Dualism

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			<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Dualism</H1>
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<TD style="padding-top:0.4em;line-height:1.2em">Part of a series on</TD>
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<TR>
<TH style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;padding-bottom:0.4em;"><A href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</A></TH>
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<TR>
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<DIV class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left">General conceptions<A class="NavToggle" id="NavToggle1" href="#">[show]</A></DIV>
<DIV class="NavContent" style="font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Apatheism" title="Apatheism">Apatheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ignosticism" title="Ignosticism">Ignosticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Dualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monolatrism" title="Monolatrism">Monolatrism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kathenotheism" title="Kathenotheism">Kathenotheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Omnism" title="Omnism">Omnism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Panpsychism" title="Panpsychism">Panpsychism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</A></LI>
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<DIV class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left"><A href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">Specific conceptions</A><A class="NavToggle" id="NavToggle2" href="#">[show]</A></DIV>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">Creator</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deus" title="Deus">Deus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Great_Architect_of_the_Universe" title="Great Architect of the Universe">Great Architect</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">Monad</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mother_goddess" title="Mother goddess">Mother</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Being" title="Supreme Being">Supreme Being</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_the_Sustainer" title="God the Sustainer">Sustainer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/The_All" title="The All">The All</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lord#Religion" title="Lord">The Lord</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ditheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ditheism">Ditheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</A></LI>
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<DIV class="NavHead" style="font-size:105%;background:transparent;text-align:left">In particular religions<A class="NavToggle" id="NavToggle3" href="#">[show]</A></DIV>
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<TH style="padding:0.1em"><A href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</A></TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</A></LI>
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<TH style="padding:0.1em"><A href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indo-Iranian</A></TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Zoroastrianism</A></LI>
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<TH style="padding:0.1em"><A href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Chinese</A></TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shangdi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hongjun_Laozu" title="Hongjun Laozu">Hongjun Laozu</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gender_of_God" title="Gender of God">Gender</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names</A> (<A href="/wiki/God_(word)" title="God (word)">"God"</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Omnibenevolence" title="Omnibenevolence">Omnibenevolence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Omnipotence" title="Omnipotence">Omnipotence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Omnipresence" title="Omnipresence">Omnipresence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">Omniscience</A></LI>
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<LI>Practices</LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">Gnosis</A></LI>
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<P><B>Dualism</B> (from the <A href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</A> word <I>duo</I> meaning "two")<SUP id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-1">[1]</A></SUP> denotes the state of two parts. The term <I>dualism</I> was originally coined to denote co-eternal<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><SPAN title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (December 2016)">clarification needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP> <A href="/wiki/Binary_opposition" title="Binary opposition">binary opposition</A>, a meaning that is preserved in <A href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</A> and <A href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</A> <A href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">duality</A> discourse but has been more generalized in other usages to indicate a system which contains two essential parts.</P>
<P>Moral dualism is the belief of the great complement of or conflict between the benevolent and the malevolent. It simply implies that there are two moral opposites at work, independent of any interpretation of what might be "moral" and independent of how these may be represented. Moral opposites might, for example, exist in a worldview which has one god, more than one god, or none. By contrast, ditheism or bi-theism implies (at least) two gods. While bi-theism implies harmony, <A href="/wiki/Ditheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ditheism">ditheism</A> implies rivalry and opposition, such as between good and evil, or light and dark, or summer and winter. For example, a ditheistic system would be one in which one god is a creator, and the other a destroyer.</P>
<P>Alternatively, in ontological dualism, the world is divided into two overarching categories. The opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles of <A href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</A> is a large part of Chinese philosophy, and is an important feature of <A href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</A>. It is also discussed in <A href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</A>.</P>
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<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#Moral_dualism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Moral dualism</SPAN></A>
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<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><A href="#History"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">History</SPAN></A></LI>
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<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><A href="#Duotheism.2C_bitheism.2C_ditheism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Duotheism, bitheism, ditheism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><A href="#Theistic_dualism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Theistic dualism</SPAN></A>
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<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><A href="#In_Christianity"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">In Christianity</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><A href="#In_Hinduism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">In Hinduism</SPAN></A></LI>
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<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><A href="#Ontological_dualism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Ontological dualism</SPAN></A>
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<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><A href="#In_Chinese_philosophy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">In Chinese philosophy</SPAN></A></LI>
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<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><A href="#Soul_dualism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Soul dualism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><A href="#In_Indian_philosophy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">In Indian philosophy</SPAN></A>
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<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Buddhist_philosophy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Buddhist philosophy</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><A href="#Samkhya_and_Yogic_philosophy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Samkhya and Yogic philosophy</SPAN></A></LI>
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<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><A href="#In_philosophy_of_mind"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">In philosophy of mind</SPAN></A>
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<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><A href="#History_2"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">History</SPAN></A></LI>
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<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><A href="#In_other_areas_of_philosophy"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">In other areas of philosophy</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><A href="#In_physics"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">In physics</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><A href="#In_cybernetics"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">In cybernetics</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><A href="#Political_dualism"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Political dualism</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><A href="#Notes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">13</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Notes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">14</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Moral_dualism">Moral dualism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Moral dualism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<P>Moral dualism is the belief of the great complement or conflict between the benevolent and the malevolent. Like ditheism/bitheism (see below), moral dualism does not imply the absence of <A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monist</A> or <A href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheistic</A> principles. Moral dualism simply implies that there are two moral opposites at work, independent of any interpretation of what might be "moral" and - unlike ditheism/bitheism - independent of how these may be represented.</P>
<P>For example, Mazdaism (Mazdean <A href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</A>) is both dualistic and monotheistic (but not monist by definition) since in that philosophy God—the Creator—is purely good, and the <A href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">antithesis</A>—which is also uncreated–is an absolute one. <A href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</A> (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), <A href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</A> are representative of dualistic <I>and</I> <A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monist</A> philosophies since each has a supreme and transcendental First Principle from which the two equal-but-opposite entities then emanate. This is also true for the lesser-known Christian <A href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">gnostic</A> religions, such as <A href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</A>, <A href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Catharism</A>, and so on. More complex forms of monist dualism also exist, for instance in <A href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</A>, where <I><A href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous">Nous</A></I> "thought" – that is described to have created man – brings forth both good and evil, dependent on interpretation, whether it receives prompting from the God or from the Demon. Duality with <A href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">pluralism</A> is considered a logical fallacy.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="History">History</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Moral dualism began as a theological belief. Dualism was first seen implicitly in Egyptian religious beliefs by the contrast of the gods <A href="/wiki/Set_(deity)" title="Set (deity)">Set</A> (disorder, death) and <A href="/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris">Osiris</A> (order, life).<SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP> The first explicit conception of dualism came from the Ancient Persian religion of <A href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</A> around the mid-fifth century BC. Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion that believes that <A href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</A> is the eternal creator of all good things. Any violations of Ahura Mazda's order arise from <I><A href="/wiki/Druj" title="Druj">druj</A></I>, which is everything uncreated. From this comes a significant choice for humans to make. Either they fully participate in human life for Ahura Mazda or they do not and give <I>druj</I> power. Personal dualism is even more distinct in the <A href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">beliefs</A> of later religions.</P>
<P>The religious dualism of <A href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</A> between good and evil is not a perfect dualism as God (good) will inevitably destroy <A href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</A> (evil). Early Christian dualism is largely based on Platonic Dualism (See: <A href="/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Christianity" title="Neoplatonism and Christianity">Neoplatonism and Christianity</A>). There is also a personal dualism in Christianity with a soul-body distinction based on the idea of an immaterial Christian <A href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN id="Duotheism,_bitheism,_ditheism"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Duotheism.2C_bitheism.2C_ditheism">Duotheism, bitheism, ditheism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Duotheism, bitheism, ditheism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" title="Dualistic cosmology">Dualistic cosmology</A></DIV>
<P>In <A href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</A>, <I>dualism</I> may refer to duotheism, bitheism, or ditheism. Although ditheism/bitheism imply moral dualism, they are not equivalent: ditheism/bitheism implies (at least) two gods, while moral dualism does not necessarily imply <I><A href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theism</A></I> (<A href="/wiki/God_(word)" title="God (word)">theos = god</A>) at all.</P>
<P>Both bitheism and ditheism imply a belief in two equally powerful gods with complementary or antonymous properties; however, while bitheism implies harmony, ditheism implies rivalry and opposition, such as between good and evil, bright and dark, or summer and winter. For example, a ditheistic system would be one in which one god is creative, the other is destructive (cf. <A href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicy</A>). In the original conception of <A href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</A>, for example, <A href="/wiki/Ahura_Mazda" title="Ahura Mazda">Ahura Mazda</A> was the spirit of ultimate good, while Ahriman (<A href="/wiki/Angra_Mainyu" title="Angra Mainyu">Angra Mainyu</A>) was the spirit of ultimate evil.</P>
<P>In a bitheistic system, by contrast, where the two deities are not in conflict or opposition, one could be male and the other female (cf. duotheism<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><SPAN title="where would one go to confer? (December 2016)">clarification needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP>). One well-known example of a bitheistic or duotheistic theology based on gender polarity is found in the <A href="/wiki/Neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neopaganism">neopagan</A> religion of <A href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</A>. In Wicca, dualism is represented in the belief of a god and a goddess as a dual partnership in ruling the universe. This is centered on the worship of a <A href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">divine couple</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Triple_Goddess_(Neopaganism)" title="Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)">Moon Goddess</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Horned_God" title="Horned God">Horned God</A>, who are regarded as lovers. However, there is also a ditheistic theme within traditional Wicca, as the Horned God has dual aspects of bright and dark - relating to day/night, summer/winter - expressed as the Oak King and the Holly King, who in Wiccan myth and ritual are said to engage in battle twice a year for the hand of the Goddess, resulting in the changing seasons. (Within Wicca, bright and dark do not correspond to notions of "good" and "evil" but are aspects of the natural world, much like <A href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</A> in <A href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</A>.)</P>
<P>However, bitheistic and ditheistic principles are not always so easily contrastable, for instance in a system where one god is the representative of summer and drought and the other of winter and rain/fertility (cf. the mythology of <A href="/wiki/Persephone" title="Persephone">Persephone</A>). <A href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</A>, an early Christian sect, held that the Old and New Testaments were the work of two opposing gods: both were First Principles, but of different religions.<SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Theistic_dualism">Theistic dualism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Theistic dualism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>In theology, dualism can refer to the relationship between God and creation or God and the universe. This form of dualism is a belief shared in certain traditions of Christianity and Hinduism.<SUP id="cite_ref-Rouner_5-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rouner-5">[5]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="In_Christianity">In Christianity</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: In Christianity">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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The Cathars being expelled from <A href="/wiki/Carcassonne" title="Carcassonne">Carcassonne</A> in 1209. The Cathars were denounced as heretics by the Roman Catholic Church for their dualist beliefs.</DIV>
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<P>The dualism between God and Creation has existed as a central belief in multiple historical sects and traditions of Christianity, including <A href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</A>, <A href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Catharism</A>, <A href="/wiki/Paulicianism" title="Paulicianism">Paulicianism</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnostic Christianity</A>. Christian dualism refers to the belief that God and creation are distinct, but interrelated through an indivisible bond.<SUP id="cite_ref-Rouner_5-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rouner-5">[5]</A></SUP> In sects like the Cathars and the Paulicians, this is a dualism between the material world, created by an evil god, and a moral god. Historians divide Christian dualism into absolute dualism, which held that the good and evil gods were equally powerful, and mitigated dualism, which held that material evil was subordinate to the spiritual good.<SUP id="cite_ref-Peters_6-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Peters-6">[6]</A></SUP> The belief, by Christian theologians who adhere to a libertarian or compatibilist view of free will, that <A href="/wiki/Free_will_in_theology" title="Free will in theology">free will</A> separates humankind from God has also been characterized as a form of dualism.<SUP id="cite_ref-Rouner_5-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rouner-5">[5]</A></SUP> The theologian Leroy Stephens Rouner compares the dualism of Christianity with the dualism that exists in Zoroastrianism and the <A href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</A> tradition of Hinduism. The theological use of the word dualism dates back to 1700, in a book that describes the dualism between good and evil.<SUP id="cite_ref-Rouner_5-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rouner-5">[5]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The tolerance of dualism ranges widely among the different Christian traditions. As a monotheistic religion, the conflict between dualism and monism has existed in Christianity since its inception.<SUP id="cite_ref-Russell_7-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Russell-7">[7]</A></SUP> The 1912 <I><A href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</A></I> describes that, in the Catholic Church, "the dualistic hypothesis of an eternal world existing side by side with God was of course rejected" by the thirteenth century, but <A href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">mind–body dualism</A> was not.<SUP id="cite_ref-Catholic_Encyclopedia_8-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Catholic_Encyclopedia-8">[8]</A></SUP> The <A href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</A> is difficult to reconcile with absolute monism, and has prompted some Christian sects to veer towards dualism. Gnostic forms of Christianity were more dualistic, and some Gnostic traditions posited that the Devil was separate from God as an independent deity.<SUP id="cite_ref-Russell_7-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Russell-7">[7]</A></SUP> The Christian dualists of the Byzantine Empire, the <A href="/wiki/Paulicianism" title="Paulicianism">Paulicians</A>, were seen as Manichean heretics by Byzantine theologians. This tradition of Christian dualism, founded by <A href="/wiki/Constantine-Silvanus" title="Constantine-Silvanus">Constantine-Silvanus</A>, argued that the universe was created through evil and separate from a moral God.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hamilton_9-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hamilton-9">[9]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</A>, a Christian sect in southern France, believed that there was a dualism between two gods, one representing good and the other representing evil. The Roman Catholic Church denounced the Cathars as heretics, and sought to crush the movement in the 13th century. The <A href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</A> was initiated by <A href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</A> in 1208 to remove the Cathars from <A href="/wiki/Languedoc" title="Languedoc">Languedoc</A> in France, where they were known as Albigesians. The <A href="/wiki/Medieval_Inquisition" title="Medieval Inquisition">Inquisition</A>, which began in 1233 under <A href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_IX" title="Pope Gregory IX">Pope Gregory IX</A>, also targeted the Cathars.<SUP id="cite_ref-Chidester_10-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Chidester-10">[10]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="In_Hinduism">In Hinduism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In Hinduism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita Vedanta</A> school of <A href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</A> espouses a dualism between God and the universe by theorizing the existence of two separate <A href="/wiki/Realities" class="mw-redirect" title="Realities">realities</A>. The first and the more important reality is that of <A href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</A> or <A href="/wiki/Sakthi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakthi">Sakthi</A> or <A href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</A> or <A href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</A>. Shiva or Sakthi or Vishnu is the supreme <A href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</A>, God, the absolute truth of the universe, the independent reality. The second reality is that of dependent but equally real universe that exists with its own separate essence. Everything that is composed of the second reality, such as individual soul (<A href="/wiki/Jiva" title="Jiva">Jiva</A>), matter, etc. exist with their own separate reality. The distinguishing factor of this philosophy as opposed to <A href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</A> (<A href="/wiki/Monistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monistic">monistic</A> conclusion of Vedas) is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe.<SUP id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-11">[11]</A></SUP> Because the existence of individuals is grounded in the divine, they are depicted as reflections, images or even shadows of the divine, but never in any way identical with the divine. <A href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">Salvation</A> therefore is described as the realization that all finite reality is essentially dependent on the Supreme.<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Ontological_dualism">Ontological dualism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ontological dualism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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The yin and yang symbolizes the duality in nature and all things in the Taoist religion.</DIV>
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<P>Alternatively, <I>dualism</I> can mean the tendency of humans to perceive and understand the world as being divided into two overarching <A href="/wiki/Categorization" title="Categorization">categories</A>. In this sense, it is dualistic when one perceives a tree as a thing separate from everything surrounding it. This form of ontological dualism exists in Taoism and Confucianism, beliefs that divide the universe into the complementary oppositions of <A href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Girardot_13-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Girardot-13">[13]</A></SUP> In traditions such as classical Hinduism, <A href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</A> Buddhism or <A href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</A> <A href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufism</A>, a key to enlightenment is "transcending" this sort of dualistic thinking, without merely substituting dualism with <A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monism</A> or <A href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">pluralism</A>.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="In_Chinese_philosophy">In Chinese philosophy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In Chinese philosophy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
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<P>The opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles of <A href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</A> is a large part of <A href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</A>, and is an important feature of <A href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</A>, both as a philosophy and as a religion, although the concept developed much earlier. Some argue that yin and yang were originally an earth and sky god, respectively.<SUP id="cite_ref-Yin_and_Yang_14-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Yin_and_Yang-14">[14]</A></SUP> As one of the oldest principles in Chinese philosophy, yin and yang are also discussed in <A href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</A>, but to a lesser extent.</P>
<P>Some of the common associations with yang and yin, respectively, are: male and female, <A href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</A> and <A href="/wiki/Darkness" title="Darkness">dark</A>, active and passive, motion and stillness. Some scholars recognize that the two ideas may have originally referred to two opposite sides of a mountain, facing towards and away from the sun.<SUP id="cite_ref-Yin_and_Yang_14-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Yin_and_Yang-14">[14]</A></SUP> The yin and yang symbol in actuality has very little to do with Western dualism; instead it represents the philosophy of balance, where two opposites co-exist in harmony and are able to transmute into each other. In the yin-yang symbol there is a dot of yin in yang and a dot of yang in yin. In Taoism, this symbolizes the inter-connectedness of the opposite forces as different aspects of Tao, the First Principle. Contrast is needed to create a distinguishable reality, without which we would experience nothingness. Therefore, the independent principles of yin and yang are actually dependent on one another for each other's distinguishable existence.</P>
<P>The complementary dualistic concept seen in yin and yang represent the reciprocal interaction throughout nature, related to a <A href="/wiki/Feedback_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedback loop">feedback loop</A>, where opposing forces do not exchange in opposition but instead exchange reciprocally to promote stabilization similar to <A href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</A>. An underlying principle in Taoism states that within every independent entity lies a part of its opposite. Within sickness lies health and vice versa. This is because all opposites are manifestations of the single Tao, and are therefore not independent from one another, but rather a variation of the same unifying force throughout all of nature.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Soul_dualism">Soul dualism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Soul dualism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Soul_dualism" title="Soul dualism">Soul dualism</A></DIV>
<P>In some cultures, people (or also other beings) are believed to have two or more kinds of <A href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">soul</A>. In several cases, one of these souls is associated with body functions (and is sometimes thought to disappear after death, but not always), and the other one is able to leave the body (for example, a <A href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shaman</A>'s <I>free-soul</I> may be held to be able to undertake a spirit journey). The plethora of soul types may be even more complex.</P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Bipartite_(theology)" title="Bipartite (theology)">Bipartite</A> view of <A href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</A> recognizes the existence of both material and immaterial aspects of human life, typically body and soul. This is distinct from the <A href="/wiki/Tripartite_(theology)" title="Tripartite (theology)">Tripartite</A> view that holds soul and spirit to be separate aspects of a person along with the body.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="In_Indian_philosophy">In Indian philosophy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: In Indian philosophy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Buddhist_philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Buddhist philosophy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>During the classical era of <A href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</A> in India, philosophers such as <A href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</A> argue for a dualism between states of consciousness and <A href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Buddhist atoms</A> (the basic building blocks that make up reality), according to "the standard interpretation" of Dharmakirti's Buddhist <A href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP> Typically in <A href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</A>, dualism is considered to be a dualism between mind (nonphysical) and brain (physical), which ultimately involves mind interacting with the physical brain, and therefore also interacting with the micro-particles (basic building blocks) that make up the brain tissue. Buddhist dualism, in Dharmakirti’s sense, is different in that it is not a dualism between the mind and brain, but rather between states of consciousness (nonphysical) and basic building blocks (according to the Buddhist atomism of Dharmakirti, Buddhist atoms are also nonphysical: they are unstructured points of energy). Like many Buddhists from 600-1000 CE, Dharmakirti’s philosophy involved <A href="/wiki/Mereological_nihilism" title="Mereological nihilism">mereological nihilism</A>, meaning that other than states of consciousness, the only things that exist are momentary quantum particles, much like the particles of <A href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum physics</A> (<A href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</A>, <A href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</A>, etc.).<SUP class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><SPAN title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Samkhya_and_Yogic_philosophy">Samkhya and Yogic philosophy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Samkhya and Yogic philosophy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>While <A href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophical traditions</A>, as exemplified by Descartes, equate mind with the conscious self and theorize on consciousness on the basis of mind/body dualism; some <A href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophies</A> provide an alternate viewpoint, intimately related to <A href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">substance dualism</A>, by drawing a metaphysical line between consciousness and matter — where matter includes both body and mind.<SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In <A href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</A> and <A href="/wiki/Yoga_(philosophy)" title="Yoga (philosophy)">Yoga</A> schools of <A href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</A>, "there are two irreducible, innate and independent realities 1) <A href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</A> itself (<A href="/wiki/Purusha" title="Purusha">Purusha</A>) 2) primordial materiality (<A href="/wiki/Prakriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Prakriti">Prakriti</A>)". The unconscious primordial materiality, Prakriti, contains 23 components including intellect (<A href="/wiki/Buddhi" title="Buddhi">buddhi</A>, mahat), ego (<A href="/wiki/Ahamkara" title="Ahamkara">ahamkara</A>) and mind (<A href="/wiki/Manas_(early_Buddhism)" title="Manas (early Buddhism)">manas</A>). Therefore, the intellect, mind and ego are all seen as forms of unconscious matter.<SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP> Thought processes and mental events are conscious only to the extent they receive illumination from Purusha. Consciousness is compared to light which illuminates the material configurations or 'shapes' assumed by the mind. So intellect after receiving cognitive structures form the mind and illumination from pure consciousness creates thought structures that appear to be conscious.<SUP id="cite_ref-page342_19-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-page342-19">[19]</A></SUP> Ahamkara, the ego or the phenomenal self, appropriates all mental experiences to itself and thus, personalizes the objective activities of mind and intellect by assuming possession of them.<SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[20]</A></SUP> But consciousness is itself independent of the thought structures it illuminates.<SUP id="cite_ref-page342_19-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-page342-19">[19]</A></SUP></P>
<P>By including mind in the realm of matter, Samkhya-Yoga avoids one of the most serious pitfalls of Cartesian dualism, the violation of physical conservation laws. Because mind is an evolute of matter, mental events are granted causal efficacy and are therefore able to initiate bodily motions.<SUP id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-21">[21]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="In_philosophy_of_mind">In philosophy of mind</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: In philosophy of mind">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <A href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Mind–body dualism</A> and <A href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</A></DIV>
<P>In <A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</A>, dualism is any of a narrow variety of views about the relationship between mind and matter, which claims that mind and matter are two <A href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontologically</A> separate categories. In particular, mind-body dualism claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way, and thus is opposed to <A href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialism</A> in general, and <A href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">reductive materialism</A> in particular. Mind-body dualism can exist as <A href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">substance dualism</A> which claims that the mind and the body are composed of a distinct substance, and as <A href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">property dualism</A> which claims that there may not be a distinction in substance, but that mental and physical properties are still categorically distinct, and not reducible to each other. This type of dualism is sometimes referred to as "<I>mind and body</I>" and stands in contrast to philosophical monism, which views mind and matter as being ultimately the same kind of thing.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="History_2">History</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: History">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The first significant argument against dualism came from <A href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</A>'s (1588–1679) materialist critique of the human person. Hobbes argues that all of human experience comes from biological processes contained within the body (see: <I><A href="/wiki/The_Leviathan" class="mw-redirect" title="The Leviathan">The Leviathan</A></I><SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP>). In response to Hobbes, the <A href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French philosopher</A> <A href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</A> (1596–1650) developed <A href="/wiki/Cartesian_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian dualism">Cartesian dualism</A>, which posits that there is a divisible, mechanical body and an indivisible, immaterial mind which interact with one another. The body perceives external inputs and the awareness of them comes from the soul. The point of interaction between the two is at the pineal gland in the brain.<SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[23]</A></SUP></P>
<P>During the 19th and 20th centuries, materialistic monism became the norm.<SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[24]</A></SUP> Still, in addition to already discussed theories of dualism (particularly the Christian and Cartesian models) there are new theories in the defense of dualism. <A href="/wiki/Naturalistic_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalistic dualism">Naturalistic dualism</A> comes from Australian philosopher, <A href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</A> (born 1966) who argues there is an explanatory gap between objective and subjective experience that cannot be bridged by reductionism because consciousness is, at least, logically autonomous of the physical properties upon which it supervenes. According to Chalmers, a naturalistic account of property dualism requires a new fundamental category of properties described by new laws of <A href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">supervenience</A>; the challenge being analogous to that of understanding electricity based on the mechanistic and Newtonian models of materialism prior to <A href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</A>.</P>
<P>A similar defense comes from Australian philosopher <A href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Jackson</A> (born 1943) who revived the theory of <A href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">epiphenomenalism</A> which argues that mental states do not play a role in physical states. Jackson argues that there are two kinds of dualism. The first is <I>substance dualism</I> that assumes there is second, non-corporeal form of reality. In this form, body and soul are two different substances. The second form is <I>property dualism</I> that says that body and soul are different <I>properties</I> of the same body. He claims that functions of the mind/soul are internal, very private experiences that are not accessible to observation by others, and therefore not accessible by science (at least not yet). We can know everything, for example, about a bat's facility for echolocation, but we will never know how the bat experiences that phenomenon. In Jackson's mind experiment, he imagines a girl who grows up in a black-and-white room. She may grow up learning all about the scientific facts of colors, but has no way of experiencing colors other than black or white. When someone brings a red tomato into her room, she is stunned. She discovers a new fact: the experience of red is 'like this.' That experience is not a physical fact but a conscious one.<SUP id="cite_ref-Jackson_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Jackson-25">[25]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="In_other_areas_of_philosophy">In other areas of philosophy</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: In other areas of philosophy">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Epistemological_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological dualism">Epistemological dualism</A></DIV>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/New_realism_(philosophy)" title="New realism (philosophy)">New realism (philosophy)</A></DIV>
<P>In the <A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</A>, <I>dualism</I> often refers to the dichotomy between the "subject" (the observer) and the "object" (the observed). Another <I>dualism</I>, in <A href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popperian</A> philosophy of science refers to "hypothesis" and "refutation" (for example, experimental refutation). This notion also carried to <A href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</A>.</P>
<P>The American philosopher <A href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Arthur Oncken Lovejoy</A> in his <I>The Revolt Against Dualism</I> (1960) develops a critique of the modern <A href="/wiki/New_realism_(philosophy)" title="New realism (philosophy)">new realism</A>, reproposing a form of dualism based on a "fork of human experience."</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="In_physics">In physics</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: In physics">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/Duality#Physics" class="mw-disambig" title="Duality">Duality § Physics</A></DIV>
<P>In <A href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</A>, <I>dualism</I> refers to <A href="/wiki/Optical_medium" title="Optical medium">media</A> with properties that can be associated with the mechanics of two different phenomena. Because these two phenomena's mechanics are mutually exclusive, both are needed in order to describe the possible behaviors. All <A href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</A>, for example, has <A href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">wave–particle duality</A>.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="In_cybernetics">In cybernetics</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: In cybernetics">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>In <A href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</A>, <A href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</A> described "Manicheaen devils" (dualistic adversarial systems) as those systems or problems in which an intelligent adversary is attempting to exploit weaknesses of the investigator (such as in a game-playing opponent, adversarial law, evolutionary systems of predator/parasite and prey/host, politics/enslavement attempts, etc.). Wiener's "Cybernetics" contrasted such systems with "Augustinian devils" that were systems or problems that, though very complex and difficult to figure out, did not feature an adversary with contrary intent. Victories or "expansions of knowledge" in such systems were able to be built upon incrementally, through science (experimentation expanding empirical knowledge bases). Wiener noted that temporary weaknesses (such as errors to perceive all components of a system) were not fatal in attempts to defeat "Augustinian devils" because another experiment could simply be pursued (and he noted that he had personally defeated many "Augustinian devils" with his contributions to science and engineering). Wiener further noted that temporary lapses in judgment against "Manicheaen devils" were more often fatal or destructive, due to the desire of the opponent to "win/survive at all costs," even going so far as to introduce any level of deception into the system (and he noted that he had been defeated by many "Manicheaen devils," such as on occasions when he was temporarily careless in chess). Although this "duality" between "complexity" and "opposition" may seem obvious, there are deep implications in many areas of science, such as <A href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</A>, <A href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</A>, <A href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</A>, <A href="/wiki/Network_science" title="Network science">network science</A>, <A href="/wiki/Security" title="Security">security science</A>, <A href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">military science</A>, <A href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</A>.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Political_dualism">Political dualism</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Political dualism">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Dualism_(politics)" title="Dualism (politics)">Dualism (politics)</A></DIV>
<P>In politics, dualism refers to the <A href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</A> between the <A href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislature</A> and <A href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive</A>.</P>
<P>In the context of the history of the <A href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</A>, "dualism" refers to the political doctrine of <A href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</A>'s and <A href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</A>'s <A href="/wiki/Imperial_and_Royal" title="Imperial and Royal">co-equality</A>. The phrase "during dualism" (<A href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</A>: <SPAN lang="hu" xml:lang="hu"><I>dualizmus alatt</I></SPAN>) is used in Hungarian historiography as shorthand for "during the dual monarchy."</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-1"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">The term <I>dualism</I> is recorded in English since 1785–95 (<I><A href="/wiki/Random_House_Webster%27s_Unabridged_Dictionary" title="Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary">Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary</A></I>, 2001, "dualism").</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/172631/dualism/38186/Egypt-and-Mesopotamia">"Egypt and Mesopotamia"</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14153a.htm">"soul"</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-4"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Enrico Riparelli, <I>Il volto del Cristo dualista. Da Marcione ai catari</I>, Peter Lang, Bern - Berlin - Bruxelles - Frankfurt am Main - New York - Oxford - Wien 2008, 368 pp. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-03911-490-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-03911-490-0">978-3-03911-490-0</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Rouner-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Rouner_5-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Rouner_5-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Rouner_5-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Rouner_5-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Rouner, Leroy (1983). <I>The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology</I>. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 166. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22748-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22748-7">978-0-664-22748-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADualism&rft.aufirst=Leroy&rft.aulast=Rouner&rft.btitle=The+Westminster+Dictionary+of+Christian+Theology&rft.date=1983&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-664-22748-7&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Peters-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Peters_6-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Peters, Edward (2011). <I>Heresy and Authority in Medieval Europe</I>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 106. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0680-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0680-7">978-0-8122-0680-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADualism&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.btitle=Heresy+and+Authority+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.date=2011&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0680-7&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Russell-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Russell_7-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Russell_7-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Russell, Jeffrey (1998). <I>A History of Heaven: The Singing Silence</I>. Princeton University Press. p. 53. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00684-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00684-0">978-0-691-00684-0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADualism&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Heaven%3A+The+Singing+Silence&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00684-0&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Catholic_Encyclopedia-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Catholic_Encyclopedia_8-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><I>The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church</I>. Robert Appleton Company. 1912. p. 170.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADualism&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia%3A+An+International+Work+of+Reference+on+the+Constitution%2C+Doctrine%2C+Discipline%2C+and+History+of+the+Catholic+Church&rft.date=1912&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Hamilton-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Hamilton_9-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Hamilton, Janet; Hamilton, Bernard; Stoyanov, Yuri (1998). <I>Christian Dualist Heresies in the Byzantine World, C. 650-c. 1450: Selected Sources</I>. Manchester University Press. pp. 1–2. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4765-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4765-7">978-0-7190-4765-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADualism&rft.au=Hamilton%2C+Bernard&rft.au=Stoyanov%2C+Yuri&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.btitle=Christian+Dualist+Heresies+in+the+Byzantine+World%2C+C.+650-c.+1450%3A+Selected+Sources&rft.date=1998&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4765-7&rft.pages=1-2&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Chidester-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Chidester_10-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Chidester, David (2001). <I>Christianity: A Global History</I>. HarperCollins. pp. 266–268. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-251770-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-251770-8">978-0-06-251770-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADualism&rft.aufirst=David&rft.aulast=Chidester&rft.btitle=Christianity%3A+A+Global+History&rft.date=2001&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-06-251770-8&rft.pages=266-268&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-11"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Etter, Christopher. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jW2pcWpXY8wC&pg=PA59">A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism</A>. iUniverse Inc. P. 59-60. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-595-39312-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-595-39312-8">0-595-39312-8</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Fowler, Jeaneane D. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C&pg=PA340&dq=dualism+dvaita+vedanta&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VoXnT_6RH8qtrAeO3qmJCQ&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=dualism%20dvaita%20vedanta&f=false">Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism</A>. Sussex Academic Press. P. 340-344. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-898723-93-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-898723-93-1">1-898723-93-1</A>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Girardot-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Girardot_13-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Girardot, N.J. (1988). <I>Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism: The Theme of Chaos (hun-tun)</I>. University of California Press. p. 247. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06460-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06460-7">978-0-520-06460-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADualism&rft.aufirst=N.J.&rft.aulast=Girardot&rft.btitle=Myth+and+Meaning+in+Early+Taoism%3A+The+Theme+of+Chaos+%28hun-tun%29&rft.date=1988&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06460-7&rft.pages=247&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Yin_and_Yang-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Yin_and_Yang_14-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Yin_and_Yang_14-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Roberts, Jeremy. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://online.infobase.com/HRC/Search/Details/239492?q=yin%20and%20yang">"Yin and Yang"</A>. <I>Ancient and Medieval History</I>. Facts on File<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">19 March</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADualism&rft.atitle=Yin+and+Yang&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ancient+and+Medieval+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.infobase.com%2FHRC%2FSearch%2FDetails%2F239492%3Fq%3Dyin%2520and%2520yang&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Georges B.J. Dreyfus, <I>Recognizing Reality</I>, SUNY Press 1996 (<A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791430989" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791430989">978-0791430989</A>)</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Haney, p. 17.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Isaac, p. 339.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Haney, p. 42.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-page342-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-page342_19-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-page342_19-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Isaac, p. 342.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Leaman, p. 68.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-21"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Leaman, p. 248.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-a.html#CHAPTERI">"Leviathan – Introduction"</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110709073908/http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-a.html#CHAPTERI">Archived</A> July 9, 2011, at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A>.. oregonstate.edu.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.custance.org/old/mind/ch2m.html">"Cartesian Dualism: Mind and Brain Interaction</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10041b.htm">"Materialism"</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Jackson-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Jackson_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Jackson, Frank. 1990."Epiphenomenal Qualia," in 'Mind and Cognition,' W. Lycan (ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.</SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI>Haney, William S. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HEI6QwSxrjsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false">Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained</A>. Bucknell University Press (August 1, 2002). <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1611481724" title="Special:BookSources/1611481724">1611481724</A>.</LI>
<LI>Isaac, J. R.; Dangwal, Ritu; Chakraborty, C. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V9Z0dFN3DN0C&pg=PA339&dq=Consciousness+matter+dualism+sankhya&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kmLnT_2sLtDMrQeN-_D3CA&ved=0CFAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Consciousness%20matter%20dualism%20sankhya&f=false">Proceedings. International conference on cognitive systems (1997)</A>. Allied Publishers Ltd. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7023-746-7" title="Special:BookSources/81-7023-746-7">81-7023-746-7</A>.</LI>
<LI>Leaman, Oliver. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x3mZOf8iLQ0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false">Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings</A>. Routledge, 2000. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-17357-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-17357-4">0-415-17357-4</A>.</LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/95b9b2db">Duality</A> entry in the <I><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://escholarship.org/uc/nelc_uee">UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology</A></I></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/browse/dualism">Dualism</A> at <A href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</A></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation encyclopaedia"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism/">"Dualism"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</A></I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADualism&rft.atitle=Dualism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fdualism%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/2199">Dualism</A> at the <A href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</A></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation encyclopaedia"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/dualism/">"Dualism and Mind"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</A></I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADualism&rft.atitle=Dualism+and+Mind&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fdualism%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050305082331/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-05"><I>Dictionary of the History of ideas</I>:</A> Dualism in Philosophy and Religion</LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W. F. Hegel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred N. Whitehead</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dorothy_Emmet" title="Dorothy Emmet">Dorothy Emmet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">R. G. Collingwood</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Adolph_St%C3%B6hr" title="Adolph Stöhr">Adolph Stöhr</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard V. O. Quine</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</A></I></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Abstract_object_theory" title="Abstract object theory">Abstract object theory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action theory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Dualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Enactivism_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enactivism (psychology)">Enactivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pirsig%27s_metaphysics_of_Quality" title="Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality">Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Platonic_idealism" title="Platonic idealism">Platonic idealism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Being" title="Being">Being</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category_of_being" title="Category of being">Category of being</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Choice" title="Choice">Choice</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" title="Cogito ergo sum">Cogito ergo sum</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Identity_and_change" title="Identity and change">Identity and change</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" title="Motion (physics)">Motion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Notion_(philosophy)" title="Notion (philosophy)">Notion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Physical_body" title="Physical body">Physical body</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</A></I></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Axiology" title="Axiology">Axiology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cosmology_(philosophy)" title="Cosmology (philosophy)">Cosmology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Meta" title="Meta">Meta-</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Concepts in religion</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Religious_belief" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious belief">Religious belief</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spirit" title="Spirit">Spirit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theological_veto" title="Theological veto">Theological veto</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Conceptions of God</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Aristotelian_theology" title="Aristotelian theology">Aristotelian view</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Divine_simplicity" title="Divine simplicity">Divine simplicity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Egoism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Misotheism" title="Misotheism">Misotheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Personal_god" title="Personal god">Personal god</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Supreme_Being" title="Supreme Being">Supreme Being</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">God in</TH>
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<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Abrahamic_religions" title="God in Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Buddhism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">Christianity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Hinduism" title="God in Hinduism">Hinduism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">Islam</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Jainism" title="God in Jainism">Jainism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">Judaism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Mormonism" title="God in Mormonism">Mormonism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_Sikhism" title="God in Sikhism">Sikhism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" title="God in the Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Wiccan_views_of_divinity" title="Wiccan views of divinity">Wicca</A></LI>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">Existence of God</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">For</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Beauty</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Christological_argument" title="Christological argument">Christological</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_consciousness" title="Argument from consciousness">Consciousness</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">Cosmological</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kalam_cosmological_argument" title="Kalam cosmological argument">Kalam</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument#Argument_from_contingency" title="Cosmological argument">Contingency</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_degree" title="Argument from degree">Degree</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_desire" title="Argument from desire">Desire</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_religious_experience" title="Argument from religious experience">Experience</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fine-tuned_Universe" title="Fine-tuned Universe">Fine-tuning of the Universe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_love" title="Argument from love">Love</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_miracles" title="Argument from miracles">Miracles</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_morality" title="Argument from morality">Morality</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_Truthful" title="Proof of the Truthful">Necessary existent</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">Ontological</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_Wager" title="Pascal's Wager">Pascal's Wager</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_a_proper_basis" title="Argument from a proper basis">Proper basis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_reason" title="Argument from reason">Reason</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Natural-law_argument" title="Natural-law argument">Natural law</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Watchmaker_analogy" title="Watchmaker analogy">Watchmaker analogy</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transcendental_argument_for_the_existence_of_God" title="Transcendental argument for the existence of God">Transcendental</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Against</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ultimate_Boeing_747_gambit" title="Ultimate Boeing 747 gambit">747 gambit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atheist%27s_Wager" title="Atheist's Wager">Atheist's Wager</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Evil</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_free_will" title="Argument from free will">Free will</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Problem_of_Hell" title="Problem of Hell">Hell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_inconsistent_revelations" title="Argument from inconsistent revelations">Inconsistent revelations</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_nonbelief" title="Argument from nonbelief">Nonbelief</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theological_noncognitivism" title="Theological noncognitivism">Noncognitivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Omnipotence_paradox" title="Omnipotence paradox">Omnipotence</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Argument_from_poor_design" title="Argument from poor design">Poor design</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Russell%27s_teapot" title="Russell's teapot">Russell's teapot</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Acosmism" title="Acosmism">Acosmism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharmism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Demonology" title="Demonology">Demonology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Dualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Agnostic_existentialism" title="Agnostic existentialism">Agnostic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atheistic_existentialism" title="Atheistic existentialism">Atheistic</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thealogy" title="Thealogy">Thealogy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inclusivism" title="Inclusivism">Inclusivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Metaphysical</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Religious_naturalism" title="Religious naturalism">Religious</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Humanistic_naturalism" title="Humanistic naturalism">Humanistic</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pandeism" title="Pandeism">Pandeism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Process_theology" title="Process theology">Process theology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(beliefs)" title="Spiritualism (beliefs)">Spiritualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Taoic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</A></I></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eschatological_verification" title="Eschatological verification">Eschatological verification</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Language-game_(philosophy)" title="Language-game (philosophy)">Language-game</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic theology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Augustinian_theodicy" title="Augustinian theodicy">Augustinian theodicy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds" title="Best of all possible worlds">Best of all possible worlds</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Inconsistent_triad" title="Inconsistent triad">Inconsistent triad</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Irenaean_theodicy" title="Irenaean theodicy">Irenaean theodicy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Natural_evil" title="Natural evil">Natural evil</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR style="display: none;">
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">
<DIV style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><A href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_religion" title="Category:Philosophers of religion">Philosophers<BR />
of religion</A></DIV>
<BR />
(by date active)</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Ancient<BR />
and<BR />
Medieval</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gaunilo_of_Marmoutiers" title="Gaunilo of Marmoutiers">Gaunilo of Marmoutiers</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James VI and I</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion of Sinope</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">Enlightenment</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried W Leibniz</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_Wollaston" title="William Wollaston">William Wollaston</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomas_Chubb" title="Thomas Chubb">Thomas Chubb</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Baron_d%27Holbach" title="Baron d'Holbach">Baron d'Holbach</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann G Herder</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1800<BR />
1850</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher" title="Friedrich Schleiermacher">Friedrich Schleiermacher</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Karl_Christian_Friedrich_Krause" title="Karl Christian Friedrich Krause">Karl C F Krause</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg W F Hegel</A></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Albrecht_Ritschl" title="Albrecht Ritschl">Albrecht Ritschl</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1880<BR />
1900</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_Kingdon_Clifford" title="William Kingdon Clifford">W. K. Clifford</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Harald_H%C3%B8ffding" title="Harald Høffding">Harald Høffding</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</A></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)" title="Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)">Vladimir Solovyov</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ernst_Troeltsch" title="Ernst Troeltsch">Ernst Troeltsch</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rudolf_Otto" title="Rudolf Otto">Rudolf Otto</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Lev_Shestov" title="Lev Shestov">Lev Shestov</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sergei_Bulgakov" title="Sergei Bulgakov">Sergei Bulgakov</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pavel_Florensky" title="Pavel Florensky">Pavel Florensky</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Ernst Cassirer</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Joseph_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Joseph Maréchal">Joseph Maréchal</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1920<BR />
postwar</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Martin_Buber" title="Martin Buber">Martin Buber</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">René Guénon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Paul Tillich</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bultmann" title="Rudolf Bultmann">Rudolf Bultmann</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Gabriel_Marcel" title="Gabriel Marcel">Gabriel Marcel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</A></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J L Mackie</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Walter_Kaufmann_(philosopher)" title="Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)">Walter Kaufmann</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings">Martin Lings</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/George_I._Mavrodes" title="George I. Mavrodes">George I Mavrodes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</A></LI>
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</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal;text-align:center;">1970<BR />
1990<BR />
2010</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_L._Rowe" title="William L. Rowe">William L Rowe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dewi_Zephaniah_Phillips" title="Dewi Zephaniah Phillips">Dewi Z Phillips</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Anthony Kenny</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Robert Merrihew Adams</A></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Loyal_Rue" title="Loyal Rue">Loyal Rue</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Marion" title="Jean-Luc Marion">Jean-Luc Marion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Rashad" title="Ali Akbar Rashad">Ali Akbar Rashad</A></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism of religion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Exegesis" title="Exegesis">Exegesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_religions" title="History of religions">History of religions</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Religious language</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">Religious philosophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Political_science_of_religion" title="Political science of religion">Political science of religion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_religion_articles" title="Index of philosophy of religion articles">more...</A></I></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</A>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cosmology_(philosophy)" title="Cosmology (philosophy)">Cosmos</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_dialogue" title="Philosophy of dialogue">Dialogue</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_futility" title="Philosophy of futility">Futility</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminism</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_life" title="Philosophy of life">Life</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><SPAN style="font-size:90%;"><A href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</A><A href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</A></SPAN></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Milesian_school" title="Milesian school">Milesian</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophistic</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Sy.C4.81dv.C4.81da" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Svatantrika" class="mw-redirect" title="Svatantrika">Svatantrika</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><A href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Edo_Neo-Confucianism" title="Edo Neo-Confucianism">Edo Neo-Confucianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dvaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Dvaita">Dvaita</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Dvaitadvaita" title="Dvaitadvaita">Dvaitadvaita</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Avicenna#Avicennian_philosophy" title="Avicenna">Avicennism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</A></I></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><A href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hegelianism" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Spinozism" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><SPAN style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</SPAN></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Collectivism" title="Collectivism">Collectivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Dualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neo-Scholasticism" title="Neo-Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><A href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</A> / <A href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative linguistics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and Externalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics#Contemporary_.27aretaic_turn.27" title="Virtue ethics">Neo-Aristotelian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Skeptical_movement" title="Skeptical movement">Scientific skepticism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><A href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/New_Historicism" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</TH>
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<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Objectivism_(Ayn_Rand)" title="Objectivism (Ayn Rand)">Objectivism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</A></LI>
<LI><I><A href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</A></I></LI>
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						<LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><A href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AB%D9%86%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="مثنوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><A href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualizm" title="Dualizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><A href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC_(%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Дуализъм (религия) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><A href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisme" title="Dualisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><A href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualismus_(filosofie)" title="Dualismus (filosofie) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><A href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuoliaeth" title="Deuoliaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><A href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisme" title="Dualisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><A href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualismus" title="Dualismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><A href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><A href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CF%85%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Δυαλισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><A href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualismo" title="Dualismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><A href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualismo" title="Dualismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><A href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualismo" title="Dualismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><A href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="دوگانه‌گرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><A href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisme_(philosophie)" title="Dualisme (philosophie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy"><A href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisme_(religy)" title="Dualisme (religy) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><A href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EC%9B%90%EB%A1%A0" title="이원론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><A href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Դուալիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><A href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="द्वैतवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><A href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualizam_(religija)" title="Dualizam (religija) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><A href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisme" title="Dualisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><A href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tv%C3%ADhyggja" title="Tvíhyggja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><A href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualismo" title="Dualismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><A href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="דואליזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><A href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisme" title="Dualisme – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Jawa</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><A href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="დუალიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><A href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Дуализм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><A href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual%C3%AEzm" title="Dualîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><A href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Дуализм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><A href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualismus" title="Dualismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><A href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Дуализам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><A href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisme" title="Dualisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><A href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%85%83%E8%AB%96" title="二元論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><A href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisme" title="Dualisme – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><A href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualisme" title="Dualisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><A href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualizm" title="Dualizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><A href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualizm_(religia)" title="Dualizm (religia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><A href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualismo" title="Dualismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><A href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Дуализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><A href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualizmi" title="Dualizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><A href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><A href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualizem" title="Dualizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><A href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Дуализам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><A href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualizam" title="Dualizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><A href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartesiolainen_dualismi" title="Kartesiolainen dualismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><A href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualism" title="Dualism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><A href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="இருமையியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><A href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BCalizm" title="Düalizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><A href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Дуалізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><A href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="ثنویت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><A href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuy%E1%BA%BFt_nh%E1%BB%8B_nguy%C3%AAn" title="Thuyết nhị nguyên – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><A href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%85%83%E8%AB%96" title="二元論 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><A href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%85%83%E8%AB%96" title="二元論 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</A></LI>					</UL>
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