and Justice Kennedy (Ninth Circuit).</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Process">Process</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Process">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Procedures_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States">Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States</A></DIV>
<P>A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of around two weeks known as "sittings" and "recesses." Justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings; they discuss cases and write opinions during recesses.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Case_selection">Case selection</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Case selection">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Nearly all cases come before the court by way of petitions for writs of <A href="/wiki/Certiorari#United_States_law" title="Certiorari">certiorari</A>, commonly referred to as "cert". The Court may review any case in the federal courts of appeals "by writ of <I>certiorari</I> granted upon the petition of any party to any civil or criminal case."<SUP id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-155">[155]</A></SUP> Court may only review "final judgments rendered by the highest court of a state in which a decision could be had" if those judgments involve a question of federal statutory or constitutional law.<SUP id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-156">[156]</A></SUP> The party that appealed to the Court is the <I><A href="/wiki/Petitioner" title="Petitioner">petitioner</A></I> and the non-mover is the <I><A href="/wiki/Defendant" title="Defendant">respondent</A></I>. All case names before the Court are styled <I>petitioner</I> v. <I>respondent</I>, regardless of which party initiated the lawsuit in the trial court. For example, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the state and against an individual, as in <I>State of Arizona v. Ernesto Miranda</I>. If the defendant is convicted, and his conviction then is affirmed on appeal in the <A href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">state supreme court</A>, when he petitions for cert the name of the case becomes <I><A href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</A></I>.</P>
<P>There are situations where the Court has original jurisdiction, such as when two states have a dispute against each other, or when there is a dispute between the United States and a state. In such instances, a case is filed with the Supreme Court directly. Examples of such cases include <I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Texas" title="United States v. Texas">United States v. Texas</A></I>, a case to determine whether a parcel of land belonged to the United States or to Texas, and <I><A href="/wiki/Virginia_v._Tennessee" title="Virginia v. Tennessee">Virginia v. Tennessee</A></I>, a case turning on whether an incorrectly drawn boundary between two states can be changed by a state court, and whether the setting of the correct boundary requires Congressional approval. Although it has not happened since 1794 in the case of <I><A href="/wiki/Georgia_v._Brailsford_(1794)" title="Georgia v. Brailsford (1794)">Georgia v. Brailsford</A></I>,<SUP id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-157">[157]</A></SUP> parties in an action at law in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction may request that a <A href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">jury</A> determine issues of fact.<SUP id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-158">[158]</A></SUP> Two other original jurisdiction cases involve colonial era borders and rights under navigable waters in <I><A href="/wiki/New_Jersey_v._Delaware" title="New Jersey v. Delaware">New Jersey v. Delaware</A></I>, and water rights between riparian states upstream of navigable waters in <I><A href="/wiki/Kansas_v._Colorado" title="Kansas v. Colorado">Kansas v. Colorado</A></I>.</P>
<P>A cert petition is voted on at a session of the court called a <I>conference</I>. A conference is a private meeting of the nine Justices by themselves; the public and the Justices' clerks are excluded. The <A href="/wiki/Rule_of_four" title="Rule of four">rule of four</A> permits four of the nine justices to grant a writ of certiorari. If it is granted, the case proceeds to the briefing stage; otherwise, the case ends. Except in <A href="/wiki/Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</A> cases and other cases in which the Court orders briefing from the respondent, the respondent may, but is not required to, file a response to the cert petition.</P>
<P>The court grants a petition for cert only for "compelling reasons", spelled out in the court's Rule 10. Such reasons include:</P>
<UL>
<LI>Resolving a conflict in the interpretation of a federal law or a provision of the federal Constitution</LI>
<LI>Correcting an egregious departure from the accepted and usual course of judicial proceedings</LI>
<LI>Resolving an important question of federal law, or to expressly review a decision of a lower court that conflicts directly with a previous decision of the Court.</LI>
</UL>
<P>When a conflict of interpretations arises from differing interpretations of the same law or constitutional provision issued by different federal circuit courts of appeals, lawyers call this situation a "circuit split." If the court votes to deny a cert petition, as it does in the vast majority of such petitions that come before it, it does so typically without comment. A denial of a cert petition is not a judgment on the merits of a case, and the decision of the lower court stands as the final ruling in the case.</P>
<P>To manage the high volume of cert petitions received by the Court each year (of the more than 7,000 petitions the Court receives each year, it will usually request briefing and hear oral argument in 100 or fewer), the Court employs an internal case management tool known as the "<A href="/wiki/Cert_pool" title="Cert pool">cert pool</A>." Currently, all justices except for Justices Alito and Gorsuch participate in the cert pool.<SUP id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-159">[159]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-160">[160]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-161">[161]</A></SUP> <SUP id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-162">[162]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Oral_argument">Oral argument</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Oral argument">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>When the Court grants a cert petition, the case is set for oral argument. Both parties will file briefs on the merits of the case, as distinct from the reasons they may have argued for granting or denying the cert petition. With the consent of the parties or approval of the Court, <I><A href="/wiki/Amicus_curiae" title="Amicus curiae">amici curiae</A></I>, or "friends of the court", may also file briefs. The Court holds two-week oral argument sessions each month from October through April. Each side has thirty minutes to present its argument (the Court may choose to give more time, though this is rare),<SUP id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-163">[163]</A></SUP> and during that time, the Justices may interrupt the advocate and ask questions. The petitioner gives the first presentation, and may reserve some time to rebut the respondent's arguments after the respondent has concluded. <I>Amici curiae</I> may also present oral argument on behalf of one party if that party agrees. The Court advises counsel to assume that the Justices are familiar with and have read the briefs filed in a case.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Supreme_Court_bar">Supreme Court bar</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Supreme Court bar">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>In order to plead before the court, an attorney must first be admitted to the court's bar. Approximately 4,000 lawyers join the bar each year. The bar contains an estimated 230,000 members. In reality, pleading is limited to several hundred attorneys. The rest join for a one-time fee of $200, earning the court about $750,000 annually. Attorneys can be admitted as either individuals or as groups. The group admission is held before the current justices of the Supreme Court, wherein the Chief Justice approves a motion to admit the new attorneys.<SUP id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-164">[164]</A></SUP> Lawyers commonly apply for the cosmetic value of a certificate to display in their office or on their resume. They also receive access to better seating if they wish to attend an oral argument.<SUP id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-165">[165]</A></SUP> Members of the Supreme Court Bar are also granted access to the collections of the Supreme Court Library.<SUP id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-166">[166]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Decision">Decision</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Decision">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>At the conclusion of oral argument, the case is submitted for decision. Cases are decided by majority vote of the Justices. It is the Court's practice to issue decisions in all cases argued in a particular Term by the end of that Term. Within that Term, however, the Court is under no obligation to release a decision within any set time after oral argument. At the conclusion of oral argument, the Justices retire to another conference at which the preliminary votes are tallied, and the most senior Justice in the majority assigns the initial draft of the Court's opinion to a Justice on his or her side. Drafts of the Court's opinion, as well as any <A href="/wiki/Concurring_opinion" title="Concurring opinion">concurring</A> or <A href="/wiki/Dissenting_opinion" title="Dissenting opinion">dissenting opinions</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-167">[167]</A></SUP> circulate among the Justices until the Court is prepared to announce the judgment in a particular case. Since recording devices are banned inside the courtroom of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">United States Supreme Court Building</A>, the delivery of the decision to the media is done via paper copies and is known as the <A href="/wiki/Running_of_the_Interns" title="Running of the Interns">Running of the Interns</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-168">[168]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-IJR_2016_169-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-IJR_2016-169">[169]</A></SUP></P>
<P>It is possible that, through recusals or vacancies, the Court divides evenly on a case. If that occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but does not establish binding precedent. In effect, it results in a return to the <I><A href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</A> ante</I>. For a case to be heard, there must be a quorum of at least six justices.<SUP id="cite_ref-28_USC_1_170-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28_USC_1-170">[170]</A></SUP> If a quorum is not available to hear a case and a majority of qualified justices believes that the case cannot be heard and determined in the next term, then the judgment of the court below is affirmed as if the Court had been evenly divided. For cases brought to the Supreme Court by direct appeal from a United States District Court, the Chief Justice may order the case remanded to the appropriate U.S. Court of Appeals for a final decision there.<SUP id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-171">[171]</A></SUP> This has only occurred once in U.S. history, in the case of <I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Alcoa" title="United States v. Alcoa">United States v. Alcoa</A></I> (1945).<SUP id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-172">[172]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Published_opinions">Published opinions</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Published opinions">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The Court's opinions are published in three stages. First, a slip opinion is made available on the Court's web site and through other outlets. Next, several opinions and lists of the court's orders are bound together in paperback form, called a preliminary print of <I><A href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">United States Reports</A></I>, the official series of books in which the final version of the Court's opinions appears. About a year after the preliminary prints are issued, a final bound volume of <I>U.S. Reports</I> is issued. The individual volumes of <I>U.S. Reports</I> are numbered so that users may cite this set of reports—or a competing version published by another commercial legal publisher but containing parallel citations—to allow those who read their pleadings and other briefs to find the cases quickly and easily.</P>
<P>As of the beginning of October Term 2016<SUP class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag ref" style="display:none;"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/boundvolumes.aspx">[ref]</A></SUP>, there are:</P>
<UL>
<LI>564 final bound volumes of <I>U.S. Reports</I>, covering cases through the end of October Term 2010, which ended on September 28, 2011.<SUP id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-173">[173]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>16 volumes' worth of opinions available in <A href="/wiki/Slip_opinion" class="mw-redirect" title="Slip opinion">slip opinion</A> form (volumes 565–580)<SUP id="cite_ref-sliplists_174-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-sliplists-174">[174]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
<P>As of March 2012<SUP class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><A class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit">[update]</A></SUP>, the <I>U.S. Reports</I> have published a total of 30,161 Supreme Court opinions, covering the decisions handed down from February 1790 to March 2012.<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title=""is">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP> This figure does not reflect the number of cases the Court has taken up, as several cases can be addressed by a single opinion (see, for example, <I><A href="/wiki/Parents_Involved_in_Community_Schools_v._Seattle_School_District_No._1" title="Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1">Parents v. Seattle</A></I>, where <I><A href="/wiki/Meredith_v._Jefferson_County_Board_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education">Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education</A></I> was also decided in the same opinion; by a similar logic, <I><A href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</A></I> actually decided not only <I>Miranda</I> but also three other cases: <I>Vignera v. New York</I>, <I>Westover v. United States</I>, and <I>California v. Stewart</I>). A more unusual example is <A href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</A>, which comprise a single set of interlinked opinions that take up the entire 126th volume of the <I>U.S. Reports</I>.</P>
<P>Opinions are also collected and published in two unofficial, parallel reporters: <I><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Reporter" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court Reporter">Supreme Court Reporter</A></I>, published by <A href="/wiki/West_(publisher)" title="West (publisher)">West</A> (now a part of <A href="/wiki/Thomson_Reuters" title="Thomson Reuters">Thomson Reuters</A>), and <I><A href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Reports,_Lawyers%27_Edition" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers' Edition">United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers' Edition</A></I> (simply known as <I>Lawyers' Edition</I>), published by <A href="/wiki/LexisNexis" title="LexisNexis">LexisNexis</A>. In court documents, legal periodicals and other legal media, case citations generally contain cites from each of the three reporters; for example, citation to <I><A href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission">Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission</A></I> is presented as <I>Citizens United v. Federal Election Com'n</I>, 585 U.S. 50, 130 S. Ct. 876, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010), with "S. Ct." representing the <I>Supreme Court Reporter</I>, and "L. Ed." representing the <I>Lawyers' Edition</I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-175">[175]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-176">[176]</A></SUP></P>
<H4><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Citations_to_published_opinions">Citations to published opinions</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Citations to published opinions">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H4>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Case_citation#Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Case citation">Case citation § Supreme Court of the United States</A></DIV>
<P>Lawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form "<VAR class="times-serif">vol</VAR> U.S. <VAR class="times-serif">page</VAR>, <VAR class="times-serif">pin</VAR> (<VAR class="times-serif">year</VAR>)", where <VAR class="times-serif">vol</VAR> is the volume number, <VAR class="times-serif">page</VAR> is the page number on which the opinion begins, and <VAR class="times-serif">year</VAR> is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, <VAR class="times-serif">pin</VAR> is used to "pinpoint" to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for <I>Roe v. Wade</I> is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of <I>U.S. Reports</I>. For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with "___".</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Institutional_powers_and_constraints">Institutional powers and constraints</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Institutional powers and constraints">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<P>The Federal court system and the judicial authority to interpret the Constitution received little attention in the debates over the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. The power of <A href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</A>, in fact, is nowhere mentioned in it. Over the ensuing years, the question of whether the power of judicial review was even intended by the drafters of the Constitution was quickly frustrated by the lack of evidence bearing on the question either way.<SUP id="cite_ref-google118_177-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-google118-177">[177]</A></SUP> Nevertheless, the power of judiciary to overturn laws and executive actions it determines are unlawful or unconstitutional is a well-established precedent. Many of the <A href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers" class="mw-redirect" title="Founding Fathers">Founding Fathers</A> accepted the notion of judicial review; in <A href="/wiki/Federalist_No._78" title="Federalist No. 78">Federalist No. 78</A>, <A href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</A> wrote: "A Constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute."</P>
<P>The Supreme Court firmly established its power to declare laws unconstitutional in <I><A href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</A></I> (1803), consummating the American system of <A href="/wiki/Checks_and_balances" class="mw-redirect" title="Checks and balances">checks and balances</A>. In explaining the power of judicial review, Chief Justice <A href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</A> stated that the authority to interpret the law was the particular province of the courts, part of the <I>duty of the judicial department to say what the law is.</I> His contention was not that the Court had privileged insight into constitutional requirements, but that it was the constitutional duty of the judiciary, as well as the other branches of government, to read and obey the dictates of the Constitution.<SUP id="cite_ref-google118_177-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-google118-177">[177]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Since the founding of the republic, there has been a tension between the practice of judicial review and the <A href="/wiki/Democratic_ideals" title="Democratic ideals">democratic ideals</A> of egalitarianism, self-government, self-determination and freedom of conscience. At one pole are those who view the Federal Judiciary and especially the Supreme Court as being "the most separated and least checked of all branches of government."<SUP id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-178">[178]</A></SUP> Indeed, federal judges and justices on the Supreme Court are not required to stand for election by virtue of their tenure "during good behavior", and their pay may "not be diminished" while they hold their position (<A href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_1:_Federal_courts" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Section 1 of Article Three</A>). Though subject to the process of impeachment, only one Justice has ever been impeached and no Supreme Court Justice has been removed from office. At the other pole are those who view the judiciary as the least dangerous branch, with little ability to resist the exhortations of the other branches of government.<SUP id="cite_ref-google118_177-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-google118-177">[177]</A></SUP> The Supreme Court, it is noted, cannot directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of <A href="/wiki/Nonacquiescence" title="Nonacquiescence">nonacquiescence</A> came in 1832, when the state of <A href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</A> ignored the Supreme Court's decision in <I><A href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</A></I>. President <A href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</A>, who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, "<A href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</A> has made his decision; now let him enforce it!";<SUP id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-179">[179]</A></SUP> however, this alleged quotation has been disputed. Some state governments in the <A href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</A> also resisted the desegregation of public schools after the 1954 judgment <I><A href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</A></I>. More recently, many feared that President Nixon would refuse to comply with the Court's order in <I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon" title="United States v. Nixon">United States v. Nixon</A></I> (1974) to surrender the <A href="/wiki/Watergate_tapes" class="mw-redirect" title="Watergate tapes">Watergate tapes</A>. Nixon, however, ultimately complied with the Supreme Court's ruling.</P>
<P>Supreme Court decisions can be (and have been) purposefully overturned by constitutional amendment, which has happened on five occasions:</P>
<UL>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Chisholm_v._Georgia" title="Chisholm v. Georgia">Chisholm v. Georgia</A></I> (1793) – overturned by the <A href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</A> (1795)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</A></I> (1857) – overturned by the <A href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</A> (1865) and the <A href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</A> (1868)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Pollock_v._Farmers%27_Loan_%26_Trust_Co." title="Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.">Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co.</A></I> (1895) – overturned by the <A href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixteenth Amendment</A> (1913)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Minor_v._Happersett" title="Minor v. Happersett">Minor v. Happersett</A></I> (1875) – overturned by the <A href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Nineteenth Amendment</A> (1920)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Oregon_v._Mitchell" title="Oregon v. Mitchell">Oregon v. Mitchell</A></I> (1970) – overturned by the <A href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-sixth Amendment</A> (1971)</LI>
</UL>
<P>When the Court rules on matters involving the interpretation of laws rather than of the Constitution, simple legislative action can reverse the decisions (for example, in 2009 Congress passed the <A href="/wiki/Lilly_Ledbetter_Fair_Pay_Act_of_2009" title="Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009">Lilly Ledbetter act</A>, superseding the limitations given in <I><A href="/wiki/Ledbetter_v._Goodyear_Tire_%26_Rubber_Co." title="Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.">Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.</A></I> in 2007). Also, the Supreme Court is not immune from political and institutional consideration: lower federal courts and state courts sometimes resist doctrinal innovations, as do law enforcement officials.<SUP id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-180">[180]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In addition, the other two branches can restrain the Court through other mechanisms. Congress can increase the number of justices, giving the President power to influence future decisions by appointments (as in Roosevelt's Court Packing Plan discussed above). Congress can pass legislation that restricts the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and other federal courts over certain topics and cases: this is suggested by language in <A href="/wiki/Article_3_(U.S._Constitution)#Section_2:_Federal_jurisdiction_and_trial_by_jury" class="mw-redirect" title="Article 3 (U.S. Constitution)">Section 2</A> of Article Three, where the appellate jurisdiction is granted <I>"with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make."</I> The Court sanctioned such congressional action in the <A href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction era of the United States">Reconstruction</A> case <I><A href="/wiki/Ex_parte_McCardle" title="Ex parte McCardle">ex parte McCardle</A></I> (1869), though it rejected Congress' power to dictate how particular cases must be decided in <I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Klein" title="United States v. Klein">United States v. Klein</A></I> (1871).</P>
<P>On the other hand, through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court has defined the scope and nature of the powers and separation between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government; for example, in <I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Curtiss-Wright_Export_Corp." title="United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.">United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.</A></I> (1936), <I><A href="/wiki/Dames_%26_Moore_v._Regan" title="Dames & Moore v. Regan">Dames & Moore v. Regan</A></I> (1981), and notably in <I><A href="/wiki/Goldwater_v._Carter" title="Goldwater v. Carter">Goldwater v. Carter</A></I> (1979), (where it effectively gave the Presidency the power to terminate ratified treaties without the consent of Congress or the Senate). The Court's decisions can also impose limitations on the scope of Executive authority, as in <I><A href="/wiki/Humphrey%27s_Executor_v._United_States" title="Humphrey's Executor v. United States">Humphrey's Executor v. United States</A></I> (1935), the <I><A href="/wiki/Youngstown_Sheet_%26_Tube_Co._v._Sawyer" title="Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer">Steel Seizure Case</A></I> (1952), and <I>United States v. Nixon</I> (1974).</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Law_clerks">Law clerks</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Law clerks">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Law_clerk" title="Law clerk">Law clerk</A> and <A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States</A></DIV>
<P>Each Supreme Court justice hires several <A href="/wiki/Law_clerk#Federal_clerkships" title="Law clerk">law Clerks</A> to review petitions for writ of <A href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">certiorari</A>, <A href="/wiki/Legal_research" title="Legal research">research</A> them, prepare <A href="/wiki/Bench_memorandum" title="Bench memorandum">bench memorandums</A>, and draft <A href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">opinions</A>. Associate justices are allowed four clerks. The chief justice is allowed five clerks, but Chief Justice Rehnquist hired only three per year, and Chief Justice Roberts usually hires only four.<SUP id="cite_ref-Peppers2006_181-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Peppers2006-181">[181]</A></SUP> Generally, law clerks serve a term of one to two years.</P>
<P>The first law clerk was hired by Associate Justice <A href="/wiki/Horace_Gray" title="Horace Gray">Horace Gray</A> in 1882.<SUP id="cite_ref-Peppers2006_181-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Peppers2006-181">[181]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Weiden2006_182-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Weiden2006-182">[182]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.</A> and <A href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</A> were the first Supreme Court justices to use recent <A href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">law school</A> graduates as clerks, rather than hiring a "stenographer-secretary".<SUP id="cite_ref-Chace2007_183-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Chace2007-183">[183]</A></SUP> Most law clerks are recent law school graduates.</P>
<P>The first female clerk was <A href="/wiki/Lucile_Lomen" title="Lucile Lomen">Lucile Lomen</A>, hired in 1944 by Justice <A href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Peppers2006_181-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Peppers2006-181">[181]</A></SUP> The first African-American, <A href="/wiki/William_T._Coleman,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William T. Coleman, Jr.">William T. Coleman, Jr.</A>, was hired in 1948 by Justice <A href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Peppers2006_181-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Peppers2006-181">[181]</A></SUP> A disproportionately large number of law clerks have obtained law degrees from elite law schools, especially Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62% of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School.<SUP id="cite_ref-Peppers2006_181-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Peppers2006-181">[181]</A></SUP> Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the <A href="/wiki/Law_review" title="Law review">law review</A> or a member of the <A href="/wiki/Moot_court" title="Moot court">moot court</A> board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a <A href="/wiki/United_States_Courts_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Courts of Appeals">federal court of appeals</A> had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice.<SUP id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-184">[184]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Seven Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: <A href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">Byron White</A> for <A href="/wiki/Frederick_M._Vinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick M. Vinson">Frederick M. Vinson</A>, <A href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John Paul Stevens</A> for <A href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiley Rutledge">Wiley Rutledge</A>, <A href="/wiki/William_H._Rehnquist" class="mw-redirect" title="William H. Rehnquist">William H. Rehnquist</A> for <A href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</A>, <A href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</A> for <A href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldberg" title="Arthur Goldberg">Arthur Goldberg</A>, <A href="/wiki/John_G._Roberts,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="John G. Roberts, Jr.">John G. Roberts, Jr.</A> for <A href="/wiki/William_H._Rehnquist" class="mw-redirect" title="William H. Rehnquist">William H. Rehnquist</A>, <A href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</A> for <A href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</A> and <A href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</A> for both <A href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">Byron White</A> and <A href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</A>. Gorsuch is the first justice to serve alongside a justice for whom he or she clerked.</P>
<P>Several current Supreme Court justices have also clerked in the federal courts of appeals: <A href="/wiki/John_G._Roberts,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="John G. Roberts, Jr.">John G. Roberts, Jr.</A> for Judge <A href="/wiki/Henry_Friendly" title="Henry Friendly">Henry Friendly</A> of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit</A>, Justice <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</A> for Judge <A href="/wiki/Leonard_I._Garth" title="Leonard I. Garth">Leonard I. Garth</A> of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Third_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit</A>, <A href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</A> for Judge <A href="/wiki/Abner_J._Mikva" title="Abner J. Mikva">Abner J. Mikva</A> of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</A> for Judge <A href="/wiki/David_B._Sentelle" title="David B. Sentelle">David B. Sentelle</A> of the <A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia">United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia</A>.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Politicization_of_the_Court">Politicization of the Court</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Politicization of the Court">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Clerks hired by each of the justices of the Supreme Court are often given considerable leeway in the opinions they draft. "Supreme Court clerkship appeared to be a nonpartisan institution from the 1940s into the 1980s", according to a study published in 2009 by the law review of Vanderbilt University Law School.<SUP id="cite_ref-nyt090710_185-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nyt090710-185">[185]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-186">[186]</A></SUP> "As law has moved closer to mere politics, political affiliations have naturally and predictably become proxies for the different political agendas that have been pressed in and through the courts", former federal court of appeals judge <A href="/wiki/J._Michael_Luttig" title="J. Michael Luttig">J. Michael Luttig</A> said.<SUP id="cite_ref-nyt090710_185-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nyt090710-185">[185]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/David_J._Garrow" class="mw-redirect" title="David J. Garrow">David J. Garrow</A>, professor of history at the <A href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</A>, stated that the Court had thus begun to mirror the political branches of government. "We are getting a composition of the clerk workforce that is getting to be like the House of Representatives", Professor Garrow said. "Each side is putting forward only ideological purists."<SUP id="cite_ref-nyt090710_185-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nyt090710-185">[185]</A></SUP></P>
<P>According to the <I>Vanderbilt Law Review</I> study, this politicized hiring trend reinforces the impression that the Supreme Court is "a superlegislature responding to ideological arguments rather than a legal institution responding to concerns grounded in the rule of law."<SUP id="cite_ref-nyt090710_185-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nyt090710-185">[185]</A></SUP> A poll conducted in June 2012 by <I>The New York Times</I> and CBS News showed just 44% of Americans approve of the job the Supreme Court is doing. Three-quarters said justices' decisions are sometimes influenced by their political or personal views.<SUP id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-187">[187]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Criticism">Criticism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Criticism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>The court has been the object of criticisms on a range of issues. Among them:</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Judicial_activism">Judicial activism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Judicial activism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The Supreme Court has been criticized for not keeping within Constitutional bounds by engaging in <A href="/wiki/Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">judicial activism</A>, rather than merely interpreting law and exercising <A href="/wiki/Judicial_restraint" title="Judicial restraint">judicial restraint</A>. Claims of judicial activism are not confined to any particular ideology.<SUP id="cite_ref-judicialactivismOxford_188-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-judicialactivismOxford-188">[188]</A></SUP> An often cited example of <A href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservative</A> judicial activism is the 1905 decision in <I><A href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</A></I>, which has been criticized by many prominent thinkers, including <A href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</A>, Justice <A href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</A>, and Chief Justice <A href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-judicialactivismOxford_188-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-judicialactivismOxford-188">[188]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct20_189-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct20-189">[189]</A></SUP> and which was reversed in the 1930s.<SUP id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-190">[190]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-191">[191]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-192">[192]</A></SUP> An often cited example of <A href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">liberal</A> judicial activism is <I><A href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</A></I> (1973), which legalized abortion in part on the basis of the "right to privacy" inferred from the <A href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</A>, a reasoning that some critics argued was circuitous.<SUP id="cite_ref-judicialactivismOxford_188-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-judicialactivismOxford-188">[188]</A></SUP> Legal scholars,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct08_193-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct08-193">[193]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct05_194-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct05-194">[194]</A></SUP> justices,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct10_195-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct10-195">[195]</A></SUP> and presidential candidates<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct03_196-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct03-196">[196]</A></SUP> have criticized the Roe decision. The progressive <I><A href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</A></I> decision has been criticized by conservatives such as <A href="/wiki/Patrick_Buchanan" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrick Buchanan">Patrick Buchanan</A><SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct71_197-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct71-197">[197]</A></SUP> and former presidential contender <A href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct33_198-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct33-198">[198]</A></SUP> More recently, <I><A href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._Federal_Election_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission">Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission</A></I> was criticized for expanding upon the precedent in <I><A href="/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti" title="First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti">First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti</A></I> (1978) that the <A href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</A> applies to corporations.<SUP id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-199">[199]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</A> warned, referring to the <I><A href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott</A></I> decision, that if government policy became "irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court...the people will have ceased to be their own rulers."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct50_200-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct50-200">[200]</A></SUP> Former justice <A href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</A> justified judicial activism with these words: "You do what you think is right and let the law catch up."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct02_201-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct02-201">[201]</A></SUP> During different historical periods, the Court has leaned in different directions.<SUP id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-202">[202]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct44_203-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct44-203">[203]</A></SUP> Critics from both sides complain that activist-judges abandon the Constitution and substitute their own views instead.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct21_204-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct21-204">[204]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct18_205-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct18-205">[205]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct05_206-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct05-206">[206]</A></SUP> Critics include writers such as <A href="/wiki/Andrew_Napolitano" title="Andrew Napolitano">Andrew Napolitano</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct59_207-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct59-207">[207]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Phyllis_Schlafly" title="Phyllis Schlafly">Phyllis Schlafly</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct60_208-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct60-208">[208]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Mark_Levin" title="Mark Levin">Mark R. Levin</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct61_209-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct61-209">[209]</A></SUP> Mark I. Sutherland,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws484ki_210-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws484ki-210">[210]</A></SUP> and <A href="/wiki/James_MacGregor_Burns" title="James MacGregor Burns">James MacGregor Burns</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws27oct304_211-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws27oct304-211">[211]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws27oct303_212-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws27oct303-212">[212]</A></SUP> Past presidents from both parties have attacked judicial activism, including <A href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</A>, Richard Nixon, and Ronald Reagan.<SUP id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-213">[213]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct48_214-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct48-214">[214]</A></SUP> Failed Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork wrote: "What judges have wrought is a coup d'état, – slow-moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct53_215-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct53-215">[215]</A></SUP> Senator <A href="/wiki/Al_Franken" title="Al Franken">Al Franken</A> quipped that when politicians talk about judicial activism, "their definition of an activist judge is one who votes differently than they would like."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct11_216-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct11-216">[216]</A></SUP> One law professor claimed in a 1978 article that the Supreme Court is in some respects "certainly a legislative body."<SUP id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-217">[217]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Failing_to_protect_individual_rights">Failing to protect individual rights</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Failing to protect individual rights">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Court decisions have been criticized for failing to protect individual rights: the <I><A href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott</A></I> (1857) decision upheld slavery;<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct16_218-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct16-218">[218]</A></SUP> <I><A href="/wiki/Plessy_v_Ferguson" class="mw-redirect" title="Plessy v Ferguson">Plessy v Ferguson</A></I> (1896) upheld <A href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">segregation</A> under the doctrine of <I><A href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</A></I>;<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct04_219-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct04-219">[219]</A></SUP> <I><A href="/wiki/Kelo_v._City_of_New_London" title="Kelo v. City of New London">Kelo v. City of New London</A></I> (2005) was criticized by prominent politicians, including <A href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</A> governor <A href="/wiki/Jon_Corzine" title="Jon Corzine">Jon Corzine</A>, as undermining property rights.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct24_220-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct24-220">[220]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct26_221-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct26-221">[221]</A></SUP> Some critics suggest the 2009 bench with a conservative majority has "become increasingly hostile to voters" by siding with Indiana's voter identification laws which tend to "disenfranchise large numbers of people without driver's licenses, especially poor and minority voters", according to one report.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct10_222-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct10-222">[222]</A></SUP> Senator <A href="/wiki/Al_Franken" title="Al Franken">Al Franken</A> criticized the Court for "eroding individual rights."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct11_216-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct11-216">[216]</A></SUP> However, others argue that the Court is <I>too protective</I> of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice <A href="/wiki/Warren_Burger" class="mw-redirect" title="Warren Burger">Warren Burger</A> was an outspoken critic of the exclusionary rule, and Justice <A href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</A> criticized the Court's decision in <I><A href="/wiki/Boumediene_v._Bush" title="Boumediene v. Bush">Boumediene v. Bush</A></I> for being <I>too protective</I> of the rights of <A href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Detention_Camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp">Guantanamo</A> detainees, on the grounds that <A href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</A> was "limited" to sovereign territory.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws30oct05_223-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws30oct05-223">[223]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Supreme_Court_has_too_much_power">Supreme Court has too much power</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Supreme Court has too much power">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>This criticism is related to complaints about judicial activism. <A href="/wiki/George_Will" title="George Will">George Will</A> wrote that the Court has an "increasingly central role in American governance."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct01_224-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct01-224">[224]</A></SUP> It was criticized for intervening in bankruptcy proceedings regarding ailing carmaker <A href="/wiki/Chrysler_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysler Corporation">Chrysler Corporation</A> in 2009.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct04_225-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct04-225">[225]</A></SUP> A reporter wrote that "Justice <A href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</A>'s intervention in the Chrysler bankruptcy" left open the "possibility of further judicial review" but argued overall that the intervention was a proper use of Supreme Court power to check the executive branch.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct04_225-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct04-225">[225]</A></SUP> Warren E. Burger, before becoming <A href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</A>, argued that since the Supreme Court has such "unreviewable power" it is likely to "self-indulge itself" and unlikely to "engage in dispassionate analysis".<SUP id="cite_ref-twsvsfs32_226-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-twsvsfs32-226">[226]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Larry_Sabato" title="Larry Sabato">Larry Sabato</A> wrote "excessive authority has accrued to the federal courts, especially the Supreme Court."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct16_227-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct16-227">[227]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Courts_are_poor_check_on_executive_power">Courts are poor check on executive power</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Courts are poor check on executive power">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>British constitutional scholar <A href="/wiki/Adam_Tomkins" title="Adam Tomkins">Adam Tomkins</A> sees flaws in the American system of having courts (and specifically the Supreme Court) act as checks on the Executive and Legislative branches; he argues that because the courts must wait, sometimes for years, for cases to navigate their way through the system, their ability to restrain other branches is severely weakened.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct77_228-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct77-228">[228]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws2nov02_229-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws2nov02-229">[229]</A></SUP> In contrast, the <A href="/wiki/Federal_Constitutional_Court_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Constitutional Court of Germany">Federal Constitutional Court of Germany</A> for example, can directly declare a law unconstitutional upon request.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Federal_versus_state_power">Federal versus state power</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Federal versus state power">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>There has been debate throughout American history about the boundary between federal and state power. While Framers such as <A href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</A><SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct22_230-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct22-230">[230]</A></SUP> and <A href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</A><SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct47_231-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct47-231">[231]</A></SUP> argued in <I><A href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</A></I> that their then-proposed Constitution would not infringe on the power of state governments,<SUP id="cite_ref-tws27oct501_232-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws27oct501-232">[232]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws27oct502_233-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws27oct502-233">[233]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws27oct503_234-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws27oct503-234">[234]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws27oct504_235-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws27oct504-235">[235]</A></SUP> others argue that expansive <A href="/wiki/Federal_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal power">federal power</A> is good and consistent with the Framers' wishes.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws24oct10_236-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws24oct10-236">[236]</A></SUP> The <A href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</A> explicitly grants "powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." The Supreme Court has been criticized for giving the <A href="/wiki/Federal_Government_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Government of the United States">federal government</A> too much power to interfere with state authority. One criticism is that it has allowed the federal government to misuse the <A href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</A> by upholding regulations and legislation which have little to do with interstate commerce, but that were enacted under the guise of regulating interstate commerce; and by voiding state legislation for allegedly interfering with interstate commerce. For example, the Commerce Clause was used by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold the Endangered Species Act, thus protecting six endemic species of insect near Austin, Texas, despite the fact that the insects had no commercial value and did not travel across state lines; the Supreme Court let that ruling stand without comment in 2005.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws30oct08_237-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws30oct08-237">[237]</A></SUP> Chief Justice <A href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</A> asserted Congress's power over interstate commerce was "complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations, other than are prescribed in the Constitution."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws27oct505_238-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws27oct505-238">[238]</A></SUP> Justice <A href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</A> said congressional authority under the <A href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</A> is "quite broad."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws30oct09_239-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws30oct09-239">[239]</A></SUP> Modern day theorist <A href="/wiki/Robert_B._Reich" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert B. Reich">Robert B. Reich</A> suggests debate over the <A href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</A> continues today.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws27oct505_238-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws27oct505-238">[238]</A></SUP> Advocates of <A href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</A> such as constitutional scholar <A href="/wiki/Kevin_Gutzman" title="Kevin Gutzman">Kevin Gutzman</A> have also criticized the Court, saying it has misused the <A href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</A> to undermine state authority. Justice <A href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</A>, in arguing for allowing the states to operate without federal interference, suggested that states should be <A href="/wiki/Laboratories_of_democracy" title="Laboratories of democracy">laboratories of democracy</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws30oct03_240-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws30oct03-240">[240]</A></SUP> One critic wrote "the great majority of Supreme Court rulings of unconstitutionality involve state, not federal, law."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct15_241-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct15-241">[241]</A></SUP> However, others see the <A href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</A> as a positive force that extends "protection of those rights and guarantees to the state level."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws30oct02_242-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws30oct02-242">[242]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Secretive_proceedings">Secretive proceedings</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Secretive proceedings">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The Court has been criticized for keeping its deliberations hidden from public view.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct02_243-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct02-243">[243]</A></SUP> According to a review of <A href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Toobin" title="Jeffrey Toobin">Jeffrey Toobin</A>'s expose <I><A href="/wiki/The_Nine:_Inside_the_Secret_World_of_the_Supreme_Court" title="The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court">The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court</A></I>; "Its inner workings are difficult for reporters to cover, like a closed "cartel", only revealing itself through "public events and printed releases, with nothing about its inner workings".<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct12_244-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct12-244">[244]</A></SUP> The reviewer writes: "few (reporters) dig deeply into court affairs. It all works very neatly; the only ones hurt are the American people, who know little about nine individuals with enormous power over their lives."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct12_244-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct12-244">[244]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Larry_Sabato" title="Larry Sabato">Larry Sabato</A> complains about the Court's "insularity."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct16_227-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct16-227">[227]</A></SUP> A <A href="/wiki/Fairleigh_Dickinson_University" title="Fairleigh Dickinson University">Fairleigh Dickinson University</A> poll conducted in 2010 found that 61% of American voters agreed that <A href="/wiki/Cameras_in_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Cameras in the Supreme Court of the United States">televising Court hearings</A> would "be good for democracy", and 50% of voters stated they would watch Court proceedings if they were televised.<SUP id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-245">[245]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-246">[246]</A></SUP> In recent years, many justices have appeared on television, written books and made public statements to journalists.<SUP id="cite_ref-CSPAN_SCW_247-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CSPAN_SCW-247">[247]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct03_248-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct03-248">[248]</A></SUP> In a 2009 interview on <I>C-SPAN</I>, journalists <A href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic" title="Joan Biskupic">Joan Biskupic</A> (of <I><A href="/wiki/USA_Today" title="USA Today">USA Today</A></I>) and <A href="/wiki/Lyle_Denniston" title="Lyle Denniston">Lyle Denniston</A> (of <I><A href="/wiki/SCOTUSblog" title="SCOTUSblog">SCOTUSblog</A></I>) argued that the Court is a "very open" institution with only the justices' private conferences inaccessible to others.<SUP id="cite_ref-CSPAN_SCW_247-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CSPAN_SCW-247">[247]</A></SUP> In October 2010, the Court began the practice of posting on its website recordings and transcripts of oral arguments on the Friday after they occur.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Judicial_interference_in_political_disputes">Judicial interference in political disputes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Judicial interference in political disputes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Some Court decisions have been criticized for injecting the Court into the political arena, and deciding questions that are the purview of the other two branches of government. The <I><A href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</A></I> decision, in which the Supreme Court intervened in the 2000 presidential election and effectively chose <A href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</A> over <A href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</A>, has been criticized extensively, particularly by <A href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberals</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct12_244-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct12-244">[244]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct07_249-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct07-249">[249]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct40_250-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct40-250">[250]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct01_251-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct01-251">[251]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct08_252-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct08-252">[252]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-tws23june3_253-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23june3-253">[253]</A></SUP> Another example are Court decisions on apportionment and <A href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">re-districting</A>: in <I><A href="/wiki/Baker_v._Carr" title="Baker v. Carr">Baker v. Carr</A></I>, the court decided it could rule on apportionment questions; Justice <A href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Frankfurter</A> in a "scathing dissent" argued against the court wading into so-called <A href="/wiki/Political_question" title="Political question">political questions</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws28oct876_254-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws28oct876-254">[254]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Not_choosing_enough_cases_to_review">Not choosing enough cases to review</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Not choosing enough cases to review">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Senator <A href="/wiki/Arlen_Specter" title="Arlen Specter">Arlen Specter</A> said the Court should "decide more cases".<SUP id="cite_ref-tws22oct11_216-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws22oct11-216">[216]</A></SUP> On the other hand, although Justice <A href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</A> acknowledged in a 2009 interview that the number of cases that the Court hears now is smaller today than when he first joined the Supreme Court, he also stated that he has not changed his standards for deciding whether to review a case, nor does he believe his colleagues have changed their standards. He attributed the high volume of cases in the late 1980s, at least in part, to an earlier flurry of new federal legislation that was making its way through the courts.<SUP id="cite_ref-CSPAN_SCW_247-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CSPAN_SCW-247">[247]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Lifetime_tenure">Lifetime tenure</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Lifetime tenure">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Critic <A href="/wiki/Larry_Sabato" title="Larry Sabato">Larry Sabato</A> wrote: "The insularity of lifetime tenure, combined with the appointments of relatively young attorneys who give long service on the bench, produces senior judges representing the views of past generations better than views of the current day."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct16_227-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct16-227">[227]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Sanford_Levinson" title="Sanford Levinson">Sanford Levinson</A> has been critical of justices who stayed in office despite medical deterioration based on longevity.<SUP id="cite_ref-tws10oct12_255-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws10oct12-255">[255]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/James_MacGregor_Burns" title="James MacGregor Burns">James MacGregor Burns</A> stated lifelong tenure has "produced a critical time lag, with the Supreme Court institutionally almost always behind the times."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws27oct304_211-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws27oct304-211">[211]</A></SUP> Proposals to solve these problems include <A href="/wiki/Term_limit" title="Term limit">term limits</A> for justices, as proposed by Levinson<SUP id="cite_ref-tws10octxx_256-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws10octxx-256">[256]</A></SUP> and Sabato<SUP id="cite_ref-tws23oct16_227-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws23oct16-227">[227]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-257">[257]</A></SUP> as well as a mandatory retirement age proposed by <A href="/wiki/Richard_Allen_Epstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Allen Epstein">Richard Epstein</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-258">[258]</A></SUP> among others.<SUP id="cite_ref-259" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-259">[259]</A></SUP> However, others suggest lifetime tenure brings substantial benefits, such as impartiality and freedom from political pressure. <A href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</A> in <I><A href="/wiki/Federalist_78" class="mw-redirect" title="Federalist 78">Federalist 78</A></I> wrote "nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office."<SUP id="cite_ref-tws28oct707_260-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tws28oct707-260">[260]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Accepting_gifts">Accepting gifts</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Accepting gifts">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The 21st century has seen increased scrutiny of justices accepting expensive gifts and travel. All of the members of the Roberts Court have accepted travel or gifts. In 2012, Justice Sonia Sotomayor received $1.9 million in advances from her publisher Knopf Doubleday.<SUP id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-261">[261]</A></SUP> Justice Scalia and others took dozens of expensive trips to exotic locations paid for by private donors.<SUP id="cite_ref-NYT226_262-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NYT226-262">[262]</A></SUP> Private events sponsored by partisan groups that are attended by both the justices and those who have an interest in their decisions have raised concerns about access and inappropriate communications.<SUP id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-263">[263]</A></SUP> Stephen Spaulding, the legal director at <A href="/wiki/Common_Cause" title="Common Cause">Common Cause</A>, said: "There are fair questions raised by some of these trips about their commitment to being impartial."<SUP id="cite_ref-NYT226_262-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-NYT226-262">[262]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<LI style="display:table-row"><SPAN style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg/32px-Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg.png" width="32" height="28" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg/48px-Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg/64px-Johnny-automatic-scales-of-justice.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="442" /></SPAN><SPAN style="display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle"><A href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</A></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<DIV class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 28em; -webkit-column-width: 28em; column-width: 28em;">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Donald_Trump_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Donald Trump Supreme Court candidates">Donald Trump Supreme Court candidates</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federal_judicial_appointment_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal judicial appointment history">Federal judicial appointment history</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_court_composition" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition">by court composition</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_seat" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by seat">by seat</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_time_in_office" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by time in office">by time in office</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_attended_by_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices" title="List of law schools attended by United States Supreme Court Justices">List of law schools attended by United States Supreme Court Justices</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Chief_Justices_by_time_in_office" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Chief Justices by time in office">List of United States Chief Justices by time in office</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lists_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" title="Lists of United States Supreme Court cases">Lists of United States Supreme Court cases</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Oyez_Project" title="Oyez Project">Oyez Project</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Segal%E2%80%93Cover_score" title="Segal–Cover score">Segal–Cover score</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unsuccessful_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Unsuccessful nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">Unsuccessful nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States</A></LI>
<LI>Landmark Supreme Court decisions (selection)
<UL>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</A></I> (1803, judicial review)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/McCulloch_v._Maryland" title="McCulloch v. Maryland">McCulloch v. Maryland</A></I> (1819, implied powers)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Gibbons_v._Ogden" title="Gibbons v. Ogden">Gibbons v. Ogden</A></I> (1824, interstate commerce)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</A></I> (1857, slavery)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</A></I> (1896, separate but equal treatment of races)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</A></I> (1954, school segregation of races)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</A></I> (1962, state-sponsored prayers in <A href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">public schools</A>)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Abington_School_District_v._Schempp" title="Abington School District v. Schempp">Abington School District v. Schempp</A></I> (1963, <A href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</A> readings and recitation of the <A href="/wiki/Lord%27s_prayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord's prayer">Lord's prayer</A> in U.S. public schools)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</A></I> (1963, right to an attorney)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</A></I> (1965, privacy in <A href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</A>)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</A></I> (1966, rights of those detained by police)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/In_re_Gault" title="In re Gault">In re Gault</A></I> (1967, rights of juvenile suspects)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</A></I> (1967, interracial marriage)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Lemon_v._Kurtzman" title="Lemon v. Kurtzman">Lemon v. Kurtzman</A></I> (1971, religious activities in public schools)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._United_States" title="New York Times Co. v. United States">New York Times Co. v. United States</A></I> (1971, freedom of the press)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Eisenstadt_v._Baird" title="Eisenstadt v. Baird">Eisenstadt v. Baird</A></I> (1972, privacy for <A href="/wiki/Unmarried" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmarried">unmarried</A> people)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</A></I> (1973, abortion)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Miller_v._California" title="Miller v. California">Miller v. California</A></I> (1973, obscenity)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon" title="United States v. Nixon">United States v. Nixon</A></I> (1974, executive privilege)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</A></I> (1976, campaign finance)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Bowers_v._Hardwick" title="Bowers v. Hardwick">Bowers v. Hardwick</A></I> (1986, sodomy)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</A></I> (2000, presidential election)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</A></I> (2003, sodomy, privacy)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_v._Heller" title="District of Columbia v. Heller">District of Columbia v. Heller</A></I> (2008, gun rights)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">Citizens United v. FEC</A></I> (2010, campaign finance)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Windsor" title="United States v. Windsor">United States v. Windsor</A></I> (2013, same-sex marriage)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Shelby_County_v._Holder" title="Shelby County v. Holder">Shelby County v. Holder</A></I> (2013, voting rights)</LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Obergefell_v._Hodges" title="Obergefell v. Hodges">Obergefell v. Hodges</A></I> (2015, same-sex marriage)</LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Lawson, Gary; Seidman, Guy (2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.nd.edu/ndlr/vol77/iss1/1/">"When Did the Constitution Become Law?"</A>. <I>Notre Dame Law Review</I>. <B>77</B>: 1–37.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notre+Dame+Law+Review&rft.atitle=When+Did+the+Constitution+Become+Law%3F&rft.volume=77&rft.pages=1-37&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Lawson&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft.au=Seidman%2C+Guy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.nd.edu%2Fndlr%2Fvol77%2Fiss1%2F1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/institution.aspx">"The Court as an Institution – Supreme Court of the United States"</A>. <I>www.supremecourt.gov</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">February 1,</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.supremecourt.gov&rft.atitle=The+Court+as+an+Institution+%E2%80%93+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fabout%2Finstitution.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Safire, William, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/12/magazine/on-language-potus-and-flotus.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm">"On language: POTUS and FLOTUS," New York Times, October 12, 1997</A>. Retrieved August 27, 2013.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Johnson, Barnabas. <I>Almanac of the Federal Judiciary</I>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jNdFAQAAIAAJ&q=%22judge+instead+of+justice%22+constitution&dq=%22judge+instead+of+justice%22+constitution&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jyIdUrvTL5CusQSgz4CoCQ&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA">p. 25</A> (Aspen Law & Business, 1988).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-overview-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-overview_5-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/briefoverview.pdf">"A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. United States Supreme Court<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">December 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+Overview+of+the+Supreme+Court&rft.pub=United+States+Supreme+Court&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fabout%2Fbriefoverview.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-6"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Bordewich, Fergus (2016). <I>The First Congress: How James Madison, George Washington, and a Group of Extraordinary Men Invented the Government</I>. Simon & Schuster. p. 195. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1451691939" title="Special:BookSources/1451691939">1451691939</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Congress%3A+How+James+Madison%2C+George+Washington%2C+and+a+Group+of+Extraordinary+Men+Invented+the+Government&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=1451691939&rft.aulast=Bordewich&rft.aufirst=Fergus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-7"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Shugerman, Jed. "A Six-Three Rule: Reviving Consensus and Deference on the Supreme Court", <I><A href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_School_of_Law#Journals" title="University of Georgia School of Law">Georgia Law Review</A></I>, Vol. 37, p. 893 (2002–03).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-8"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Irons, Peter. <I>A People's History of the Supreme Court</I>, p. 101 (Penguin 2006).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-9"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Ashmore, Anne (August 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/datesofdecisions.pdf">"Dates of Supreme Court decisions and arguments, United States Reports volumes 2–107 (1791–82)"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Library, Supreme Court of the United States<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">April 26,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dates+of+Supreme+Court+decisions+and+arguments%2C+United+States+Reports+volumes+2%E2%80%93107+%281791%E2%80%9382%29&rft.pub=Library%2C+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.date=2006-08&rft.aulast=Ashmore&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2Fdatesofdecisions.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct01-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct01_10-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Scott Douglas Gerber (editor) (1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0tEkU5LiYsQC&pg=PA1">"Seriatim: The Supreme Court Before John Marshall"</A>. New York University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-3114-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-3114-7">0-8147-3114-7</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>(page 3) Finally many scholars cite the absence of a separate Supreme Court building as evidence that the early Court lacked prestige.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Seriatim%3A+The+Supreme+Court+Before+John+Marshall&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-8147-3114-7&rft.au=Scott+Douglas+Gerber+%28editor%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0tEkU5LiYsQC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Extra_text:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-11"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A href="/wiki/John_F._Manning" title="John F. Manning">Manning, John F.</A> (2004). "The Eleventh Amendment and the Reading of Precise Constitutional Texts". <I>Yale Law Journal</I>. <B>113</B> (8): 1663–1750. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.2307%2F4135780">10.2307/4135780</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Eleventh+Amendment+and+the+Reading+of+Precise+Constitutional+Texts&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1663-1750&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4135780&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct02-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct02_12-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Epps, Garrett (October 24, 2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A56446-2004Oct23.html">"Don't Do It, Justices"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The court's prestige has been hard-won. In the early 1800s, Chief Justice John Marshall made the court respected</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Don%27t+Do+It%2C+Justices&rft.date=2004-10-24&rft.aulast=Epps&rft.aufirst=Garrett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Farticles%2FA56446-2004Oct23.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-13"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The Supreme Court had first used the power of judicial review in the case <I><A href="/wiki/Ware_v._Hylton" title="Ware v. Hylton">Ware v. Hylton</A></I>, (1796), wherein it overturned a state law that conflicted with a treaty between the United States and Great Britain.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct05-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct05_14-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Rosen, Jeffrey (July 5, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/02/AR2009070202033.html">"Black Robe Politics"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(book review of <I>Packing the Court</I> by James MacGregor Burns)</SPAN>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>From the beginning, Burns continues, the Court has established its "supremacy" over the president and Congress because of Chief Justice John Marshall's "brilliant political coup" in Marbury v. Madison (1803): asserting a power to strike down unconstitutional laws.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Black+Robe+Politics&rft.date=2009-07-05&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2009%2F07%2F02%2FAR2009070202033.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct09-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct09_15-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030920031130/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page19.htm">"The People's Vote: 100 Documents that Shaped America – Marbury v. Madison (1803)"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report" title="U.S. News & World Report">U.S. News & World Report</A></I>. 2003. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page19.htm">the original</A> on September 20, 2003<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>With his decision in Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall established the principle of judicial review, an important addition to the system of "checks and balances" created to prevent any one branch of the Federal Government from becoming too powerful...A Law repugnant to the Constitution is void.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=The+People%27s+Vote%3A+100+Documents+that+Shaped+America+%E2%80%93+Marbury+v.+Madison+%281803%29&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Fusnews%2Fdocuments%2Fdocpages%2Fdocument_page19.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct03-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct03_16-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Sloan, Cliff; McKean, David (February 21, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/id/185803">"Why Marbury V. Madison Still Matters"</A>. <I>Newsweek</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>More than 200 years after the high court ruled, the decision in that landmark case continues to resonate.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Why+Marbury+V.+Madison+Still+Matters&rft.date=2009-02-21&rft.aulast=Sloan&rft.aufirst=Cliff&rft.au=McKean%2C+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Fid%2F185803&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct08-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct08_17-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9D0CEFDE1031E033A25754C2A9649C94629ED7CF">"The Constitution In Law: Its Phases Construed by the Federal Supreme Court"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</A></I>. February 27, 1893<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The decision … in Martin vs. Hunter's Lessee is the authority on which lawyers and Judges have rested the doctrine that where there is in question, in the highest court of a State, and decided adversely to the validity of a State statute... such claim is reviewable by the Supreme Court ...</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Constitution+In+Law%3A+Its+Phases+Construed+by+the+Federal+Supreme+Court&rft.date=1893-02-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fmem%2Farchive-free%2Fpdf%3Fres%3D9D0CEFDE1031E033A25754C2A9649C94629ED7CF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct04-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct04_18-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Justices Ginsburg, Stevens, Souter, Breyer (December 13, 2000). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/news/vote2000/pres246.htm">"Dissenting opinions in Bush v. Gore"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/USA_Today" title="USA Today">USA Today</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Rarely has this Court rejected outright an interpretation of state law by a state high court … The Virginia court refused to obey this Court's Fairfax's Devisee mandate to enter judgment for the British subject's successor in interest. That refusal led to the Court's pathmarking decision in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, 1 Wheat. 304 (1816).</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Dissenting+opinions+in+Bush+v.+Gore&rft.date=2000-12-13&rft.au=Justices+Ginsburg%2C+Stevens%2C+Souter%2C+Breyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fnews%2Fvote2000%2Fpres246.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct06-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct06_19-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct06_19-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9E03EED8133EE333A25750C0A9649C946097D6CF">"Decisions of the Supreme Court – Historic Decrees Issued in One Hundred an Eleven Years"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>The New York Times</I>. February 3, 1901<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Very important also was the decision in Martin vs. Hunter's lessee, in which the court asserted its authority to overrule, within certain limits, the decisions of the highest State courts.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Decisions+of+the+Supreme+Court+%E2%80%93+Historic+Decrees+Issued+in+One+Hundred+an+Eleven+Years&rft.date=1901-02-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fmem%2Farchive-free%2Fpdf%3F_r%3D1%26res%3D9E03EED8133EE333A25750C0A9649C946097D6CF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct11-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct11_20-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct11_20-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20120530060153/http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A58066-2000Oct2&notFound=true">"The Supreme Quiz"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I>. October 2, 2000. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A58066-2000Oct2&notFound=true">the original</A> on May 30, 2012<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>According to the Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States, Marshall's most important innovation was to persuade the other justices to stop seriatim opinions – each issuing one – so that the court could speak in a single voice. Since the mid-1940s, however, there's been a significant increase in individual "concurring" and "dissenting" opinions.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Quiz&rft.date=2000-10-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fac2%2Fwp-dyn%3Fpagename%3Darticle%26contentId%3DA58066-2000Oct2%26notFound%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct10-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct10_21-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Slater, Dan (April 18, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.wsj.com/law/2008/04/18/justice-stevens-on-the-death-penalty-a-promise-of-fairness-unfulfilled/">"Justice Stevens on the Death Penalty: A Promise of Fairness Unfulfilled"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The first Chief Justice, John Marshall set out to do away with seriatim opinions–a practice originating in England in which each appellate judge writes an opinion in ruling on a single case. (You may have read old tort cases in law school with such opinions). Marshall sought to do away with this practice to help build the Court into a coequal branch.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Justice+Stevens+on+the+Death+Penalty%3A+A+Promise+of+Fairness+Unfulfilled&rft.date=2008-04-18&rft.aulast=Slater&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.wsj.com%2Flaw%2F2008%2F04%2F18%2Fjustice-stevens-on-the-death-penalty-a-promise-of-fairness-unfulfilled%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct12-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct12_22-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Suddath, Claire (December 19, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1867783,00.html">"A Brief History Of Impeachment"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Congress tried the process again in 1804, when it voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase on charges of bad conduct. As a judge, Chase was overzealous and notoriously unfair … But Chase never committed a crime — he was just incredibly bad at his job. The Senate acquitted him on every count.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+Of+Impeachment&rft.date=2008-12-19&rft.aulast=Suddath&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fpolitics%2Farticle%2F0%2C8599%2C1867783%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct13-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct13_23-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Linda_Greenhouse" title="Linda Greenhouse">Greenhouse, Linda</A> (April 10, 1996). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/10/us/rehnquist-joins-fray-on-rulings-defending-judicial-independence.html">"Rehnquist Joins Fray on Rulings, Defending Judicial Independence"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>the 1805 Senate trial of Justice Samuel Chase, who had been impeached by the House of Representatives … This decision by the Senate was enormously important in securing the kind of judicial independence contemplated by Article III" of the Constitution, Chief Justice Rehnquist said</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Rehnquist+Joins+Fray+on+Rulings%2C+Defending+Judicial+Independence&rft.date=1996-04-10&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1996%2F04%2F10%2Fus%2Frehnquist-joins-fray-on-rulings-defending-judicial-independence.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct16-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct16_24-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Edward Keynes; with Randall K. Miller (1989). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Ebb2wsxkF4C&pg=PA115">"The Court vs. Congress: Prayer, Busing, and Abortion"</A>. Duke University Press<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>(page 115)... Grier maintained that Congress has plenary power to limit the federal courts' jurisdiction.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Court+vs.+Congress%3A+Prayer%2C+Busing%2C+and+Abortion&rft.date=1989&rft.au=Edward+Keynes&rft.au=with+Randall+K.+Miller&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_Ebb2wsxkF4C%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct21-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct21_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Ifill, Sherrilyn A. (May 27, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/articles/opinion/2009/05/27/sotomayors-great-legal-mind-long-ago-defeated-race-gender-nonsense.html">"Sotomayor's Great Legal Mind Long Ago Defeated Race, Gender Nonsense"</A>. <I>U.S. News & World Report</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>But his decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford doomed thousands of black slaves and freedmen to a stateless existence within the United States until the passage of the 14th Amendment. Justice Taney's coldly self-fulfilling statement in Dred Scott, that blacks had "no rights which the white man [was] bound to respect", has ensured his place in history—not as a brilliant jurist, but as among the most insensitive</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=Sotomayor%27s+Great+Legal+Mind+Long+Ago+Defeated+Race%2C+Gender+Nonsense&rft.date=2009-05-27&rft.aulast=Ifill&rft.aufirst=Sherrilyn+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Farticles%2Fopinion%2F2009%2F05%2F27%2Fsotomayors-great-legal-mind-long-ago-defeated-race-gender-nonsense.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws4494-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws4494_26-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Irons, Peter (2006). <I>A People's History of the Supreme Court: The Men and Women Whose Cases and Decisions Have Shaped Our Constitution</I>. United States: Penguin Books. pp. 176–177. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-303738-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-303738-2">0-14-303738-2</A>. <Q>The rhetorical battle that followed the Dred Scott decision, as we know, later erupted into the gunfire and bloodshed of the Civil War (p.176)... his opinion (Taney's) touched off an explosive reaction on both sides of the slavery issue... (p.177)</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+People%27s+History+of+the+Supreme+Court%3A+The+Men+and+Women+Whose+Cases+and+Decisions+Have+Shaped+Our+Constitution&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=176-177&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-14-303738-2&rft.aulast=Irons&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct24-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct24_27-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/libertyofk.htm">"Liberty of Contract?"</A>. Exploring Constitutional Conflicts. October 31, 2009<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The term "substantive due process" is often used to describe the approach first used in Lochner—the finding of liberties not explicitly protected by the text of the Constitution to be impliedly protected by the liberty clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In the 1960s, long after the Court repudiated its Lochner line of cases, substantive due process became the basis for protecting personal rights such as the right of privacy, the right to maintain intimate family relationships.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Liberty+of+Contract%3F&rft.date=2009-10-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.umkc.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fprojects%2Fftrials%2Fconlaw%2Flibertyofk.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct100-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct100_28-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/208/161">"Adair v. United States 208 U.S. 161"</A>. Cornell University Law School. 1908<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>No. 293 Argued: October 29, 30, 1907 --- Decided: January 27, 1908</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Adair+v.+United+States+208+U.S.+161&rft.date=1908&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fsupremecourt%2Ftext%2F208%2F161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-twsff4frj-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-twsff4frj_29-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Bodenhamer, David J.; James W. Ely (1993). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=L-_9mFCeBSIC&pg=PA245"><I>The Bill of Rights in modern America</I></A>. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 245. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35159-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35159-3">978-0-253-35159-3</A>. <Q>… of what eventually became the 'incorporation doctrine,' by which various federal Bill of Rights guarantees were held to be implicit in the Fourteenth Amendment due process or equal protection.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bill+of+Rights+in+modern+America&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-253-35159-3&rft.aulast=Bodenhamer&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rft.au=James+W.+Ely&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DL-_9mFCeBSIC%26pg%3DPA245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">White, Edward Douglass</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=245&invol=366">"Opinion for the Court, Arver v. U.S. 245 U.S. 366"</A>. <Q>Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation, as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people, can be said to be the imposition of involuntary servitude in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Opinion+for+the+Court%2C+Arver+v.+U.S.+245+U.S.+366&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Edward+Douglass&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.lp.findlaw.com%2Fscripts%2Fgetcase.pl%3Fcourt%3Dus%26vol%3D245%26invol%3D366&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct101-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct101_31-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Siegan, Bernard H. (1987). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=XABdIe1foccC&pg=PA146"><I>The Supreme Court's Constitution</I></A>. Transaction Publishers. p. 146. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88738-671-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88738-671-8">978-0-88738-671-8</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>In the 1923 case of Adkins v. Children's Hospital, the court invalidated a classification based on gender as inconsistent with the substantive due process requirements of the fifth amendment. At issue was congressional legislation providing for the fixing of minimum wages for women and minors in the District of Columbia. (p.146)</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Court%27s+Constitution&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-88738-671-8&rft.aulast=Siegan&rft.aufirst=Bernard+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DXABdIe1foccC%26pg%3DPA146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct_32-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic" title="Joan Biskupic">Biskupic, Joan</A> (March 29, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2005-03-28-high-court-makeover_x.htm">"Supreme Court gets makeover"</A>. <I>USA Today</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The building is getting its first renovation since its completion in 1935.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+gets+makeover&rft.date=2005-03-29&rft.aulast=Biskupic&rft.aufirst=Joan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Ftravel%2Fdestinations%2F2005-03-28-high-court-makeover_x.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct103-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct103_33-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Justice Roberts (September 21, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&safe=off&client=firefox-a&rls=com.ubuntu%3Aen-US%3Aunofficial&q=%22west+coast+hotel+co.+v.+parrish%22+(site%3Anewsweek.com+OR+site%3Apost-gazette.com+OR+site%3Ausatoday.com+OR+site%3Awashingtonpost.com+OR+site%3Atime.com+OR+site%3Areuters.com+OR+site%3Aeconomist.com+OR+site%3Amiamiherald.com+OR+site%3Alatimes.com+OR+site%3Asfgate.com+OR+site%3Achicagotribune.com+OR+site%3Anytimes.com+OR+site%3Awsj.com+OR+site%3Ausnews.com+OR+site%3Amsnbc.com+OR+site%3Anj.com+OR+site%3Atheatlantic.com)&aq=o&oq=&aqi=">"Responses of Judge John G. Roberts, Jr. to the Written Questions of Senator Joseph R. Biden"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>I agree that West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish correctly overruled Adkins. <A href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Lochner era</A> cases – Adkins in particular – evince an expansive view of the judicial role inconsistent with what I believe to be the appropriately more limited vision of the Framers.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Responses+of+Judge+John+G.+Roberts%2C+Jr.+to+the+Written+Questions+of+Senator+Joseph+R.+Biden&rft.date=2005-09-21&rft.au=Justice+Roberts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Fhl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dcom.ubuntu%253Aen-US%253Aunofficial%26q%3D%2522west%2Bcoast%2Bhotel%2Bco.%2Bv.%2Bparrish%2522%2B%28site%253Anewsweek.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Apost-gazette.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Ausatoday.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Awashingtonpost.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Atime.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Areuters.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Aeconomist.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Amiamiherald.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Alatimes.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Asfgate.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Achicagotribune.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Anytimes.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Awsj.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Ausnews.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Amsnbc.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Anj.com%2BOR%2Bsite%253Atheatlantic.com%29%26aq%3Do%26oq%3D%26aqi%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template"><SPAN style="white-space: nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><SPAN title=" Dead link since January 2011">dead link</SPAN></A></I>]</SPAN></SUP></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct107-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct107_34-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Lipsky, Seth (October 22, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB20001424052748704597704574486242417039358">"All the News That's Fit to Subsidize"</A>. <I>Wall Street Journal</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>He was a farmer in Ohio … during the 1930s, when subsidies were brought in for farmers. With subsidies came restrictions on how much wheat one could grow—even, Filburn learned in a landmark Supreme Court case, Wickard v. Filburn (1942), wheat grown on his modest farm.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=All+the+News+That%27s+Fit+to+Subsidize&rft.date=2009-10-22&rft.aulast=Lipsky&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2FSB20001424052748704597704574486242417039358&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct109-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct109_35-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Adam_Cohen_(journalist)" title="Adam Cohen (journalist)">Cohen, Adam</A> (December 14, 2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/14/opinion/14tue4.html">"What's New in the Legal World? A Growing Campaign to Undo the New Deal"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Some prominent states' rights conservatives were asking the court to overturn Wickard v. Filburn, a landmark ruling that laid out an expansive view of Congress's power to legislate in the public interest. Supporters of states' rights have always blamed Wickard … for paving the way for strong federal action...</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=What%27s+New+in+the+Legal+World%3F+A+Growing+Campaign+to+Undo+the+New+Deal&rft.date=2004-12-14&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2004%2F12%2F14%2Fopinion%2F14tue4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct110-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct110_36-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">United Press International (September 25, 1971). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0227.html">"Justice Black Dies at 85; Served on Court 34 Years"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Justice Black developed his controversial theory, first stated in a lengthy, scholarly dissent in 1947, that the due process clause applied the first eight amendments of the Bill of Rights to the states.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Justice+Black+Dies+at+85%3B+Served+on+Court+34+Years&rft.date=1971-09-25&rft.au=United+Press+International&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Flearning%2Fgeneral%2Fonthisday%2Fbday%2F0227.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct113-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct113_37-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091106035101/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page87.htm">"100 Documents that Shaped America Brown v. Board of Education (1954)"</A>. <I>U.S. News & World Report</I>. May 17, 1954. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page87.htm">the original</A> on November 6, 2009<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>On May 17, 1954, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous ruling in the landmark civil rights case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. State-sanctioned segregation of public schools was a violation of the 14th amendment and was therefore unconstitutional. This historic decision marked the end of the "separate but equal" … and served as a catalyst for the expanding civil rights movement...</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=100+Documents+that+Shaped+America+Brown+v.+Board+of+Education+%281954%29&rft.date=1954-05-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Fusnews%2Fdocuments%2Fdocpages%2Fdocument_page87.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct114-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct114_38-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,836012-3,00.html">"Essay: In defense of privacy"</A>. <I>Time</I>. July 15, 1966<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The biggest legal milestone in this field was last year's Supreme Court decision in Griswold v. Connecticut, which overthrew the state's law against the use of contraceptives as an invasion of marital privacy, and for the first time declared the "right of privacy" to be derived from the Constitution itself.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Essay%3A+In+defense+of+privacy&rft.date=1966-07-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C836012-3%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct120-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct120_39-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Nancy_Gibbs" title="Nancy Gibbs">Gibbs, Nancy</A> (December 9, 1991). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,974430,00.html">"America's Holy War"</A>. <I>Time</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>In the landmark 1962 case Engel v. Vitale, the high court threw out a brief nondenominational prayer composed by state officials that was recommended for use in New York State schools. "It is no part of the business of government", ruled the court, "to compose official prayers for any group of the American people to recite."</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=America%27s+Holy+War&rft.date=1991-12-09&rft.aulast=Gibbs&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C974430%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct121-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct121_40-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Mattox, William R., Jr; Trinko, Katrina (August 17, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090820030545/http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/08/column-teach-the-bible-of-course-.html">"Teach the Bible? Of course"</A>. <I>USA Today</I>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/08/column-teach-the-bible-of-course-.html">the original</A> on August 20, 2009<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Public schools need not proselytize — indeed, must not — in teaching students about the Good Book … In Abington School District v. Schempp, decided in 1963, the Supreme Court stated that "study of the Bible or of religion, when presented objectively as part of a secular program of education", was permissible under the First Amendment.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Teach+the+Bible%3F+Of+course.&rft.date=2009-08-17&rft.aulast=Mattox&rft.aufirst=William+R.%2C+Jr&rft.au=Trinko%2C+Katrina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.usatoday.com%2Foped%2F2009%2F08%2Fcolumn-teach-the-bible-of-course-.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct131-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct131_41-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898882,00.html">"The Law: The Retroactivity Riddle"</A>. <I>Time Magazine</I>. June 18, 1965<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Last week, in a 7 to 2 decision, the court refused for the first time to give retroactive effect to a great Bill of Rights decision—Mapp v. Ohio (1961).</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Law%3A+The+Retroactivity+Riddle&rft.date=1965-06-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C898882%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct203-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct203_42-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,841844,00.html">"The Supreme Court: Now Comes the Sixth Amendment"</A>. <I>Time</I>. April 16, 1965<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Sixth Amendment's right to counsel (Gideon v. Wainwright in 1963). … the court said flatly in 1904: 'The Sixth Amendment does not apply to proceedings in state criminal courts." But in the light of Gideon … ruled Black, statements 'generally declaring that the Sixth Amendment does not apply to states can no longer be regarded as law.'</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court%3A+Now+Comes+the+Sixth+Amendment&rft.date=1965-04-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C841844%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct132-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct132_43-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/31/opinion/guilt-and-mr-meese.html">"Guilt and Mr. Meese"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I>. January 31, 1987<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>1966 Miranda v. Arizona decision. That's the famous decision that made confessions inadmissible as evidence unless an accused person has been warned by police of the right to silence and to a lawyer, and waived it.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Guilt+and+Mr.+Meese&rft.date=1987-01-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F01%2F31%2Fopinion%2Fguilt-and-mr-meese.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-44"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170621023852/http://www.fed-soc.org/doclib/20090107_GragliaEngage93.pdf">"Archived copy"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fed-soc.org/doclib/20090107_GragliaEngage93.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on June 21, 2017<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">February 6,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fed-soc.org%2Fdoclib%2F20090107_GragliaEngage93.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Earl M. Maltz, <I>The Coming of the Nixon Court: The 1972 Term and the Transformation of Constitutional Law</I> (University Press of Kansas; 2016)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct204-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct204_46-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">O'Connor, Karen (January 22, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/articles/opinion/2009/01/22/roe-v-wade-on-anniversary-abortion-is-out-of-the-spotlight.html">"Roe v. Wade: On Anniversary, Abortion Is out of the Spotlight"</A>. <I>U.S. News & World Report</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The shocker, however, came in 1973, when the Court, by a vote of 7 to 2, relied on Griswold's basic underpinnings to rule that a Texas law prohibiting abortions in most situations was unconstitutional, invalidating the laws of most states. Relying on a woman's right to privacy...</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=Roe+v.+Wade%3A+On+Anniversary%2C+Abortion+Is+out+of+the+Spotlight&rft.date=2009-01-22&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Farticles%2Fopinion%2F2009%2F01%2F22%2Froe-v-wade-on-anniversary-abortion-is-out-of-the-spotlight.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct205-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct205_47-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,946798,00.html">"Bakke Wins, Quotas Lose"</A>. <I>Time</I>. July 10, 1978<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Split almost exactly down the middle, the Supreme Court last week offered a Solomonic compromise. It said that rigid quotas based solely on race were forbidden, but it also said that race might legitimately be an element in judging students for admission to universities. It thus approved the principle of 'affirmative action'…</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Bakke+Wins%2C+Quotas+Lose&rft.date=1978-07-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C946798%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct207-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct207_48-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1998/11/12/opinion/time-to-rethink-buckley-v-valeo.html">"Time to Rethink Buckley v. Valeo"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I>. November 12, 1998<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>...Buckley v. Valeo. The nation's political system has suffered ever since from that decision, which held that mandatory limits on campaign spending unconstitutionally limit free speech. The decision did much to promote the explosive growth of campaign contributions from special interests and to enhance the advantage incumbents enjoy over underfunded challengers.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Time+to+Rethink+Buckley+v.+Valeo&rft.date=1998-11-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1998%2F11%2F12%2Fopinion%2Ftime-to-rethink-buckley-v-valeo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct208-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct208_49-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct208_49-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Staff writer (June 29, 1972). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/rehnquist/rehnquist_key_decisions.html">"Supreme Court Justice Rehnquist's Key Decisions"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Furman v. Georgia … Rehnquist dissents from the Supreme Court conclusion that many state laws on capital punishment are capricious and arbitrary and therefore unconstitutional.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Justice+Rehnquist%27s+Key+Decisions&rft.date=1972-06-29&rft.au=Staff+writer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-srv%2Fnation%2Frehnquist%2Frehnquist_key_decisions.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-history1-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-history1_50-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">History of the Court, in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (eds) <I>The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States.</I> <A href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</A>, 1992, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6">0-19-505835-6</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct2122-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct2122_51-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB120856145124627875?mod=opinion_main_review_and_outlooks">"A Supreme Revelation"</A>. <I>The Wall Street Journal</I>. April 19, 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Thirty-two years ago, Justice John Paul Stevens sided with the majority in a famous "never mind" ruling by the Supreme Court. Gregg v. Georgia, in 1976, overturned Furman v. Georgia, which had declared the death penalty unconstitutional only four years earlier.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Supreme+Revelation&rft.date=2008-04-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB120856145124627875%3Fmod%3Dopinion_main_review_and_outlooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct2brn2b-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct2brn2b_52-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Greenhouse, Linda (January 8, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/09/opinion/09greenhouse.html">"The Chief Justice on the Spot"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The federalism issue at the core of the new case grows out of a series of cases from 1997 to 2003 in which the Rehnquist court applied a new level of scrutiny to Congressional action enforcing the guarantees of the Reconstruction amendments.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Chief+Justice+on+the+Spot&rft.date=2009-01-08&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F01%2F09%2Fopinion%2F09greenhouse.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31octrtr45-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31octrtr45_53-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Greenhouse, Linda (September 4, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E01E2DF1531F937A3575AC0A9639C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=5">"William H. Rehnquist, Chief Justice of Supreme Court, Is Dead at 80"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>United States v. Lopez in 1995 raised the stakes in the debate over federal authority even higher. The decision declared unconstitutional a Federal law, the Gun Free School Zones Act of 1990, that made it a federal crime to carry a gun within 1,000 feet of a school.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=William+H.+Rehnquist%2C+Chief+Justice+of+Supreme+Court%2C+Is+Dead+at+80&rft.date=2005-09-04&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9E01E2DF1531F937A3575AC0A9639C8B63%26sec%3D%26spon%3D%26pagewanted%3D5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct309-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct309_54-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Greenhouse, Linda (June 12, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/12/weekinreview/12green.html">"The Rehnquist Court and Its Imperiled States' Rights Legacy"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Intrastate activity that was not essentially economic was beyond Congress's reach under the Commerce Clause, Chief Justice Rehnquist wrote for the 5-to-4 majority in United States v. Morrison.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Rehnquist+Court+and+Its+Imperiled+States%27+Rights+Legacy&rft.date=2005-06-12&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F06%2F12%2Fweekinreview%2F12green.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct310-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct310_55-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Greenhouse, Linda (March 22, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A02E6DC1F3CF931A15750C0A9639C8B63">"Inmates Who Follow Satanism and Wicca Find Unlikely Ally"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>His (Rehnquist's) reference was to a landmark 1997 decision, City of Boerne v. Flores, in which the court ruled that the predecessor to the current law, the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, exceeded Congress's authority and was unconstitutional as applied to the states.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Inmates+Who+Follow+Satanism+and+Wicca+Find+Unlikely+Ally&rft.date=2005-03-22&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9A02E6DC1F3CF931A15750C0A9639C8B63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct4004-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct4004_56-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Vikram_David_Amar" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikram David Amar">Amar, Vikram David</A> (July 27, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/27/opinion/27amar.html">"Casing John Roberts"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>SEMINOLE TRIBE v. FLORIDA (1996) In this seemingly technical 11th Amendment dispute about whether states can be sued in federal courts, Justice O'Connor joined four others to override Congress's will and protect state prerogatives, even though the text of the Constitution contradicts this result.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Casing+John+Roberts&rft.date=2005-07-27&rft.aulast=Amar&rft.aufirst=Vikram+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F07%2F27%2Fopinion%2F27amar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct555-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct555_57-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Greenhouse, Linda (April 1, 1999). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/01/us/justices-seem-ready-to-tilt-more-toward-states-in-federalism.html">"Justices Seem Ready to Tilt More Toward States in Federalism"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The argument in this case, Alden v. Maine, No. 98-436, proceeded on several levels simultaneously. On the surface … On a deeper level, the argument was a continuation of the Court's struggle over an even more basic issue: the Government's substantive authority over the states.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Justices+Seem+Ready+to+Tilt+More+Toward+States+in+Federalism&rft.date=1999-04-01&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1999%2F04%2F01%2Fus%2Fjustices-seem-ready-to-tilt-more-toward-states-in-federalism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct34654-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct34654_58-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Lindenberger, Michael A. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1818504,00.html">"The Court's Gay Rights Legacy"</A>. <I>Time</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The decision in the Lawrence v. Texas case overturned convictions against two Houston men, whom police had arrested after busting into their home and finding them engaged in sex. And for the first time in their lives, thousands of gay men and women who lived in states where sodomy had been illegal were free to be gay without being criminals.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+Court%27s+Gay+Rights+Legacy&rft.aulast=Lindenberger&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fnation%2Farticle%2F0%2C8599%2C1818504%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31octffsfs-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31octffsfs_59-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Justice Sotomayor (July 16, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090822073852/http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/07/retire-the-ginsburg-rule-.html">"Retire the 'Ginsburg rule' – The 'Roe' recital"</A>. <I>USA Today</I>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.usatoday.com/oped/2009/07/retire-the-ginsburg-rule-.html">the original</A> on August 22, 2009<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The court's decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey reaffirmed the court holding of Roe. That is the precedent of the court and settled, in terms of the holding of the court.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Retire+the+%27Ginsburg+rule%27+%E2%80%93+The+%27Roe%27+recital&rft.date=2009-07-16&rft.au=Justice+Sotomayor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblogs.usatoday.com%2Foped%2F2009%2F07%2Fretire-the-ginsburg-rule-.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-rds21nov12-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-rds21nov12_60-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Kamiya, Gary (July 4, 2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salon.com/2001/07/05/dershowitz_2/">"Against the Law"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Salon_(website)" title="Salon (website)">Salon</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">November 21,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>. <Q>...the remedy was far more harmful than the problem. By stopping the recount, the high court clearly denied many thousands of voters who cast legal votes, as defined by established Florida law, their constitutional right to have their votes counted. … It cannot be a legitimate use of law to disenfranchise legal voters when recourse is available. …</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Salon&rft.atitle=Against+the+Law&rft.date=2001-07-04&rft.aulast=Kamiya&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salon.com%2F2001%2F07%2F05%2Fdershowitz_2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws31oct44454-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws31oct44454_61-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Krauthammer, Charles (December 18, 2000). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,998788,00.html">"The Winner in Bush v. Gore?"</A>. <I>Time</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Re-enter the Rehnquist court. Amid the chaos, somebody had to play Daddy. … the Supreme Court eschewed subtlety this time and bluntly stopped the Florida Supreme Court in its tracks—and stayed its willfulness. By, mind you, …</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=The+Winner+in+Bush+v.+Gore%3F&rft.date=2000-12-18&rft.aulast=Krauthammer&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C998788%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws1nov01-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws1nov01_62-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Babington, Charles; Baker, Peter (September 30, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/29/AR2005092900859.html">"Roberts Confirmed as 17th Chief Justice"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">November 1,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>John Glover Roberts Jr. was sworn in yesterday as the 17th chief justice of the United States, enabling President Bush to put his stamp on the Supreme Court for decades to come, even as he prepares to name a second nominee to the nine-member court.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Roberts+Confirmed+as+17th+Chief+Justice&rft.date=2005-09-30&rft.aulast=Babington&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Baker%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2005%2F09%2F29%2FAR2005092900859.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws1nov02-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws1nov02_63-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Greenhouse, Linda (July 1, 2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/01/washington/01scotus.html">"In Steps Big and Small, Supreme Court Moved Right"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">November 1,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>It was the Supreme Court that conservatives had long yearned for and that liberals feared … This was a more conservative court, sometimes muscularly so, sometimes more tentatively, its majority sometimes differing on methodology but agreeing on the outcome in cases big and small.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Steps+Big+and+Small%2C+Supreme+Court+Moved+Right&rft.date=2007-07-01&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F07%2F01%2Fwashington%2F01scotus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws1nov04-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws1nov04_64-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Charlie_Savage" title="Charlie Savage">Savage, Charlie</A> (July 14, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/15/us/politics/15abortion.html">"Respecting Precedent, or Settled Law, Unless It's Not Settled"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">November 1,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Gonzales v. Carhart — in which the Supreme Court narrowly upheld a federal ban on the late-term abortion procedure opponents call "partial birth abortion" — to be settled law.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Respecting+Precedent%2C+or+Settled+Law%2C+Unless+It%27s+Not+Settled&rft.date=2009-07-14&rft.aulast=Savage&rft.aufirst=Charlie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F07%2F15%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2F15abortion.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-65"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2010/0122/Supreme-Court-s-campaign-ruling-a-bad-day-for-democracy">"A Bad Day for Democracy"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor" title="The Christian Science Monitor">The Christian Science Monitor</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 22,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=A+Bad+Day+for+Democracy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2FCommentary%2FOpinion%2F2010%2F0122%2FSupreme-Court-s-campaign-ruling-a-bad-day-for-democracy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws1nov13-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws1nov13_66-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Barnes, Robert (October 1, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/09/30/AR2009093001723.html">"Justices to Decide if State Gun Laws Violate Rights"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">November 1,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The landmark 2008 decision to strike down the District of Columbia's ban on handgun possession was the first time the court had said the amendment grants an individual right to own a gun for self-defense. But the 5 to 4 opinion in District of Columbia v. Heller...</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Justices+to+Decide+if+State+Gun+Laws+Violate+Rights&rft.date=2009-10-01&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2009%2F09%2F30%2FAR2009093001723.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws1nov21-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws1nov21_67-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Greenhouse, Linda (April 18, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/washington/18memo.html">"Justice Stevens Renounces Capital Punishment"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">November 1,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>His renunciation of capital punishment in the lethal injection case, Baze v. Rees, was likewise low key and undramatic.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Justice+Stevens+Renounces+Capital+Punishment&rft.date=2008-04-18&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F04%2F18%2Fwashington%2F18memo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws1nov22-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws1nov22_68-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Greenhouse, Linda (June 26, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/26/washington/26scotuscnd.html">"Supreme Court Rejects Death Penalty for Child Rape"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">November 1,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The death penalty is unconstitutional as a punishment for the rape of a child, a sharply divided Supreme Court ruled Wednesday … The 5-to-4 decision overturned death penalty laws in Louisiana and five other states.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Rejects+Death+Penalty+for+Child+Rape&rft.date=2008-06-26&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F06%2F26%2Fwashington%2F26scotuscnd.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-69"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=12"><I>Federal Judiciary Act (1789)</I></A>, <A href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives and Records Administration</A>, retrieved 2017-09-12</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-70"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">16 <A href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legislink.org/us/stat-16-44">44</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-71"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Mintz, S. (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080505032845/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=479">"The New Deal in Decline"</A>. <I>Digital History</I>. University of Houston. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=479">the original</A> on May 5, 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 27,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Digital+History&rft.atitle=The+New+Deal+in+Decline&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Mintz&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalhistory.uh.edu%2Fdatabase%2Farticle_display.cfm%3FHHID%3D479&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-72"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-72"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Hodak, George (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abajournal.com/magazine/article/february_5_1937/">"February 5, 1937: FDR Unveils Court Packing Plan"</A>. <I>ABAjournal.com</I>. American Bar Association<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 29,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABAjournal.com&rft.atitle=February+5%2C+1937%3A+FDR+Unveils+Court+Packing+Plan&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Hodak&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabajournal.com%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2Ffebruary_5_1937%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-73"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-73"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Justices, Number of", in Hall, Ely Jr., Grossman, and Wiecek (editors), <I>The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States.</I> Oxford University Press 1992, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6">0-19-505835-6</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-74"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-74"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><I>See</I> <A href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Article Two of the United States Constitution</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-75"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-75"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/briefing/Nominations.htm">"United States Senate. "Nominations<SPAN style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</SPAN>"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=United+States+Senate.+%22Nominations%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Fartandhistory%2Fhistory%2Fcommon%2Fbriefing%2FNominations.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-76"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-76"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Jim Brunner (24 March 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/politics/sen-patty-murray-will-oppose-neil-gorsuch-for-supreme-court/">"Sen. Patty Murray will oppose Neil Gorsuch for Supreme Court"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Seattle_Times" title="The Seattle Times">The Seattle Times</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">9 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>. <Q>In a statement Friday morning, Murray cited Republicans' refusal to confirm or even seriously consider President Obama's nomination of Judge Merrick Garland, a similarly well-qualified jurist — and went on to lambaste President Trump's conduct in his first few months in office. [...] And Murray added she's "deeply troubled" by Gorsuch's "extreme conservative perspective on women's health," citing his "inability" to state a clear position on Roe v. Wade, the landmark abortion-legalization decision, and his comments about the "Hobby Lobby" decision allowing employers to refuse to provide birth-control coverage.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Seattle+Times&rft.atitle=Sen.+Patty+Murray+will+oppose+Neil+Gorsuch+for+Supreme+Court&rft.date=2017-03-24&rft.au=Jim+Brunner&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.seattletimes.com%2Fseattle-news%2Fpolitics%2Fsen-patty-murray-will-oppose-neil-gorsuch-for-supreme-court%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-77"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-77"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">McCaskill, Claire (31 March 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medium.com/senator-claire-mccaskill/gorsuch-good-for-corporations-bad-for-working-people-400de6ec8b8b">"Gorsuch: Good for corporations, bad for working people"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Medium_(website)" title="Medium (website)">Medium</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">9 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>. <Q>I cannot support Judge Gorsuch because a study of his opinions reveal a rigid ideology that always puts the little guy under the boot of corporations. He is evasive, but his body of work isn't. Whether it is a freezing truck driver or an autistic child, he has shown a stunning lack of humanity. And he has been an activist – for example, writing a dissent on a case that had been settled, in what appears to be an attempt to audition for his current nomination.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gorsuch%3A+Good+for+corporations%2C+bad+for+working+people&rft.pub=Medium&rft.date=2017-03-31&rft.aulast=McCaskill&rft.aufirst=Claire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedium.com%2Fsenator-claire-mccaskill%2Fgorsuch-good-for-corporations-bad-for-working-people-400de6ec8b8b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-78"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-78"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Schallhorn, Kaitlyn (23 March 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theblaze.com/news/2017/03/23/schumer-democrats-will-filibuster-scotus-nominee-neil-gorsuch/">"Schumer: Democrats will filibuster SCOTUS nominee Neil Gorsuch"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/TheBlaze" title="TheBlaze">TheBlaze</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">7 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>. <Q>Schumer added that Gorsuch's record shows he has a "deep-seated conservative ideology" and "groomed by the Federalist Society," a conservative nonprofit legal organization.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TheBlaze&rft.atitle=Schumer%3A+Democrats+will+filibuster+SCOTUS+nominee+Neil+Gorsuch&rft.date=2017-03-23&rft.aulast=Schallhorn&rft.aufirst=Kaitlyn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theblaze.com%2Fnews%2F2017%2F03%2F23%2Fschumer-democrats-will-filibuster-scotus-nominee-neil-gorsuch%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-79"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-79"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Matt Flegenheimer (6 April 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/06/us/politics/neil-gorsuch-supreme-court-senate.html">"Senate Republicans Deploy 'Nuclear Option' to Clear Path for Gorsuch"</A>. The New York Times. <Q>After Democrats held together Thursday morning and filibustered President Trump's nominee, Republicans voted to lower the threshold for advancing Supreme Court nominations from 60 votes to a simple majority.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Senate+Republicans+Deploy+%27Nuclear+Option%27+to+Clear+Path+for+Gorsuch&rft.date=2017-04-06&rft.au=Matt+Flegenheimer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F04%2F06%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fneil-gorsuch-supreme-court-senate.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-80"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-80"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.htm">"U.S. Senate: Supreme Court Nominations, Present-1789"</A>. United States Senate<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">8 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=U.S.+Senate%3A+Supreme+Court+Nominations%2C+Present-1789&rft.pub=United+States+Senate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Fpagelayout%2Freference%2Fnominations%2FNominations.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-81"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-81"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><I>See</I> <A href="/wiki/Title_5_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 5 of the United States Code">5 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/5/2902">§ 2902</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-82"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-82"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/4">§ 4</A>. If two justices are commissioned on the same date, then the oldest one has precedence.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-83"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-83"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Balkin, Jack M. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071218235804/http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/symposium-jc/balkin.php">"The passionate intensity of the confirmation process"</A>. Jurist. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/symposium-jc/balkin.php">the original</A> on December 18, 2007<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">February 13,</SPAN> 2008</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+passionate+intensity+of+the+confirmation+process&rft.pub=Jurist&rft.aulast=Balkin&rft.aufirst=Jack+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjurist.law.pitt.edu%2Fforum%2Fsymposium-jc%2Fbalkin.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-84"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-84"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/2016-supreme-court_us_56bfaee3e4b0c3c55051ad0c">"The Stakes Of The 2016 Election Just Got Much, Much Higher"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Huffington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="The Huffington Post">The Huffington Post</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">February 14,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=The+Stakes+Of+The+2016+Election+Just+Got+Much%2C+Much+Higher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fentry%2F2016-supreme-court_us_56bfaee3e4b0c3c55051ad0c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-85"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-85"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">McMillion, Barry J. (October 19, 2015). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R44234.pdf">"Supreme Court Appointment Process: Senate Debate and Confirmation Vote"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Congressional Research Service</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">February 14,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Congressional+Research+Service&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Appointment+Process%3A+Senate+Debate+and+Confirmation+Vote&rft.date=2015-10-19&rft.aulast=McMillion&rft.aufirst=Barry+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fas.org%2Fsgp%2Fcrs%2Fmisc%2FR44234.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-86"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-86"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). "Appendix Two". <I>Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States</I>. Oxford University Press. pp. 965–971. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6">0-19-505835-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+Two&rft.btitle=Oxford+Companion+to+the+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=965-971&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-19-505835-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-87"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-87"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">See, e.g., Evans v. Stephens, 387 F.3d 1220 (11th Cir. 2004), which concerned the recess appointment of <A href="/wiki/William_H._Pryor,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William H. Pryor, Jr.">William Pryor</A>. Concurring in denial of certiorari, Justice Stevens observed that the case involved "the first such appointment of an Article III judge in nearly a half century" 544 U.S. 942 (2005) (Stevens, J., concurring in denial of cert) (internal quotation marks deleted).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-recessapp-88"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-recessapp_88-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-recessapp_88-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Fisher, Louis (September 5, 2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/RL31112.pdf">"Recess Appointments of Federal Judges"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>CRSN Report for Congress</I>. Congressional Research Service. The Library of Congress. RL31112: 16<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">August 6,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>. <Q><I>Resolved</I>, That it is the sense of the Senate that the making of recess appointments to the Supreme Court of the United States may not be wholly consistent with the best interests of the Supreme Court, the nominee who may be involved, the litigants before the Court, nor indeed the people of the United States, and that such appointments, therefore, should not be made except under unusual circumstances and for the purpose of preventing or ending a demonstrable breakdown in the administration of the Court's business.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CRSN+Report+for+Congress&rft.atitle=Recess+Appointments+of+Federal+Judges&rft.volume=RL31112&rft.pages=16&rft.date=2001-09-05&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.senate.gov%2Freference%2Fresources%2Fpdf%2FRL31112.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-89"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-89"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The resolution passed by a vote of 48 to 37, mainly along party lines; Democrats supported the resolution 48–4, and Republicans opposed it 33–0.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-90"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-90"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/13pdf/12-1281_mc8p.pdf">"National Relations Board v. Noel Canning et al"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. pp. 34, 35.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Relations+Board+v.+Noel+Canning+et+al&rft.pages=34%2C+35&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2F13pdf%2F12-1281_mc8p.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> In the opinion for the Court, Breyer states "In our view, however, the pro forma sessions count as sessions, not as periods of recess. We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business. The Senate met that standard here." Later, the opinion states: "For these reasons, we conclude that we must give great weight to the Senate's own determination of when it is and when it is not in session. But our deference to the Senate cannot be absolute. When the Senate is without the capacity to act, under its own rules, it is not in session even if it so declares."</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-91"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-91"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/02/15/466849025/white-house-seems-to-rule-out-recess-appointment-to-replace-scalia">"Obama Won't Appoint Scalia Replacement While Senate Is Out This Week"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 25,</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Obama+Won%27t+Appoint+Scalia+Replacement+While+Senate+Is+Out+This+Week&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fthetwo-way%2F2016%2F02%2F15%2F466849025%2Fwhite-house-seems-to-rule-out-recess-appointment-to-replace-scalia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-92"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-92"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120915143136/http://www.fjc.gov/federal/courts.nsf/autoframe?OpenForm&nav=menu3c&page=%2Ffederal%2Fcourts.nsf%2Fpage%2FA783011AF949B6BF85256B35004AD214%3Fopendocument">"How the Federal Courts Are Organized: Can a federal judge be fired?"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Federal_Judicial_Center" title="Federal Judicial Center">Federal Judicial Center</A>. fjc.gov. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fjc.gov/federal/courts.nsf/autoframe?OpenForm&nav=menu3c&page=/federal/courts.nsf/page/A783011AF949B6BF85256B35004AD214?opendocument">the original</A> on September 15, 2012<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">March 18,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+the+Federal+Courts+Are+Organized%3A+Can+a+federal+judge+be+fired%3F&rft.pub=Federal+Judicial+Center.+fjc.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fjc.gov%2Ffederal%2Fcourts.nsf%2Fautoframe%3FOpenForm%26nav%3Dmenu3c%26page%3D%2Ffederal%2Fcourts.nsf%2Fpage%2FA783011AF949B6BF85256B35004AD214%3Fopendocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-93"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-93"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/judges_impeachments.html">"History of the Federal Judiciary: Impeachments of Federal Judges"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Federal_Judicial_Center" title="Federal Judicial Center">Federal Judicial Center</A> fjc.gov<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">March 18,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Federal+Judiciary%3A+Impeachments+of+Federal+Judges&rft.pub=Federal+Judicial+Center+fjc.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fjc.gov%2Fhistory%2Fhome.nsf%2Fpage%2Fjudges_impeachments.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-hufpost-94"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-hufpost_94-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Appel, Jacob M. (August 22, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jacob-m-appel/anticipating-the-incapaci_b_266179.html">"Anticipating the Incapacitated Justice"</A>. <I>The Huffington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">August 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=Anticipating+the+Incapacitated+Justice&rft.date=2009-08-22&rft.aulast=Appel&rft.aufirst=Jacob+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fjacob-m-appel%2Fanticipating-the-incapaci_b_266179.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-congressorg-95"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-congressorg_95-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Ali, Ambreen (June 16, 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100618174203/http://www.congress.org/news/2010/06/16/how_presidents_influence_the_court">"How Presidents Influence the Court"</A>. <I>Congress.org</I>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.congress.org/news/2010/06/16/how_presidents_influence_the_court">the original</A> on June 18, 2010<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 16,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Congress.org&rft.atitle=How+Presidents+Influence+the+Court&rft.date=2010-06-16&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Ambreen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.congress.org%2Fnews%2F2010%2F06%2F16%2Fhow_presidents_influence_the_court&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-96"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-96"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Walthr, Matthew (April 21, 2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectator.org/58731_sam-alito-civil-man/">"Sam Alito: A Civil Man"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_American_Spectator" title="The American Spectator">The American Spectator</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">15 June</SPAN> 2017</SPAN> – via The ANNOTICO Reports.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Spectator&rft.atitle=Sam+Alito%3A+A+Civil+Man&rft.date=2014-04-21&rft.aulast=Walthr&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectator.org%2F58731_sam-alito-civil-man%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-97"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-97"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">DeMarco, Megan (February 14, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.italystl.com/ra/3788.htm">"Growing up Italian in Jersey: Alito reflects on ethnic heritage"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Times_(Trenton)" title="The Times (Trenton)">The Times</A></I>. Trenton, New Jersey<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">15 June</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Growing+up+Italian+in+Jersey%3A+Alito+reflects+on+ethnic+heritage&rft.date=2008-02-14&rft.aulast=DeMarco&rft.aufirst=Megan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.italystl.com%2Fra%2F3788.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-98"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-98"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Halberstam, Malvina (1 March 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/ginsburg-ruth-bader">"Ruth Bader Ginsburg"</A>. <I>Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia</I>. Jewish Women's Archive<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">15 June</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Women%3A+A+Comprehensive+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Ruth+Bader+Ginsburg&rft.date=2009-03-01&rft.aulast=Halberstam&rft.aufirst=Malvina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjwa.org%2Fencyclopedia%2Farticle%2Fginsburg-ruth-bader&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-gorsuchreligion-99"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-gorsuchreligion_99-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-gorsuchreligion_99-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Neil Gorsuch was raised Catholic, but attends an Episcopalian church. It is unclear if he considers himself a Catholic or a Protestant. <CITE class="citation news">Burke, Daniel (March 22, 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2017/03/18/politics/neil-gorsuch-religion/">"What is Neil Gorsuch's religion? It's complicated"</A>. <A href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</A>. <Q>Springer said she doesn't know whether Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian. "I have no evidence that Judge Gorsuch considers himself an Episcopalian, and likewise no evidence that he does not." Gorsuch's younger brother, J.J., said he too has "no idea how he would fill out a form. He was raised in the Catholic Church and confirmed in the Catholic Church as an adolescent, but he has been attending Episcopal services for the past 15 or so years."</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=What+is+Neil+Gorsuch%27s+religion%3F+It%27s+complicated&rft.date=2017-03-22&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2017%2F03%2F18%2Fpolitics%2Fneil-gorsuch-religion%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-100"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-100"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Baker, Peter (August 7, 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/08/us/08kagan.html">"Kagan Is Sworn in as the Fourth Woman, and 112th Justice, on the Supreme Court"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">August 8,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Kagan+Is+Sworn+in+as+the+Fourth+Woman%2C+and+112th+Justice%2C+on+the+Supreme+Court&rft.date=2010-08-07&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F08%2F08%2Fus%2F08kagan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-101"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-101"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Mark Sherman, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/36890869/ns/politics/">Is Supreme Court in need of regional diversity?</A> (May 1, 2010).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-obrien46-102"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-obrien46_102-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">O'Brien, David M. (2003). <I>Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics</I> (6th ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. p. 46. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-93218-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-93218-4">0-393-93218-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storm+Center%3A+The+Supreme+Court+in+American+Politics&rft.pages=46&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-393-93218-4&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-103"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-103"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adherents.com/adh_sc.html">"Religion of the Supreme Court"</A>. adherents.com. January 31, 2006<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">July 9,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Religion+of+the+Supreme+Court&rft.pub=adherents.com&rft.date=2006-01-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adherents.com%2Fadh_sc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-104"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-104"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Segal, Jeffrey A.; Spaeth, Harold J. (2002). <I>The Supreme Court and the Attitudinal Model Revisited</I>. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 183. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-78971-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-78971-0">0-521-78971-0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Court+and+the+Attitudinal+Model+Revisited&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Cambridge+Univ.+Press.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-78971-0&rft.aulast=Segal&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+A.&rft.au=Spaeth%2C+Harold+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-105"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-105"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation encyclopaedia">Schumacher, Alvin. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Roger-B-Taney">"Roger B. Taney"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">3 May</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>. <Q>He was the first Roman Catholic to serve on the Supreme Court.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Roger+B.+Taney&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Schumacher&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FRoger-B-Taney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SCOTUS_FAQ-106"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_106-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_106-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_106-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_106-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-SCOTUS_FAQ_106-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170320120356/https://www.supremecourt.gov/faq_justices.aspx#faqjustice12">"Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)"</A>. Supreme Court of the United States. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/faq_justices.aspx#faqjustice12">the original</A> on March 20, 2017<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">May 3,</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Frequently+Asked+Questions+%28FAQ%29&rft.pub=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Ffaq_justices.aspx%23faqjustice12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-107"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-107"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">de Vogue, Ariane (October 22, 2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2016/10/22/politics/clarence-thomas-supreme-court-25-years/">"Clarence Thomas' Supreme Court legacy"</A>. <I>CNN</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">3 May</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Clarence+Thomas%27+Supreme+Court+legacy&rft.date=2016-10-22&rft.aulast=de+Vogue&rft.aufirst=Ariane&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2016%2F10%2F22%2Fpolitics%2Fclarence-thomas-supreme-court-25-years%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Four_Justices-108"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Four_Justices_108-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Four_Justices_108-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://npg.si.edu/exhibition/four-justices">"The Four Justices"</A>. <I>Smithsonian Institution</I>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160820153726/http://npg.si.edu/exhibition/four-justices">Archived</A> from the original on August 20, 2016<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">3 May</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Institution&rft.atitle=The+Four+Justices&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnpg.si.edu%2Fexhibition%2Ffour-justices&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-109"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-109"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">David N. Atkinson, <I>Leaving the Bench</I> (University Press of Kansas 1999) <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7006-0946-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7006-0946-6">0-7006-0946-6</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-110"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-110"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Linda_Greenhouse" title="Linda Greenhouse">Greenhouse, Linda</A> (September 9, 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/09/an-invisible-chief-justice/">"An Invisible Chief Justice"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">September 9,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>. <Q>Had [O'Connor] anticipated that the chief justice would not serve out the next Supreme Court term, she told me after his death, she would have delayed her own retirement for a year rather than burden the court with two simultaneous vacancies. […] Her reason for leaving was that her husband, suffering from Alzheimer's disease, needed her care at home.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=An+Invisible+Chief+Justice&rft.date=2010-09-09&rft.aulast=Greenhouse&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopinionator.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F09%2F09%2Fan-invisible-chief-justice%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-111"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-111"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Ward, Artemus (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sunypress.edu/p-3721-deciding-to-leave.aspx"><I>Deciding to Leave: The Politics of Retirement from the United States Supreme Court</I></A>. SUNY Press. p. 358. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5651-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5651-4">978-0-7914-5651-4</A>. <Q>One byproduct of the increased [retirement benefit] provisions [in 1954], however has been a dramatic rise in the number of justices engaging in succession politics by trying to time their departures to coincide with a compatible president. The most recent departures have been partisan, some more blatantly than others, and have bolstered arguments to reform the process. A second byproduct has been an increase in justices staying on the Court past their ability to adequately contribute.<A rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.sunypress.edu/pdf/60710.pdf">[1]</A> p. 9</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deciding+to+Leave%3A+The+Politics+of+Retirement+from+the+United+States+Supreme+Court&rft.pages=358&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5651-4&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Artemus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sunypress.edu%2Fp-3721-deciding-to-leave.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-112"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-112"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Stolzenberg, Ross M.; Lindgren, James (May 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000028">"Retirement and Death in Office of U.S. Supreme Court Justices"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Demography_(journal)" title="Demography (journal)">Demography</A></I>. <B>47</B> (2): 269–298. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1353%2Fdem.0.0100">10.1353/dem.0.0100</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3000028">3000028</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20608097">20608097</A>. <Q>If the incumbent president is of the same party as the president who nominated the justice to the Court, and if the incumbent president is in the first two years of a four-year presidential term, then the justice has odds of resignation that are about 2.6 times higher than when these two conditions are not met.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Demography&rft.atitle=Retirement+and+Death+in+Office+of+U.S.+Supreme+Court+Justices&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=269-298&rft.date=2010-05&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3000028&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20608097&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fdem.0.0100&rft.aulast=Stolzenberg&rft.aufirst=Ross+M.&rft.au=Lindgren%2C+James&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3000028&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-113"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-113"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">See for example <I>Sandra Day O'Connor:How the first woman on the Supreme Court became its most influential justice</I>, by <A href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic" title="Joan Biskupic">Joan Biskupic</A>, Harper Collins, 2005, p. 105. Also <I>Rookie on the Bench: The Role of the Junior Justice</I> by Clare Cushman, Journal of Supreme Court History <B>32</B> no. 3 (2008), pp. 282–296.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-juniorjustice-114"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-juniorjustice_114-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1199873130560">"Breyer Just Missed Record as Junior Justice"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 11,</SPAN> 2008</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Breyer+Just+Missed+Record+as+Junior+Justice&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.com%2Fjsp%2Farticle.jsp%3Fid%3D1199873130560&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-salary-115"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-salary_115-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uscourts.gov/judges-judgeships/judicial-compensation">"Judicial Compensation"</A>. <I>United States Courts</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">May 15,</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Courts&rft.atitle=Judicial+Compensation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uscourts.gov%2Fjudges-judgeships%2Fjudicial-compensation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Lane2006-116"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Lane2006_116-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Lane, Charles (January 31, 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/30/AR2006013001356.html">"<I>Kennedy Seen as The Next Justice In Court's Middle</I>"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I>. <Q>If, as many expect, Alito forms a four-vote conservative bloc with Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. and Justices Antonin Scalia and Clarence Thomas, that would leave Justice Anthony M. Kennedy – a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals on gay rights, the death penalty and abortion – as the court's least predictable member.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Kennedy+Seen+as+The+Next+Justice+In+Court%27s+Middle&rft.date=2006-01-31&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F01%2F30%2FAR2006013001356.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Toobin2007-117"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Toobin2007_117-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Toobin, Jeffrey (2007). <I><A href="/wiki/The_Nine:_Inside_the_Secret_World_of_the_Supreme_Court" title="The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court">The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court</A></I>. Doubleday. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-51640-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-51640-1">0-385-51640-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nine%3A+Inside+the+Secret+World+of+the+Supreme+Court&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=0-385-51640-1&rft.aulast=Toobin&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SCOTUSblog30June2012-118"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-SCOTUSblog30June2012_118-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SCOTUSblog_Summary_Memo_OT11.pdf">"End-of-Term Statistical Analysis – October Term 2011"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Supreme Court of the United States Blog (SCOTUSblog). June 30, 2012. <Q>Justice Kennedy is, for the fourth consecutive Term, the Justice most likely to appear in the majority.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=End-of-Term+Statistical+Analysis+%E2%80%93+October+Term+2011&rft.date=2012-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsblog.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F06%2FSCOTUSblog_Summary_Memo_OT11.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-StatPack-119"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-StatPack_119-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">See also SCOTUSblog's Stat Pack: <CITE class="citation web">Bhatia, Kedar (June 30, 2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotusblog.com/2012/06/final-october-term-2011-stat-pack-and-summary-memo/">"Final October Term 2011 Stat Pack and Summary Memo"</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Final+October+Term+2011+Stat+Pack+and+Summary+Memo&rft.date=2012-06-30&rft.aulast=Bhatia&rft.aufirst=Kedar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2F2012%2F06%2Ffinal-october-term-2011-stat-pack-and-summary-memo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-120"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-120"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Mears, Bill (March 20, 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/03/20/take-look-through-neil-gorsuchs-judicial-record.html">"Take a look through Neil Gorsuch's judicial record"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</A></I>. <Q>A Fox News analysis of that record – including some 3,000 rulings he has been involved with – reveals a solid, predictable conservative philosophy, something President Trump surely was attuned to when he nominated him to fill the open ninth seat. The record in many ways mirrors the late Justice Antonin Scalia's approach to constitutional and statutory interpretation.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fox+News&rft.atitle=Take+a+look+through+Neil+Gorsuch%27s+judicial+record&rft.date=2017-03-20&rft.aulast=Mears&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fpolitics%2F2017%2F03%2F20%2Ftake-look-through-neil-gorsuchs-judicial-record.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Goldstein2010-121"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Goldstein2010_121-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Tom_Goldstein" title="Tom Goldstein">Goldstein, Tom</A> (June 30, 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotusblog.com/2010/06/everything-you-read-about-the-supreme-court-is-wrong/">"Everything you read about the Supreme Court is wrong (except here, maybe)"</A>. <A href="/wiki/SCOTUSblog" title="SCOTUSblog">SCOTUSblog</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">July 7,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Everything+you+read+about+the+Supreme+Court+is+wrong+%28except+here%2C+maybe%29&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2010-06-30&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2F2010%2F06%2Feverything-you-read-about-the-supreme-court-is-wrong%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-122"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-122"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Among the examples mentioned by Goldstein for the <A href="/wiki/2009_term_opinions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="2009 term opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2009 term</A> were:</SPAN>
<UL>
<LI><SPAN class="reference-text"><I>Dolan v. United States</I>, which interpreted judges' prerogatives broadly, typically a "conservative" result. The majority consisted of the five junior Justices: Thomas, Ginsburg, Breyer, Alito, and Sotomayor.</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="reference-text"><I>Magwood v. Patterson</I>, which expanded habeas corpus petitions, a "liberal" result, in an opinion by Thomas, joined by Stevens, Scalia, Breyer, and Sotomayor.</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="reference-text"><I>Shady Grove Orthopedic Associates v. <A href="/wiki/Allstate" title="Allstate">Allstate</A> Insurance Co.</I>, which yielded a pro-plaintiff result in an opinion by Scalia joined by Roberts, Stevens, Thomas, and Sotomayor.</SPAN></LI>
</UL>
<SPAN class="reference-text">Goldstein notes that in the 2009 term, the justice most consistently pro-government was Alito, and not the commonly perceived "arch-conservatives" Scalia and Thomas.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2011fivefour-123"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-2011fivefour_123-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-2011fivefour_123-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SB_five-to-four_OT11_final.pdf">"October 2011 Term, Five to Four Decisions"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. SCOTUSblog. June 30, 2012<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">July 2,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=October+2011+Term%2C+Five+to+Four+Decisions&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2012-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsblog.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F06%2FSB_five-to-four_OT11_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-scotusblogstatpack-124"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-scotusblogstatpack_124-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-scotusblogstatpack_124-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotusblog.com/2011/06/final-october-term-2010-stat-pack-available/">"Final October 2010 Stat Pack available"</A>. SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 28,</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Final+October+2010+Stat+Pack+available&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2011-06-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2F2011%2F06%2Ffinal-october-term-2010-stat-pack-available%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-scotusblogmemo-125"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-scotusblogmemo_125-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/SB_Summary_Memo_OT10.pdf">"End of Term statistical analysis – October 2010"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. SCOTUSblog. July 1, 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">July 2,</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=End+of+Term+statistical+analysis+%E2%80%93+October+2010&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2011-07-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F07%2FSB_Summary_Memo_OT10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-126"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-126"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_votesplit_OT10_final.pdf">"Cases by Vote Split"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 28,</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cases+by+Vote+Split&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2011-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsblog.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F06%2FSB_votesplit_OT10_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-127"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-127"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_agreement_highs_and_lows_OT10_final.pdf">"Justice agreement – Highs and Lows"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 28,</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Justice+agreement+%E2%80%93+Highs+and+Lows&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2011-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsblog.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F06%2FSB_agreement_highs_and_lows_OT10_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-128"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-128"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_agreement_OT10_final.pdf">"Justice agreement"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 28,</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Justice+agreement&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2011-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsblog.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F06%2FSB_agreement_OT10_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-129"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-129"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_frequency_OT10_final.pdf">"Frequency in the majority"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 28,</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Frequency+in+the+majority&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2011-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsblog.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F06%2FSB_frequency_OT10_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-130"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-130"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/SB_five-to-four_OT10_final.pdf">"Five-to-Four cases"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 28,</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Five-to-Four+cases&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2011-06-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsblog.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F06%2FSB_five-to-four_OT10_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-131"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-131"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SB_votesplit_OT11_final.pdf">"October 2011 term, Cases by votes split"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. SCOTUSblog. June 30, 2012<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">July 2,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=October+2011+term%2C+Cases+by+votes+split&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2012-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsblog.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F06%2FSB_votesplit_OT11_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-132"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-132"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sblog.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SB_strength_of_the_majority_OT11_final.pdf">"October 22011 term, Strength of the Majority"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. SCOTUSblog. June 30, 2012<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">July 2,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=October+22011+term%2C+Strength+of+the+Majority&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2012-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsblog.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F06%2FSB_strength_of_the_majority_OT11_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-stats2012-133"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-stats2012_133-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Bhatia, Kedar (June 29, 2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotusblog.com/2013/06/october-term-2012-summary-memo/">"October Term 2012 summary memo"</A>. SCOTUSblog<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 29,</SPAN> 2013</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=October+Term+2012+summary+memo&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2013-06-29&rft.aulast=Bhatia&rft.aufirst=Kedar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2F2013%2F06%2Foctober-term-2012-summary-memo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-stapack2012-134"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-stapack2012_134-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/SCOTUSblog_Stat_Pack_OT12.pdf">"Final October Term 2012 Stat Pack"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. SCOTUSblog. June 27, 2013<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">June 27,</SPAN> 2013</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Final+October+Term+2012+Stat+Pack&rft.pub=SCOTUSblog&rft.date=2013-06-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscotusblog.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2013%2F06%2FSCOTUSblog_Stat_Pack_OT12.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws24oct204-135"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct204_135-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct204_135-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct204_135-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct204_135-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mccain.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=VisitingWashingtonDC.PlanYourTrip#supremecourt">"Plan Your Trip (quote:) "In mid-May, after the oral argument portion of the Term has concluded, the Court takes the Bench Mondays at 10AM for the release of orders and opinions.<SPAN style="padding-right:0.2em;">"</SPAN>"</A>. US Senator John McCain. October 24, 2009<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 24,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Plan+Your+Trip+%28quote%3A%29+%22In+mid-May%2C+after+the+oral+argument+portion+of+the+Term+has+concluded%2C+the+Court+takes+the+Bench+Mondays+at+10AM+for+the+release+of+orders+and+opinions.%22&rft.date=2009-10-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmccain.senate.gov%2Fpublic%2Findex.cfm%3FFuseAction%3DVisitingWashingtonDC.PlanYourTrip%23supremecourt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws24oct201-136"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct201_136-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct201_136-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct201_136-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/visiting/visiting.aspx">"Visiting the Court"</A>. Supreme Court of the United States. March 18, 2010<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">March 19,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Visiting+the+Court&rft.pub=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.date=2010-03-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fvisiting%2Fvisiting.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws24oct211-137"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct211_137-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160821011148/http://www.docstoc.com/docs/11663498/Visiting-Capitol-Hill">"Visiting-Capitol-Hill"</A>. docstoc. October 24, 2009. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.docstoc.com/docs/11663498/Visiting-Capitol-Hill">the original</A> on August 21, 2016<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 24,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Visiting-Capitol-Hill&rft.pub=docstoc&rft.date=2009-10-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.docstoc.com%2Fdocs%2F11663498%2FVisiting-Capitol-Hill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws24oct209-138"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct209_138-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.supremecourthistory.org/how-the-court-works/how-the-court-work/visiting-the-court/">"How The Court Works"</A>. The <A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Historical_Society" title="Supreme Court Historical Society">Supreme Court Historical Society</A>. October 24, 2009<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 31,</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+The+Court+Works&rft.pub=The+Supreme+Court+Historical+Society&rft.date=2009-10-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourthistory.org%2Fhow-the-court-works%2Fhow-the-court-work%2Fvisiting-the-court%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-139"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-139"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><SPAN class="plainlinksneverexpand"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1251#a">§ 1251(a)</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-140"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-140"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Liptak, Adam (March 21, 2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/22/us/politics/supreme-court-declines-to-hear-challenge-to-colorados-marijuana-laws.html?_r=0">"Supreme Court Declines to Hear Challenge to Colorado's Marijuana Laws"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">27 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Declines+to+Hear+Challenge+to+Colorado%27s+Marijuana+Laws&rft.date=2016-03-21&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F03%2F22%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fsupreme-court-declines-to-hear-challenge-to-colorados-marijuana-laws.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-141"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-141"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><SPAN class="plainlinksneverexpand"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1251#b">§ 1251(b)</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-142"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-142"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE><I><A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Shipp" title="United States v. Shipp">United States v. Shipp</A></I></CITE>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/203/563">203 U.S. 563</A> (Supreme Court of the United States 1906).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp-143"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp_143-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp_143-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ABA_Journal:_US_v._Shipp_143-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Curriden, Mark (June 2, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/a_supreme_case_of_contempt">"A Supreme Case of Contempt"</A>. <I>ABA Journal</I>. <A href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association" title="American Bar Association">American Bar Association</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">27 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>. <Q>On May 28, [U.S. Attorney General William] Moody did something unprecedented, then and now. He filed a petition charging Sheriff Shipp, six deputies and 19 leaders of the lynch mob with contempt of the Supreme Court. The justices unanimously approved the petition and agreed to retain original jurisdiction in the matter. ... May 24, 1909, stands out in the annals of the U.S. Supreme Court. On that day, the court announced a verdict after holding the first and only criminal trial in its history.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABA+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Supreme+Case+of+Contempt&rft.date=2009-06-02&rft.aulast=Curriden&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abajournal.com%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2Fa_supreme_case_of_contempt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Humanities-144"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Humanities_144-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Humanities_144-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Hindley, Meredith (November 2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2014/novemberdecember/feature/chattanooga-versus-the-supreme-court">"Chattanooga versus the Supreme Court: The Strange Case of Ed Johnson"</A>. <I>Humanities</I>. <A href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</A>. <B>35</B> (6)<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">27 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>. <Q>United States v. Shipp stands out in the history of the Supreme Court as an anomaly. It remains the only time the Court has conducted a criminal trial.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humanities&rft.atitle=Chattanooga+versus+the+Supreme+Court%3A+The+Strange+Case+of+Ed+Johnson&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=6&rft.date=2014-11&rft.aulast=Hindley&rft.aufirst=Meredith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.neh.gov%2Fhumanities%2F2014%2Fnovemberdecember%2Ffeature%2Fchattanooga-versus-the-supreme-court&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-145"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-145"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Linder, Douglas. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.famous-trials.com/sheriffshipp/1117-shippcase">"United States v. Shipp (U.S. Supreme Court, 1909)"</A>. <I>Famous Trials</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">27 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Famous+Trials&rft.atitle=United+States+v.+Shipp+%28U.S.+Supreme+Court%2C+1909%29&rft.aulast=Linder&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.famous-trials.com%2Fsheriffshipp%2F1117-shippcase&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-146"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-146"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1254">§ 1254</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-147"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-147"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1259">§ 1259</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-148"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-148"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1258">§ 1258</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-149"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-149"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1260">§ 1260</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-USC|28|1257-150"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-USC|28|1257_150-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-USC|28|1257_150-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1257">§ 1257</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-151"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-151"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Brannock, Steven; Weinzierl, Sarah (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stetson.edu/law/lawreview/media/confronting-a-pca-finding-a-path-around-a-brick-wall.pdf">"Confronting a PCA: Finding a Path Around a Brick Wall"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I><A href="/wiki/Stetson_University_College_of_Law" title="Stetson University College of Law">Stetson Law Review</A></I>. XXXII: 368–369, 387–390<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">27 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stetson+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Confronting+a+PCA%3A+Finding+a+Path+Around+a+Brick+Wall&rft.volume=XXXII&rft.pages=368-369%2C+387-390&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Brannock&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Weinzierl%2C+Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stetson.edu%2Flaw%2Flawreview%2Fmedia%2Fconfronting-a-pca-finding-a-path-around-a-brick-wall.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-152"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-152"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/us/489/288/case.html">Teague v. Lane, 489 U.S. 288, 306 (1989)</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-153"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-153"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Gutman, Jeffrey. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://federalpracticemanual.org/chapter3/section3">"Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys: 3.3 Mootness"</A>. <I>Federal Practice Manual for Legal Aid Attorneys</I>. Sargent Shriver National Center on Poverty Law<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">27 April</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+Practice+Manual+for+Legal+Aid+Attorneys&rft.atitle=Federal+Practice+Manual+for+Legal+Aid+Attorneys%3A+3.3+Mootness&rft.aulast=Gutman&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffederalpracticemanual.org%2Fchapter3%2Fsection3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-154"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-154"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/orders/courtorders/062717zr1_5426.pdf">Allotment Order dated June 27, 2017</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-155"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-155"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1254">§ 1254</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-156"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-156"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1257">§ 1257</A>; see also <A href="/wiki/Adequate_and_independent_state_grounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Adequate and independent state grounds">Adequate and independent state grounds</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-157"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-157"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">James, Robert A. (1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greenbag.org/v1n4/v1n4_articles_james.pdf">"Instructions in Supreme Court Jury Trials"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Green_Bag" title="The Green Bag">The Green Bag</A></I>. 2d. <B>1</B> (4): 378<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">February 5,</SPAN> 2013</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Green+Bag&rft.atitle=Instructions+in+Supreme+Court+Jury+Trials&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=378&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greenbag.org%2Fv1n4%2Fv1n4_articles_james.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-158"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-158"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1872">§ 1872</A> <I>See</I> <I><A href="/wiki/Georgia_v._Brailsford_(1794)" title="Georgia v. Brailsford (1794)">Georgia v. Brailsford</A></I>, <A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_3" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 3">3</A> <A href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/3/1/">1</A> (1794), in which the Court conducted a jury trial.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-159"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-159"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Mauro, Tony (October 21, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1129799113829">"Roberts Dips Toe Into Cert Pool"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/ALM_(company)" title="ALM (company)">Legal Times</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2007</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Times&rft.atitle=Roberts+Dips+Toe+Into+Cert+Pool&rft.date=2005-10-21&rft.aulast=Mauro&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.com%2Fjsp%2Farticle.jsp%3Fid%3D1129799113829&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-160"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-160"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Mauro, Tony (July 4, 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1144330162287">"Justice Alito Joins Cert Pool Party"</A>. <I>Legal Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 31,</SPAN> 2007</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Times&rft.atitle=Justice+Alito+Joins+Cert+Pool+Party&rft.date=2006-07-04&rft.aulast=Mauro&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.com%2Fjsp%2Farticle.jsp%3Fid%3D1144330162287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-161"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-161"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Liptak, Adam (September 25, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/26/washington/26memo.html?ex=1380168000&en=d58acbfb583fd4f2&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink">"A Second Justice Opts Out of a Longtime Custom: The 'Cert. Pool<SPAN style="padding-right:0.2em;">'</SPAN>"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 17,</SPAN> 2008</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Second+Justice+Opts+Out+of+a+Longtime+Custom%3A+The+%27Cert.+Pool%27&rft.date=2008-09-25&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F09%2F26%2Fwashington%2F26memo.html%3Fex%3D1380168000%26en%3Dd58acbfb583fd4f2%26ei%3D5124%26partner%3Dpermalink%26exprod%3Dpermalink&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-162"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-162"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Liptak, Adam (May 1, 2017). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/01/us/politics/gorsuch-supreme-court-labor-pool-clerks.html">"Gorsuch, in sign of independence, is out of Supreme Court's clerical pool"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">May 2,</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Gorsuch%2C+in+sign+of+independence%2C+is+out+of+Supreme+Court%27s+clerical+pool&rft.date=2017-05-01&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F05%2F01%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fgorsuch-supreme-court-labor-pool-clerks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-163"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-163"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">For example, the arguments on the constitutionality of the <A href="/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act" title="Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act">Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act</A> took place over three days and lasted over six hours, covering several issues; the arguments for <A href="/wiki/Bush_v._Gore" title="Bush v. Gore">Bush v. Gore</A> were 90 minutes long; oral arguments in <A href="/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon" title="United States v. Nixon">United States v. Nixon</A> lasted three hours; and <A href="/wiki/New_York_Times_v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times v. United States">the Pentagon papers case</A> was given a two-hour argument. <CITE class="citation web">Christy, Andrew (November 15, 2011). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolitics/2011/11/15/142363047/obamacare-will-rank-among-the-longest-supreme-court-arguments-ever">"<SPAN style="padding-left:0.2em;">'</SPAN>Obamacare' will rank among the longest Supreme Court arguments ever"</A>. NPR<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">March 31,</SPAN> 2011</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Obamacare%27+will+rank+among+the+longest+Supreme+Court+arguments+ever&rft.pub=NPR&rft.date=2011-11-15&rft.aulast=Christy&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fblogs%2Fitsallpolitics%2F2011%2F11%2F15%2F142363047%2Fobamacare-will-rank-among-the-longest-supreme-court-arguments-ever&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN> The longest modern-day oral arguments were in the case of <A href="/wiki/California_v._Arizona" class="mw-redirect" title="California v. Arizona">California v. Arizona</A>, in which oral arguments lasted over sixteen hours over four days in 1962.<CITE class="citation web">Bobic, Igor (March 26, 2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://talkingpointsmemo.com/livewire/oral-arguments-on-health-care-reform-longest-in-45-years">"Oral arguments on health reform longest in 45 years"</A>. Talking Points Memo<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">January 31,</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oral+arguments+on+health+reform+longest+in+45+years&rft.pub=Talking+Points+Memo&rft.date=2012-03-26&rft.aulast=Bobic&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftalkingpointsmemo.com%2Flivewire%2Foral-arguments-on-health-care-reform-longest-in-45-years&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-164"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-164"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Glazer, Eric M.; Zachary, Michael (February 1997). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.floridabar.org/divcom/jn/jnjournal01.nsf/Articles/0616A0059B6778BB85256ADB005D6106">"Joining the Bar of the U.S. Supreme Court"</A>. <I>Volume LXXI, No. 2</I>. Florida Bar Journal. p. 63<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">February 3,</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Volume+LXXI%2C+No.+2&rft.atitle=Joining+the+Bar+of+the+U.S.+Supreme+Court&rft.pages=63&rft.date=1997-02&rft.aulast=Glazer&rft.aufirst=Eric+M.&rft.au=Zachary%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.floridabar.org%2Fdivcom%2Fjn%2Fjnjournal01.nsf%2FArticles%2F0616A0059B6778BB85256ADB005D6106&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-165"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-165"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Gresko, Jessica (March 24, 2013). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130323073447/http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/lawyers-supreme-court-bar-vanity-trip-18778432">"For lawyers, the Supreme Court bar is vanity trip"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Florida_Today" title="Florida Today">Florida Today</A></I>. <A href="/wiki/Melbourne,_Florida" title="Melbourne, Florida">Melbourne, Florida</A>. pp. 2A. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/lawyers-supreme-court-bar-vanity-trip-18778432#.UU-ctDf75QI">the original</A> on March 23, 2013.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Florida+Today&rft.atitle=For+lawyers%2C+the+Supreme+Court+bar+is+vanity+trip&rft.pages=2A&rft.date=2013-03-24&rft.aulast=Gresko&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FPolitics%2FwireStory%2Flawyers-supreme-court-bar-vanity-trip-18778432%23.UU-ctDf75QI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-166"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-166"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.supremecourthistory.org/how-the-court-works/how-the-court-work/library-support/">"How The Court Works; Library Support"</A>. The Supreme Court Historical Society<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">February 3,</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+The+Court+Works%3B+Library+Support&rft.pub=The+Supreme+Court+Historical+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourthistory.org%2Fhow-the-court-works%2Fhow-the-court-work%2Flibrary-support%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-167"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-167"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><I>See generally</I>, <A href="/wiki/Mark_Tushnet" title="Mark Tushnet">Tushnet, Mark, ed.</A> (2008) <I>I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases</I>, Malaysia: Beacon Press, pp. 256, <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-0036-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-0036-6">978-0-8070-0036-6</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-168"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-168"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Kessler, Robert. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/03/case-allowing-cameras-supreme-court-proceedings/316876/">"Why Aren't Cameras Allowed at the Supreme Court Again?"</A>. <A href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">March 24,</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Aren%27t+Cameras+Allowed+at+the+Supreme+Court+Again%3F&rft.pub=The+Atlantic&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fnational%2Farchive%2F2013%2F03%2Fcase-allowing-cameras-supreme-court-proceedings%2F316876%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-IJR_2016-169"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-IJR_2016_169-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Johnson, Benny. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ijr.com/2016/06/637664-the-2016-running-of-the-interns/">"The 2016 Running of the Interns"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Independent_Journal_Review" title="Independent Journal Review">Independent Journal Review</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">March 24,</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+2016+Running+of+the+Interns&rft.pub=Independent+Journal+Review&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Benny&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fijr.com%2F2016%2F06%2F637664-the-2016-running-of-the-interns%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-28_USC_1-170"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28_USC_1_170-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1">§ 1</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-171"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-171"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/2109">§ 2109</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-172"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-172"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Pepall, Lynne; Richards, Daniel L.; Norman, George (1999). <I>Industrial Organization: Contemporary Theory and Practice</I>. Cincinnati: South-Western College Publishing. pp. 11–12.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Industrial+Organization%3A+Contemporary+Theory+and+Practice&rft.place=Cincinnati&rft.pages=11-12&rft.pub=South-Western+College+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Pepall&rft.aufirst=Lynne&rft.au=Richards%2C+Daniel+L.&rft.au=Norman%2C+George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-173"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-173"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/boundvolumes/564bv.pdf">"Cases adjudged in the Supreme Court at October Term, 2010"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>United States Reports</I>. Washington D.C.: <A href="/wiki/Reporter_of_Decisions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States">Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States</A>. <B>564</B>. October 2016<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">May 15,</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=United+States+Reports&rft.atitle=Cases+adjudged+in+the+Supreme+Court+at+October+Term%2C+2010&rft.volume=564&rft.date=2016-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2Fboundvolumes%2F564bv.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-sliplists-174"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-sliplists_174-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/sliplists.aspx">"Sliplists"</A>. Supreme Court of the United States<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">May 15,</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sliplists&rft.pub=Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fopinions%2Fsliplists.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-175"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-175"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.georgetown.edu/library/research/guides/supreme_court.cfm">"Supreme Court Research Guide"</A>. <I>law.georgetown.edu</I>. Georgetown Law Library<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">August 22,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=law.georgetown.edu&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+Research+Guide&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.georgetown.edu%2Flibrary%2Fresearch%2Fguides%2Fsupreme_court.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-176"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-176"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.guides.umd.edu/content.php?pid=128265&sid=1100770">"How to Cite Cases: U.S. Supreme Court Decisions"</A>. <I>lib.guides.umd.edu</I>. <A href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Maryland">University of Maryland</A> University Libraries<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">August 22,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lib.guides.umd.edu&rft.atitle=How+to+Cite+Cases%3A+U.S.+Supreme+Court+Decisions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flib.guides.umd.edu%2Fcontent.php%3Fpid%3D128265%26sid%3D1100770&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-google118-177"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-google118_177-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-google118_177-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-google118_177-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hall, Kermit L.; McGuire, Kevin T., eds. (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6rWCaMAdUzgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Institutions+of+American+Democracy:+The+Judicial+Branch&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8Q7gUrDCKujisATrhYDYDA&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Institutions%20of%20American%20Democracy%3A%20The%20Judicial%20Branch&f=false"><I>Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch</I></A>. New York City: Oxford University Press. pp. 117–118. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530917-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530917-1">978-0-19-530917-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutions+of+American+Democracy%3A+The+Judicial+Branch&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=117-118&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530917-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6rWCaMAdUzgC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%26dq%3DInstitutions%2Bof%2BAmerican%2BDemocracy%3A%2BThe%2BJudicial%2BBranch%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3D8Q7gUrDCKujisATrhYDYDA%26ved%3D0CC8Q6AEwAA%23v%3Donepage%26q%3DInstitutions%2520of%2520American%2520Democracy%253A%2520The%2520Judicial%2520Branch%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-178"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-178"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Mendelson, Wallace (1992). "Separation of Powers". In <A href="/wiki/Kermit_L._Hall" title="Kermit L. Hall">Hall, Kermit L.</A> <I>The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States</I>. Oxford University Press. p. 775. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6">0-19-505835-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Separation+of+Powers&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=775&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-19-505835-6&rft.aulast=Mendelson&rft.aufirst=Wallace&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-179"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-179"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The American Conflict by Horace Greeley (1873), p. 106; also in The Life of Andrew Jackson (2001) by Robert Vincent Remini</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-180"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-180"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Vile, John R. (1992). "Court curbing". In <A href="/wiki/Kermit_L._Hall" title="Kermit L. Hall">Hall, Kermit L.</A> <I>The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States</I>. Oxford University Press. p. 202. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6">0-19-505835-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Court+curbing&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-19-505835-6&rft.aulast=Vile&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Peppers2006-181"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Peppers2006_181-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Peppers2006_181-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Peppers2006_181-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Peppers2006_181-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Peppers2006_181-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Peppers, Todd C. (2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=NxiMWr730EcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false"><I>Courtiers of the Marble Palace: The Rise and Influence of the Supreme Court Law Clerk</I></A>. Stanford University Press. pp. 195, 1, 20, 22, and 22–24 respectively. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5382-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-5382-1">978-0-8047-5382-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Courtiers+of+the+Marble+Palace%3A+The+Rise+and+Influence+of+the+Supreme+Court+Law+Clerk&rft.pages=195%2C+1%2C+20%2C+22%2C+and+22-24+respectively&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-5382-1&rft.aulast=Peppers&rft.aufirst=Todd+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DNxiMWr730EcC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Weiden2006-182"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Weiden2006_182-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Weiden, David; Ward, Artemus (2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780814784648?auth=0"><I>Sorcerers' Apprentices: 100 Years of Law Clerks at the United States Supreme Court</I></A>. NYU Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9404-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9404-3">978-0-8147-9404-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sorcerers%27+Apprentices%3A+100+Years+of+Law+Clerks+at+the+United+States+Supreme+Court&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-9404-3&rft.aulast=Weiden&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Ward%2C+Artemus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fbooks%2F9780814784648%3Fauth%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Chace2007-183"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Chace2007_183-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Chace, James (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=8Jf32GR7t3IC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false"><I>Acheson: The Secretary of State Who Created the American World</I></A>. New York City: Simon & Schuster (published 1998). p. 44. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80843-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80843-7">978-0-684-80843-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Acheson%3A+The+Secretary+of+State+Who+Created+the+American+World&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-684-80843-7&rft.aulast=Chace&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D8Jf32GR7t3IC%26printsec%3Dfrontcover%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-184"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-184"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-nyt090710-185"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-nyt090710_185-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-nyt090710_185-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-nyt090710_185-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-nyt090710_185-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Liptak, Adam (September 7, 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/07/us/politics/07clerks.html?pagewanted=1&hpw">"Polarization of Supreme Court Is Reflected in Justices' Clerks"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">September 7,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Polarization+of+Supreme+Court+Is+Reflected+in+Justices%27+Clerks&rft.date=2010-09-07&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2010%2F09%2F07%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2F07clerks.html%3Fpagewanted%3D1%26hpw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-186"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-186"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">William E. Nelson; Harvey Rishikof; I. Scott Messinger; Michael Jo (November 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100727110418/http://www.vanderbiltlawreview.org/articles/2009/11/Nelson-et-al.-Supreme-Court-Clerkships-62-Vand.-L.-Rev.-1749-2009.pdf">"The Liberal Tradition of the Supreme Court Clerkship: Its Rise, Fall, and Reincarnation?"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Vanderbilt Law Review</I>. p. 1749. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vanderbiltlawreview.org/articles/2009/11/Nelson-et-al.-Supreme-Court-Clerkships-62-Vand.-L.-Rev.-1749-2009.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on July 27, 2010<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">September 7,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vanderbilt+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Liberal+Tradition+of+the+Supreme+Court+Clerkship%3A+Its+Rise%2C+Fall%2C+and+Reincarnation%3F&rft.pages=1749&rft.date=2009-11&rft.au=William+E.+Nelson&rft.au=Harvey+Rishikof&rft.au=I.+Scott+Messinger&rft.au=Michael+Jo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vanderbiltlawreview.org%2Farticles%2F2009%2F11%2FNelson-et-al.-Supreme-Court-Clerkships-62-Vand.-L.-Rev.-1749-2009.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-187"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-187"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Liptak and Kopicki, <I>The New York Times</I>, June 7, 2012 <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/08/us/politics/44-percent-of-americans-approve-of-supreme-court-in-new-poll.html?smid=pl-share">Approval Rating for Justices Hits Just 44% in New Poll</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-judicialactivismOxford-188"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-judicialactivismOxford_188-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-judicialactivismOxford_188-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-judicialactivismOxford_188-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">See for example "Judicial activism" in <I>The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States</I>, edited by Kermit Hall; article written by Gary McDowell</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct20-189"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct20_189-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/w/index.php?title=Damon_W._Root&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Damon W. Root (page does not exist)">Root, Damon W.</A> (September 21, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970204488304574427193229878748">"Lochner and Liberty"</A>. <I>The Wall Street Journal</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Lochner+and+Liberty&rft.date=2009-09-21&rft.aulast=Root&rft.aufirst=Damon+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB10001424052970204488304574427193229878748&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-190"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-190"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Bernstein, David. <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSZnwNF7aAoC&pg=PA100">Only One Place of Redress: African Americans, Labor Regulations, and the Courts from Reconstruction to the New Deal</A></I>, p. 100 (Duke University Press, 2001): "The Court also directly overturned Lochner by adding that it is no 'longer open to question that it is within the legislative power to fix maximum hours.'"</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-191"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-191"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Dorf, Michael and Morrison, Trevor. <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OsxMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18">Constitutional Law</A></I>, p. 18 (Oxford University Press, 2010).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-192"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-192"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Patrick, John. <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gSniBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT362">The Supreme Court of the United States: A Student Companion</A></I>, p. 362 (Oxford University Press, 2006).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct08-193"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct08_193-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Steinfels, Peter (May 22, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/22/books/review/22STEINFE.html">"<SPAN style="padding-left:0.2em;">'</SPAN>A Church That Can and Cannot Change': Dogma"</A>. <I>The New York Times: Books</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times%3A+Books&rft.atitle=%27A+Church+That+Can+and+Cannot+Change%27%3A+Dogma&rft.date=2005-05-22&rft.aulast=Steinfels&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F05%2F22%2Fbooks%2Freview%2F22STEINFE.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct05-194"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct05_194-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Savage, David G. (October 23, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081023193212/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-scotus23-2008oct23%2C0%2C1693757.story">"Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</A></I>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.latimes.com/2008/oct/23/nation/na-scotus23">the original</A> on October 23, 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>a lack of judicial authority to enter an inherently political question that had previously been left to the states</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Roe+vs.+Wade%3F+Bush+vs.+Gore%3F+What+are+the+worst+Supreme+Court+decisions%3F&rft.date=2008-10-23&rft.aulast=Savage&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.latimes.com%2F2008%2Foct%2F23%2Fnation%2Fna-scotus23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct10-195"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct10_195-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Neil_A._Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="Neil A. Lewis">Lewis, Neil A.</A> (September 19, 2002). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/19/us/judicial-nominee-says-his-views-will-not-sway-him-on-the-bench.html">"Judicial Nominee Says His Views Will Not Sway Him on the Bench"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>he has written scathingly of Roe v. Wade</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Judicial+Nominee+Says+His+Views+Will+Not+Sway+Him+on+the+Bench&rft.date=2002-09-19&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Neil+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F09%2F19%2Fus%2Fjudicial-nominee-says-his-views-will-not-sway-him-on-the-bench.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct03-196"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct03_196-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://politics.nytimes.com/election-guide/2008/issues/abortion.html">"Election Guide 2008: The Issues: Abortion"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I>. 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Election+Guide+2008%3A+The+Issues%3A+Abortion&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpolitics.nytimes.com%2Felection-guide%2F2008%2Fissues%2Fabortion.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct71-197"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct71_197-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Buchanan, Pat (July 6, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://townhall.com/columnists/PatBuchanan/2005/07/06/the_judges_war_an_issue_of_power">"The judges war: an issue of power"</A>. Townhall.com<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The Brown decision of 1954, desegregating the schools of 17 states and the District of Columbia, awakened the nation to the court's new claim to power.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+judges+war%3A+an+issue+of+power&rft.pub=Townhall.com&rft.date=2005-07-06&rft.aulast=Buchanan&rft.aufirst=Pat&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftownhall.com%2Fcolumnists%2FPatBuchanan%2F2005%2F07%2F06%2Fthe_judges_war_an_issue_of_power&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct33-198"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct33_198-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Adam_Clymer" title="Adam Clymer">Clymer, Adam</A> (May 29, 1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/01/specials/goldwater-obit.html">"Barry Goldwater, Conservative and Individualist, Dies at 89"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Barry+Goldwater%2C+Conservative+and+Individualist%2C+Dies+at+89&rft.date=1998-05-29&rft.aulast=Clymer&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2F01%2F04%2F01%2Fspecials%2Fgoldwater-obit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-199"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-199"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Stone, Geoffrey R. (March 26, 2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://illinoislawreview.org/wp-content/ilr-content/articles/2012/2/Stone.pdf">"<I>Citizens United</I> and conservative judicial activism"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>University of Illinois Law Review</I>. University of Illinois. <B>2012</B> (2): 485–500.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Illinois+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Citizens+United+and+conservative+judicial+activism&rft.volume=2012&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=485-500&rft.date=2012-03-26&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fillinoislawreview.org%2Fwp-content%2Filr-content%2Farticles%2F2012%2F2%2FStone.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct50-200"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct50_200-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Lincoln, Abraham (March 4, 1861). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalcenter.org/LincolnFirstInaugural.html">"First Inaugural Address"</A>. National Center<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>At the same time, the candid citizen must confess that if the policy of the Government upon vital questions affecting the whole people is to be irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court, the instant they are made in ordinary litigation between parties in personal actions the people will have ceased to be their own rulers, having to that extent practically resigned their Government into the hands of that eminent tribunal.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=First+Inaugural+Address&rft.date=1861-03-04&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalcenter.org%2FLincolnFirstInaugural.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct02-201"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct02_201-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Will, George F. (May 27, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/26/AR2009052602348.html">"Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Thurgood Marshall quote taken from the Stanford Law Review, summer 1992</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Identity+Justice%3A+Obama%27s+Conventional+Choice&rft.date=2009-05-27&rft.aulast=Will&rft.aufirst=George+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2009%2F05%2F26%2FAR2009052602348.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-202"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-202"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Irons, Peter. <I>A People's History of the Supreme Court</I>. London: Penguin, 1999. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-87006-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-87006-4">0-670-87006-4</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct44-203"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct44_203-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Liptak, Adam (January 31, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/01/weekinreview/01liptak.html">"To Nudge, Shift or Shove the Supreme Court Left"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Every judge who's been appointed to the court since Lewis Powell...in 1971...has been more conservative than his or her predecessor</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=To+Nudge%2C+Shift+or+Shove+the+Supreme+Court+Left&rft.date=2009-01-31&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F02%2F01%2Fweekinreview%2F01liptak.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct21-204"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct21_204-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Babington, Charles (April 5, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A26236-2005Apr4.html">"Senator Links Violence to 'Political' Decisions"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Senator+Links+Violence+to+%27Political%27+Decisions&rft.date=2005-04-05&rft.aulast=Babington&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Farticles%2FA26236-2005Apr4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct18-205"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct18_205-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Liptak, Adam (February 2, 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/02/politics/politicsspecial1/02conservatives.html?pagewanted=print">"A Court Remade in the Reagan Era's Image"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Court+Remade+in+the+Reagan+Era%27s+Image&rft.date=2006-02-02&rft.aulast=Liptak&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2006%2F02%2F02%2Fpolitics%2Fpoliticsspecial1%2F02conservatives.html%3Fpagewanted%3Dprint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct05-206"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct05_206-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Savage, David G. (July 13, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jul/13/nation/na-scotus13">"Supreme Court finds history is a matter of opinions"</A>. <I>Los Angeles Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+finds+history+is+a+matter+of+opinions&rft.date=2008-07-13&rft.aulast=Savage&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.latimes.com%2F2008%2Fjul%2F13%2Fnation%2Fna-scotus13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct59-207"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct59_207-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Andrew P. Napolitano (February 17, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/17/opinion/17napolitano.html">"No Defense"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=No+Defense&rft.date=2005-02-17&rft.au=Andrew+P.+Napolitano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F02%2F17%2Fopinion%2F17napolitano.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct60-208"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct60_208-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Edsall, Thomas B.; Fletcher, Michael A. (September 5, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/09/04/AR2005090401338.html">"Again, Right Voices Concern About Gonzales"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Again%2C+Right+Voices+Concern+About+Gonzales&rft.date=2005-09-05&rft.aulast=Edsall&rft.aufirst=Thomas+B.&rft.au=Fletcher%2C+Michael+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2005%2F09%2F04%2FAR2005090401338.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct61-209"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct61_209-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Lane, Charles (March 20, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50246-2005Mar19.html">"Conservative's Book on Supreme Court Is a Bestseller"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Conservative%27s+Book+on+Supreme+Court+Is+a+Bestseller&rft.date=2005-03-20&rft.aulast=Lane&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Farticles%2FA50246-2005Mar19.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws484ki-210"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws484ki_210-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Mark I. Sutherland; Dave Meyer; William J. Federer; Alan Keyes; Ed Meese; Phyllis Schlafly; Howard Phillips; Alan E. Sears; Ben DuPre; Rev. Rick Scarborough; David C. Gibbs III; Mathew D. Staver; Don Feder; Herbert W. Titus (2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=VBrjcQkzV94C&pg=PA96"><I>Judicial Tyranny: The New Kings of America</I></A>. St. Louis, Missouri: Amerisearch Inc. p. 242. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9753455-6-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-9753455-6-7">0-9753455-6-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judicial+Tyranny%3A+The+New+Kings+of+America&rft.place=St.+Louis%2C+Missouri&rft.pages=242&rft.pub=Amerisearch+Inc.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-9753455-6-7&rft.au=Mark+I.+Sutherland&rft.au=Dave+Meyer&rft.au=William+J.+Federer&rft.au=Alan+Keyes&rft.au=Ed+Meese&rft.au=Phyllis+Schlafly&rft.au=Howard+Phillips&rft.au=Alan+E.+Sears&rft.au=Ben+DuPre&rft.au=Rev.+Rick+Scarborough&rft.au=David+C.+Gibbs+III&rft.au=Mathew+D.+Staver&rft.au=Don+Feder&rft.au=Herbert+W.+Titus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DVBrjcQkzV94C%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws27oct304-211"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tws27oct304_211-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws27oct304_211-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Michiko_Kakutani" title="Michiko Kakutani">Kakutani, Michiko</A> (July 6, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/07/books/07kaku.html">"Appointees Who Really Govern America"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 27,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Appointees+Who+Really+Govern+America&rft.date=2009-07-06&rft.aulast=Kakutani&rft.aufirst=Michiko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F07%2F07%2Fbooks%2F07kaku.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws27oct303-212"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws27oct303_212-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Emily Bazelon (July 6, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/id/2222028/">"The Supreme Court on Trial: James MacGregor Burns takes aim at the bench"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Slate_(magazine)" title="Slate (magazine)">Slate</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 27,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=The+Supreme+Court+on+Trial%3A+James+MacGregor+Burns+takes+aim+at+the+bench.&rft.date=2009-07-06&rft.au=Emily+Bazelon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slate.com%2Fid%2F2222028%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-213"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-213"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Special keynote address by President Ronald Reagan, November 1988, at the second annual lawyers convention of the <A href="/wiki/Federalist_Society" title="Federalist Society">Federalist Society</A>, Washington, D.C.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct48-214"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct48_214-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Stuart_Taylor_Jr." title="Stuart Taylor Jr.">Stuart Taylor Jr.</A> (October 15, 1987). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/15/us/reagan-points-to-a-critic-who-points-out-it-isn-t-so.html">"Reagan Points to a Critic, Who Points Out It Isn't So"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Reagan+Points+to+a+Critic%2C+Who+Points+Out+It+Isn%27t+So&rft.date=1987-10-15&rft.au=Stuart+Taylor+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F10%2F15%2Fus%2Freagan-points-to-a-critic-who-points-out-it-isn-t-so.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct53-215"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct53_215-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Kelley Beaucar Vlahos (September 11, 2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,97117,00.html">"Judge Bork: Judicial Activism Is Going Global"</A>. Fox News<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>What judges have wrought is a coup d'état – slow moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Judge+Bork%3A+Judicial+Activism+Is+Going+Global&rft.date=2003-09-11&rft.au=Kelley+Beaucar+Vlahos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fstory%2F0%2C2933%2C97117%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct11-216"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct11_216-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct11_216-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct11_216-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Naftali Bendavid (July 13, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.wsj.com/washwire/2009/07/13/franken-an-incredible-honor-to-be-here/">"Franken: 'An Incredible Honor to Be Here<SPAN style="padding-right:0.2em;">'</SPAN>"</A>. <I>The Wall Street Journal</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Franken%3A+%27An+Incredible+Honor+to+Be+Here%27&rft.date=2009-07-13&rft.au=Naftali+Bendavid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.wsj.com%2Fwashwire%2F2009%2F07%2F13%2Ffranken-an-incredible-honor-to-be-here%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-217"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-217"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Hazard, Geoffrey C. Jr. (1978–79). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110429053343/http://heinonlinebackup.com/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals%2Fclqv64&section=7">"Supreme Court as a Legislature"</A>. <B>64</B>. Cornell L. Rev.: 1. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonlinebackup.com/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/clqv64&section=7">the original</A> on April 29, 2011.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+as+a+Legislature&rft.volume=64&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1978%2F1979&rft.au=Hazard%2C+Geoffrey+C.+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonlinebackup.com%2Fhol-cgi-bin%2Fget_pdf.cgi%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Fclqv64%26section%3D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct16-218"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct16_218-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/William_Safire" title="William Safire">William Safire</A> (April 24, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/24/magazine/24ONLANGUAGE.html">"Dog Whistle"</A>. <I>New York Times Magazine</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times+Magazine&rft.atitle=Dog+Whistle&rft.date=2005-04-24&rft.au=William+Safire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F04%2F24%2Fmagazine%2F24ONLANGUAGE.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct04-219"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct04_219-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">David G. Savage (October 23, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081023193212/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-scotus23-2008oct23%2C0%2C1693757.story">"Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?"</A>. <I>Los Angeles Times</I>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.latimes.com/2008/oct/23/nation/na-scotus23">the original</A> on October 23, 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Roe+vs.+Wade%3F+Bush+vs.+Gore%3F+What+are+the+worst+Supreme+Court+decisions%3F&rft.date=2008-10-23&rft.au=David+G.+Savage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.latimes.com%2F2008%2Foct%2F23%2Fnation%2Fna-scotus23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct24-220"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct24_220-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Laura Mansnerus (October 16, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9802EED9173FF935A25753C1A9639C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all">"Diminished Eminence In a Changed Domain"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Diminished+Eminence+In+a+Changed+Domain&rft.date=2005-10-16&rft.au=Laura+Mansnerus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9802EED9173FF935A25753C1A9639C8B63%26sec%3D%26spon%3D%26pagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct26-221"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct26_221-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Ronald Smothers (October 16, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A03EED9173FF935A25753C1A9639C8B63">"In Long Branch, No Olive Branches"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Long+Branch%2C+No+Olive+Branches&rft.date=2005-10-16&rft.au=Ronald+Smothers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9A03EED9173FF935A25753C1A9639C8B63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct10-222"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct10_222-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Adam Cohen (January 15, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/15/opinion/15tue4.html">"Editorial Observer – A Supreme Court Reversal: Abandoning the Rights of Voters"</A>. <I>New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Editorial+Observer+%E2%80%93+A+Supreme+Court+Reversal%3A+Abandoning+the+Rights+of+Voters&rft.date=2008-01-15&rft.au=Adam+Cohen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F01%2F15%2Fopinion%2F15tue4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws30oct05-223"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws30oct05_223-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">David G. Savage (July 13, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jul/13/nation/na-scotus13">"Supreme Court finds history is a matter of opinions"</A>. <I>Los Angeles Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 30,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>This suggests that the right of habeas corpus was not limited to English subjects … protects people who are captured … at Guantanamo … Wrong, Justice Antonin Scalia wrote in dissent. He said English history showed that the writ of habeas corpus was limited to sovereign English territory</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+finds+history+is+a+matter+of+opinions&rft.date=2008-07-13&rft.au=David+G.+Savage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.latimes.com%2F2008%2Fjul%2F13%2Fnation%2Fna-scotus13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct01-224"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct01_224-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">George F. Will (May 27, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/26/AR2009052602348.html">"Identity Justice: Obama's Conventional Choice"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Identity+Justice%3A+Obama%27s+Conventional+Choice&rft.date=2009-05-27&rft.au=George+F.+Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2009%2F05%2F26%2FAR2009052602348.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct04-225"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct04_225-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct04_225-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">James Taranto (June 9, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124456827959598503">"Speaking Ruth to Power"</A>. <I>The Wall Street Journal</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 22,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=Speaking+Ruth+to+Power&rft.date=2009-06-09&rft.au=James+Taranto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FSB124456827959598503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-twsvsfs32-226"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-twsvsfs32_226-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Woodward, Bob; Scott Armstrong (1979). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=6JtJ23GmD3AC"><I>The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court</I></A>. United States of America: Simon & Schuster. p. 541. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-7402-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-7402-9">978-0-7432-7402-9</A>. <Q>A court which is final and unreviewable needs more careful scrutiny than any other</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brethren%3A+Inside+the+Supreme+Court&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=541&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-7402-9&rft.aulast=Woodward&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft.au=Scott+Armstrong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3D6JtJ23GmD3AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct16-227"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct16_227-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct16_227-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct16_227-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct16_227-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Larry Sabato (September 26, 2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/larry-sabato/its-time-to-reshape-the-c_b_66030.html">"It's Time to Reshape the Constitution and Make America a Fairer Country"</A>. <I>The Huffington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=It%27s+Time+to+Reshape+the+Constitution+and+Make+America+a+Fairer+Country&rft.date=2007-09-26&rft.au=Larry+Sabato&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Flarry-sabato%2Fits-time-to-reshape-the-c_b_66030.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct77-228"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct77_228-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A href="/wiki/Christopher_Moore_(Canadian_historian)" title="Christopher Moore (Canadian historian)">Christopher Moore</A> (November 1, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reviewcanada.ca/essays/2008/11/01/our-canadian-republic/">"Our Canadian Republic – Do we display too much deference to authority … or not enough?"</A>. <I>Literary Review of Canada</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Literary+Review+of+Canada&rft.atitle=Our+Canadian+Republic+%E2%80%93+Do+we+display+too+much+deference+to+authority+%E2%80%A6+or+not+enough%3F&rft.date=2008-11-01&rft.au=Christopher+Moore&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freviewcanada.ca%2Fessays%2F2008%2F11%2F01%2Four-canadian-republic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws2nov02-229"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws2nov02_229-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Tomkins, Adam (2002). "In Defence of the Political Constitution". United Kingdom: 22 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 157. <Q>Bush v. Gore</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=In+Defence+of+the+Political+Constitution&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Tomkins&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws24oct22-230"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct22_230-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Madison, James (1789). <A class="external text" href="http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers/No._45">"The Federalist Papers/No. 45 The Alleged Danger From the Powers of the Union to the State Governments Considered"</A>. Wikisource<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 24,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>the States will retain, under the proposed Constitution, a very extensive portion of active sovereignty</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Federalist+Papers%2FNo.+45+The+Alleged+Danger+From+the+Powers+of+the+Union+to+the+State+Governments+Considered&rft.date=1789&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FThe_Federalist_Papers%2FNo._45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws24oct47-231"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct47_231-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Alexander Hamilton (aka Publius) (1789). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed28.asp">"Federalist No. 28"</A>. Independent Journal<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 24,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Power being almost always the rival of power; the General Government will at all times stand ready to check the usurpations of the state government; and these will have the same disposition toward the General Government.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Federalist+No.+28&rft.date=1789&rft.au=Alexander+Hamilton+%28aka+Publius%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Ffed28.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws27oct501-232"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws27oct501_232-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Madison, James (January 25, 1788). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa44.htm">"<I>The Federalist</I>"</A>. <I>Independent Journal</I> (44 (quote: 8th para))<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 27,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>seems well calculated at once to secure to the States a reasonable discretion in providing for the conveniency of their imports and exports, and to the United States a reasonable check against the abuse of this discretion.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Independent+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Federalist&rft.issue=44+%28quote%3A+8th+para%29&rft.date=1788-01-25&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Ffed%2Ffedera44.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws27oct502-233"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws27oct502_233-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Madison, James (February 16, 1788). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa56.htm">"<I>The Federalist</I> No. 56 (quote: 6th para)"</A>. Independent Journal<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 27,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>In every State there have been made, and must continue to be made, regulations on this subject which will, in many cases, leave little more to be done by the federal legislature, than to review the different laws, and reduce them in one general act.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Federalist+No.+56+%28quote%3A+6th+para%29&rft.date=1788-02-16&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Ffed%2Ffedera56.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws27oct503-234"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws27oct503_234-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Alexander Hamilton (December 14, 1787). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa22.htm">"<I>The Federalist</I> No. 22 (quote: 4th para)"</A>. New York Packet<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 27,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The interfering and unneighborly regulations of some States, contrary to the true spirit of the Union, have, in different instances, given just cause of umbrage and complaint to others, and it is to be feared that examples of this nature, if not restrained by a national control, would be multiplied and extended till they became not less serious sources of animosity and discord than injurious impediments to the intercourse between the different parts of the Confederacy.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Federalist+No.+22+%28quote%3A+4th+para%29&rft.date=1787-12-14&rft.au=Alexander+Hamilton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Ffed%2Ffedera22.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws27oct504-235"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws27oct504_235-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Madison, James (January 22, 1788). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed42.asp">"<I>The Federalist Papers</I>"</A>. New York Packet<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 27,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The regulation of commerce with the Indian tribes is very properly unfettered from two limitations in the articles of Confederation, which render the provision obscure and contradictory. The power is there restrained to Indians, not members of any of the States, and is not to violate or infringe the legislative right of any State within its own limits.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Federalist+Papers&rft.date=1788-01-22&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Ffed42.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws24oct10-236"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws24oct10_236-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A href="/wiki/Akhil_Reed_Amar" class="mw-redirect" title="Akhil Reed Amar">Akhil Reed Amar</A> (1998). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/a/amar-rights.html">"The Bill of Rights – Creation and Reconstruction"</A>. <I>The New York Times: Books</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 24,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>many lawyers embrace a tradition that views state governments as the quintessential threat to individual and minority rights, and federal officials—especially federal courts—as the special guardians of those rights.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times%3A+Books&rft.atitle=The+Bill+of+Rights+%E2%80%93+Creation+and+Reconstruction&rft.date=1998&rft.au=Akhil+Reed+Amar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2Ffirst%2Fa%2Famar-rights.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws30oct08-237"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws30oct08_237-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Scott Gold (June 14, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.latimes.com/2005/jun/14/nation/na-cavebugs14">"Justices Swat Down Texans' Effort to Weaken Species Protection Law"</A>. <I>Los Angeles Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">March 24,</SPAN> 2012</SPAN>. <Q>Purcell filed a $60-million lawsuit against the U.S. government in 1999, arguing that cave bugs could not be regulated through the commerce clause because they had no commercial value and did not cross state lines. 'I'm disappointed,' Purcell said.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Justices+Swat+Down+Texans%27+Effort+to+Weaken+Species+Protection+Law&rft.date=2005-06-14&rft.au=Scott+Gold&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.latimes.com%2F2005%2Fjun%2F14%2Fnation%2Fna-cavebugs14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws27oct505-238"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tws27oct505_238-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws27oct505_238-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Robert B. Reich (September 13, 1987). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/09/13/magazine/the-commerce-clause-the-expanding-economic-vista.html">"The Commerce Clause; The Expanding Economic Vista"</A>. <I>New York Times Magazine</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 27,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Commerce+Clause%3B+The+Expanding+Economic+Vista&rft.date=1987-09-13&rft.au=Robert+B.+Reich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F09%2F13%2Fmagazine%2Fthe-commerce-clause-the-expanding-economic-vista.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws30oct09-239"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws30oct09_239-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">FDCH e-Media (January 10, 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/10/AR2006011001087.html">"U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Judge Samuel Alito's Nomination to the Supreme Court"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 30,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>I don't think there's any question at this point in our history that Congress' power under the commerce clause is quite broad, and I think that reflects a number of things, including the way in which our economy and our society has developed and all of the foreign and interstate activity that takes place – Samuel Alito</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=U.S.+Senate+Judiciary+Committee+Hearing+on+Judge+Samuel+Alito%27s+Nomination+to+the+Supreme+Court&rft.date=2006-01-10&rft.au=FDCH+e-Media&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F01%2F10%2FAR2006011001087.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws30oct03-240"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws30oct03_240-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Cohen, Adam (December 7, 2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/07/opinion/editorial-observer-brandeis-s-views-states-rights-ice-making-have-new-relevance.html">"Editorial Observer; Brandeis's Views on States' Rights, and Ice-Making, Have New Relevance"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 30,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>But Brandeis's dissent contains one of the most famous formulations in American law: that the states should be free to serve as <I>laboratories</I> of democracy</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Editorial+Observer%3B+Brandeis%27s+Views+on+States%27+Rights%2C+and+Ice-Making%2C+Have+New+Relevance&rft.date=2003-12-07&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2003%2F12%2F07%2Fopinion%2Feditorial-observer-brandeis-s-views-states-rights-ice-making-have-new-relevance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct15-241"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct15_241-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Graglia, Lino (July 19, 2005). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101204214859/http://www.utexas.edu/law/news/2005/071905_court.html">"Altering 14th Amendment would curb court's activist tendencies"</A>. University of Texas School of Law. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utexas.edu/law/news/2005/071905_court.html">the original</A> on December 4, 2010<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Altering+14th+Amendment+would+curb+court%27s+activist+tendencies&rft.date=2005-07-19&rft.aulast=Graglia&rft.aufirst=Lino&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.utexas.edu%2Flaw%2Fnews%2F2005%2F071905_court.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws30oct02-242"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws30oct02_242-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Hornberger, Jacob C. (October 30, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&safe=off&client=firefox-a&rls=com.ubuntu%3Aen-US%3Aunofficial&q=%22misused+the+fourteenth+amendment%22&aq=f&oq=&aqi=">"Freedom and the Fourteenth Amendment"</A>. The Future of Freedom Foundation<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 30,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Fourteenth Amendment. Some argue that it is detrimental to the cause of freedom because it expands the power of the federal government. Others contend that the amendment expands the ambit of individual liberty. I fall among those who believe that the Fourteenth Amendment has been a positive force for freedom.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Freedom+and+the+Fourteenth+Amendment&rft.date=2009-10-30&rft.aulast=Hornberger&rft.aufirst=Jacob+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fsearch%3Fhl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dcom.ubuntu%253Aen-US%253Aunofficial%26q%3D%2522misused%2Bthe%2Bfourteenth%2Bamendment%2522%26aq%3Df%26oq%3D%26aqi%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct02-243"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct02_243-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">James Vicini (April 24, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN2443345820080424">"Justice Scalia defends Bush v. Gore ruling"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The nine-member Supreme Court conducts its deliberations in secret and the justices traditionally won't discuss pending cases in public</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Justice+Scalia+defends+Bush+v.+Gore+ruling&rft.date=2008-04-24&rft.au=James+Vicini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FnewsOne%2FidUSN2443345820080424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct12-244"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct12_244-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct12_244-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct12_244-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Margolick, David (September 23, 2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/23/books/review/Margolick-t.html?pagewanted=print">"Meet the Supremes"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Beat reporters and academics initially denounced the court's involvement in that case, its hastiness to enter the political thicket and the half-baked and strained decision that resulted.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Meet+the+Supremes&rft.date=2007-09-23&rft.aulast=Margolick&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F09%2F23%2Fbooks%2Freview%2FMargolick-t.html%3Fpagewanted%3Dprint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-245"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-245"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publicmind.fdu.edu/courttv/">"Public Says Televising Court Is Good for Democracy"</A>. <I>PublicMind.fdu.edu</I>. March 9, 2010<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">December 14,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PublicMind.fdu.edu&rft.atitle=Public+Says+Televising+Court+Is+Good+for+Democracy&rft.date=2010-03-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublicmind.fdu.edu%2Fcourttv%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-246"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-246"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Mauro, Tony (March 9, 2010). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1202445941834">"Poll Shows Public Support for Cameras at the High Court"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_National_Law_Journal" title="The National Law Journal">The National Law Journal</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">December 18,</SPAN> 2010</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+National+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Poll+Shows+Public+Support+for+Cameras+at+the+High+Court&rft.date=2010-03-09&rft.au=Mauro%2C+Tony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.com%2Fjsp%2Farticle.jsp%3Fid%3D1202445941834&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-CSPAN_SCW-247"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-CSPAN_SCW_247-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-CSPAN_SCW_247-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-CSPAN_SCW_247-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supremecourt.c-span.org">"C-SPAN Supreme Court Week"</A>. CSPAN. October 4, 2009<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 25,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=C-SPAN+Supreme+Court+Week&rft.pub=CSPAN&rft.date=2009-10-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsupremecourt.c-span.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct03-248"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct03_248-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">James Vicini (April 24, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN2443345820080424">"Justice Scalia defends Bush v. Gore ruling"</A>. Reuters<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Scalia was interviewed for the CBS News show "60 Minutes</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Justice+Scalia+defends+Bush+v.+Gore+ruling&rft.date=2008-04-24&rft.au=James+Vicini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FnewsOne%2FidUSN2443345820080424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct07-249"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct07_249-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">David G. Savage (October 23, 2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081023193212/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-scotus23-2008oct23%2C0%2C1693757.story">"Roe vs. Wade? Bush vs. Gore? What are the worst Supreme Court decisions?"</A>. <I>Los Angeles Times</I>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.latimes.com/2008/oct/23/nation/na-scotus23">the original</A> on October 23, 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>UC Berkeley law professor Goodwin Liu described the decision as 'utterly lacking in any legal principle" and added that the court was "remarkably unashamed to say so explicitly.'</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Roe+vs.+Wade%3F+Bush+vs.+Gore%3F+What+are+the+worst+Supreme+Court+decisions%3F&rft.date=2008-10-23&rft.au=David+G.+Savage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.latimes.com%2F2008%2Foct%2F23%2Fnation%2Fna-scotus23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws22oct40-250"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws22oct40_250-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">McConnell, Michael W. (June 1, 2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5105&context=uclrev">"Two-and-a-Half Cheers for Bush v Gore"</A>. <I>University of Chicago Law Review</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">February 16,</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Chicago+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Two-and-a-Half+Cheers+for+Bush+v+Gore&rft.date=2001-06-01&rft.au=McConnell%2C+Michael+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchicagounbound.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D5105%26context%3Duclrev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct01-251"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct01_251-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">CQ Transcriptions (Senator Kohl) (July 14, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://voices.washingtonpost.com/supreme-court/2009/07/key_excerpt_sotomayor_on_bush.html">"Key Excerpt: Sotomayor on Bush v. Gore"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>Many critics saw the Bush v. Gore decision as an example of the judiciary improperly injecting itself into a political dispute"</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Key+Excerpt%3A+Sotomayor+on+Bush+v.+Gore&rft.date=2009-07-14&rft.au=CQ+Transcriptions+%28Senator+Kohl%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvoices.washingtonpost.com%2Fsupreme-court%2F2009%2F07%2Fkey_excerpt_sotomayor_on_bush.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23oct08-252"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23oct08_252-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Adam Cohen (Opinion section) (March 21, 2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511111524/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/21/opinion/21SUN4.html">"Justice Rehnquist Writes on Hayes vs. Tilden, With His Mind on Bush v. Gore"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/21/opinion/21SUN4.html">the original</A> on May 11, 2011<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>The Bush v. Gore majority, made up of Mr. Rehnquist and his fellow conservatives, interpreted the equal protection clause in a sweeping way they had not before, and have not since. And they stated that the interpretation was 'limited to the present circumstances,' words that suggest a raw exercise of power, not legal analysis.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Justice+Rehnquist+Writes+on+Hayes+vs.+Tilden%2C+With+His+Mind+on+Bush+v.+Gore&rft.date=2004-03-21&rft.au=Adam+Cohen+%28Opinion+section%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2004%2F03%2F21%2Fopinion%2F21SUN4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws23june3-253"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws23june3_253-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Kevin McNamara (letter to the editor) (June 3, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/04/opinion/lweb04douthat.html">"Letters – Supreme Court Activism?"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 23,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Letters+%E2%80%93+Supreme+Court+Activism%3F&rft.date=2009-06-03&rft.au=Kevin+McNamara+%28letter+to+the+editor%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F06%2F04%2Fopinion%2Flweb04douthat.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws28oct876-254"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws28oct876_254-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">CQ Transcriptions (January 13, 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/13/AR2006011300802.html">"U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on Judge Samuel Alito's Nomination to the Supreme Court"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 28,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>...Baker v. Carr, the reapportionment case. We heard Justice Frankfurter who delivered a scathing dissent in that...</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=U.S.+Senate+Judiciary+Committee+Hearing+on+Judge+Samuel+Alito%27s+Nomination+to+the+Supreme+Court&rft.date=2006-01-13&rft.au=CQ+Transcriptions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fwp-dyn%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2F2006%2F01%2F13%2FAR2006011300802.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws10oct12-255"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws10oct12_255-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Linda Greenhouse (September 10, 2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/10/washington/10scotus.html">"New Focus on the Effects of Life Tenure"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 10,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=New+Focus+on+the+Effects+of+Life+Tenure&rft.date=2007-09-10&rft.au=Linda+Greenhouse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F09%2F10%2Fwashington%2F10scotus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws10octxx-256"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws10octxx_256-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Levinson, Sanford (February 9, 2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2009/feb/09/supreme-court-ruth-bader-ginsburg">"Supreme court prognosis – Ruth Bader Ginsburg's surgery for pancreatic cancer highlights why US supreme court justices shouldn't serve life terms"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</A></I>. Manchester<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 10,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Supreme+court+prognosis+%E2%80%93+Ruth+Bader+Ginsburg%27s+surgery+for+pancreatic+cancer+highlights+why+US+supreme+court+justices+shouldn%27t+serve+life+terms&rft.date=2009-02-09&rft.aulast=Levinson&rft.aufirst=Sanford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2Fcifamerica%2F2009%2Ffeb%2F09%2Fsupreme-court-ruth-bader-ginsburg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-257"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-257"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">See also Arthur D. Hellman, "Reining in the Supreme Court: Are Term Limits the Answer?", in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. Carrington, eds., <I>Reforming the Court: Term Limits for Supreme Court Justices</I> (<A href="/wiki/Carolina_Academic_Press" title="Carolina Academic Press">Carolina Academic Press</A>, 2006), p. 291.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-258"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-258"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A href="/wiki/Richard_Allen_Epstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Allen Epstein">Richard Epstein</A>, "Mandatory Retirement for Supreme Court Justices", in Roger C. Cramton and Paul D. Carrington, eds., <I>Reforming the Court: Term Limits for Supreme Court Justices</I> (<A href="/wiki/Carolina_Academic_Press" title="Carolina Academic Press">Carolina Academic Press</A>, 2006), p. 415.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-259"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-259"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Brian Opeskin, <I>Models of Judicial Tenure: Reconsidering Life Limits, Age Limits and Term Limits for Judges</I>, Oxford J Legal Studies 2015 35: 627–663.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tws28oct707-260"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tws28oct707_260-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Alexander Hamilton (June 14, 1788). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa78.htm">"The Federalist No. 78"</A>. Independent Journal<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">October 28,</SPAN> 2009</SPAN>. <Q>and that as nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office, this quality may therefore be justly regarded as an indispensable ingredient in its constitution, and, in a great measure, as the citadel of the public justice and the public security.</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Federalist+No.+78&rft.date=1788-06-14&rft.au=Alexander+Hamilton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Ffed%2Ffedera78.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-261"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-261"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">O'Brien, Reity (June 20, 2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.publicintegrity.org/2014/06/20/14981/supreme-court-justices-earn-quarter-million-cash-side">"Justice Obscured: Supreme court justices earn quarter-million in cash on the side"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Center_for_Public_Integrity" title="Center for Public Integrity">Center for Public Integrity</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Justice+Obscured%3A+Supreme+court+justices+earn+quarter-million+in+cash+on+the+side&rft.date=2014-06-20&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=Reity&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.publicintegrity.org%2F2014%2F06%2F20%2F14981%2Fsupreme-court-justices-earn-quarter-million-cash-side&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-NYT226-262"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-NYT226_262-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-NYT226_262-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Lipton, Eric (February 26, 2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/27/us/politics/scalia-led-court-in-taking-trips-funded-by-private-sponsors.html?_r=0">"Scalia Took Dozens of Trips Funded by Private Sponsors"</A>. <I>The New York Times</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Scalia+Took+Dozens+of+Trips+Funded+by+Private+Sponsors&rft.date=2016-02-26&rft.aulast=Lipton&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F02%2F27%2Fus%2Fpolitics%2Fscalia-led-court-in-taking-trips-funded-by-private-sponsors.html%3F_r%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-263"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-263"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Berman, Mark; Markon, Jerry (February 17, 2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2016/02/17/justice-scalias-death-and-questions-about-who-pays-for-supreme-court-justices-to-visit-remote-resorts/">"Why Justice Scalia was staying for free at a Texas resort"</A>. <I>The Washington Post</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Why+Justice+Scalia+was+staying+for+free+at+a+Texas+resort&rft.date=2016-02-17&rft.aulast=Berman&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Markon%2C+Jerry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fpost-nation%2Fwp%2F2016%2F02%2F17%2Fjustice-scalias-death-and-questions-about-who-pays-for-supreme-court-justices-to-visit-remote-resorts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<UL>
<LI><I>Encyclopedia of the Supreme Court of the United States</I>, 5 vols., Detroit [etc.] : Macmillan Reference USA, 2008</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/ctrules/2013RulesoftheCourt.pdf">The Rules of the Supreme Court of the United States</A> (2013 ed.) (PDF).</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Joan_Biskupic" title="Joan Biskupic">Biskupic, Joan</A> and Elder Witt. (1997). <I><A href="/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly" title="Congressional Quarterly">Congressional Quarterly</A>'s Guide to the U.S. Supreme Court.</I> Washington, D.C.: <A href="/wiki/Congressional_Quarterly" title="Congressional Quarterly">Congressional Quarterly</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56802-130-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-56802-130-5">1-56802-130-5</A></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). <I>The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States</I>. New York: Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505835-6">0-19-505835-6</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+Supreme+Court+of+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-19-505835-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Hall, Kermit L.; McGuire, Kevin T., eds. (2005). <I>Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch</I>. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530917-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530917-1">978-0-19-530917-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Institutions+of+American+Democracy%3A+The+Judicial+Branch&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530917-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_Review" title="Harvard Law Review">Harvard Law Review</A> Assn., (2000). <I><A href="/wiki/Bluebook" title="Bluebook">The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation</A></I>, 17th ed. [18th ed., 2005. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-600-01-4329-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-600-01-4329-9">978-600-01-4329-9</A>]</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Peter_H._Irons" title="Peter H. Irons">Irons</A>, Peter. (1999). <I>A People's History of the Supreme Court</I>. New York: <A href="/wiki/Viking_Press" title="Viking Press">Viking Press</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-87006-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-87006-4">0-670-87006-4</A>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</A>, William. (1987). <I>The Supreme Court.</I> New York: <A href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Alfred A. Knopf</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-40943-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-40943-2">0-375-40943-2</A>.</LI>
<LI>Skifos, Catherine Hetos. (1976).<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020607011454/http://supremecourthistory.org/04_library/subs_volumes/04_c01_e.html">"The Supreme Court Gets a Home"</A>, <I>Supreme Court Historical Society 1976 Yearbook.</I> [in 1990, renamed <I>The Journal of Supreme Court History</I> (ISSN 1059-4329)]</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_Warren_(U.S._author)" title="Charles Warren (U.S. author)">Warren</A>, Charles. (1924). <I>The Supreme Court in United States History.</I> (3 volumes). Boston: <A href="/wiki/Little,_Brown_and_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Little, Brown and Co.">Little, Brown and Co.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bob_Woodward" title="Bob Woodward">Woodward, Bob</A> and <A href="/wiki/Scott_Armstrong_(journalist)" title="Scott Armstrong (journalist)">Armstrong, Scott</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Brethren_(non-fiction)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Brethren (non-fiction)">The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court</A></I> (1979). <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-7402-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-7402-9">978-0-7432-7402-9</A>.</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation web">Supreme Court Historical Society. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/courtbuilding.pdf">"The Court Building"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">February 13,</SPAN> 2008</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Court+Building&rft.au=Supreme+Court+Historical+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fabout%2Fcourtbuilding.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="refbegin columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<UL>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Abraham, Henry J. (1992). <I>Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court</I> (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506557-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-506557-3">0-19-506557-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Justices+and+Presidents%3A+A+Political+History+of+Appointments+to+the+Supreme+Court&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-19-506557-3&rft.aulast=Abraham&rft.aufirst=Henry+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_A._Beard" title="Charles A. Beard">Beard</A>, Charles A. (1912). <I>The Supreme Court and the Constitution.</I> New York: Macmillan Company. Reprinted <A href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</A>, 2006. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-44779-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-44779-0">0-486-44779-0</A>.</LI>
<LI>Corley, Pamela C.; Steigerwalt, Amy; Ward, Artemus. (2013). <I>The Puzzle of Unanimity: Consensus on the United States Supreme Court</I>. Stanford University Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8472-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-8472-6">978-0-8047-8472-6</A>.</LI>
<LI>Cushman, Barry. (1998). <I>Rethinking the <A href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</A> Court</I>. Oxford University Press.</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Cushman, Clare (2001). <I>The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995</I> (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56802-126-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56802-126-3">978-1-56802-126-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Court+Justices%3A+Illustrated+Biographies%2C+1789%E2%80%931995&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=%28Supreme+Court+Historical+Society%2C+Congressional+Quarterly+Books%29&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-56802-126-3&rft.aulast=Cushman&rft.aufirst=Clare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L., eds. <I>The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions</I>. Chelsea House Publishers. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56802-126-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56802-126-3">978-1-56802-126-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Justices+of+the+United+States+Supreme+Court%3A+Their+Lives+and+Major+Opinions&rft.pub=Chelsea+House+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-56802-126-3&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=John+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bryan_A._Garner" title="Bryan A. Garner">Garner, Bryan A.</A> (2004). <I><A href="/wiki/Black%27s_Law_Dictionary" title="Black's Law Dictionary">Black's Law Dictionary</A>.</I> Deluxe 8th ed. <A href="/wiki/Thomson_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson West">Thomson West</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-15199-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-15199-0">0-314-15199-0</A>.</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jan_Crawford_Greenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Crawford Greenburg">Greenburg, Jan Crawford</A>, Jan. (2007). <I>Supreme Conflict: The Inside Story of the Struggle for Control for the United States Supreme Court.</I> New York: <A href="/wiki/Penguin_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Penguin Press">Penguin Press</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-101-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-101-1">978-1-59420-101-1</A>.</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). <I>The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography</I>. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87187-554-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-87187-554-3">0-87187-554-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+U.S.+Supreme+Court%3A+A+Bibliography&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Congressional+Quarterly+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-87187-554-3&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Fenton+S.&rft.au=Goehlert%2C+Robert+U.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI>McCloskey, Robert G. (2005). <I>The American Supreme Court.</I> 4th ed. Chicago: <A href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-55682-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-55682-4">0-226-55682-4</A>.</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">O'Brien, David M. (2008). <I>Storm Center: The Supreme Court in American Politics</I> (8th ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-93218-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-393-93218-4">0-393-93218-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storm+Center%3A+The+Supreme+Court+in+American+Politics&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=0-393-93218-4&rft.aulast=O%27Brien&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Spaeth, Harold J. (1979). <I>Supreme Court Policy Making: Explanation and Prediction</I> (3rd ed.). New York: W.H.Freeman & Co Ltd. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-1012-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-1012-7">978-0-7167-1012-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supreme+Court+Policy+Making%3A+Explanation+and+Prediction&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=W.H.Freeman+%26+Co+Ltd&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-1012-7&rft.aulast=Spaeth&rft.aufirst=Harold+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Toobin" title="Jeffrey Toobin">Toobin</A>, Jeffrey. <I>The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court.</I> <A href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</A>, 2007. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-51640-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-51640-1">0-385-51640-1</A>.</LI>
<LI>Urofsky, Melvin and <A href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Finkelman, Paul</A>. (2001). <I>A March of Liberty: A Constitutional History of the United States</I>. 2 vols. New York: <A href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-512637-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-512637-8">0-19-512637-8</A> & <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number (identifier)">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-512635-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-512635-1">0-19-512635-1</A>.</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). <I>The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary</I>. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 590. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-1176-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8153-1176-1">0-8153-1176-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Supreme+Court+Justices%3A+A+Biographical+Dictionary&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=590&rft.pub=Garland+Publishing&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-8153-1176-1&rft.aulast=Urofsky&rft.aufirst=Melvin+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Historical_Society" title="Supreme Court Historical Society">Supreme Court Historical Society</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/courtbuilding.pdf">"The Court Building"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">February 13,</SPAN> 2008</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Court+Building&rft.au=Supreme+Court+Historical+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.supremecourt.gov%2Fabout%2Fcourtbuilding.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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<LI><SPAN class="official-website"><SPAN class="url"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.supremecourt.gov">Official website</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/">Supreme Court decisions from World Legal Information Institution</A> (contains no advertisements)</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/index.html">Supreme Court Collection</A> from the <A href="/wiki/Legal_Information_Institute" title="Legal Information Institute">Legal Information Institute</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.findlaw.com/casecode/supreme.html">Supreme Court Opinions</A> from <A href="/wiki/FindLaw" title="FindLaw">FindLaw</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.justia.us/">U.S. Supreme Court Decisions (v. 1+)</A> from <I>Justia, Oyez and U.S. Court Forms</I></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070719195848/http://library.lawschool.cornell.edu/WhatWeHave/SpecialCollections/Supreme-Court.cfm">Supreme Court Records and Briefs</A> from <I><A href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Library" title="Cornell University Library">Cornell Law Library</A></I></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0101289.html">Milestone Cases in Supreme Court History</A> from <I>InfoPlease</I></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.htm">Supreme Court Nominations, present-1789</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://backstoryradio.org/the-supremes/"><I>Scales of Justice: The History of Supreme Court Nominations</I></A> – Radio program explores history of appointments and confirmations</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.supremecourthistory.org/">Supreme Court Historical Society</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110430042054/http://www.docstoc.com/collection/684/Supreme-Court-Of-The-United-States">Complete/Searchable 1991–2004 Opinions and Orders</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scdb.wustl.edu/">The Supreme Court Database</A> A research database with information about cases from 1946 to 2011</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/">The Oyez Project</A> – audio recordings of oral arguments</LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/organizations/s/supreme_court/index.html">"U.S. Supreme Court collected news and commentary"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</A></I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=U.S.+Supreme+Court+collected+news+and+commentary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftopics.nytimes.com%2Ftop%2Freference%2Ftimestopics%2Forganizations%2Fs%2Fsupreme_court%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupreme+Court+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supremecourt.c-span.org/">C-SPAN's <I>The Supreme Court: Home to America's Highest Court</I></A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Lists_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" title="Lists of United States Supreme Court cases">Decisions</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Procedures_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States">Procedures</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="History of the Supreme Court of the United States">History</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">Supreme Court Building</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Old_City_Hall_(Philadelphia)" title="Old City Hall (Philadelphia)">Old City Hall, Philadelphia 1791–1800</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Old_Supreme_Court_Chamber" title="Old Supreme Court Chamber">U.S. Capitol Chamber 1819–1860</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Old_Senate_Chamber" title="Old Senate Chamber">U.S. Capitol Chamber 1860–1935</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
<DIV>
<DIV class="floatnone"><A href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="image" title="Seal of the United States Supreme Court"><IMG alt="Seal of the United States Supreme Court" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" width="100" height="100" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></A></DIV>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current members</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<DL>
<DT><A href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</A></DT>
<DD><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</A></SPAN></DD>
</DL>
<DL>
<DT><A href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</A></DT>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</A></DD>
</DL>
<DL>
<DT><A href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#Retired_Associate_Justices" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Retired Associate Justices</A></DT>
<DD><A href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">John Paul Stevens</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</A></DD>
<DD><A href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">David Souter</A></DD>
</DL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current nominations</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<DL>
<DT><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;"><I>No Vacancies</I></SPAN></DT>
</DL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">All members</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of all members</A>
<UL>
<LI><SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_court_composition" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition">by court</A></SMALL></LI>
<LI><SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_seat" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by seat">by seat</A></SMALL></LI>
<LI><SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices_by_time_in_office" title="List of United States Supreme Court Justices by time in office">by time in office</A></SMALL></LI>
<LI><SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_attended_by_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices" title="List of law schools attended by United States Supreme Court Justices">by education</A></SMALL></LI>
<LI><SMALL><A href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Succession of the Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">succession</A></SMALL></LI>
<LI><SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">timeline</A></SMALL></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States#List_of_Chief_Justices" title="Chief Justice of the United States">List of Chief Justices</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#List_of_Associate_Justices" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">List of Associate Justices</A></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">All nominations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unsuccessful_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Unsuccessful nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">Unsuccessful nominations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_people_nominated_to_U.S._Supreme_Court_in_last_year_of_presidency" title="List of people nominated to U.S. Supreme Court in last year of presidency">Nominations near end of presidency</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States">Court demographics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices_who_also_served_in_Congress" title="List of United States Supreme Court Justices who also served in Congress">Justices who served in Congress</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ideological_leanings_of_U.S._Supreme_Court_justices" title="Ideological leanings of U.S. Supreme Court justices">Ideological leanings</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Court functionaries</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Clerk_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States">Clerk</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reporter_of_Decisions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States">Reporter of Decisions</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Police" title="Supreme Court Police">Supreme Court Police</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law clerks</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Chief_Justice)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Chief Justice)">Chief Justice</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_1)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 1)">Seat 1</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_2)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 2)">Seat 2</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_3)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 3)">Seat 3</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_4)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 4)">Seat 4</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_6)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 6)">Seat 6</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_8)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 8)">Seat 8</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_9)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 9)">Seat 9</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_10)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 10)">Seat 10</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States">All</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</TH>
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<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States" title="Solicitor General of the United States">United States Solicitor General</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">United States Reports</A></I></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Lawyers%27_Edition" title="Lawyers' Edition">Lawyers' Edition</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Amicus_curiae#United_States_Supreme_Court_rules" title="Amicus curiae"><I>Amicus curiae</I></A></LI>
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<TD class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3">
<DIV>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:National_supreme_courts" title="Category:National supreme courts">Other countries</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law Portal</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</TH>
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<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Bahamas" title="Supreme Court of the Bahamas">Bahamas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Barbados" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Barbados">Barbados</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Belize" title="Supreme Court of Belize">Belize</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Canada</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Costa_Rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Costa Rica">Costa Rica</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Cuba">Cuba</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Supreme Court of the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_El_Salvador" title="Supreme Court of El Salvador">El Salvador</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Guatemala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Guatemala (page does not exist)">Guatemala</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Haiti" title="Supreme Court of Haiti">Haiti</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Honduras" title="Supreme Court of Honduras">Honduras</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Jamaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Jamaica">Jamaica</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Mexico">Mexico</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Nicaragua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Nicaragua (page does not exist)">Nicaragua</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Panama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Panama (page does not exist)">Panama</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/w/index.php?title=Supreme_Court_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Supreme Court of Trinidad and Tobago (page does not exist)">Trinidad and Tobago</A></LI>
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<TH colspan="2" style="background:#cfcfcf;">The <A href="/wiki/John_G._Roberts" class="mw-redirect" title="John G. Roberts">Roberts</A> Court</TH>
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<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="background-color:#ebebff; text-align:center; font-size: 90%"><A href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</A>: J. Roberts (2005–present)</TD>
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<TR style="font-size: 90%; vertical-align: top">
<TD style="text-align: right">2010–2016:</TD>
<TD class="hlist" style="text-align: left">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">A. Scalia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">A. Kennedy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">C. Thomas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">R. B. Ginsburg</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">S. Breyer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">S. Alito</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">S. Sotomayor</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">E. Kagan</A></LI>
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<OL>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Jay_Court" title="Jay Court">Jay Court</A> (1789–1795; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Jay_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Jay Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Rutledge_Court" title="Rutledge Court">Rutledge Court</A> (1795; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rutledge_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rutledge Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Court" title="Ellsworth Court">Ellsworth Court</A> (1796–1800; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Ellsworth_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Ellsworth Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">Marshall Court</A> (1801–1835; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Marshall_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Marshall Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Taney_Court" title="Taney Court">Taney Court</A> (1836–1864; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taney_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taney Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">Chase Court</A> (1864–1873; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Chase_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Chase Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">Waite Court</A> (1874–1888; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Waite_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Waite Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">Fuller Court</A> (1888–1910; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Fuller_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Fuller Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/White_Court_(judges)" title="White Court (judges)">White Court</A> (1910–1921; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_White_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the White Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">Taft Court</A> (1921–1930; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taft_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">Hughes Court</A> (1930–1941; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Hughes_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Hughes Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Stone_Court_(1941%E2%80%931946)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stone Court (1941–1946)">Stone Court</A> (1941–1946; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Stone_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Stone Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">Vinson Court</A> (1946–1953; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Vinson_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Vinson Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</A> (1953–1969; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Warren_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">Burger Court</A> (1969–1986; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Burger_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Burger Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">Rehnquist Court</A> (1986–2005; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rehnquist_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">Roberts Court</A> (2005–present; <SMALL><A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Roberts_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Roberts Court">cases</A></SMALL>)</SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
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<DIV><A href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="Seal of the United States Supreme Court.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" width="100" height="100" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></A></DIV>
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<DIV id="Highest_judicial_bodies_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Supreme_court" title="Supreme court">Highest judicial bodies</A> in the United States</DIV>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/United_States_federal_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="United States federal courts">Federal court</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><B><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Supreme Court of the United States</A></B></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_First_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit">1st Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Second_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit">2nd Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Third_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit">3rd Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fourth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit">4th Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit">5th Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Sixth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit">6th Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Seventh_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit">7th Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eighth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit">8th Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit">9th Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Tenth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit">10th Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Eleventh_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit">11th Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">DC Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Federal_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit">Fed. Cir.</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Armed_Forces" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces">Armed Forces</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">State supreme courts</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Alabama" title="Supreme Court of Alabama">Alabama</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alaska_Supreme_Court" title="Alaska Supreme Court">Alaska</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arizona_Supreme_Court" title="Arizona Supreme Court">Arizona</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arkansas_Supreme_Court" title="Arkansas Supreme Court">Arkansas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_California" title="Supreme Court of California">California</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Colorado_Supreme_Court" title="Colorado Supreme Court">Colorado</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Connecticut_Supreme_Court" title="Connecticut Supreme Court">Connecticut</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Delaware_Supreme_Court" title="Delaware Supreme Court">Delaware</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Florida" title="Supreme Court of Florida">Florida</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Supreme Court of Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Hawaii" title="Supreme Court of Hawaii">Hawaii</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Idaho_Supreme_Court" title="Idaho Supreme Court">Idaho</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Illinois" title="Supreme Court of Illinois">Illinois</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Indiana" title="Supreme Court of Indiana">Indiana</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iowa_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Iowa Supreme Court">Iowa</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kansas_Supreme_Court" title="Kansas Supreme Court">Kansas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kentucky_Supreme_Court" title="Kentucky Supreme Court">Kentucky</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Louisiana_Supreme_Court" title="Louisiana Supreme Court">Louisiana</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maine_Supreme_Judicial_Court" title="Maine Supreme Judicial Court">Maine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maryland_Court_of_Appeals" title="Maryland Court of Appeals">Maryland</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Supreme_Judicial_Court" title="Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court">Massachusetts</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Michigan_Supreme_Court" title="Michigan Supreme Court">Michigan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Minnesota_Supreme_Court" title="Minnesota Supreme Court">Minnesota</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Mississippi" title="Supreme Court of Mississippi">Mississippi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Missouri" title="Supreme Court of Missouri">Missouri</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Montana_Supreme_Court" title="Montana Supreme Court">Montana</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nebraska_Supreme_Court" title="Nebraska Supreme Court">Nebraska</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Nevada" title="Supreme Court of Nevada">Nevada</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_Supreme_Court" title="New Hampshire Supreme Court">New Hampshire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_New_Jersey" title="Supreme Court of New Jersey">New Jersey</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Supreme_Court" title="New Mexico Supreme Court">New Mexico</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Appeals" title="New York Court of Appeals">New York</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Supreme_Court" title="North Carolina Supreme Court">North Carolina</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/North_Dakota_Supreme_Court" title="North Dakota Supreme Court">North Dakota</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Ohio" title="Supreme Court of Ohio">Ohio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Supreme_Court" title="Oklahoma Supreme Court">Oklahoma (Civil)</A> <A href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals">(Criminal)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Oregon_Supreme_Court" title="Oregon Supreme Court">Oregon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Pennsylvania" title="Supreme Court of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_Supreme_Court" title="Rhode Island Supreme Court">Rhode Island</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Supreme_Court" title="South Carolina Supreme Court">South Carolina</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/South_Dakota_Supreme_Court" title="South Dakota Supreme Court">South Dakota</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tennessee_Supreme_Court" title="Tennessee Supreme Court">Tennessee</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Texas" title="Supreme Court of Texas">Texas (Civil)</A> <A href="/wiki/Texas_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="Texas Court of Criminal Appeals">(Criminal)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Utah_Supreme_Court" title="Utah Supreme Court">Utah</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vermont_Supreme_Court" title="Vermont Supreme Court">Vermont</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Virginia" title="Supreme Court of Virginia">Virginia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Washington_Supreme_Court" title="Washington Supreme Court">Washington</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Appeals_of_West_Virginia" title="Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia">West Virginia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wisconsin_Supreme_Court" title="Wisconsin Supreme Court">Wisconsin</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wyoming_Supreme_Court" title="Wyoming Supreme Court">Wyoming</A></LI>
</UL>
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</TD>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</A> supreme courts</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/High_Court_of_American_Samoa" title="High Court of American Samoa">American Samoa</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Court_of_Appeals" title="District of Columbia Court of Appeals">District of Columbia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Guam" title="Supreme Court of Guam">Guam</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands_Supreme_Court" title="Northern Mariana Islands Supreme Court">Northern Mariana Islands</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Supreme Court of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Obsolete</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Canal_Zone" title="United States District Court for the Canal Zone">Panama Canal Zone</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_Philippines" title="Supreme Court of the Philippines">Philippine Islands</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Complete list</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Courts_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts of the United States">Courts of the United States</A> (Federal and state, all levels)</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
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<DIV id="United_States_Military_Judicial_Authority" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">United States Military Judicial Authority</DIV>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military justice</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law of the United States</A></LI>
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</DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Authority</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8:_Powers_of_Congress" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">United States Constitution, Article I</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice" title="Uniform Code of Military Justice">Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ)</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD class="navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px">
<DIV><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/40px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" width="40" height="41" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/60px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/80px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="208" /></DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Standards</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Manual_for_Courts-Martial" title="Manual for Courts-Martial">Manual for Courts-Martial</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Convening_authority_(court-martial)" title="Convening authority (court-martial)">Convening authority (court-martial)</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;"><A href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps" title="Judge Advocate General's Corps">Judge Advocate General's Corps (JAG)</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Army</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps,_United_States_Army" title="Judge Advocate General's Corps, United States Army">Judge Advocate General's Corps, Army</A> (<A href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Judge Advocate General of the United States Army">Army JAG</A>)</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Marine Corps</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Judge_Advocate_Division" title="United States Marine Corps Judge Advocate Division">Marine Corps Judge Advocate Division</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Navy</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps,_U.S._Navy" title="Judge Advocate General's Corps, U.S. Navy">Judge Advocate General's Corps, Navy</A> (<A href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General_of_the_Navy" title="Judge Advocate General of the Navy">Navy JAG</A>)</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Air Force</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps" title="United States Air Force Judge Advocate General's Corps">Judge Advocate General's Corps, Air Force</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard_Legal_Division" title="United States Coast Guard Legal Division">Coast Guard Legal Division</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Non-judicial_punishment" title="Non-judicial punishment">UCMJ Article 15</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Military_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Military tribunals in the United States">Military tribunals in the United States</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Court systems</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Courts-martial_in_the_United_States" title="Courts-martial in the United States">Courts-martial</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Guantanamo_military_commission" title="Guantanamo military commission">Guantanamo military commissions</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals">Army Court of Criminal Appeals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Air_Force_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="Air Force Court of Criminal Appeals">Air Force Court of Criminal Appeals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Coast_Guard_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals">Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Navy-Marine_Corps_Court_of_Criminal_Appeals" title="Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals">Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Military_Commission_Review" title="United States Court of Military Commission Review">Court of Military Commission Review</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;">Discretionary<BR />
review</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Armed_Forces" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces">Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Supreme Court</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Courts_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts of the United States">Courts of the<BR />
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<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Appeals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District</A> <SMALL>(<A href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list</A>)</SMALL></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_bankruptcy_court" title="United States bankruptcy court">Bankruptcy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Federal_Claims" title="United States Court of Federal Claims">Claims</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_International_Trade" title="United States Court of International Trade">International Trade</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Tax_Court" title="United States Tax Court">Tax</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">State supreme</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Law_school_in_the_United_States" title="Law school in the United States">Law school</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Law_School_Admission_Test" title="Law School Admission Test">Law School Admission Test</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar_in_the_United_States" title="Admission to the bar in the United States">Admission to the bar</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_history" title="Timeline of United States history">Timeline of U.S. history</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</A>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification of Constitution</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_acquisitions" title="United States territorial acquisitions">Territorial acquisitions</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/African-American_Civil_Rights_Movement_(1865%E2%80%9395)" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American Civil Rights Movement (1865–95)">African-American Civil Rights Movement 1865–1895</A> / <A href="/wiki/African-American_Civil_Rights_Movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American Civil Rights Movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931918)#World_War_I" title="History of the United States (1865–1918)">World War I</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/German_American_Bund" title="German American Bund">Nazism in the United States</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">Recent events (2008–present)</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States#History_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_United_States_debt_ceiling" title="History of United States debt ceiling">debt ceiling</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1946%E2%80%9391)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (1946–91)">1946–91</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(after_1991)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (after 1991)">after 1991</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extreme_points_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_states" title="Mid-Atlantic states">Mid-Atlantic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pacific_States" title="Pacific States">Pacific</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">Rivers</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ohio_River" title="Ohio River">Ohio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Current_members_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Current members of the United States Senate">current members</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judiciary</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Supreme Court</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federal_Reporter" title="Federal Reporter">Federal Reporter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">United States Reports</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Defense_Intelligence_Agency" title="Defense Intelligence Agency">Defense Intelligence Agency</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Geospatial-Intelligence_Agency" title="National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency">National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Office of the Director of National Intelligence</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Guard_of_the_United_States" title="National Guard of the United States">National Guard</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/51st_state" title="51st state">51st state</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Political status of Puerto Rico">political status of Puerto Rico</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_statehood_movement" title="District of Columbia statehood movement">District of Columbia statehood movement</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)" title="Electoral College (United States)">Electoral College</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">Foreign policy</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">anti-Americanism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local government</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Third_party_(United_States)" title="Third party (United States)">Third parties</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Purple_America" title="Purple America">Purple America</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State government</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">governor</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">state legislature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">state court</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States" title="List of companies of the United States">Companies</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_System" title="Federal Reserve System">Federal Reserve System</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><A href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Americana" title="Americana">Americana</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Architecture_of_the_United_States" title="Architecture of the United States">Architecture</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_United_States" title="Cuisine of the United States">Cuisine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_United_States" title="Demography of the United States">Demography</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Family_structure_in_the_United_States" title="Family structure in the United States">Family structure</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hawai%27i_Sign_Language" title="Hawai'i Sign Language">HSL</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Sign Talk</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arabic_language_in_the_United_States" title="Arabic language in the United States">Arabic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Chinese_language_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese language in the United States">Chinese</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/French_language_in_the_United_States" title="French language in the United States">French</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/German_language_in_the_United_States" title="German language in the United States">German</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Italian_language_in_the_United_States" title="Italian language in the United States">Italian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_the_United_States" title="Russian language in the United States">Russian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spanish_language_in_the_United_States" title="Spanish language in the United States">Spanish</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Media_of_the_United_States" title="Media of the United States">Media</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">Journalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">Internet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">Newspapers</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">Radio</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">Television</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Public holidays</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theater_of_the_United_States" title="Theater of the United States">Theater</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
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interwiki-be"><A href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Вярхоўны суд ЗША – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><A href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%B4_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%90%D0%A9" title="Върховен съд на САЩ – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><A href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrhovni_sud_Sjedinjenih_Ameri%C4%8Dkih_Dr%C5%BEava" title="Vrhovni sud Sjedinjenih Američkih Država – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><A href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lez-veur_SUA" title="Lez-veur SUA – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><A href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cort_Suprema_dels_Estats_Units" title="Cort Suprema dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><A href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nejvy%C5%A1%C5%A1%C3%AD_soud_Spojen%C3%BDch_st%C3%A1t%C5%AF_americk%C3%BDch" title="Nejvyšší soud Spojených států amerických – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><A href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B8jesteret_(USA)" title="Højesteret (USA) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><A href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberster_Gerichtshof_der_Vereinigten_Staaten" title="Oberster Gerichtshof der Vereinigten Staaten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><A href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameerika_%C3%9Chendriikide_%C3%9Clemkohus" title="Ameerika Ühendriikide Ülemkohus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><A href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corte_Suprema_de_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Corte Suprema de los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><A href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supera_Kortumo_de_Usono" title="Supera Kortumo de Usono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><A href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameriketako_Estatu_Batuetako_Gorte_Gorena" title="Ameriketako Estatu Batuetako Gorte Gorena – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><A href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="دیوان عالی ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><A href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cour_supr%C3%AAme_des_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Cour suprême des États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><A href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heechgerjochtsh%C3%B4f_fan_de_Feriene_Steaten" title="Heechgerjochtshôf fan de Feriene Steaten – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><A href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%BAirt_Uachtarach_na_St%C3%A1t_Aontaithe" title="Cúirt Uachtarach na Stát Aontaithe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><A href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribunal_Supremo_dos_Estados_Unidos" title="Tribunal Supremo dos Estados Unidos – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><A href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD_%EC%97%B0%EB%B0%A9_%EB%8C%80%EB%B2%95%EC%9B%90" title="미국 연방 대법원 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><A href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF" title="संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका का उच्चतम न्यायालय – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><A href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrhovni_sud_Sjedinjenih_Ameri%C4%8Dkih_Dr%C5%BEava" title="Vrhovni sud Sjedinjenih Američkih Država – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><A href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahkamah_Agung_Amerika_Serikat" title="Mahkamah Agung Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><A href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A6stir%C3%A9ttur_Bandar%C3%ADkjanna" title="Hæstiréttur Bandaríkjanna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><A href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corte_suprema_degli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="Corte suprema degli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><A href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="בית המשפט העליון של ארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><A href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A8-%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A3%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D" title="აშშ-ის უზენაესი სასამართლო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><A href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iudicium_Maximum_Civitatum_Foederatarum" title="Iudicium Maximum Civitatum Foederatarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><A href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASV_Augst%C4%81k%C4%81_tiesa" title="ASV Augstākā tiesa – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><A href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><A href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungtini%C5%B3_Valstij%C5%B3_Auk%C5%A1%C4%8Diausiasis_Teismas" title="Jungtinių Valstijų Aukščiausiasis Teismas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><A href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az_Amerikai_Egyes%C3%BClt_%C3%81llamok_Legfels%C5%91bb_B%C3%ADr%C3%B3s%C3%A1ga" title="Az Amerikai Egyesült Államok Legfelsőbb Bírósága – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><A href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF" title="अमेरिकेचे सर्वोच्च न्यायालय – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><A href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahkamah_Agung_Amerika_Syarikat" title="Mahkamah Agung Amerika Syarikat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><A href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooggerechtshof_van_de_Verenigde_Staten" title="Hooggerechtshof van de Verenigde Staten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><A href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E8%A3%81%E5%88%A4%E6%89%80" title="合衆国最高裁判所 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><A href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAs_h%C3%B8yesterett" title="USAs høyesterett – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><A href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B8gsteretten_i_USA" title="Høgsteretten i USA – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><A href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%85d_Najwy%C5%BCszy_Stan%C3%B3w_Zjednoczonych" title="Sąd Najwyższy Stanów Zjednoczonych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><A href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suprema_Corte_dos_Estados_Unidos" title="Suprema Corte dos Estados Unidos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><A href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtea_Suprem%C4%83_a_Statelor_Unite_ale_Americii" title="Curtea Supremă a Statelor Unite ale Americii – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><A href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Верховный суд США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><A href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Coort_o_the_Unitit_States" title="Supreme Coort o the Unitit States – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><A href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><A href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Najvy%C5%A1%C5%A1%C3%AD_s%C3%BAd_Spojen%C3%BDch_%C5%A1t%C3%A1tov" title="Najvyšší súd Spojených štátov – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><A href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%9A%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Врховни суд Сједињених Америчких Држава – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><A href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrhovni_sud_SAD" title="Vrhovni sud SAD – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><A href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yhdysvaltain_korkein_oikeus" title="Yhdysvaltain korkein oikeus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><A href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA:s_h%C3%B6gsta_domstol" title="USA:s högsta domstol – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><A href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kataas-taasang_Hukuman_ng_Estados_Unidos" title="Kataas-taasang Hukuman ng Estados Unidos – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><A href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="ஐக்கிய அமெரிக்க உச்ச நீதிமன்றம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><A href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90" title="ศาลสูงสุดสหรัฐ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><A href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerika_Birle%C5%9Fik_Devletleri_Y%C3%BCksek_Mahkemesi" title="Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Yüksek Mahkemesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><A href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Верховний суд США – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><A href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B2a_%C3%A1n_T%E1%BB%91i_cao_Hoa_K%E1%BB%B3" title="Tòa án Tối cao Hoa Kỳ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><A href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%9B%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A2_%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%98_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%93%D7%99_%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%92%D7%98%D7%A2_%D7%A9%D7%98%D7%90%D7%98%D7%9F" title="העכסטע געריכט פון די פאראייניגטע שטאטן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><A href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" title="美國最高法院 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><A href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" title="美国最高法院 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</A></LI>				</UL>
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