Germanium

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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Germanium</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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				<DIV id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><DIV class="mw-parser-output"><DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <A href="/wiki/Geranium" title="Geranium">geranium</A>.</DIV>
<TABLE class="infobox" style="width:22em">
<CAPTION>Germanium,  <SUB><SPAN style="font-size:smaller;">32</SPAN></SUB>Ge</CAPTION>
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><A href="/wiki/File:Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg" class="image" title="Grayish lustrous block with uneven cleaved surface"><IMG alt="Grayish lustrous block with uneven cleaved surface" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg/220px-Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg" width="220" height="220" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg/330px-Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg/440px-Polycrystalline-germanium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1056" data-file-height="1056" /></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#cccc99">General properties</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;">Pronunciation</TH>
<TD><SPAN class="nowrap"><SPAN class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt"><A href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<SPAN style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><SPAN title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</SPAN><SPAN title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</SPAN><SPAN title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</SPAN><SPAN title="'m' in 'my'">m</SPAN><SPAN title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</SPAN><SPAN title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</SPAN><SPAN title="/iː/ or /ɪ/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</SPAN><SPAN title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</SPAN><SPAN title="'m' in 'my'">m</SPAN></SPAN>/</A></SPAN></SPAN><BR />
<A href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><SMALL title="English pronunciation respelling"><I>jər-<B>MAY</B>-nee-əm</I></SMALL></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;">Appearance</TH>
<TD>grayish-white</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight" title="Standard atomic weight">Standard atomic weight</A> <SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">(<I>A</I><SUB>r, standard</SUB>)</SPAN></TH>
<TD><SPAN class="nowrap"><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7001726300000000000♠</SPAN>72.630(8)</SPAN><SUP id="cite_ref-CIAAW2016_1-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CIAAW2016-1">[1]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#cccc99">Germanium in the <A href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<TABLE class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; margin:0; border-width:1px; background:#f8f8f8;">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD>
<TABLE class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:transparent; border:none;">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD style="border:none; width:5px">
<DIV style="background-color:transparent; margin:0; padding:0; text-align:center; border:none;">
<TABLE style="empty-cells:hidden; border:none; padding:0; border-spacing:1px; border-collapse:separate; margin:0;">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e7ff8f;">Hydrogen</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD colspan="30" style="border:none;padding:0;"></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#c0ffff;">Helium</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff6666;">Lithium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffdead;">Beryllium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccc99;">Boron</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#a1ffc3;">Carbon</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e7ff8f;">Nitrogen</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e7ff8f;">Oxygen</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e7ff8f;">Fluorine</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#c0ffff;">Neon</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff6666;">Sodium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffdead;">Magnesium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Aluminium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccc99;">Silicon</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#a1ffc3;">Phosphorus</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#a1ffc3;">Sulfur</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e7ff8f;">Chlorine</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#c0ffff;">Argon</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff6666;">Potassium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffdead;">Calcium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Scandium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD colspan="14" style="border:none;padding:0;"></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Titanium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Vanadium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Chromium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Manganese</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Iron</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Cobalt</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Nickel</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Copper</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Zinc</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Gallium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A class="mw-selflink selflink"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccc99; border:1px solid black; margin:-1px;">Germanium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccc99;">Arsenic</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#a1ffc3;">Selenium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e7ff8f;">Bromine</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#c0ffff;">Krypton</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff6666;">Rubidium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffdead;">Strontium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Yttrium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;; width:0;"></TD>
<TD colspan="13" style="border:none;padding:0;"></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Zirconium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Niobium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Molybdenum</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Technetium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Ruthenium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Rhodium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Palladium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Silver</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Cadmium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Indium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Tin</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccc99;">Antimony</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccc99;">Tellurium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e7ff8f;">Iodine</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#c0ffff;">Xenon</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR style="border:none;padding:0;">
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff6666;">Caesium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffdead;">Barium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Lanthanum</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Cerium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Praseodymium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Neodymium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Promethium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Samarium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Europium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Gadolinium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Terbium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Dysprosium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Holmium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Erbium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Thulium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Ytterbium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffbfff;">Lutetium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Hafnium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Tantalum</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Tungsten</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Rhenium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Osmium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Iridium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Platinum</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Gold</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Mercury (element)</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Thallium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Lead</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Bismuth</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Polonium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccc99;">Astatine</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#c0ffff;">Radon</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff6666;">Francium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffdead;">Radium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Actinium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Thorium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Protactinium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Uranium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Neptunium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Plutonium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Americium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Curium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Berkelium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Californium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Einsteinium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Fermium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Mendelevium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Nobelium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ff99cc;">Lawrencium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Rutherfordium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Dubnium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Seaborgium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Bohrium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#ffc0c0;">Hassium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e8e8e8;">Meitnerium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e8e8e8;">Darmstadtium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e8e8e8;">Roentgenium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#cccccc;">Copernicium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e8e8e8;">Nihonium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e8e8e8;">Flerovium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e8e8e8;">Moscovium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e8e8e8;">Livermorium</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e8e8e8;">Tennessine</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD style="border:none;padding:0;"><A href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson"><SPAN style="display:block;width:6px;height:8px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;color:transparent;background-color:#e8e8e8;">Oganesson</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
</TD>
<TD style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; font-size:90%; line-height:100%; width:10px; border:none;"><A href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Si</A><BR />
↑<BR />
<STRONG>Ge</STRONG><BR />
↓<BR />
<A href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Sn</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" class="nowrap" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%; line-height:100%; padding-top:0; padding-bottom:1px; border:none;"><A href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</A> ← <STRONG>germanium</STRONG> → <A href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</A></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">Atomic number</A> <SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">(<I>Z</I>)</SPAN></SPAN></TH>
<TD>32</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">Group</A>, <A href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">period</A></TH>
<TD><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">group 14 (carbon group)</A></SPAN>, <A href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)#Period_4" title="Period (periodic table)">period 4</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)" title="Block (periodic table)">Block</A></TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/P-block" class="mw-redirect" title="P-block">p-block</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Names_for_sets_of_chemical_elements#Category" title="Names for sets of chemical elements">Element category</A></TH>
<TD><SPAN title="color legend: metalloid" style="display:inline-block; vertical-align:middle; width:6px; height:8px; border:1px solid black; background:#cccc99"> </SPAN> <A href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">metalloid</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">Electron configuration</A></TH>
<TD>[<A href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Ar</A>] 3d<SUP>10</SUP> 4s<SUP>2</SUP> 4p<SUP>2</SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;">
<DIV style="font-weight:normal;">Electrons per shell</DIV>
</TH>
<TD>2, 8, 18, 4</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#cccc99">Physical properties</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</A> <SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">(at <SPAN title="STP: standard temperature and pressure: 0 °C and 101.325 kPa"><A href="/wiki/Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard conditions for temperature and pressure">STP</A></SPAN>)</SPAN></TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</A></TH>
<TD>1211.40 <A href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</A> (938.25 °C, 1720.85 °F)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</A></TH>
<TD>3106 K (2833 °C, 5131 °F)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">Density</A> <SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">(near <ABBR title="room temperature">r.t.</ABBR>)</SPAN></TH>
<TD>5.323 g/cm<SUP>3</SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">when liquid (at <ABBR title="melting point">m.p.</ABBR>)</SPAN></TH>
<TD>5.60 g/cm<SUP>3</SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_fusion" title="Enthalpy of fusion">Heat of fusion</A></TH>
<TD>36.94 <A href="/wiki/Kilojoule_per_mole" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilojoule per mole">kJ/mol</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization" title="Enthalpy of vaporization">Heat of vaporization</A></TH>
<TD>334 kJ/mol</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Molar_heat_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Molar heat capacity">Molar heat capacity</A></TH>
<TD>23.222 J/(mol·K)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><A href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure"><B>Vapor pressure</B></A>
<DIV style="margin:0 auto;">
<TABLE class="wikitable" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="text-align:center; border-collapse:collapse; margin:0; padding:0;">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH><ABBR title="Pressure (in Pascal)"><I>P</I></ABBR> <SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">(Pa)</SPAN></TH>
<TH>1</TH>
<TH>10</TH>
<TH>100</TH>
<TH>1 k</TH>
<TH>10 k</TH>
<TH>100 k</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>at <ABBR title="Temperature (in kelvins)"><I>T</I></ABBR> <SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">(K)</SPAN></TH>
<TD>1644</TD>
<TD>1814</TD>
<TD>2023</TD>
<TD>2287</TD>
<TD>2633</TD>
<TD>3104</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#cccc99">Atomic properties</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">Oxidation states</A></TH>
<TD><SPAN class="nowrap"><B>4</B>, 3, <B>2</B>, 1, 0, −1, −2, −3, <B>−4</B></SPAN> (an <A href="/wiki/Amphoterism" title="Amphoterism">amphoteric</A> oxide)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Electronegativity</A></TH>
<TD>Pauling scale: 2.01</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">Ionization energies</A></TH>
<TD>
<DIV class="plainlist">
<UL>
<LI>1st: 762 kJ/mol</LI>
<LI>2nd: 1537.5 kJ/mol</LI>
<LI>3rd: 3302.1 kJ/mol</LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">Atomic radius</A></TH>
<TD>empirical: 122 <A href="/wiki/Picometre" title="Picometre">pm</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Covalent_radius" title="Covalent radius">Covalent radius</A></TH>
<TD>122 pm</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_radius" title="Van der Waals radius">Van der Waals radius</A></TH>
<TD>211 pm</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<TABLE class="infobox" style="padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<DIV class="center">
<DIV style="width: 250px; height: 30px; overflow: hidden;">
<DIV style="position: relative; top: -0px; left: -0px; width: 400px"><A href="/wiki/File:Germanium_spectrum_visible.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Color lines in a spectral range" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Germanium_spectrum_visible.png/400px-Germanium_spectrum_visible.png" width="400" height="69" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Germanium_spectrum_visible.png/600px-Germanium_spectrum_visible.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Germanium_spectrum_visible.png/800px-Germanium_spectrum_visible.png 2x" data-file-width="7430" data-file-height="1280" /></A></DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<DIV><STRONG><A href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">Spectral lines</A></STRONG></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#cccc99">Miscellanea</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">Crystal structure</A></TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Diamond_cubic" title="Diamond cubic">face-centered diamond-cubic</A>
<DIV style="float:right;"><A href="/wiki/File:Diamond_cubic_crystal_structure.svg" class="image" title="Diamond cubic crystal structure for germanium"><IMG alt="Diamond cubic crystal structure for germanium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Diamond_cubic_crystal_structure.svg/50px-Diamond_cubic_crystal_structure.svg.png" width="50" height="58" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Diamond_cubic_crystal_structure.svg/75px-Diamond_cubic_crystal_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Diamond_cubic_crystal_structure.svg/100px-Diamond_cubic_crystal_structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="175" /></A></DIV>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Speed_of_sound" title="Speed of sound">Speed of sound</A>  <SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">thin rod</SPAN></TH>
<TD>5400 m/s (at 20 °C)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Coefficient of thermal expansion">Thermal expansion</A></TH>
<TD>6.0 µm/(m·K)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" title="Thermal conductivity">Thermal conductivity</A></TH>
<TD>60.2 W/(m·K)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">Electrical resistivity</A></TH>
<TD>1 Ω·m (at 20 °C)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Band_gap" title="Band gap">Band gap</A></TH>
<TD>0.67 <A href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">eV</A> (at 300 K)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</A></TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Diamagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diamagnetic">diamagnetic</A><SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Magnetic_susceptibility" title="Magnetic susceptibility">Magnetic susceptibility</A></TH>
<TD>−76.84·10<SUP>−6</SUP> cm<SUP>3</SUP>/mol<SUP id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-3">[3]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</A></TH>
<TD>103 GPa<SUP id="cite_ref-ioffe_4-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ioffe-4">[4]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Shear_modulus" title="Shear modulus">Shear modulus</A></TH>
<TD>41 GPa<SUP id="cite_ref-ioffe_4-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ioffe-4">[4]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Bulk_modulus" title="Bulk modulus">Bulk modulus</A></TH>
<TD>75 GPa<SUP id="cite_ref-ioffe_4-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ioffe-4">[4]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Poisson%27s_ratio" title="Poisson's ratio">Poisson ratio</A></TH>
<TD>0.26<SUP id="cite_ref-ioffe_4-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-ioffe-4">[4]</A></SUP></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs hardness</A></TH>
<TD>6.0</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number" title="CAS Registry Number">CAS Number</A></TH>
<TD>7440-56-4</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#cccc99">History</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;">Naming</TH>
<TD>after <A href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</A>, homeland of the discoverer</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;">Prediction</TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</A> <SPAN class="nowrap">(1871)</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="padding-right:0.75em;"><A href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemical_element_discoveries" title="Timeline of chemical element discoveries">Discovery</A></TH>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Clemens_Winkler" title="Clemens Winkler">Clemens Winkler</A> <SPAN class="nowrap">(1886)</SPAN></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH colspan="2" style="text-align:center;background:#cccc99">Main <A href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_germanium" title="Isotopes of germanium">isotopes of germanium</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" style="text-align:center">
<TABLE class="wikitable" cellpadding="1" style="text-align: center; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0; padding: 0;">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH><A href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">Isotope</A></TH>
<TH><A href="/wiki/Natural_abundance" title="Natural abundance">Abundance</A></TH>
<TH><A href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</A> <SPAN style="font-weight:normal;">(<I>t</I><SUB>1/2</SUB>)</SPAN></TH>
<TH><A href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Decay mode</A></TH>
<TH><A href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">Product</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="text-align:right;"><SUP>68</SUP>Ge</TH>
<TD style="text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Synthetic_radioisotope" title="Synthetic radioisotope">syn</A></TD>
<TD style="text-align:right;">270.8 d</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">ε</A></TD>
<TD style="text-align:right;"><A href="/wiki/Gallium-68" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallium-68"><SUP>68</SUP>Ga</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="text-align:right;"><SUP>70</SUP>Ge</TH>
<TD style="text-align:right">20.52%</TD>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><A href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">stable</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="text-align:right;"><SUP>71</SUP>Ge</TH>
<TD style="text-align:center;">syn</TD>
<TD style="text-align:right;">11.3 d</TD>
<TD>ε</TD>
<TD style="text-align:right;"><A href="/wiki/Gallium-71" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallium-71"><SUP>71</SUP>Ga</A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="text-align:right;"><SUP>72</SUP>Ge</TH>
<TD style="text-align:right">27.45%</TD>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center;">stable</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="text-align:right;"><SUP>73</SUP>Ge</TH>
<TD style="text-align:right">7.76%</TD>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center;">stable</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="text-align:right;"><SUP>74</SUP>Ge</TH>
<TD style="text-align:right">36.52%</TD>
<TD colspan="3" style="text-align:center;">stable</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH style="text-align:right;"><SUP>76</SUP>Ge</TH>
<TD style="text-align:right;">7.75%</TD>
<TD style="text-align:right;">1.78×10<SUP>21</SUP> y</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">β<SUP>−</SUP>β<SUP>−</SUP></A></TD>
<TD style="text-align:right;"><A href="/wiki/Selenium-76" class="mw-redirect" title="Selenium-76"><SUP>76</SUP>Se</A></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD colspan="2" class="noprint" style="text-align:center;background:#cccc99">
<DIV class="plainlinks hlist navbar">
<UL>
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<LI class="nv-edit"><A class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_germanium&action=edit"><SPAN title="Edit this template">edit</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
| <A href="/wiki/List_of_data_references_for_chemical_elements" title="List of data references for chemical elements">references</A> | <A href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q867" class="extiw" title="d:Q867">in Wikidata</A></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
<P><B>Germanium</B> is a <A href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical element</A> with symbol <B>Ge</B> and <A href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</A> 32. It is a lustrous, hard, grayish-white <A href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">metalloid</A> in the <A href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">carbon group</A>, chemically similar to its group neighbors <A href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</A> and <A href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</A>. Pure germanium is a <A href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</A> with an appearance similar to elemental silicon. Like silicon, germanium naturally reacts and forms complexes with <A href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</A> in nature.</P>
<P>Because it seldom appears in high concentration, germanium was discovered comparatively late in the history of chemistry. Germanium ranks near fiftieth <A href="/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust" title="Abundance of elements in Earth's crust">in relative abundance of the elements in the Earth's crust</A>. In 1869, <A href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</A> <A href="/wiki/Mendeleev%27s_predicted_elements" title="Mendeleev's predicted elements">predicted</A> its existence and some of its properties from its position on his <A href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</A>, and called the element <B><A href="/wiki/Mendeleev%27s_predicted_elements#Ekasilicon_and_germanium" title="Mendeleev's predicted elements">ekasilicon</A></B>. Nearly two decades later, in 1886, <A href="/wiki/Clemens_Winkler" title="Clemens Winkler">Clemens Winkler</A> found the new element along with <A href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</A> and <A href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</A>, in a rare mineral called <A href="/wiki/Argyrodite" title="Argyrodite">argyrodite</A>. Although the new element somewhat resembled <A href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</A> and <A href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</A> in appearance, the combining ratios in compounds agreed with Mendeleev's predictions for a relative of silicon. Winkler named the element after his country, <A href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</A>. Today, germanium is mined primarily from <A href="/wiki/Sphalerite" title="Sphalerite">sphalerite</A> (the primary ore of zinc), though germanium is also recovered commercially from <A href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</A>, <A href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</A> <A href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ores</A>.</P>
<P>Germanium "metal" (isolated germanium) is used as a semiconductor in <A href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</A> and various other electronic devices. Historically, the first decade of semiconductor electronics was based entirely on germanium. Today, the amount of germanium produced for semiconductor electronics is one fiftieth the amount of ultra-high purity silicon produced for the same. Presently, the major end uses are <A href="/wiki/Fibre-optic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibre-optic">fibre-optic</A> systems, <A href="/wiki/Infrared_vision" title="Infrared vision">infrared optics</A>, <A href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cell</A> applications, and <A href="/wiki/Light-emitting_diode" title="Light-emitting diode">light-emitting diodes</A> (LEDs). Germanium compounds are also used for <A href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</A> catalysts and have most recently found use in the production of <A href="/wiki/Nanowire" title="Nanowire">nanowires</A>. This element forms a large number of <A href="/wiki/Organometallic" class="mw-redirect" title="Organometallic">organometallic</A> compounds, such as <A href="/wiki/Tetraethylgermane" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraethylgermane">tetraethylgermane</A>, useful in <A href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">organometallic chemistry</A>.</P>
<P>Germanium is not thought to be an essential element for any living organism. Some complex organic germanium compounds are being investigated as possible pharmaceuticals, though none have yet proven successful. Similar to silicon and aluminum, natural germanium compounds tend to be insoluble in water and thus have little oral <A href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</A>. However, synthetic soluble germanium salts are <A href="/wiki/Nephrotoxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nephrotoxic">nephrotoxic</A>, and synthetic chemically reactive germanium compounds with <A href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</A> and <A href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</A> are irritants and toxins.</P>
<P></P>
<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
<DIV class="toctitle">
<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#History"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">History</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Characteristics"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Characteristics</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><A href="#Chemistry"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Chemistry</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><A href="#Isotopes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Isotopes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><A href="#Occurrence"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Occurrence</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><A href="#Production"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Production</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><A href="#Applications"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Applications</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><A href="#Optics"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Optics</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><A href="#Electronics"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Electronics</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><A href="#Other_uses"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Other uses</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><A href="#Germanium_and_health"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Germanium and health</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><A href="#Precautions_for_chemically_reactive_germanium_compounds"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Precautions for chemically reactive germanium compounds</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><A href="#Future"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Future</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><A href="#Footnotes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Footnotes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="History">History</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <A href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">History of the transistor</A></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Winkler_preparate_1886_1904.png" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Winkler_preparate_1886_1904.png/220px-Winkler_preparate_1886_1904.png" width="220" height="162" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Winkler_preparate_1886_1904.png/330px-Winkler_preparate_1886_1904.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Winkler_preparate_1886_1904.png/440px-Winkler_preparate_1886_1904.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="755" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Winkler_preparate_1886_1904.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Samples of germanium compounds prepared by <A href="/wiki/Clemens_Winkler" title="Clemens Winkler">Clemens Winkler</A>, discoverer of the element</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>In his report on <I>The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements</I> in 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev predicted the existence of several unknown <A href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</A>, including one that would fill a gap in the <A href="/wiki/Group_14_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Group 14 element">carbon family</A> in his Periodic Table of the Elements, located between <A href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</A> and <A href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP> Because of its position in his Periodic Table, Mendeleev called it <I>ekasilicon (Es)</I>, and he estimated its <A href="/wiki/Atomic_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic weight">atomic weight</A> to be about 72.0.</P>
<P>In mid-1885, at a mine near <A href="/wiki/Freiberg,_Saxony" class="mw-redirect" title="Freiberg, Saxony">Freiberg, Saxony</A>, a new <A href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</A> was discovered and named <I><A href="/wiki/Argyrodite" title="Argyrodite">argyrodite</A></I> because of the high <A href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</A> content.<SUP id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-7">[n 1]</A></SUP> The chemist <A href="/wiki/Clemens_Winkler" title="Clemens Winkler">Clemens Winkler</A> analyzed this new mineral, which proved to be a combination of silver, sulfur, and a new element. Winkler was able to isolate the new element in 1886 and found it similar to <A href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Winkle2_8-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Winkle2-8">[7]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-isolation_9-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-isolation-9">[8]</A></SUP> Before Winkler published his results on the new element, he decided that he would name his element <I>neptunium</I>, since the recent discovery of planet <A href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</A> in 1846 had been preceded by mathematical predictions of its existence.<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[n 2]</A></SUP> However, the name "neptunium" had already been given to another proposed chemical element (though not the element that today bears the name <A href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">neptunium</A>, which was discovered in 1940).<SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[n 3]</A></SUP> So instead, Winkler named the new element <I>germanium</I> (from the <A href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</A> word, <I>Germania</I>, for Germany) in honor of his homeland.<SUP id="cite_ref-isolation_9-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-isolation-9">[8]</A></SUP> Argyrodite proved empirically to be Ag<SUB>8</SUB>GeS<SUB>6</SUB>.</P>
<P>Because this new element showed some similarities with the elements <A href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</A> and antimony, its proper place in the periodic table was under consideration, but its similarities with Dmitri Mendeleev's predicted element "ekasilicon" confirmed that place on the periodic table.<SUP id="cite_ref-isolation_9-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-isolation-9">[8]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[15]</A></SUP> With further material from 500 kg of ore from the mines in Saxony, Winkler confirmed the chemical properties of the new element in 1887.<SUP id="cite_ref-Winkle2_8-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Winkle2-8">[7]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-isolation_9-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-isolation-9">[8]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-19">[16]</A></SUP> He also determined an atomic weight of 72.32 by analyzing pure <A href="/wiki/Germanium_tetrachloride" title="Germanium tetrachloride">germanium tetrachloride</A> (<SPAN class="chemf nowrap">GeCl<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
4</SPAN></SPAN>), while <A href="/wiki/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lecoq de Boisbaudran">Lecoq de Boisbaudran</A> deduced 72.3 by a comparison of the lines in the spark <A href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectrum</A> of the element.<SUP id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-20">[17]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Winkler was able to prepare several new compounds of germanium, including <A href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluorides</A>, <A href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chlorides</A>, <A href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfides</A>, <A href="/wiki/Germanium_dioxide" title="Germanium dioxide">dioxide</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Tetraethylgermane" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraethylgermane">tetraethylgermane</A> (Ge(C<SUB>2</SUB>H<SUB>5</SUB>)<SUB>4</SUB>), the first organogermane.<SUP id="cite_ref-Winkle2_8-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Winkle2-8">[7]</A></SUP> The physical data from those compounds — which corresponded well with Mendeleev's predictions — made the discovery an important confirmation of Mendeleev's idea of element <A href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodicity</A>. Here is a comparison between the prediction and Winkler's data:<SUP id="cite_ref-Winkle2_8-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Winkle2-8">[7]</A></SUP></P>
<DIV style="float: center; margin: 5px;">
<TABLE class="wikitable">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH>Property</TH>
<TH>Ekasilicon</TH>
<TH>Germanium</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>atomic mass</TD>
<TD>72.64</TD>
<TD>72.59</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>density (g/cm<SUP>3</SUP>)</TD>
<TD>5.5</TD>
<TD>5.35</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>melting point (°C)</TD>
<TD>high</TD>
<TD>947</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>color</TD>
<TD>gray</TD>
<TD>gray</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>oxide type</TD>
<TD><A href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">refractory</A> dioxide</TD>
<TD>refractory dioxide</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>oxide density (g/cm<SUP>3</SUP>)</TD>
<TD>4.7</TD>
<TD>4.7</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>oxide activity</TD>
<TD>feebly basic</TD>
<TD>feebly basic</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>chloride boiling point (°C)</TD>
<TD>under 100</TD>
<TD>86 (GeCl<SUB>4</SUB>)</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>chloride density (g/cm<SUP>3</SUP>)</TD>
<TD>1.9</TD>
<TD>1.9</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<P>Until the late 1930s, germanium was thought to be a poorly conducting <A href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-DOE_21-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DOE-21">[18]</A></SUP> Germanium did not become economically significant until after 1945 when its properties as an <A href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</A> semiconductor were recognized. During <A href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</A>, small amounts of germanium were used in some special <A href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic devices</A>, mostly <A href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[19]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[20]</A></SUP> The first major use was the point-contact <A href="/wiki/Schottky_diode" title="Schottky diode">Schottky diodes</A> for <A href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</A> pulse detection during the War.<SUP id="cite_ref-DOE_21-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DOE-21">[18]</A></SUP> The first <A href="/wiki/Silicon-germanium" title="Silicon-germanium">silicon-germanium</A> alloys were obtained in 1955.<SUP id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-24">[21]</A></SUP> Before 1945, only a few hundred kilograms of germanium were produced in smelters each year, but by the end of the 1950s, the annual worldwide production had reached 40 <A href="/wiki/Metric_ton" class="mw-redirect" title="Metric ton">metric tons</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-acs_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-acs-25">[22]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The development of the germanium <A href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</A> in 1948<SUP id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-26">[23]</A></SUP> opened the door to countless applications of <A href="/wiki/Solid_state_(electronics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state (electronics)">solid state electronics</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-27">[24]</A></SUP> From 1950 through the early 1970s, this area provided an increasing market for germanium, but then high-purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors, diodes, and <A href="/wiki/Rectifier" title="Rectifier">rectifiers</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP> For example, the company that became <A href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</A> was founded in 1957 with the express purpose of producing silicon transistors. Silicon has superior electrical properties, but it requires much greater purity that could not be commercially achieved in the early years of <A href="/wiki/Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">semiconductor electronics</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-29">[26]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Meanwhile, the demand for germanium for <A href="/wiki/Fiber_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber optics">fiber optic</A> communication networks, infrared <A href="/wiki/Night_vision" title="Night vision">night vision</A> systems, and <A href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</A> <A href="/wiki/Catalysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalysts">catalysts</A> increased dramatically.<SUP id="cite_ref-acs_25-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-acs-25">[22]</A></SUP> These end uses represented 85% of worldwide germanium consumption in 2000.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP> The US government even designated germanium as a strategic and critical material, calling for a 146 <A href="/wiki/Short_ton" title="Short ton">ton</A> (132 <A href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">t</A>) supply in the national defense stockpile in 1987.<SUP id="cite_ref-acs_25-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-acs-25">[22]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Germanium differs from silicon in that the supply is limited by the availability of exploitable sources, while the supply of silicon is limited only by production capacity since silicon comes from ordinary sand and <A href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</A>. While silicon could be bought in 1998 for less than $10 per kg,<SUP id="cite_ref-acs_25-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-acs-25">[22]</A></SUP> the price of germanium was almost $800 per kg.<SUP id="cite_ref-acs_25-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-acs-25">[22]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Characteristics">Characteristics</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Characteristics">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Under <A href="/wiki/Standard_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard conditions">standard conditions</A>, germanium is a brittle, silvery-white, semi-metallic element.<SUP id="cite_ref-nbb_30-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nbb-30">[27]</A></SUP> This form constitutes an <A href="/wiki/Allotrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotrope">allotrope</A> known as <I>α-germanium</I>, which has a metallic luster and a <A href="/wiki/Diamond_cubic" title="Diamond cubic">diamond cubic crystal structure</A>, the same as <A href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP> At pressures above 120 <A href="/wiki/Bar_(unit)" title="Bar (unit)">kbar</A>, it becomes the allotrope <I>β-germanium</I> with the same structure as β-<A href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-HollemanAF-31">[28]</A></SUP> Like silicon, <A href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">gallium</A>, <A href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</A>, <A href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</A>, germanium is one of the few substances that expands as it solidifies (i.e. <A href="/wiki/Freezing" title="Freezing">freezes</A>) from the molten state.<SUP id="cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-HollemanAF-31">[28]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Germanium is a <A href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</A>. <A href="/wiki/Zone_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Zone refining">Zone refining</A> techniques have led to the production of crystalline germanium for semiconductors that has an impurity of only one part in 10<SUP>10</SUP>,<SUP id="cite_ref-lanl_32-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-lanl-32">[29]</A></SUP> making it one of the purest materials ever obtained.<SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[30]</A></SUP> The first metallic material discovered (in 2005) to become a <A href="/wiki/Superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconductor">superconductor</A> in the presence of an extremely strong <A href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_field" title="Electromagnetic field">electromagnetic field</A> was an <A href="/wiki/Uranium_rhodium_germanium" title="Uranium rhodium germanium">alloy of germanium, uranium, and rhodium</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-34">[31]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Pure germanium spontaneously extrudes very long <A href="/wiki/Screw_dislocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw dislocation">screw dislocations</A>, and this is one of the primary reasons for the failure of older diodes and transistors made from germanium; depending on what they eventually touch, they may lead to an <A href="/wiki/Electrical_short" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical short">electrical short</A>.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Chemistry">Chemistry</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Chemistry">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="hatnote selfreference">See also: <A href="/wiki/Category:Germanium_compounds" title="Category:Germanium compounds">Category:Germanium compounds</A>.</DIV>
<P>Elemental germanium oxidizes slowly to <A href="/wiki/Germanium_dioxide" title="Germanium dioxide">GeO<SUB>2</SUB></A> at 250 °C.<SUP id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-35">[32]</A></SUP> Germanium is insoluble in dilute <A href="/wiki/Acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Acids">acids</A> and <A href="/wiki/Alkalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkalis">alkalis</A> but dissolves slowly in hot concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids and reacts violently with molten alkalis to produce <A href="/wiki/Germanate" title="Germanate">germanates</A> (<SPAN class="chemf nowrap">[GeO<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
3</SPAN>]<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left">2−<BR /></SPAN></SPAN>). Germanium occurs mostly in the <A href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</A> +4 although many +2 compounds are known.<SUP id="cite_ref-Greenwood_36-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Greenwood-36">[33]</A></SUP> Other oxidation states are rare: +3 is found in compounds such as Ge<SUB>2</SUB>Cl<SUB>6</SUB>, and +3 and +1 are found on the surface of oxides,<SUP id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-37">[34]</A></SUP> or negative oxidation states in <A href="/wiki/Germane" title="Germane">germanes</A>, such as −4 in <SPAN class="chemf nowrap">GeH<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
4</SPAN></SPAN>. Germanium cluster anions (<A href="/wiki/Zintl_phase" title="Zintl phase">Zintl</A> ions) such as Ge<SUB>4</SUB><SUP>2−</SUP>, Ge<SUB>9</SUB><SUP>4−</SUP>, Ge<SUB>9</SUB><SUP>2−</SUP>, [(Ge<SUB>9</SUB>)<SUB>2</SUB>]<SUP>6−</SUP> have been prepared by the extraction from alloys containing alkali metals and germanium in liquid ammonia in the presence of <A href="/wiki/Ethylenediamine" title="Ethylenediamine">ethylenediamine</A> or a <A href="/wiki/Cryptand" title="Cryptand">cryptand</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Greenwood_36-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Greenwood-36">[33]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-38">[35]</A></SUP> The oxidation states of the element in these ions are not integers—similar to the <A href="/wiki/Ozonide" title="Ozonide">ozonides</A> O<SUB>3</SUB><SUP>−</SUP>.</P>
<P>Two <A href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</A> of germanium are known: <A href="/wiki/Germanium_dioxide" title="Germanium dioxide">germanium dioxide</A> (<SPAN class="chemf nowrap">GeO<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
2</SPAN></SPAN>, germania) and <A href="/wiki/Germanium_monoxide" title="Germanium monoxide">germanium monoxide</A>, (<SPAN class="chemf nowrap">GeO</SPAN>).<SUP id="cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-HollemanAF-31">[28]</A></SUP> The dioxide, GeO<SUB>2</SUB> can be obtained by roasting <A href="/wiki/Germanium_disulfide" title="Germanium disulfide">germanium disulfide</A> (<SPAN class="chemf nowrap">GeS<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
2</SPAN></SPAN>), and is a white powder that is only slightly soluble in water but reacts with alkalis to form germanates.<SUP id="cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-HollemanAF-31">[28]</A></SUP> The monoxide, germanous oxide, can be obtained by the high temperature reaction of GeO<SUB>2</SUB> with Ge metal.<SUP id="cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-HollemanAF-31">[28]</A></SUP> The dioxide (and the related oxides and germanates) exhibits the unusual property of having a high refractive index for visible light, but transparency to <A href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</A> light.<SUP id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-39">[36]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-40">[37]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Bismuth_germanate" title="Bismuth germanate">Bismuth germanate</A>, Bi<SUB>4</SUB>Ge<SUB>3</SUB>O<SUB>12</SUB>, (BGO) is used as a <A href="/wiki/Scintillator" title="Scintillator">scintillator</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-BGO_41-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-BGO-41">[38]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Binary_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary compound">Binary compounds</A> with other <A href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">chalcogens</A> are also known, such as the di<A href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfide</A> (<SPAN class="chemf nowrap">GeS<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
2</SPAN></SPAN>), di<A href="/wiki/Selenide" title="Selenide">selenide</A> (<SPAN class="chemf nowrap">GeSe<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
2</SPAN></SPAN>), and the <A href="/wiki/Germanium_monosulfide" title="Germanium monosulfide">monosulfide</A> (GeS), selenide (GeSe), and <A href="/wiki/Telluride_(chemistry)" title="Telluride (chemistry)">telluride</A> (GeTe).<SUP id="cite_ref-Greenwood_36-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Greenwood-36">[33]</A></SUP> GeS<SUB>2</SUB> forms as a white precipitate when hydrogen sulfide is passed through strongly acid solutions containing Ge(IV).<SUP id="cite_ref-Greenwood_36-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Greenwood-36">[33]</A></SUP> The disulfide is appreciably soluble in water and in solutions of caustic alkalis or alkaline sulfides. Nevertheless, it is not soluble in acidic water, which allowed Winkler to discover the element.<SUP id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-42">[39]</A></SUP> By heating the disulfide in a current of <A href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</A>, the monosulfide (GeS) is formed, which sublimes in thin plates of a dark color and metallic luster, and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis.<SUP id="cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-HollemanAF-31">[28]</A></SUP> Upon melting with <A href="/wiki/Alkali_metal_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali metal compound">alkaline carbonates</A> and <A href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</A>, germanium compounds form salts known as thiogermanates.<SUP id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-43">[40]</A></SUP></P>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Germane-2D-dimensions.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Skeletal chemical structure of a tetrahedral molecule with germanium atom in its center bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The Ge-H distance is 152.51 picometers." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Germane-2D-dimensions.png/170px-Germane-2D-dimensions.png" width="170" height="137" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Germane-2D-dimensions.png/255px-Germane-2D-dimensions.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Germane-2D-dimensions.png/340px-Germane-2D-dimensions.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="889" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Germane-2D-dimensions.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Germane is similar to <A href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</A>.</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>Four tetra<A href="/wiki/Halides" class="mw-redirect" title="Halides">halides</A> are known. Under normal conditions GeI<SUB>4</SUB> is a solid, GeF<SUB>4</SUB> a gas and the others volatile liquids. For example, <A href="/wiki/Germanium_tetrachloride" title="Germanium tetrachloride">germanium tetrachloride</A>, GeCl<SUB>4</SUB>, is obtained as a colorless fuming liquid boiling at 83.1 °C by heating the metal with chlorine.<SUP id="cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-HollemanAF-31">[28]</A></SUP> All the tetrahalides are readily hydrolyzed to hydrated germanium dioxide.<SUP id="cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-HollemanAF-31">[28]</A></SUP> GeCl<SUB>4</SUB> is used in the production of organogermanium compounds.<SUP id="cite_ref-Greenwood_36-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Greenwood-36">[33]</A></SUP> All four dihalides are known and in contrast to the tetrahalides are polymeric solids.<SUP id="cite_ref-Greenwood_36-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Greenwood-36">[33]</A></SUP> Additionally Ge<SUB>2</SUB>Cl<SUB>6</SUB> and some higher compounds of formula Ge<SUB><I>n</I></SUB>Cl<SUB>2<I>n</I>+2</SUB> are known.<SUP id="cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-HollemanAF-31">[28]</A></SUP> The unusual compound Ge<SUB>6</SUB>Cl<SUB>16</SUB> has been prepared that contains the Ge<SUB>5</SUB>Cl<SUB>12</SUB> unit with a <A href="/wiki/Neopentane" title="Neopentane">neopentane</A> structure.<SUP id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-44">[41]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Germane" title="Germane">Germane</A> (GeH<SUB>4</SUB>) is a compound similar in structure to <A href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</A>. Polygermanes—compounds that are similar to <A href="/wiki/Alkane" title="Alkane">alkanes</A>—with formula Ge<SUB><I>n</I></SUB>H<SUB>2<I>n</I>+2</SUB> containing up to five germanium atoms are known.<SUP id="cite_ref-Greenwood_36-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Greenwood-36">[33]</A></SUP> The germanes are less volatile and less reactive than their corresponding silicon analogues.<SUP id="cite_ref-Greenwood_36-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Greenwood-36">[33]</A></SUP> GeH<SUB>4</SUB> reacts with alkali metals in liquid ammonia to form white crystalline MGeH<SUB>3</SUB> which contain the GeH<SUB>3</SUB><SUP>−</SUP> <A href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anion</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Greenwood_36-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Greenwood-36">[33]</A></SUP> The germanium hydrohalides with one, two and three halogen atoms are colorless reactive liquids.<SUP id="cite_ref-Greenwood_36-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Greenwood-36">[33]</A></SUP></P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:NucleophilicAdditionWithOrganogermanium.png" class="image"><IMG alt="Skeletal chemical structures outlining an additive chemical reaction including an organogermanium compound." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/NucleophilicAdditionWithOrganogermanium.png/220px-NucleophilicAdditionWithOrganogermanium.png" width="220" height="61" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/NucleophilicAdditionWithOrganogermanium.png/330px-NucleophilicAdditionWithOrganogermanium.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/NucleophilicAdditionWithOrganogermanium.png/440px-NucleophilicAdditionWithOrganogermanium.png 2x" data-file-width="1022" data-file-height="284" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:NucleophilicAdditionWithOrganogermanium.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
<A href="/wiki/Nucleophile" title="Nucleophile">Nucleophilic</A> addition with an organogermanium compound.</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>The first <A href="/wiki/Organogermanium_compound" title="Organogermanium compound">organogermanium compound</A> was synthesized by Winkler in 1887; the reaction of germanium tetrachloride with <A href="/wiki/Diethylzinc" title="Diethylzinc">diethylzinc</A> yielded <A href="/wiki/Tetraethylgermane" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraethylgermane">tetraethylgermane</A> (<SPAN class="chemf nowrap">Ge(C<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
2</SPAN>H<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
5</SPAN>)<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
4</SPAN></SPAN>).<SUP id="cite_ref-Winkle2_8-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Winkle2-8">[7]</A></SUP> Organogermanes of the type R<SUB>4</SUB>Ge (where R is an <A href="/wiki/Alkyl" title="Alkyl">alkyl</A>) such as <A href="/wiki/Tetramethylgermane" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetramethylgermane">tetramethylgermane</A> (<SPAN class="chemf nowrap">Ge(CH<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
3</SPAN>)<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
4</SPAN></SPAN>) and tetraethylgermane are accessed through the cheapest available germanium precursor <A href="/wiki/Germanium_tetrachloride" title="Germanium tetrachloride">germanium tetrachloride</A> and alkyl nucleophiles. Organic germanium hydrides such as <A href="/wiki/Isobutylgermane" title="Isobutylgermane">isobutylgermane</A> (<SPAN class="chemf nowrap">(CH<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
3</SPAN>)<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
2</SPAN>CHCH<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
2</SPAN>GeH<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
3</SPAN></SPAN>) were found to be less hazardous and may be used as a liquid substitute for toxic <A href="/wiki/Germane" title="Germane">germane</A> gas in <A href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</A> applications. Many germanium <A href="/wiki/Reactive_intermediate" title="Reactive intermediate">reactive intermediates</A> are known: <A href="/wiki/-yl" class="mw-redirect" title="-yl">germyl</A> <A href="/wiki/Free_radical" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radical">free radicals</A>, germylenes (similar to <A href="/wiki/Carbene" title="Carbene">carbenes</A>), and germynes (similar to <A href="/wiki/Carbyne" title="Carbyne">carbynes</A>).<SUP id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-45">[42]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-46">[43]</A></SUP> The organogermanium compound <A href="/wiki/Propagermanium" title="Propagermanium">2-carboxyethylgermasesquioxane</A> was first reported in the 1970s, and for a while was used as a dietary supplement and thought to possibly have anti-tumor qualities.<SUP id="cite_ref-toxic_47-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-toxic-47">[44]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Using a ligand called Eind (1,1,3,3,5,5,7,7-octaethyl-s-hydrindacen-4-yl) germanium is able to form a double bond with oxygen (germanone).<SUP id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-48">[45]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Isotopes">Isotopes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Isotopes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <A href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_germanium" title="Isotopes of germanium">Isotopes of germanium</A></DIV>
<P>Germanium occurs in 5 natural <A href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</A>: <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">70<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">72<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">73<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN>, <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">74<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN>, and <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">76<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN>. Of these, <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">76<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN> is very slightly radioactive, decaying by <A href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">double beta decay</A> with a <A href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</A> of <SPAN class="nowrap"><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7028561725280000000♠</SPAN>1.78<SPAN style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</SPAN>10<SUP>21</SUP> years</SPAN>. <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">74<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN> is the most common isotope, having a <A href="/wiki/Natural_abundance" title="Natural abundance">natural abundance</A> of approximately 36%. <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">76<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN> is the least common with a natural abundance of approximately 7%.<SUP id="cite_ref-nubase_49-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nubase-49">[46]</A></SUP> When bombarded with alpha particles, the isotope <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">72<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN> will generate stable <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><A href="/wiki/Selenium-77" class="mw-redirect" title="Selenium-77"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">77<BR /></SPAN>Se<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></A></SPAN>, releasing high energy electrons in the process.<SUP id="cite_ref-72Ge_50-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-72Ge-50">[47]</A></SUP> Because of this, it is used in combination with radon for <A href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="Atomic battery">nuclear batteries</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-72Ge_50-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-72Ge-50">[47]</A></SUP></P>
<P>At least 27 <A href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotopes</A> have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 58 to 89. The most stable of these is <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">68<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN>, decaying by <A href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</A> with a half-life of <SPAN class="nowrap"><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">7007234100800000000♠</SPAN>270.95 d</SPAN>ays. The least stable is <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">60<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN>, with a half-life of <SPAN class="nowrap"><SPAN style="display:none" class="sortkey">6998300000000000000♠</SPAN>30 <A href="/wiki/Millisecond" title="Millisecond">ms</A></SPAN>. While most of germanium's radioisotopes decay by <A href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</A>, <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">61<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN> and <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">64<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN> decay by <A href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission"><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><BR /></SPAN>β<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left">+<BR /></SPAN></SPAN></A> delayed <A href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">proton emission</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-nubase_49-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nubase-49">[46]</A></SUP> <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">84<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN> through <SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right">87<BR /></SPAN>Ge<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR /></SPAN></SPAN> isotopes also exhibit minor <A href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay"><SPAN style="white-space:nowrap;"><SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:right"><BR /></SPAN>β<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:0.8em;line-height:1.0em;font-size:80%;text-align:left">−<BR /></SPAN></SPAN></A> delayed <A href="/wiki/Neutron_emission" title="Neutron emission">neutron emission</A> decay paths.<SUP id="cite_ref-nubase_49-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nubase-49">[46]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Occurrence">Occurrence</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Occurrence">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="hatnote selfreference">See also: <A href="/wiki/Category:Germanium_minerals" title="Category:Germanium minerals">Category:Germanium minerals</A>.</DIV>
<P>Germanium is created by <A href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar nucleosynthesis</A>, mostly by the <A href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s-process</A> in <A href="/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch" title="Asymptotic giant branch">asymptotic giant branch</A> stars. The s-process is a slow <A href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</A> capture of lighter elements inside pulsating <A href="/wiki/Red_giant" title="Red giant">red giant</A> stars.<SUP id="cite_ref-sterling_51-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-sterling-51">[48]</A></SUP> Germanium has been detected in some of the most distant stars<SUP id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-52">[49]</A></SUP> and in the atmosphere of Jupiter.<SUP id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-53">[50]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Germanium's abundance <A href="/wiki/Earth#Chemical_composition" title="Earth">in the Earth's crust</A> is approximately 1.6 <A href="/wiki/Parts_per_million" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per million">ppm</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Holl_54-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Holl-54">[51]</A></SUP> Only a few minerals like <A href="/wiki/Argyrodite" title="Argyrodite">argyrodite</A>, <A href="/wiki/Briartite" title="Briartite">briartite</A>, <A href="/wiki/Germanite" title="Germanite">germanite</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Renierite" title="Renierite">renierite</A> contain appreciable amounts of germanium, and none in mineable deposits.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-55">[52]</A></SUP> Some zinc-copper-lead ore bodies contain enough germanium to justify extraction from the final ore concentrate.<SUP id="cite_ref-Holl_54-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Holl-54">[51]</A></SUP> An unusual natural enrichment process causes a high content of germanium in some coal seams, discovered by <A href="/wiki/Victor_Moritz_Goldschmidt" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Moritz Goldschmidt">Victor Moritz Goldschmidt</A> during a broad survey for germanium deposits.<SUP id="cite_ref-Gold1_56-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gold1-56">[53]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Gold2_57-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gold2-57">[54]</A></SUP> The highest concentration ever found was in <A href="/wiki/Hartley,_Northumberland" title="Hartley, Northumberland">Hartley</A> coal ash with as much as 1.6% germanium.<SUP id="cite_ref-Gold1_56-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gold1-56">[53]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Gold2_57-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gold2-57">[54]</A></SUP> The coal deposits near <A href="/wiki/Xilinhaote" class="mw-redirect" title="Xilinhaote">Xilinhaote</A>, <A href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</A>, contain an estimated 1600 <A href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</A> of germanium.<SUP id="cite_ref-Holl_54-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Holl-54">[51]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Production">Production</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Production">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Renierit.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="A brown block of irregular shape and surface, about 6 cm in size." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Renierit.JPG/220px-Renierit.JPG" width="220" height="197" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Renierit.JPG/330px-Renierit.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Renierit.JPG/440px-Renierit.JPG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="718" /></A>
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<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Renierit.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
<A href="/wiki/Renierite" title="Renierite">Renierite</A></DIV>
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</DIV>
<P>About 118 <A href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</A> of germanium was produced in 2011 worldwide, mostly in China (80 t), Russia (5 t) and United States (3 t).<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP> Germanium is recovered as a by-product from <A href="/wiki/Sphalerite" title="Sphalerite">sphalerite</A> <A href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</A> ores where it is concentrated in amounts as great as 0.3%,<SUP id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-58">[55]</A></SUP> especially from low-temperature sediment-hosted, massive <A href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zn</A>–<A href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Pb</A>–<A href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Cu</A>(–<A href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Ba</A>) deposits and carbonate-hosted Zn–Pb deposits.<SUP id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-59">[56]</A></SUP> A recent study found that at least 10,000 t of extractable germanium is contained in known zinc reserves, particularly those hosted by <A href="/wiki/Carbonate-hosted_lead-zinc_ore_deposits" title="Carbonate-hosted lead-zinc ore deposits">Mississippi-Valley type deposits</A>, while at least 112,000 t will be found in coal reserves.<SUP id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-60">[57]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-61">[58]</A></SUP> In 2007 35% of the demand was met by recycled germanium.<SUP id="cite_ref-Holl_54-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Holl-54">[51]</A></SUP></P>
<P>While it is produced mainly from <A href="/wiki/Sphalerite" title="Sphalerite">sphalerite</A>, it is also found in <A href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</A>, <A href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</A> ores. Another source of germanium is <A href="/wiki/Fly_ash" title="Fly ash">fly ash</A> of power plants fueled from coal deposits that contain germanium. Russia and China used this as a source for germanium.<SUP id="cite_ref-Naumov_62-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Naumov-62">[59]</A></SUP> Russia's deposits are located in the far east of <A href="/wiki/Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin</A> Island, and northeast of <A href="/wiki/Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</A>. The deposits in China are located mainly in the <A href="/wiki/Lignite" title="Lignite">lignite</A> mines near <A href="/wiki/Lincang" title="Lincang">Lincang</A>, <A href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</A>; coal is also mined near <A href="/wiki/Xilinhaote" class="mw-redirect" title="Xilinhaote">Xilinhaote</A>, <A href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Holl_54-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Holl-54">[51]</A></SUP></P>
<DIV style="float: right; margin: 5px;">
<TABLE class="wikitable">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH>Year</TH>
<TH>Cost<BR />
(<A href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">$</A>/kg)<SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[60]</A></SUP></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>1999</TD>
<TD>1,400</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2000</TD>
<TD>1,250</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2001</TD>
<TD>890</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2002</TD>
<TD>620</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2003</TD>
<TD>380</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2004</TD>
<TD>600</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2005</TD>
<TD>660</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2006</TD>
<TD>880</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2007</TD>
<TD>1,240</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2008</TD>
<TD>1,490</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2009</TD>
<TD>950</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2010</TD>
<TD>940</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2011</TD>
<TD>1,625</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2012</TD>
<TD>1,680</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2013</TD>
<TD>1,875</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2014</TD>
<TD>1,900</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2015</TD>
<TD>1,760</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>2016</TD>
<TD>950</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
<P>The ore concentrates are mostly <A href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfidic</A>; they are converted to the <A href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</A> by heating under air in a process known as <A href="/wiki/Roasting_(metallurgy)" title="Roasting (metallurgy)">roasting</A>:</P>
<DL>
<DD>GeS<SUB>2</SUB> + 3 O<SUB>2</SUB> → GeO<SUB>2</SUB> + 2 SO<SUB>2</SUB></DD>
</DL>
<P>Some of the germanium is left in the dust produced, while the rest is converted to germanates, which are then leached (together with zinc) from the cinder by sulfuric acid. After neutralization, only the zinc stays in solution while germanium and other metals precipitate. After removing some of the zinc in the precipitate by the <A href="/wiki/Waelz_process" title="Waelz process">Waelz process</A>, the residing Waelz oxide is leached a second time. The <A href="/wiki/Germanium_dioxide" title="Germanium dioxide">dioxide</A> is obtained as precipitate and converted with <A href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</A> gas or hydrochloric acid to <A href="/wiki/Germanium_tetrachloride" title="Germanium tetrachloride">germanium tetrachloride</A>, which has a low boiling point and can be isolated by distillation:<SUP id="cite_ref-Naumov_62-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Naumov-62">[59]</A></SUP></P>
<DL>
<DD>GeO<SUB>2</SUB> + 4 HCl → GeCl<SUB>4</SUB> + 2 H<SUB>2</SUB>O</DD>
<DD>GeO<SUB>2</SUB> + 2 Cl<SUB>2</SUB> → GeCl<SUB>4</SUB> + O<SUB>2</SUB></DD>
</DL>
<P>Germanium tetrachloride is either hydrolyzed to the oxide (GeO<SUB>2</SUB>) or purified by fractional distillation and then hydrolyzed.<SUP id="cite_ref-Naumov_62-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Naumov-62">[59]</A></SUP> The highly pure GeO<SUB>2</SUB> is now suitable for the production of germanium glass. It is reduced to the element by reacting it with hydrogen, producing germanium suitable for infrared optics and semiconductor production:</P>
<DL>
<DD>GeO<SUB>2</SUB> + 2 H<SUB>2</SUB> → Ge + 2 H<SUB>2</SUB>O</DD>
</DL>
<P>The germanium for steel production and other industrial processes is normally reduced using carbon:<SUP id="cite_ref-Moska_64-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Moska-64">[61]</A></SUP></P>
<DL>
<DD>GeO<SUB>2</SUB> + C → Ge + CO<SUB>2</SUB></DD>
</DL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Applications">Applications</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg" class="image"><IMG alt="A drawing of four concentric cylinders." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg/220px-Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg.png" width="220" height="198" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg/330px-Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg/440px-Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="419" data-file-height="378" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Singlemode_fibre_structure.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
A typical single-mode optical fiber. Germanium oxide is a <A href="/wiki/Dopant" title="Dopant">dopant</A> of the core silica (Item 1).<BR />
1. Core 8 µm<BR />
2. Cladding 125 µm<BR />
3. Buffer 250 µm<BR />
4. Jacket 400 µm</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>The major end uses for germanium in 2007, worldwide, were estimated to be: 35% for <A href="/wiki/Fiber-optic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber-optic">fiber-optics</A>, 30% <A href="/wiki/Infrared_vision" title="Infrared vision">infrared optics</A>, 15% <A href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</A> catalysts, and 15% electronics and solar electric applications.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP> The remaining 5% went into such uses as phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Optics">Optics</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Optics">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>The notable properties of <A href="/wiki/Germanium_dioxide" title="Germanium dioxide">germania</A> (GeO<SUB>2</SUB>) are its high <A href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">index of refraction</A> and its low <A href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">optical dispersion</A>. These make it especially useful for <A href="/wiki/Wide-angle_camera_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Wide-angle camera lens">wide-angle camera lenses</A>, <A href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</A>, and the core part of <A href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fibers</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-65">[62]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Brown_66-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Brown-66">[63]</A></SUP> It has replaced <A href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">titania</A> as the <A href="/wiki/Dopant" title="Dopant">dopant</A> for silica fiber, eliminating the subsequent heat treatment that made the fibers brittle.<SUP id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-67">[64]</A></SUP> At the end of 2002, the fiber optics industry consumed 60% of the annual germanium use in the United States, but this is less than 10% of worldwide consumption.<SUP id="cite_ref-Brown_66-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Brown-66">[63]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/GeSbTe" title="GeSbTe">GeSbTe</A> is a <A href="/wiki/Phase_change_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase change material">phase change material</A> used for its optic properties, such as that used in <A href="/wiki/DVD-RW" class="mw-redirect" title="DVD-RW">rewritable DVDs</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[65]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Because germanium is transparent in the infrared wavelengths, it is an important <A href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</A> optical material that can be readily cut and polished into lenses and windows. It is especially used as the front optic in <A href="/wiki/Thermographic_camera" title="Thermographic camera">thermal imaging cameras</A> working in the 8 to 14 <A href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micron</A> range for passive thermal imaging and for hot-spot detection in military, mobile <A href="/wiki/Night_vision" title="Night vision">night vision</A>, and fire fighting applications.<SUP id="cite_ref-Moska_64-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Moska-64">[61]</A></SUP> It is used in infrared <A href="/wiki/Spectroscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectroscope">spectroscopes</A> and other optical equipment that require extremely sensitive <A href="/wiki/Infrared_photography" title="Infrared photography">infrared detectors</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Brown_66-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Brown-66">[63]</A></SUP> It has a very high <A href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</A> (4.0) and must be coated with anti-reflection agents. Particularly, a very hard special antireflection coating of <A href="/wiki/Diamond-like_carbon" title="Diamond-like carbon">diamond-like carbon</A> (DLC), refractive index 2.0, is a good match and produces a diamond-hard surface that can withstand much environmental abuse.<SUP id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-69">[66]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-70">[67]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Electronics">Electronics</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Electronics">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P><A href="/wiki/Silicon-germanium" title="Silicon-germanium">Silicon-germanium</A> alloys are rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material for high-speed integrated circuits. Circuits utilizing the properties of Si-SiGe junctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone.<SUP id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-71">[68]</A></SUP> Silicon-germanium is beginning to replace <A href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</A> (GaAs) in wireless communications devices.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP> The SiGe chips, with high-speed properties, can be made with low-cost, well-established production techniques of the <A href="/wiki/Silicon_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon chip">silicon chip</A> industry.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">Solar panels</A> are a major use of germanium. Germanium is the substrate of the wafers for high-efficiency <A href="/wiki/Multijunction_photovoltaic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Multijunction photovoltaic cell">multijunction photovoltaic cells</A> for space applications. High-brightness LEDs, used for automobile headlights and to backlight LCD screens, are an important application.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Because germanium and <A href="/wiki/Gallium_arsenide" title="Gallium arsenide">gallium arsenide</A> have very similar lattice constants, germanium substrates can be used to make gallium arsenide <A href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-72">[69]</A></SUP> The <A href="/wiki/Mars_Exploration_Rover" title="Mars Exploration Rover">Mars Exploration Rovers</A> and several satellites use triple junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells.<SUP id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-73">[70]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Germanium-on-insulator substrates are seen as a potential replacement for silicon on miniaturized chips.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP> Other uses in electronics include <A href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">phosphors</A> in <A href="/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp" title="Fluorescent lamp">fluorescent lamps</A><SUP id="cite_ref-lanl_32-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-lanl-32">[29]</A></SUP> and solid-state light-emitting diodes (LEDs).<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP> Germanium transistors are still used in some <A href="/wiki/Effects_pedal" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects pedal">effects pedals</A> by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal character of the <A href="/wiki/Distortion_(music)" title="Distortion (music)">"fuzz"-tone</A> from the early <A href="/wiki/Rock_and_roll" title="Rock and roll">rock and roll</A> era, most notably the <A href="/wiki/Fuzz_Face" title="Fuzz Face">Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-74">[71]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Other_uses">Other uses</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other uses">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Pet_Flasche.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="Photo of a standard transparent plastic bottle." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Pet_Flasche.JPG/170px-Pet_Flasche.JPG" width="170" height="256" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Pet_Flasche.JPG/255px-Pet_Flasche.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Pet_Flasche.JPG/340px-Pet_Flasche.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3008" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:Pet_Flasche.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
A <A href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">PET</A> <A href="/wiki/Bottle" title="Bottle">bottle</A></DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>Germanium dioxide is also used in <A href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalysts</A> for <A href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</A> in the production of <A href="/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate" title="Polyethylene terephthalate">polyethylene terephthalate</A> (PET).<SUP id="cite_ref-Thiele_75-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Thiele-75">[72]</A></SUP> The high brilliance of this polyester is especially favored for PET bottles marketed in Japan.<SUP id="cite_ref-Thiele_75-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Thiele-75">[72]</A></SUP> In the United States, germanium is not used for polymerization catalysts.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Due to the similarity between silica (SiO<SUB>2</SUB>) and germanium dioxide (GeO<SUB>2</SUB>), the silica stationary phase in some <A href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">gas chromatography</A> columns can be replaced by GeO<SUB>2</SUB>.<SUP id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-76">[73]</A></SUP></P>
<P>In recent years germanium has seen increasing use in precious metal alloys. In <A href="/wiki/Sterling_silver" title="Sterling silver">sterling silver</A> alloys, for instance, it reduces <A href="/wiki/Firescale" title="Firescale">firescale</A>, increases tarnish resistance, and improves precipitation hardening. A tarnish-proof silver alloy trademarked <A href="/wiki/Argentium_sterling_silver" title="Argentium sterling silver">Argentium</A> contains 1.2% germanium.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/Semiconductor_detector#Germanium_detector" title="Semiconductor detector">Semiconductor detectors</A> made of single crystal high-purity germanium can precisely identify radiation sources—for example in airport security.<SUP id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-77">[74]</A></SUP> Germanium is useful for <A href="/wiki/Crystal_monochromator" title="Crystal monochromator">monochromators</A> for <A href="/wiki/Beamline" title="Beamline">beamlines</A> used in <A href="/wiki/Single_crystal" title="Single crystal">single crystal</A> <A href="/wiki/Neutron_scattering" title="Neutron scattering">neutron scattering</A> and <A href="/wiki/Synchrotron_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchrotron light">synchrotron X-ray</A> diffraction. The reflectivity has advantages over silicon in neutron and <A href="/wiki/High_energy_X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="High energy X-rays">high energy X-ray</A> applications.<SUP id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-78">[75]</A></SUP> Crystals of high purity germanium are used in detectors for <A href="/wiki/Gamma_spectroscopy" title="Gamma spectroscopy">gamma spectroscopy</A> and the search for <A href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-79">[76]</A></SUP> Germanium crystals are also used in X-ray spectrometers for the determination of phosphorus, chlorine and sulfur.<SUP id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-80">[77]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Germanium is emerging as an important material for <A href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">spintronics</A> and spin-based <A href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">quantum computing</A> applications. In 2010, researchers demonstrated room temperature spin transport <SUP id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-81">[78]</A></SUP> and more recently donor electron spins in germanium has been shown to have very long <A href="/wiki/Coherence_time" title="Coherence time">coherence times</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-82">[79]</A></SUP></P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Germanium_and_health">Germanium and health</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Germanium and health">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Germanium is not considered essential to the health of plants or animals.<SUP id="cite_ref-acs_25-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-acs-25">[22]</A></SUP> Germanium in the environment has little or no health impact. This is primarily because it usually occurs only as a trace element in ores and <A href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbonaceous</A> materials, and the various industrial and electronic applications involve very small quantities that are not likely to be ingested.<SUP id="cite_ref-usgs_28-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-usgs-28">[25]</A></SUP> For similar reasons, end-use germanium has little impact on the environment as a biohazard. Some reactive intermediate compounds of germanium are poisonous (see precautions, below).<SUP id="cite_ref-Brown_Jr_83-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Brown_Jr-83">[80]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Germanium supplements, made from both organic and inorganic germanium, have been marketed as an <A href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">alternative medicine</A> capable of treating <A href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</A> and <A href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-acs_25-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-acs-25">[22]</A></SUP> There is, however, no <A href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">medical evidence</A> of benefit; some evidence suggests that such supplements are actively harmful.<SUP id="cite_ref-American_Cancer_Society_84-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-American_Cancer_Society-84">[81]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Some germanium compounds have been administered by alternative medical practitioners as non-FDA-allowed injectable solutions. Soluble inorganic forms of germanium used at first, notably the citrate-lactate salt, resulted in some cases of <A href="/wiki/Renal" class="mw-redirect" title="Renal">renal</A> dysfunction, <A href="/wiki/Hepatic_steatosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatic steatosis">hepatic steatosis</A>, and peripheral <A href="/wiki/Neuropathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropathy">neuropathy</A> in individuals using them over a long term. Plasma and urine germanium concentrations in these individuals, several of whom died, were several orders of magnitude greater than <A href="/wiki/Endogenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogenous">endogenous</A> levels. A more recent organic form, beta-carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide (<A href="/wiki/Propagermanium" title="Propagermanium">propagermanium</A>), has not exhibited the same spectrum of toxic effects.<SUP id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-85">[82]</A></SUP></P>
<P><A href="/wiki/U.S._Food_and_Drug_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Food and Drug Administration">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</A> research has concluded that inorganic germanium, when used as a <A href="/wiki/Nutritional_supplement" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutritional supplement">nutritional supplement</A>, "presents potential human <A href="/wiki/Health_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Health hazard">health hazard</A>".<SUP id="cite_ref-toxic_47-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-toxic-47">[44]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to <A href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</A>, but have toxic effects against certain <A href="/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacteria</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-nbb_30-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-nbb-30">[27]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Precautions_for_chemically_reactive_germanium_compounds">Precautions for chemically reactive germanium compounds</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Precautions for chemically reactive germanium compounds">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Some of germanium's artificially-produced compounds are quite reactive and present an immediate hazard to human health on exposure. For example, <A href="/wiki/Germanium_tetrachloride" title="Germanium tetrachloride">germanium chloride</A> and <A href="/wiki/Germane" title="Germane">germane</A> (GeH<SUB>4</SUB>) are a liquid and gas, respectively, that can be very irritating to the eyes, skin, lungs, and throat.<SUP id="cite_ref-Gerber_1997_141.E2.80.93146_86-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Gerber_1997_141.E2.80.93146-86">[83]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Future">Future</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Future">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>As of the year 2000, about 15% of <A href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</A> consumption of germanium was used for infrared optics technology and 50% for fiber-optics. Over the past 20 years, infrared use has consistently decreased; fiber optic demand, however, is slowly increasing. In America, 30–50% of current fiber optic lines are unused <A href="/wiki/Dark_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark fiber">dark fiber</A>, sparking discussion of over-production and a future reduction in demand. Worldwide, demand is increasing dramatically as countries such as China are installing fiber optic telecommunication lines throughout the country.<SUP id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-87">[84]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Vitrain" title="Vitrain">Vitrain</A></LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Footnotes">Footnotes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<DIV class="mw-references-wrap">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-7"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-7"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">From Greek, <I>argyrodite</I> means <I>silver-containing</I>.<SUP id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-6">[6]</A></SUP></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-12"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-12"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Just as the existence of the new element had been predicted, the existence of the planet <A href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</A> had been predicted in about 1843 by the two mathematicians <A href="/wiki/John_Couch_Adams" title="John Couch Adams">John Couch Adams</A> and <A href="/wiki/Urbain_Le_Verrier" title="Urbain Le Verrier">Urbain Le Verrier</A>, using the calculation methods of <A href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">celestial mechanics</A>. They did this in attempts to explain the fact that the planet <A href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</A>, upon very close observation, appeared to be being pulled slightly out of position in the sky.<SUP id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-10">[9]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/James_Challis" title="James Challis">James Challis</A> started searching for it in July 1846, and he sighted this planet on September 23, 1846.<SUP id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-11">[10]</A></SUP></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">R. Hermann published claims in 1877 of his discovery of a new element beneath <A href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</A> in the periodic table, which he named <I>neptunium</I>, after the Greek god of the oceans and seas.<SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[11]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[12]</A></SUP> However this <A href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</A> was later recognized to be an <A href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</A> of the elements <A href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</A> and tantalum.<SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[13]</A></SUP> The name "<A href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">neptunium</A>" was much later given to the synthetic element one step past <A href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</A> in the Periodic Table, which was discovered by <A href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</A> researchers in 1940.<SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[14]</A></SUP></SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;">
<OL class="references">
<LI id="cite_note-CIAAW2016-1"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-CIAAW2016_1-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Meija, J.; et al. (2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/pac.2016.88.issue-3/pac-2015-0305/pac-2015-0305.xml">"Atomic weights of the elements 2013 (IUPAC Technical Report)"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="Pure and Applied Chemistry">Pure Appl. Chem.</A></I> <B>88</B> (3): 265–91. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1515%2Fpac-2015-0305">10.1515/pac-2015-0305</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pure+Appl.+Chem.&rft.atitle=Atomic+weights+of+the+elements+2013+%28IUPAC+Technical+Report%29&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=265-91&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fpac-2015-0305&rft.aulast=Meija&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Coplen%2C+T.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdownloadpdf%2Fj%2Fpac.2016.88.issue-3%2Fpac-2015-0305%2Fpac-2015-0305.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-2"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-2"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-d0.fnal.gov/hardware/cal/lvps_info/engineering/elementmagn.pdf">Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds</A>, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-3"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-3"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Weast, Robert (1984). <I>CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics</I>. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-0464-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8493-0464-4">0-8493-0464-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CRC%2C+Handbook+of+Chemistry+and+Physics&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+Florida&rft.pages=E110&rft.pub=Chemical+Rubber+Company+Publishing&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-8493-0464-4&rft.aulast=Weast&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-ioffe-4"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-ioffe_4-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ioffe_4-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ioffe_4-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-ioffe_4-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/Ge">"Properties of Germanium"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Ioffe_Institute" title="Ioffe Institute">Ioffe Institute</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Properties+of+Germanium&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ioffe.ru%2FSVA%2FNSM%2FSemicond%2FGe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-5"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-5"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Kaji, Masanori (2002). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/OPA%20Papers/2005-Kaji.pdf">"D. I. Mendeleev's concept of chemical elements and <I>The Principles of Chemistry</I>"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Bulletin for the History of Chemistry</I>. <B>27</B> (1): 4–16<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-20</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+for+the+History+of+Chemistry&rft.atitle=D.+I.+Mendeleev%27s+concept+of+chemical+elements+and+The+Principles+of+Chemistry&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4-16&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Kaji&rft.aufirst=Masanori&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scs.uiuc.edu%2F~mainzv%2FHIST%2Fawards%2FOPA%2520Papers%2F2005-Kaji.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-6"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-6"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation report"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.handbookofmineralogy.org/pdfs/argyrodite.pdf">Argyrodite—<SPAN class="chemf nowrap">Ag<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
8</SPAN>GeS<SPAN style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><BR />
6</SPAN></SPAN></A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> (Report). <I>Mineral Data Publishing</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-09-01</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Argyrodite%E2%80%94%3Cspan+class%3D%22chemf+nowrap%22%3EAg%3Cspan+style%3D%22display%3Ainline-block%3Bmargin-bottom%3A-0.3em%3Bvertical-align%3A-0.4em%3Bline-height%3A1em%3Bfont-size%3A80%25%3Btext-align%3Aleft%22%3E%3Cbr+%2F%3E8%3C%2Fspan%3EGeS%3Cspan+style%3D%22display%3Ainline-block%3Bmargin-bottom%3A-0.3em%3Bvertical-align%3A-0.4em%3Bline-height%3A1em%3Bfont-size%3A80%25%3Btext-align%3Aleft%22%3E%3Cbr+%2F%3E6%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.pub=%27%27Mineral+Data+Publishing%27%27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.handbookofmineralogy.org%2Fpdfs%2Fargyrodite.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Winkle2-8"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Winkle2_8-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Winkle2_8-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Winkle2_8-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Winkle2_8-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Winkle2_8-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A href="/wiki/Clemens_Winkler" title="Clemens Winkler">Winkler, Clemens</A> (1887). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k90799n/f183.table">"Mittheilungen über des Germanium. Zweite Abhandlung"</A>. <I>J. Prak. Chemie</I> (in German). <B>36</B> (1): 177–209. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Fprac.18870360119">10.1002/prac.18870360119</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-20</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Prak.+Chemie&rft.atitle=Mittheilungen+%C3%BCber+des+Germanium.+Zweite+Abhandlung&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=177-209&rft.date=1887&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fprac.18870360119&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Clemens&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k90799n%2Ff183.table&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-isolation-9"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-isolation_9-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-isolation_9-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-isolation_9-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-isolation_9-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A href="/wiki/Clemens_Winkler" title="Clemens Winkler">Winkler, Clemens</A> (1887). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081207033757/http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Disc-of-Germanium.html">"Germanium, Ge, a New Nonmetal Element"</A>. <I>Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft</I> (in German). <B>19</B> (1): 210–211. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Fcber.18860190156">10.1002/cber.18860190156</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark%3A/12148/bpt6k90705g/f212.chemindefer">the original</A> on December 7, 2008.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Berichte+der+deutschen+chemischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=Germanium%2C+Ge%2C+a+New+Nonmetal+Element&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=210-211&rft.date=1887&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcber.18860190156&rft.aulast=Winkler&rft.aufirst=Clemens&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%253A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k90705g%2Ff212.chemindefer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-10"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-10"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Adams, J. C. (November 13, 1846). "Explanation of the observed irregularities in the motion of Uranus, on the hypothesis of disturbance by a more distant planet". <I><A href="/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</A></I>. Blackwell Publishing. <B>7</B>: 149–152. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1846MNRAS...7..149A">1846MNRAS...7..149A</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F7.9.149">10.1093/mnras/7.9.149</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=Explanation+of+the+observed+irregularities+in+the+motion+of+Uranus%2C+on+the+hypothesis+of+disturbance+by+a+more+distant+planet&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=149-152&rft.date=1846-11-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmnras%2F7.9.149&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1846MNRAS...7..149A&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-11"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-11"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Challis, Rev. J. (November 13, 1846). "Account of observations at the Cambridge observatory for detecting the planet exterior to Uranus". <I>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</I>. Blackwell Publishing. <B>7</B>: 145–149. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1846MNRAS...7..145C">1846MNRAS...7..145C</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F7.9.145">10.1093/mnras/7.9.145</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monthly+Notices+of+the+Royal+Astronomical+Society&rft.atitle=Account+of+observations+at+the+Cambridge+observatory+for+detecting+the+planet+exterior+to+Uranus&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=145-149&rft.date=1846-11-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmnras%2F7.9.145&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1846MNRAS...7..145C&rft.aulast=Challis&rft.aufirst=Rev.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-13"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-13"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sears, Robert (July 1877). "Scientific Miscellany". <I>The Galaxy</I>. Columbus, O[hio]: Siebert & Lilley. <B>24</B> (1): 131. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-665-50166-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-665-50166-8">0-665-50166-8</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/16890343">16890343</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Galaxy&rft.atitle=Scientific+Miscellany&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=131&rft.date=1877-07&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F16890343&rft.isbn=0-665-50166-8&rft.aulast=Sears&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-14"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-14"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK4014-0055-21">"Editor's Scientific Record"</A>. <I>Harper's new monthly magazine</I>. <B>55</B> (325): 152–153. June 1877.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harper%27s+new+monthly+magazine&rft.atitle=Editor%27s+Scientific+Record&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=325&rft.pages=152-153&rft.date=1877-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fmoa-cgi%3Fnotisid%3DABK4014-0055-21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-15"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-15"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">van der Krogt, Peter. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Nb">"Elementymology & Elements Multidict: Niobium"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-20</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Elementymology+%26+Elements+Multidict%3A+Niobium&rft.aulast=van+der+Krogt&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felements.vanderkrogt.net%2Felement.php%3Fsym%3DNb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Westgren, A. (1964). "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1951: presentation speech". <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1951/press.html"><I>Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1942–1962</I></A>. Elsevier.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Chemistry+1951%3A+presentation+speech&rft.btitle=Nobel+Lectures%2C+Chemistry+1942%E2%80%931962&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Westgren&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fchemistry%2Flaureates%2F1951%2Fpress.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&coll=moa&view=50&root=%2Fmoa%2Fmanu%2Fmanu0018%2F&tif=00187.TIF">"Germanium, a New Non-Metallic Element"</A>. <I>The Manufacturer and Builder</I>: 181. 1887<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-20</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Manufacturer+and+Builder&rft.atitle=Germanium%2C+a+New+Non-Metallic+Element&rft.pages=181&rft.date=1887&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdl.library.cornell.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fmoa%2Fpageviewer%3Fframes%3D1%26coll%3Dmoa%26view%3D50%26root%3D%252Fmoa%252Fmanu%252Fmanu0018%252F%26tif%3D00187.TIF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-19"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Brunck, O. (1886). "Obituary: Clemens Winkler". <I>Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft</I> (in German). <B>39</B> (4): 4491–4548. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Fcber.190603904164">10.1002/cber.190603904164</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Berichte+der+deutschen+chemischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=Obituary%3A+Clemens+Winkler&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=4491-4548&rft.date=1886&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcber.190603904164&rft.aulast=Brunck&rft.aufirst=O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-20"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">de Boisbaudran, M. Lecoq (1886). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3059r/f454.table">"Sur le poids atomique du germanium"</A>. <I>Comptes rendus</I> (in French). <B>103</B>: 452<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-20</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+rendus&rft.atitle=Sur+le+poids+atomique+du+germanium&rft.volume=103&rft.pages=452&rft.date=1886&rft.aulast=de+Boisbaudran&rft.aufirst=M.+Lecoq&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k3059r%2Ff454.table&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-DOE-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-DOE_21-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-DOE_21-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Haller, E. E. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/922705-bthJo6/922705.PDF">"Germanium: From Its Discovery to SiGe Devices"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, and Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Department+of+Materials+Science+and+Engineering%2C+University+of+California%2C+Berkeley%2C+and+Materials+Sciences+Division%2C+Lawrence+Berkeley+National+Laboratory%2C+Berkeley&rft.atitle=Germanium%3A+From+Its+Discovery+to+SiGe+Devices&rft.au=Haller%2C+E.+E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbridge%2Fservlets%2Fpurl%2F922705-bthJo6%2F922705.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">W. K. (1953-05-10). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30715FE3F5B157A93C2A8178ED85F478585F9">"Germanium for Electronic Devices"</A>. NY Times<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Germanium+for+Electronic+Devices&rft.date=1953-05-10&rft.au=W.+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fselect.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Fabstract.html%3Fres%3DF30715FE3F5B157A93C2A8178ED85F478585F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1941-semiconductor.html">"1941 – Semiconductor diode rectifiers serve in WW II"</A>. Computer History Museum<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1941+%E2%80%93+Semiconductor+diode+rectifiers+serve+in+WW+II&rft.pub=Computer+History+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsemiconductor%2Ftimeline%2F1941-semiconductor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-24"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080805204801/http://www.sp.phy.cam.ac.uk/~SiGe/Silicon%20Germanium%20%28SiGe%29%20History.html">"SiGe History"</A>. <A href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sp.phy.cam.ac.uk/~SiGe/Silicon%20Germanium%20(SiGe)%20History.html">the original</A> on 2008-08-05<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SiGe+History&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sp.phy.cam.ac.uk%2F~SiGe%2FSilicon%2520Germanium%2520%28SiGe%29%2520History.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-acs-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-acs_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-acs_25-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-acs_25-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-acs_25-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-acs_25-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-acs_25-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-acs_25-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Halford, Bethany (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/print/germanium.html">"Germanium"</A>. <I>Chemical & Engineering News</I>. American Chemical Society<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&rft.atitle=Germanium&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Halford&rft.aufirst=Bethany&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fcen%2F80th%2Fprint%2Fgermanium.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-26"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-26"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bardeen, J.; Brattain, W. H. (1948). "The Transistor, A Semi-Conductor Triode". <I>Physical Review</I>. <B>74</B> (2): 230–231. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948PhRv...74..230B">1948PhRv...74..230B</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.74.230">10.1103/PhysRev.74.230</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Transistor%2C+A+Semi-Conductor+Triode&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=230-231&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRev.74.230&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1948PhRv...74..230B&rft.aulast=Bardeen&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Brattain%2C+W.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-27"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-27"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=3967">"Electronics History 4 – Transistors"</A>. National Academy of Engineering<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Electronics+History+4+%E2%80%93+Transistors&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Engineering&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greatachievements.org%2F%3Fid%3D3967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-usgs-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-10"><SUP><I><B>k</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-11"><SUP><I><B>l</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-12"><SUP><I><B>m</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-13"><SUP><I><B>n</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-usgs_28-14"><SUP><I><B>o</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">U.S. Geological Survey (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/germanium/">"Germanium—Statistics and Information"</A>. <I>U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-28</SPAN></SPAN>. <Q>Select 2008</Q></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Geological+Survey%2C+Mineral+Commodity+Summaries&rft.atitle=Germanium%E2%80%94Statistics+and+Information&rft.date=2008&rft.au=U.S.+Geological+Survey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fminerals.usgs.gov%2Fminerals%2Fpubs%2Fcommodity%2Fgermanium%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-29"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Teal, Gordon K. (July 1976). "Single Crystals of Germanium and Silicon-Basic to the Transistor and Integrated Circuit". <I>IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices</I>. ED-23 (7): 621–639. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976ITED...23..621T">1976ITED...23..621T</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1109%2FT-ED.1976.18464">10.1109/T-ED.1976.18464</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Electron+Devices&rft.atitle=Single+Crystals+of+Germanium+and+Silicon-Basic+to+the+Transistor+and+Integrated+Circuit&rft.volume=ED-23&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=621-639&rft.date=1976-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FT-ED.1976.18464&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1976ITED...23..621T&rft.aulast=Teal&rft.aufirst=Gordon+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-nbb-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-nbb_30-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-nbb_30-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Emsley, John (2001). <I>Nature's Building Blocks</I>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 506–510. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-850341-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-850341-5">0-19-850341-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature%27s+Building+Blocks&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=506-510&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-19-850341-5&rft.aulast=Emsley&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-HollemanAF-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-HollemanAF_31-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E.; Wiberg, N. (2007). <I>Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie</I> (102nd ed.). de Gruyter. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017770-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-017770-1">978-3-11-017770-1</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/145623740">145623740</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lehrbuch+der+Anorganischen+Chemie&rft.edition=102nd&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F145623740&rft.isbn=978-3-11-017770-1&rft.aulast=Holleman&rft.aufirst=A.+F.&rft.au=Wiberg%2C+E.&rft.au=Wiberg%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-lanl-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-lanl_32-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-lanl_32-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://periodic.lanl.gov/32.shtml">"Germanium"</A>. Los Alamos National Laboratory<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-28</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Germanium&rft.pub=Los+Alamos+National+Laboratory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fperiodic.lanl.gov%2F32.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Chardin, B. (2001). "Dark Matter: Direct Detection". In Binetruy, B. <I>The Primordial Universe: 28 June – 23 July 1999</I>. Springer. p. 308. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-41046-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-41046-5">3-540-41046-5</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dark+Matter%3A+Direct+Detection&rft.btitle=The+Primordial+Universe%3A+28+June+%E2%80%93+23+July+1999&rft.pages=308&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=3-540-41046-5&rft.au=Chardin%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-34"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Lévy, F.; Sheikin, I.; Grenier, B.; Huxley, A. (August 2005). "Magnetic field-induced superconductivity in the ferromagnet URhGe". <I>Science</I>. <B>309</B> (5739): 1343–1346. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Sci...309.1343L">2005Sci...309.1343L</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1115498">10.1126/science.1115498</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16123293">16123293</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Magnetic+field-induced+superconductivity+in+the+ferromagnet+URhGe&rft.volume=309&rft.issue=5739&rft.pages=1343-1346&rft.date=2005-08&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16123293&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1115498&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Sci...309.1343L&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9vy&rft.aufirst=F.&rft.au=Sheikin%2C+I.&rft.au=Grenier%2C+B.&rft.au=Huxley%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-35"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Tabet, N; Salim, Mushtaq A. (1998). "KRXPS study of the oxidation of Ge(001) surface". <I>Applied Surface Science</I>. <B>134</B> (1–4): 275–282. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ApSS..134..275T">1998ApSS..134..275T</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0169-4332%2898%2900251-7">10.1016/S0169-4332(98)00251-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Surface+Science&rft.atitle=KRXPS+study+of+the+oxidation+of+Ge%28001%29+surface&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=275-282&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0169-4332%2898%2900251-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998ApSS..134..275T&rft.au=Tabet%2C+N&rft.au=Salim%2C+Mushtaq+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Greenwood-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_36-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_36-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_36-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_36-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_36-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_36-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_36-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_36-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_36-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Greenwood_36-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Norman_Greenwood" title="Norman Greenwood">Greenwood, Norman N.</A>; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). <I>Chemistry of the Elements</I> (2nd ed.). <A href="/wiki/Butterworth-Heinemann" title="Butterworth-Heinemann">Butterworth-Heinemann</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-037941-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-037941-9">0-08-037941-9</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry+of+the+Elements&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-08-037941-9&rft.aulast=Greenwood&rft.aufirst=Norman++N.&rft.au=Earnshaw%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-37"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Tabet, N; Salim, M. A.; Al-Oteibi, A. L. (1999). "XPS study of the growth kinetics of thin films obtained by thermal oxidation of germanium substrates". <I>Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena</I>. 101–103: 233–238. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0368-2048%2898%2900451-4">10.1016/S0368-2048(98)00451-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Electron+Spectroscopy+and+Related+Phenomena&rft.atitle=XPS+study+of+the+growth+kinetics+of+thin+films+obtained+by+thermal+oxidation+of+germanium+substrates&rft.volume=101%E2%80%93103&rft.pages=233-238&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0368-2048%2898%2900451-4&rft.au=Tabet%2C+N&rft.au=Salim%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Al-Oteibi%2C+A.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-38"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Xu, Li; Sevov, Slavi C. (1999). "Oxidative Coupling of Deltahedral [Ge<SUB>9</SUB>]<SUP>4−</SUP> Zintl Ions". <I>J. Am. Chem. Soc</I>. <B>121</B> (39): 9245–9246. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1021%2Fja992269s">10.1021/ja992269s</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Am.+Chem.+Soc.&rft.atitle=Oxidative+Coupling+of+Deltahedral+%5BGe%3Csub%3E9%3C%2Fsub%3E%5D%3Csup%3E4%E2%88%92%3C%2Fsup%3E+Zintl+Ions&rft.volume=121&rft.issue=39&rft.pages=9245-9246&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fja992269s&rft.aulast=Xu&rft.aufirst=Li&rft.au=Sevov%2C+Slavi+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-39"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bayya, Shyam S.; Sanghera, Jasbinder S.; Aggarwal, Ishwar D.; Wojcik, Joshua A. (2002). "Infrared Transparent Germanate Glass-Ceramics". <I>Journal of the American Ceramic Society</I>. <B>85</B> (12): 3114–3116. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1151-2916.2002.tb00594.x">10.1111/j.1151-2916.2002.tb00594.x</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Ceramic+Society&rft.atitle=Infrared+Transparent+Germanate+Glass-Ceramics&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=3114-3116&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1151-2916.2002.tb00594.x&rft.aulast=Bayya&rft.aufirst=Shyam+S.&rft.au=Sanghera%2C+Jasbinder+S.&rft.au=Aggarwal%2C+Ishwar+D.&rft.au=Wojcik%2C+Joshua+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-40"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Drugoveiko, O. P.; Evstrop'ev, K. K.; Kondrat'eva, B. S.; Petrov, Yu. A.; Shevyakov, A. M. (1975). "Infrared reflectance and transmission spectra of germanium dioxide and its hydrolysis products". <I>Journal of Applied Spectroscopy</I>. <B>22</B> (2): 191–193. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975JApSp..22..191D">1975JApSp..22..191D</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00614256">10.1007/BF00614256</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Spectroscopy&rft.atitle=Infrared+reflectance+and+transmission+spectra+of+germanium+dioxide+and+its+hydrolysis+products&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=191-193&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00614256&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975JApSp..22..191D&rft.aulast=Drugoveiko&rft.aufirst=O.+P.&rft.au=Evstrop%27ev%2C+K.+K.&rft.au=Kondrat%27eva%2C+B.+S.&rft.au=Petrov%2C+Yu.+A.&rft.au=Shevyakov%2C+A.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-BGO-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-BGO_41-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Lightstone, A. W.; McIntyre, R. J.; Lecomte, R.; Schmitt, D. (1986). "A Bismuth Germanate-Avalanche Photodiode Module Designed for Use in High Resolution Positron Emission Tomography". <I>IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science</I>. <B>33</B> (1): 456–459. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986ITNS...33..456L">1986ITNS...33..456L</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1109%2FTNS.1986.4337142">10.1109/TNS.1986.4337142</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Nuclear+Science&rft.atitle=A+Bismuth+Germanate-Avalanche+Photodiode+Module+Designed+for+Use+in+High+Resolution+Positron+Emission+Tomography&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=456-459&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTNS.1986.4337142&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986ITNS...33..456L&rft.aulast=Lightstone&rft.aufirst=A.+W.&rft.au=McIntyre%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Lecomte%2C+R.&rft.au=Schmitt%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-42"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Johnson, Otto H. (1952). "Germanium and its Inorganic Compounds". <I>Chem. Rev</I>. <B>51</B> (3): 431–469. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1021%2Fcr60160a002">10.1021/cr60160a002</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chem.+Rev.&rft.atitle=Germanium+and+its+Inorganic+Compounds&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=431-469&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fcr60160a002&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Otto+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-43"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Fröba, Michael; Oberender, Nadine (1997). "First synthesis of mesostructured thiogermanates". <I>Chemical Communications</I> (18): 1729–1730. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1039%2Fa703634e">10.1039/a703634e</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Communications&rft.atitle=First+synthesis+of+mesostructured+thiogermanates&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=1729-1730&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2Fa703634e&rft.aulast=Fr%C3%B6ba&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Oberender%2C+Nadine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-44"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Beattie, I. R.; Jones, P.J.; Reid, G.; Webster, M. (1998). "The Crystal Structure and Raman Spectrum of Ge<SUB>5</SUB>Cl<SUB>12</SUB>·GeCl<SUB>4</SUB> and the Vibrational Spectrum of Ge<SUB>2</SUB>Cl<SUB>6</SUB>". <I>Inorg. Chem</I>. <B>37</B> (23): 6032–6034. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1021%2Fic9807341">10.1021/ic9807341</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11670739">11670739</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Inorg.+Chem.&rft.atitle=The+Crystal+Structure+and+Raman+Spectrum+of+Ge%3Csub%3E5%3C%2Fsub%3ECl%3Csub%3E12%3C%2Fsub%3E%C2%B7GeCl%3Csub%3E4%3C%2Fsub%3E+and+the+Vibrational+Spectrum+of+Ge%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3ECl%3Csub%3E6%3C%2Fsub%3E&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=6032-6034&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fic9807341&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11670739&rft.aulast=Beattie&rft.aufirst=I.+R.&rft.au=Jones%2C+P.J.&rft.au=Reid%2C+G.&rft.au=Webster%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-45"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Satge, Jacques (1984). "Reactive intermediates in organogermanium chemistry". <I>Pure Appl. Chem</I>. <B>56</B> (1): 137–150. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac198456010137">10.1351/pac198456010137</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pure+Appl.+Chem.&rft.atitle=Reactive+intermediates+in+organogermanium+chemistry&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=137-150&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1351%2Fpac198456010137&rft.aulast=Satge&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-46"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Quane, Denis; Bottei, Rudolph S. (1963). "Organogermanium Chemistry". <I>Chemical Reviews</I>. <B>63</B> (4): 403–442. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1021%2Fcr60224a004">10.1021/cr60224a004</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Reviews&rft.atitle=Organogermanium+Chemistry&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=403-442&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fcr60224a004&rft.aulast=Quane&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft.au=Bottei%2C+Rudolph+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-toxic-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-toxic_47-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-toxic_47-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Tao, S. H.; Bolger, P. M. (June 1997). "Hazard Assessment of Germanium Supplements". <I><A href="/wiki/Regulatory_Toxicology_and_Pharmacology" title="Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology">Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology</A></I>. <B>25</B> (3): 211–219. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1006%2Frtph.1997.1098">10.1006/rtph.1997.1098</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9237323">9237323</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Regulatory+Toxicology+and+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Hazard+Assessment+of+Germanium+Supplements&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=211-219&rft.date=1997-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Frtph.1997.1098&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9237323&rft.aulast=Tao&rft.aufirst=S.+H.&rft.au=Bolger%2C+P.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-48"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Broadwith, Phillip (25 March 2012). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/News/2012/March/germanone-germanium-oxygen-double-bond-created.asp">"Germanium-oxygen double bond takes centre stage"</A>. <I>Chemistry World</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2014-05-15</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemistry+World&rft.atitle=Germanium-oxygen+double+bond+takes+centre+stage&rft.date=2012-03-25&rft.aulast=Broadwith&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsc.org%2Fchemistryworld%2FNews%2F2012%2FMarch%2Fgermanone-germanium-oxygen-double-bond-created.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-nubase-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-nubase_49-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-nubase_49-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-nubase_49-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Audi, G.; Bersillon, O.; Blachot, J.; Wapstra, A. H. (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hal.in2p3.fr/in2p3-00014184">"Nubase2003 Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties"</A>. <I>Nuclear Physics A</I>. Atomic Mass Data Center. <B>729</B> (1): 3–128. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003NuPhA.729....3A">2003NuPhA.729....3A</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001">10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Physics+A&rft.atitle=Nubase2003+Evaluation+of+Nuclear+and+Decay+Properties&rft.volume=729&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-128&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003NuPhA.729....3A&rft.aulast=Audi&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Bersillon%2C+O.&rft.au=Blachot%2C+J.&rft.au=Wapstra%2C+A.+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhal.in2p3.fr%2Fin2p3-00014184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-72Ge-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-72Ge_50-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-72Ge_50-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Perreault, Bruce A. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.google.com/patents/US7800286">"Alpha Fusion Electrical Energy Valve"</A>, US Patent 7800286, issued September 21, 2010. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071012103442/http://www.nuenergy.org/disclosures/AlphaFusionPatent_05-04-2007.pdf">PDF copy</A> at the <A href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</A> (archived October 12, 2007).</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-sterling-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-sterling_51-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sterling, N. C.; <A href="/wiki/Harriet_Dinerstein" title="Harriet Dinerstein">Dinerstein, Harriet L.</A>; Bowers, Charles W. (2002). "Discovery of Enhanced Germanium Abundances in Planetary Nebulae with the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer". <I>The Astrophysical Journal Letters</I>. <B>578</B> (1): L55–L58. <A href="/wiki/ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arXiv</A>:<SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0208516">astro-ph/0208516</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002ApJ...578L..55S">2002ApJ...578L..55S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1086%2F344473">10.1086/344473</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal+Letters&rft.atitle=Discovery+of+Enhanced+Germanium+Abundances+in+Planetary+Nebulae+with+the+Far+Ultraviolet+Spectroscopic+Explorer&rft.volume=578&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=L55-L58&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0208516&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F344473&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002ApJ...578L..55S&rft.aulast=Sterling&rft.aufirst=N.+C.&rft.au=Dinerstein%2C+Harriet+L.&rft.au=Bowers%2C+Charles+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-52"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Cowan, John (2003-05-01). "Astronomy: Elements of surprise". <I>Nature</I>. <B>423</B> (29): 29. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.423...29C">2003Natur.423...29C</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F423029a">10.1038/423029a</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12721614">12721614</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Astronomy%3A+Elements+of+surprise&rft.volume=423&rft.issue=29&rft.pages=29&rft.date=2003-05-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12721614&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F423029a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Natur.423...29C&rft.aulast=Cowan&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-53"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Kunde, V.; Hanel, R.; Maguire, W.; Gautier, D.; Baluteau, J. P.; Marten, A.; Chedin, A.; Husson, N.; Scott, N. (1982). "The tropospheric gas composition of Jupiter's north equatorial belt /NH<SUB>3</SUB>, PH<SUB>3</SUB>, CH<SUB>3</SUB>D, GeH<SUB>4</SUB>, H<SUB>2</SUB>O/ and the Jovian D/H isotopic ratio". <I>Astrophysical Journal</I>. <B>263</B>: 443–467. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982ApJ...263..443K">1982ApJ...263..443K</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1086%2F160516">10.1086/160516</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+tropospheric+gas+composition+of+Jupiter%27s+north+equatorial+belt+%2FNH%3Csub%3E3%3C%2Fsub%3E%2C+PH%3Csub%3E3%3C%2Fsub%3E%2C+CH%3Csub%3E3%3C%2Fsub%3ED%2C+GeH%3Csub%3E4%3C%2Fsub%3E%2C+H%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3EO%2F+and+the+Jovian+D%2FH+isotopic+ratio&rft.volume=263&rft.pages=443-467&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F160516&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982ApJ...263..443K&rft.aulast=Kunde&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=Hanel%2C+R.&rft.au=Maguire%2C+W.&rft.au=Gautier%2C+D.&rft.au=Baluteau%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Marten%2C+A.&rft.au=Chedin%2C+A.&rft.au=Husson%2C+N.&rft.au=Scott%2C+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Holl-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Holl_54-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Holl_54-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Holl_54-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Holl_54-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Holl_54-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Höll, R.; Kling, M.; Schroll, E. (2007). "Metallogenesis of germanium—A review". <I>Ore Geology Reviews</I>. <B>30</B> (3–4): 145–180. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.oregeorev.2005.07.034">10.1016/j.oregeorev.2005.07.034</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ore+Geology+Reviews&rft.atitle=Metallogenesis+of+germanium%E2%80%94A+review&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=145-180&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.oregeorev.2005.07.034&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6ll&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Kling%2C+M.&rft.au=Schroll%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-55"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309583931_The_distribution_of_gallium_germanium_and_indium_in_conventional_and_non-conventional_resources_-_Implications_for_global_availability">"The distribution of gallium, germanium and indium in conventional and non-conventional resources - Implications for global availability (PDF Download Available)"</A>. <I>ResearchGate</I>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.13140%2Frg.2.2.20956.18564">10.13140/rg.2.2.20956.18564</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2017-06-10</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ResearchGate&rft.atitle=The+distribution+of+gallium%2C+germanium+and+indium+in+conventional+and+non-conventional+resources+-+Implications+for+global+availability+%28PDF+Download+Available%29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.13140%2Frg.2.2.20956.18564&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F309583931_The_distribution_of_gallium_germanium_and_indium_in_conventional_and_non-conventional_resources_-_Implications_for_global_availability&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Gold1-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Gold1_56-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Gold1_56-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Goldschmidt, V. M. (1930). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?GDZPPN002508303">"Ueber das Vorkommen des Germaniums in Steinkohlen und Steinkohlenprodukten"</A>. <I>Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse</I>: 141–167.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nachrichten+von+der+Gesellschaft+der+Wissenschaften+zu+G%C3%B6ttingen%2C+Mathematisch-Physikalische+Klasse&rft.atitle=Ueber+das+Vorkommen+des+Germaniums+in+Steinkohlen+und+Steinkohlenprodukten&rft.pages=141-167&rft.date=1930&rft.aulast=Goldschmidt&rft.aufirst=V.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fpurl%3FGDZPPN002508303&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Gold2-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Gold2_57-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Gold2_57-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Goldschmidt, V. M.; Peters, Cl. (1933). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?GDZPPN002509180">"Zur Geochemie des Germaniums"</A>. <I>Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse</I>: 141–167.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nachrichten+von+der+Gesellschaft+der+Wissenschaften+zu+G%C3%B6ttingen%2C+Mathematisch-Physikalische+Klasse&rft.atitle=Zur+Geochemie+des+Germaniums&rft.pages=141-167&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Goldschmidt&rft.aufirst=V.+M.&rft.au=Peters%2C+Cl.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de%2Fpurl%3FGDZPPN002509180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-58"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bernstein, L (1985). "Germanium geochemistry and mineralogy". <I>Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta</I>. <B>49</B> (11): 2409–2422. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985GeCoA..49.2409B">1985GeCoA..49.2409B</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0016-7037%2885%2990241-8">10.1016/0016-7037(85)90241-8</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geochimica+et+Cosmochimica+Acta&rft.atitle=Germanium+geochemistry+and+mineralogy&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2409-2422&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0016-7037%2885%2990241-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985GeCoA..49.2409B&rft.au=Bernstein%2C+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-59"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Frenzel, Max; Hirsch, Tamino; Gutzmer, Jens (July 2016). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169136815302961">"Gallium, germanium, indium and other minor and trace elements in sphalerite as a function of deposit type – A meta-analysis"</A>. <I>Ore Geology Reviews</I>. Elsevier. <B>76</B>: 52–78. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.oregeorev.2015.12.017">10.1016/j.oregeorev.2015.12.017</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ore+Geology+Reviews&rft.atitle=Gallium%2C+germanium%2C+indium+and+other+minor+and+trace+elements+in+sphalerite+as+a+function+of+deposit+type+%E2%80%93+A+meta-analysis&rft.volume=76&rft.pages=52-78&rft.date=2016-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.oregeorev.2015.12.017&rft.aulast=Frenzel&rft.aufirst=Max&rft.au=Hirsch%2C+Tamino&rft.au=Gutzmer%2C+Jens&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0169136815302961&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-60"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Frenzel, Max; Ketris, Marina P.; Gutzmer, Jens (2013-12-29). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00126-013-0506-z">"On the geological availability of germanium"</A>. <I>Mineralium Deposita</I>. <B>49</B> (4): 471–486. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MinDe..49..471F">2014MinDe..49..471F</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00126-013-0506-z">10.1007/s00126-013-0506-z</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0026-4598">0026-4598</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mineralium+Deposita&rft.atitle=On+the+geological+availability+of+germanium&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=471-486&rft.date=2013-12-29&rft.issn=0026-4598&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00126-013-0506-z&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014MinDe..49..471F&rft.aulast=Frenzel&rft.aufirst=Max&rft.au=Ketris%2C+Marina+P.&rft.au=Gutzmer%2C+Jens&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs00126-013-0506-z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-61"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Frenzel, Max; Ketris, Marina P.; Gutzmer, Jens (2014-01-19). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00126-014-0509-4">"Erratum to: On the geological availability of germanium"</A>. <I>Mineralium Deposita</I>. <B>49</B> (4): 487–487. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MinDe..49..487F">2014MinDe..49..487F</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00126-014-0509-4">10.1007/s00126-014-0509-4</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0026-4598">0026-4598</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mineralium+Deposita&rft.atitle=Erratum+to%3A+On+the+geological+availability+of+germanium&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=487-487&rft.date=2014-01-19&rft.issn=0026-4598&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00126-014-0509-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014MinDe..49..487F&rft.aulast=Frenzel&rft.aufirst=Max&rft.au=Ketris%2C+Marina+P.&rft.au=Gutzmer%2C+Jens&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs00126-014-0509-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Naumov-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Naumov_62-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Naumov_62-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Naumov_62-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Naumov, A. V. (2007). "World market of germanium and its prospects". <I>Russian Journal of Non-Ferrous Metals</I>. <B>48</B> (4): 265–272. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.3103%2FS1067821207040049">10.3103/S1067821207040049</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Journal+of+Non-Ferrous+Metals&rft.atitle=World+market+of+germanium+and+its+prospects&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=265-272&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3103%2FS1067821207040049&rft.aulast=Naumov&rft.aufirst=A.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">R.N. Soar (1977). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/germanium/index.html#mcs">"USGS Minerals Information"</A>. <I>U.S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries</I>. U.S. Geological Survey. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/germanium/220303.pdf">January 2003</A>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/germanium/germamcs04.pdf">January 2004</A>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/germanium/germamcs05.pdf">January 2005</A>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/germanium/germamcs06.pdf">January 2006</A>, <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/germanium/germamcs07.pdf">January 2007</A>,<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/germanium/mcs-2010-germa.pdf">January 2010</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85934-039-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-85934-039-2">0-85934-039-2</A>. <A href="/wiki/OCLC" title="OCLC">OCLC</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/16437701">16437701</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Geological+Survey+Mineral+Commodity+Summaries&rft.atitle=USGS+Minerals+Information&rft.pages=January+2003%2C+January+2004%2C+January+2005%2C+January+2006%2C+January+2007%2CJanuary+2010&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F16437701&rft.isbn=0-85934-039-2&rft.au=R.N.+Soar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fminerals.usgs.gov%2Fminerals%2Fpubs%2Fcommodity%2Fgermanium%2Findex.html%23mcs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Moska-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Moska_64-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Moska_64-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Moskalyk, R. R. (2004). "Review of germanium processing worldwide". <I>Minerals Engineering</I>. <B>17</B> (3): 393–402. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mineng.2003.11.014">10.1016/j.mineng.2003.11.014</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Minerals+Engineering&rft.atitle=Review+of+germanium+processing+worldwide&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=393-402&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mineng.2003.11.014&rft.au=Moskalyk%2C+R.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-65"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Rieke, G. H. (2007). "Infrared Detector Arrays for Astronomy". <I>Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics</I>. <B>45</B> (1): 77–115. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007ARA&A..45...77R">2007ARA&A..45...77R</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.astro.44.051905.092436">10.1146/annurev.astro.44.051905.092436</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.atitle=Infrared+Detector+Arrays+for+Astronomy&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=77-115&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.astro.44.051905.092436&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007ARA%26A..45...77R&rft.aulast=Rieke&rft.aufirst=G.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Brown-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Brown_66-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Brown_66-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Brown_66-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Brown, Jr., Robert D. (2000). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/germanium/220400.pdf">"Germanium"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. U.S. Geological Survey<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-09-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Germanium&rft.pub=U.S.+Geological+Survey&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Brown%2C+Jr.&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fminerals.usgs.gov%2Fminerals%2Fpubs%2Fcommodity%2Fgermanium%2F220400.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-67"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ptgmedia.pearsoncmg.com/images/1587051052/samplechapter/1587051052content.pdf">"Chapter III: Optical Fiber For Communications"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Stanford Research Institute<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-08-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chapter+III%3A+Optical+Fiber+For+Communications&rft.pub=Stanford+Research+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fptgmedia.pearsoncmg.com%2Fimages%2F1587051052%2Fsamplechapter%2F1587051052content.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090419202545/http://www.osta.org/technology/pdf/dvdqa.pdf">"Understanding Recordable & Rewritable DVD"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> (First ed.). Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA). Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.osta.org/technology/pdf/dvdqa.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on 2009-04-19<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-09-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Recordable+%26+Rewritable+DVD&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Optical+Storage+Technology+Association+%28OSTA%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.osta.org%2Ftechnology%2Fpdf%2Fdvdqa.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-69"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Lettington, Alan H. (1998). "Applications of diamond-like carbon thin films". <I>Carbon</I>. <B>36</B> (5–6): 555–560. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0008-6223%2898%2900062-1">10.1016/S0008-6223(98)00062-1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Carbon&rft.atitle=Applications+of+diamond-like+carbon+thin+films&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=555-560&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0008-6223%2898%2900062-1&rft.aulast=Lettington&rft.aufirst=Alan+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-70"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Gardos, Michael N.; Bonnie L. Soriano; Steven H. Propst (1990). Feldman, Albert; Holly, Sandor, eds. "Study on correlating rain erosion resistance with sliding abrasion resistance of DLC on germanium". <I>Proc. SPIE</I>. SPIE Proceedings. <B>1325</B> (Mechanical Properties): 99. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1117%2F12.22449">10.1117/12.22449</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+SPIE&rft.atitle=Study+on+correlating+rain+erosion+resistance+with+sliding+abrasion+resistance+of+DLC+on+germanium&rft.volume=1325&rft.issue=Mechanical+Properties&rft.pages=99&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.22449&rft.aulast=Gardos&rft.aufirst=Michael+N.&rft.au=Bonnie+L.+Soriano&rft.au=Steven+H.+Propst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-71"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Washio, K. (2003). "SiGe HBT and BiCMOS technologies for optical transmission and wireless communication systems". <I>IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices</I>. <B>50</B> (3): 656–668. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ITED...50..656W">2003ITED...50..656W</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1109%2FTED.2003.810484">10.1109/TED.2003.810484</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Transactions+on+Electron+Devices&rft.atitle=SiGe+HBT+and+BiCMOS+technologies+for+optical+transmission+and+wireless+communication+systems&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=656-668&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FTED.2003.810484&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003ITED...50..656W&rft.aulast=Washio&rft.aufirst=K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-72"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-72"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Bailey, Sheila G.; Raffaelle, Ryne; Emery, Keith (2002). "Space and terrestrial photovoltaics: synergy and diversity". <I>Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications</I>. <B>10</B> (6): 399–406. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Fpip.446">10.1002/pip.446</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Photovoltaics%3A+Research+and+Applications&rft.atitle=Space+and+terrestrial+photovoltaics%3A+synergy+and+diversity&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=399-406&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fpip.446&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=Sheila+G.&rft.au=Raffaelle%2C+Ryne&rft.au=Emery%2C+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-73"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-73"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Crisp, D.; Pathare, A.; Ewell, R. C. (2004). "The performance of gallium arsenide/germanium solar cells at the Martian surface". <I>Acta Astronautica</I>. <B>54</B> (2): 83–101. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AcAau..54...83C">2004AcAau..54...83C</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0094-5765%2802%2900287-4">10.1016/S0094-5765(02)00287-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Astronautica&rft.atitle=The+performance+of+gallium+arsenide%2Fgermanium+solar+cells+at+the+Martian+surface&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=83-101&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0094-5765%2802%2900287-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004AcAau..54...83C&rft.aulast=Crisp&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Pathare%2C+A.&rft.au=Ewell%2C+R.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-74"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-74"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Szweda, Roy (2005). "Germanium phoenix". <I><A href="/wiki/III-Vs_Review" title="III-Vs Review">III-Vs Review</A></I>. <B>18</B> (7): 55. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0961-1290%2805%2971310-7">10.1016/S0961-1290(05)71310-7</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=III-Vs+Review&rft.atitle=Germanium+phoenix&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=55&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0961-1290%2805%2971310-7&rft.au=Szweda%2C+Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Thiele-75"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Thiele_75-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Thiele_75-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Thiele, Ulrich K. (2001). "The Current Status of Catalysis and Catalyst Development for the Industrial Process of Poly(ethylene terephthalate) Polycondensation". <I>International Journal of Polymeric Materials</I>. <B>50</B> (3): 387–394. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1080%2F00914030108035115">10.1080/00914030108035115</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Polymeric+Materials&rft.atitle=The+Current+Status+of+Catalysis+and+Catalyst+Development+for+the+Industrial+Process+of+Poly%28ethylene+terephthalate%29+Polycondensation&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=387-394&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00914030108035115&rft.aulast=Thiele&rft.aufirst=Ulrich+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-76"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-76"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Fang, Li; Kulkarni, Sameer; Alhooshani, Khalid; Malik, Abdul (2007). "Germania-Based, Sol-Gel Hybrid Organic-Inorganic Coatings for Capillary Microextraction and Gas Chromatography". <I>Anal. Chem</I>. <B>79</B> (24): 9441–9451. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1021%2Fac071056f">10.1021/ac071056f</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17994707">17994707</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anal.+Chem.&rft.atitle=Germania-Based%2C+Sol-Gel+Hybrid+Organic-Inorganic+Coatings+for+Capillary+Microextraction+and+Gas+Chromatography&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=9441-9451&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fac071056f&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17994707&rft.aulast=Fang&rft.aufirst=Li&rft.au=Kulkarni%2C+Sameer&rft.au=Alhooshani%2C+Khalid&rft.au=Malik%2C+Abdul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-77"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-77"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Keyser, Ronald; Twomey, Timothy; Upp, Daniel. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071026162911/http://www.ortec-online.com/papers/inmm_2003_keyser.pdf">"Performance of Light-Weight, Battery-Operated, High Purity Germanium Detectors for Field Use"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Oak Ridge Technical Enterprise Corporation (ORTEC). Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ortec-online.com/papers/inmm_2003_keyser.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on October 26, 2007<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-09-06</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Performance+of+Light-Weight%2C+Battery-Operated%2C+High+Purity+Germanium+Detectors+for+Field+Use&rft.pub=Oak+Ridge+Technical+Enterprise+Corporation+%28ORTEC%29&rft.aulast=Keyser&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft.au=Twomey%2C+Timothy&rft.au=Upp%2C+Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ortec-online.com%2Fpapers%2Finmm_2003_keyser.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-78"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-78"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Ahmed, F. U.; Yunus, S. M.; Kamal, I.; Begum, S.; Khan, Aysha A.; Ahsan, M. H.; Ahmad, A. A. Z. (1996). "Optimization of Germanium for Neutron Diffractometers". <I>International Journal of Modern Physics E</I>. <B>5</B> (1): 131–151. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996IJMPE...5..131A">1996IJMPE...5..131A</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1142%2FS0218301396000062">10.1142/S0218301396000062</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Modern+Physics+E&rft.atitle=Optimization+of+Germanium+for+Neutron+Diffractometers&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=131-151&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2FS0218301396000062&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996IJMPE...5..131A&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=F.+U.&rft.au=Yunus%2C+S.+M.&rft.au=Kamal%2C+I.&rft.au=Begum%2C+S.&rft.au=Khan%2C+Aysha+A.&rft.au=Ahsan%2C+M.+H.&rft.au=Ahmad%2C+A.+A.+Z.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-79"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-79"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Diehl, R.; Prantzos, N.; Vonballmoos, P. (2006). "Astrophysical constraints from gamma-ray spectroscopy". <I>Nuclear Physics A</I>. <B>777</B>: 70–97. <A href="/wiki/ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arXiv</A>:<SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0502324">astro-ph/0502324</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006NuPhA.777...70D">2006NuPhA.777...70D</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2005.02.155">10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2005.02.155</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Physics+A&rft.atitle=Astrophysical+constraints+from+gamma-ray+spectroscopy&rft.volume=777&rft.pages=70-97&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0502324&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2005.02.155&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006NuPhA.777...70D&rft.aulast=Diehl&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Prantzos%2C+N.&rft.au=Vonballmoos%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-80"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-80"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Eugene P. Bertin, Principles and practice of X-ray spectrometric analysis, Chapter 5.4-Analyzer crystals, Table 5.1, p. 123; Plenum Press,1970</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-81"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-81"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Shen, C.; Trypiniotis, T.; Lee, K. Y.; Holmes, S. N.; Mansell, R.; Husain, M.; Shah, V.; Li, X. V.; Kurebayashi, H. (2010-10-18). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/apl/97/16/10.1063/1.3505337">"Spin transport in germanium at room temperature"</A>. <I>Applied Physics Letters</I>. <B>97</B> (16): 162104. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010ApPhL..97p2104S">2010ApPhL..97p2104S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3505337">10.1063/1.3505337</A>. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-6951">0003-6951</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Physics+Letters&rft.atitle=Spin+transport+in+germanium+at+room+temperature&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=162104&rft.date=2010-10-18&rft.issn=0003-6951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.3505337&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010ApPhL..97p2104S&rft.aulast=Shen&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Trypiniotis%2C+T.&rft.au=Lee%2C+K.+Y.&rft.au=Holmes%2C+S.+N.&rft.au=Mansell%2C+R.&rft.au=Husain%2C+M.&rft.au=Shah%2C+V.&rft.au=Li%2C+X.+V.&rft.au=Kurebayashi%2C+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscitation.aip.org%2Fcontent%2Faip%2Fjournal%2Fapl%2F97%2F16%2F10.1063%2F1.3505337&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-82"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-82"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Sigillito, A. J.; Jock, R. M.; Tyryshkin, A. M.; Beeman, J. W.; Haller, E. E.; Itoh, K. M.; Lyon, S. A. (2015-12-07). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.247601">"Electron Spin Coherence of Shallow Donors in Natural and Isotopically Enriched Germanium"</A>. <I>Physical Review Letters</I>. <B>115</B> (24): 247601. <A href="/wiki/ArXiv" title="ArXiv">arXiv</A>:<SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//arxiv.org/abs/1506.05767">1506.05767</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PhRvL.115x7601S">2015PhRvL.115x7601S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.115.247601">10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.247601</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26705654">26705654</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=Electron+Spin+Coherence+of+Shallow+Donors+in+Natural+and+Isotopically+Enriched+Germanium&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=247601&rft.date=2015-12-07&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1506.05767&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26705654&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.115.247601&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015PhRvL.115x7601S&rft.aulast=Sigillito&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rft.au=Jock%2C+R.+M.&rft.au=Tyryshkin%2C+A.+M.&rft.au=Beeman%2C+J.+W.&rft.au=Haller%2C+E.+E.&rft.au=Itoh%2C+K.+M.&rft.au=Lyon%2C+S.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.aps.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.115.247601&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Brown_Jr-83"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Brown_Jr_83-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation report">Brown Jr., Robert D. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/germanium/220798.pdf">Commodity Survey:Germanium</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> (Report). US Geological Surveys<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-09-09</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Commodity+Survey%3AGermanium&rft.pub=US+Geological+Surveys&rft.aulast=Brown+Jr.&rft.aufirst=Robert+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fminerals.usgs.gov%2Fminerals%2Fpubs%2Fcommodity%2Fgermanium%2F220798.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-American_Cancer_Society-84"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-American_Cancer_Society_84-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Ades TB, ed. (2009). "Germanium". <I>American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies</I> (2nd ed.). <A href="/wiki/American_Cancer_Society" title="American Cancer Society">American Cancer Society</A>. pp. 360–363. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780944235713" title="Special:BookSources/9780944235713">9780944235713</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Germanium&rft.btitle=American+Cancer+Society+Complete+Guide+to+Complementary+and+Alternative+Cancer+Therapies&rft.pages=360-363&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=American+Cancer+Society&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780944235713&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-85"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-85"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Baselt, R. (2008). <I>Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man</I> (8th ed.). Foster City, CA: Biomedical Publications. pp. 693–694.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disposition+of+Toxic+Drugs+and+Chemicals+in+Man&rft.place=Foster+City%2C+CA&rft.pages=693-694&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Biomedical+Publications&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Baselt%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Gerber_1997_141.E2.80.93146-86"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Gerber_1997_141.E2.80.93146_86-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Gerber, G. B.; Léonard, A. (1997). "Mutagenicity, carcinogenicity and teratogenicity of germanium compounds". <I>Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology</I>. <B>387</B> (3): 141–146. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2FS1383-5742%2897%2900034-3">10.1016/S1383-5742(97)00034-3</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Regulatory+Toxicology+and+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Mutagenicity%2C+carcinogenicity+and+teratogenicity+of+germanium+compounds&rft.volume=387&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=141-146&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1383-5742%2897%2900034-3&rft.aulast=Gerber&rft.aufirst=G.+B.&rft.au=L%C3%A9onard%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGermanium" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-87"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-87"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Germanium" Mineral Commodity Profile, U.S. Geological Survey, 2005.</SPAN></LI>
</OL>
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<TD class="mbox-text plainlist"><A href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</A> has the text of the <A href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <I>Encyclopædia Britannica</I></A> article <I><B><A href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Germanium" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Germanium">Germanium</A></B></I>.</TD>
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<TD style="line-height:100%;"></TD>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">1</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</A></TH>
<TD colspan="14"></TD>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17</A></TH>
<TH scope="col" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18</A></TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</A></TH>
<TD title="Hydrogen, 1 (diatomic nonmetal)" style="text-align:center; background:#e7ff8f; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen"><SPAN style="display:block">H</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD colspan="30"></TD>
<TD title="Helium, 2 (noble gas)" style="text-align:center; background:#c0ffff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium"><SPAN style="display:block">He</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</A></TH>
<TD title="Lithium, 3 (alkali metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff6666; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium"><SPAN style="display:block">Li</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Beryllium, 4 (alkaline earth metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffdead; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium"><SPAN style="display:block">Be</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD colspan="24"></TD>
<TD title="Boron, 5 (metalloid)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccc99; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron"><SPAN style="display:block">B</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Carbon, 6 (polyatomic nonmetal)" style="text-align:center; background:#a1ffc3; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon"><SPAN style="display:block">C</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Nitrogen, 7 (diatomic nonmetal)" style="text-align:center; background:#e7ff8f; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen"><SPAN style="display:block">N</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Oxygen, 8 (diatomic nonmetal)" style="text-align:center; background:#e7ff8f; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen"><SPAN style="display:block">O</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Fluorine, 9 (diatomic nonmetal)" style="text-align:center; background:#e7ff8f; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine"><SPAN style="display:block">F</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Neon, 10 (noble gas)" style="text-align:center; background:#c0ffff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon"><SPAN style="display:block">Ne</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</A></TH>
<TD title="Sodium, 11 (alkali metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff6666; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium"><SPAN style="display:block">Na</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Magnesium, 12 (alkaline earth metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffdead; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium"><SPAN style="display:block">Mg</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD colspan="24"></TD>
<TD title="Aluminium, 13 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium"><SPAN style="display:block">Al</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Silicon, 14 (metalloid)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccc99; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon"><SPAN style="display:block">Si</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Phosphorus, 15 (polyatomic nonmetal)" style="text-align:center; background:#a1ffc3; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus"><SPAN style="display:block">P</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Sulfur, 16 (polyatomic nonmetal)" style="text-align:center; background:#a1ffc3; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur"><SPAN style="display:block">S</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Chlorine, 17 (diatomic nonmetal)" style="text-align:center; background:#e7ff8f; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine"><SPAN style="display:block">Cl</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Argon, 18 (noble gas)" style="text-align:center; background:#c0ffff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon"><SPAN style="display:block">Ar</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</A></TH>
<TD title="Potassium, 19 (alkali metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff6666; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium"><SPAN style="display:block">K</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Calcium, 20 (alkaline earth metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffdead; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium"><SPAN style="display:block">Ca</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Scandium, 21 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium"><SPAN style="display:block">Sc</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD colspan="14"></TD>
<TD title="Titanium, 22 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium"><SPAN style="display:block">Ti</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Vanadium, 23 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium"><SPAN style="display:block">V</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Chromium, 24 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium"><SPAN style="display:block">Cr</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Manganese, 25 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese"><SPAN style="display:block">Mn</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Iron, 26 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron"><SPAN style="display:block">Fe</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Cobalt, 27 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt"><SPAN style="display:block">Co</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Nickel, 28 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel"><SPAN style="display:block">Ni</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Copper, 29 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper"><SPAN style="display:block">Cu</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Zinc, 30 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc"><SPAN style="display:block">Zn</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Gallium, 31 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium"><SPAN style="display:block">Ga</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Germanium, 32 (metalloid)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccc99; border:1px solid black; ;"><A class="mw-selflink selflink"><SPAN style="display:block">Ge</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Arsenic, 33 (metalloid)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccc99; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic"><SPAN style="display:block">As</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Selenium, 34 (polyatomic nonmetal)" style="text-align:center; background:#a1ffc3; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium"><SPAN style="display:block">Se</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Bromine, 35 (diatomic nonmetal)" style="text-align:center; background:#e7ff8f; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine"><SPAN style="display:block">Br</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Krypton, 36 (noble gas)" style="text-align:center; background:#c0ffff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton"><SPAN style="display:block">Kr</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</A></TH>
<TD title="Rubidium, 37 (alkali metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff6666; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium"><SPAN style="display:block">Rb</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Strontium, 38 (alkaline earth metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffdead; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium"><SPAN style="display:block">Sr</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Yttrium, 39 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium"><SPAN style="display:block">Y</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD colspan="14"></TD>
<TD title="Zirconium, 40 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium"><SPAN style="display:block">Zr</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Niobium, 41 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium"><SPAN style="display:block">Nb</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Molybdenum, 42 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum"><SPAN style="display:block">Mo</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Technetium, 43 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium"><SPAN style="display:block">Tc</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Ruthenium, 44 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium"><SPAN style="display:block">Ru</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Rhodium, 45 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium"><SPAN style="display:block">Rh</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Palladium, 46 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium"><SPAN style="display:block">Pd</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Silver, 47 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver"><SPAN style="display:block">Ag</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Cadmium, 48 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium"><SPAN style="display:block">Cd</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Indium, 49 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium"><SPAN style="display:block">In</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Tin, 50 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin"><SPAN style="display:block">Sn</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Antimony, 51 (metalloid)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccc99; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony"><SPAN style="display:block">Sb</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Tellurium, 52 (metalloid)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccc99; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium"><SPAN style="display:block">Te</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Iodine, 53 (diatomic nonmetal)" style="text-align:center; background:#e7ff8f; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine"><SPAN style="display:block">I</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Xenon, 54 (noble gas)" style="text-align:center; background:#c0ffff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon"><SPAN style="display:block">Xe</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</A></TH>
<TD title="Caesium, 55 (alkali metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff6666; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium"><SPAN style="display:block">Cs</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Barium, 56 (alkaline earth metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffdead; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium"><SPAN style="display:block">Ba</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Lanthanum, 57 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum"><SPAN style="display:block">La</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Cerium, 58 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium"><SPAN style="display:block">Ce</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Praseodymium, 59 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium"><SPAN style="display:block">Pr</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Neodymium, 60 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium"><SPAN style="display:block">Nd</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Promethium, 61 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium"><SPAN style="display:block">Pm</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Samarium, 62 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium"><SPAN style="display:block">Sm</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Europium, 63 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium"><SPAN style="display:block">Eu</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Gadolinium, 64 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium"><SPAN style="display:block">Gd</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Terbium, 65 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium"><SPAN style="display:block">Tb</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Dysprosium, 66 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium"><SPAN style="display:block">Dy</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Holmium, 67 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium"><SPAN style="display:block">Ho</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Erbium, 68 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium"><SPAN style="display:block">Er</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Thulium, 69 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium"><SPAN style="display:block">Tm</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Ytterbium, 70 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium"><SPAN style="display:block">Yb</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Lutetium, 71 (lanthanide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffbfff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium"><SPAN style="display:block">Lu</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Hafnium, 72 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium"><SPAN style="display:block">Hf</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Tantalum, 73 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum"><SPAN style="display:block">Ta</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Tungsten, 74 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten"><SPAN style="display:block">W</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Rhenium, 75 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium"><SPAN style="display:block">Re</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Osmium, 76 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium"><SPAN style="display:block">Os</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Iridium, 77 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium"><SPAN style="display:block">Ir</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Platinum, 78 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum"><SPAN style="display:block">Pt</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Gold, 79 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold"><SPAN style="display:block">Au</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Mercury, 80 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)"><SPAN style="display:block">Hg</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Thallium, 81 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium"><SPAN style="display:block">Tl</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Lead, 82 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead"><SPAN style="display:block">Pb</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Bismuth, 83 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth"><SPAN style="display:block">Bi</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Polonium, 84 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium"><SPAN style="display:block">Po</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Astatine, 85 (metalloid)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccc99; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine"><SPAN style="display:block">At</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Radon, 86 (noble gas)" style="text-align:center; background:#c0ffff; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon"><SPAN style="display:block">Rn</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH scope="row" style="background:transparent; font-weight:normal;"><A href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</A></TH>
<TD title="Francium, 87 (alkali metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff6666; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium"><SPAN style="display:block">Fr</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Radium, 88 (alkaline earth metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffdead; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium"><SPAN style="display:block">Ra</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Actinium, 89 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium"><SPAN style="display:block">Ac</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Thorium, 90 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium"><SPAN style="display:block">Th</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Protactinium, 91 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium"><SPAN style="display:block">Pa</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Uranium, 92 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium"><SPAN style="display:block">U</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Neptunium, 93 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium"><SPAN style="display:block">Np</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Plutonium, 94 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium"><SPAN style="display:block">Pu</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Americium, 95 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium"><SPAN style="display:block">Am</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Curium, 96 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium"><SPAN style="display:block">Cm</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Berkelium, 97 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium"><SPAN style="display:block">Bk</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Californium, 98 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium"><SPAN style="display:block">Cf</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Einsteinium, 99 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium"><SPAN style="display:block">Es</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Fermium, 100 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium"><SPAN style="display:block">Fm</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Mendelevium, 101 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium"><SPAN style="display:block">Md</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Nobelium, 102 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium"><SPAN style="display:block">No</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Lawrencium, 103 (actinide)" style="text-align:center; background:#ff99cc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium"><SPAN style="display:block">Lr</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Rutherfordium, 104 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium"><SPAN style="display:block">Rf</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Dubnium, 105 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium"><SPAN style="display:block">Db</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Seaborgium, 106 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium"><SPAN style="display:block">Sg</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Bohrium, 107 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium"><SPAN style="display:block">Bh</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Hassium, 108 (transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#ffc0c0; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium"><SPAN style="display:block">Hs</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Meitnerium, 109 (unknown chemical properties)" style="text-align:center; background:#e8e8e8; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium"><SPAN style="display:block">Mt</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Darmstadtium, 110 (unknown chemical properties)" style="text-align:center; background:#e8e8e8; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium"><SPAN style="display:block">Ds</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Roentgenium, 111 (unknown chemical properties)" style="text-align:center; background:#e8e8e8; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium"><SPAN style="display:block">Rg</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Copernicium, 112 (post-transition metal)" style="text-align:center; background:#cccccc; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium"><SPAN style="display:block">Cn</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Nihonium, 113 (unknown chemical properties)" style="text-align:center; background:#e8e8e8; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium"><SPAN style="display:block">Nh</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Flerovium, 114 (unknown chemical properties)" style="text-align:center; background:#e8e8e8; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium"><SPAN style="display:block">Fl</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Moscovium, 115 (unknown chemical properties)" style="text-align:center; background:#e8e8e8; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium"><SPAN style="display:block">Mc</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Livermorium, 116 (unknown chemical properties)" style="text-align:center; background:#e8e8e8; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium"><SPAN style="display:block">Lv</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Tennessine, 117 (unknown chemical properties)" style="text-align:center; background:#e8e8e8; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine"><SPAN style="display:block">Ts</SPAN></A></TD>
<TD title="Oganesson, 118 (unknown chemical properties)" style="text-align:center; background:#e8e8e8; border:none; ;"><A href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson"><SPAN style="display:block">Og</SPAN></A></TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
</TD>
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<TR>
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<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<TABLE role="presentation" id="periodic-table-legend" class="wikitable" style="width:100%; line-height:120%; text-align:center; vertical-align:top; font-size:85%; background:#f8f8f8; margin:0; font-size:90%; margin-top:0.5em;">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD>
<TABLE style="width:100%; table-layout:fixed; overflow:hidden;">
<TBODY><TR>
<TD style="padding:0 1px; background:#ff6666;"><A href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">Alkali metal</A></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 1px; background:#ffdead;"><A href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">Alkaline earth metal</A></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 1px; background:#ffbfff;"><A href="/wiki/Lanthanide" title="Lanthanide">Lanthanide</A></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 1px; background:#ff99cc;"><A href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinide</A></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 1px; background:#ffc0c0;"><A href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">Transition metal</A></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 1px; background:#cccccc;"><A href="/wiki/Post-transition_metal" title="Post-transition metal">Post-transition metal</A></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 1px; background:#cccc99;"><A href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">Metalloid</A></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 1px; background:#a1ffc3;"><A href="/wiki/Polyatomic_nonmetal" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyatomic nonmetal">Polyatomic nonmetal</A></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 1px; background:#e7ff8f;"><A href="/wiki/Diatomic_nonmetal" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatomic nonmetal">Diatomic nonmetal</A></TD>
<TD style="padding:0 1px; background:#c0ffff;"><A href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">Noble gas</A></TD>
<TD rowspan="1" style="padding:0 1px; background:#e8e8e8;">Unknown<BR />
chemical<BR />
properties</TD>
</TR>
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</TD>
</TR>
</TBODY></TABLE>
</DIV>
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<DIV id="Germanium_compounds" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Germanium</A> compounds</DIV>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ge(II)</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium_dichloride" title="Germanium dichloride">GeCl<SUB>2</SUB></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium_difluoride" title="Germanium difluoride">GeF<SUB>2</SUB></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium_iodide" title="Germanium iodide">GeI<SUB>2</SUB></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium_monoxide" title="Germanium monoxide">GeO</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium(II)_hydroxide" title="Germanium(II) hydroxide">Ge(OH)<SUB>2</SUB></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium_monosulfide" title="Germanium monosulfide">GeS</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium_selenide" title="Germanium selenide">GeSe</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium_telluride" title="Germanium telluride">GeTe</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium_tetrafluoride" title="Germanium tetrafluoride">GeF<SUB>4</SUB></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium_tetrachloride" title="Germanium tetrachloride">GeCl<SUB>4</SUB></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium_dioxide" title="Germanium dioxide">GeO<SUB>2</SUB></A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Germanium_disulfide" title="Germanium disulfide">GeS<SUB>2</SUB></A></LI>
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<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Control_Number" title="Library of Congress Control Number">LCCN</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.loc.gov/authorities/subjects/sh85054449">sh85054449</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Integrated_Authority_File" title="Integrated Authority File">GND</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4135644-5">4135644-5</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">BNF</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122010330">cb122010330</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122010330">(data)</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><SPAN class="nowrap"><A href="/wiki/National_Diet_Library" title="National Diet Library">NDL</A>: <SPAN class="uid"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562424">00562424</A></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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					<LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af"><A href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am"><A href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%80%E1%88%AD%E1%88%9B%E1%8A%92%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%9D" title="ጀርማኒየም – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><A href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85" title="جرمانيوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><A href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chermanio" title="Chermanio – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup"><A href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniu" title="Germaniu – Aromanian" lang="roa-rup" hreflang="roa-rup" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><A href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xermaniu" title="Xermaniu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><A href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb"><A href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%85" title="ژرمانیوم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><A href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE" title="জার্মেনিয়াম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><A href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bân-lâm-gú</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><A href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9" title="Германій – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><A href="https://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Герман – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh"><A href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="जर्मेनियम – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><A href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Германий – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo"><A href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%87%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8D" title="འཇར་མི་ནིམ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><A href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanij" title="Germanij – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><A href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniom" title="Germaniom – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><A href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germani" title="Germani – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><A href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8_(%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82)" title="Германи (элемент) – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb"><A href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanio" title="Germanio – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><A href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co"><A href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniu" title="Germaniu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><A href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniwm" title="Germaniwm – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><A href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><A href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><A href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaanium" title="Germaanium – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><A href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Γερμάνιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><A href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanio" title="Germanio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><A href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniumo" title="Germaniumo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><A href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanio" title="Germanio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><A href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85" title="ژرمانیم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif"><A href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo"><A href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><A href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur"><A href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjermani" title="Gjermani – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><A href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gearm%C3%A1iniam" title="Gearmáiniam – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv"><A href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaanium" title="Germaanium – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><A href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gearmainium" title="Gearmainium – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><A href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xermanio" title="Xermanio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu"><A href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AE%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%AE" title="જર્મેનિયમ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak"><A href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal"><A href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Германион – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><A href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%80%EB%A7%88%EB%8A%84" title="저마늄 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><A href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Գերմանիում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><A href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="जर्मेनियम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><A href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanij" title="Germanij – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><A href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanio" title="Germanio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><A href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><A href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><A href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/German" title="German – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><A href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanio" title="Germanio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><A href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9D" title="גרמניום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><A href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Jawa</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn"><A href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜರ್ಮೇನಿಯಮ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><A href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="გერმანიუმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><A href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Германий – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><A href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerimani" title="Gerimani – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv"><A href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Германий – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><A href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A8many%C3%B2m" title="Jèmanyòm – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><A href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany%C3%BBm" title="Germanyûm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky"><A href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Германий – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj"><A href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Германий – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la"><A href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><A href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ%C4%81nijs" title="Germānijs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><A href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><A href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanis" title="Germanis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij"><A href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanio" title="Germanio – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li"><A href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo"><A href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo"><A href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/dotyjinme" title="dotyjinme – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo"><A href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ%C3%A0nio" title="Germànio – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lumbaart</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><A href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ%C3%A1nium" title="Germánium – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><A href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Германиум – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><A href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="ജെർമേനിയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><A href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="जर्मेनियम – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><A href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo"><A href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Min Dong Chinese" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><A href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Германи – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><A href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%B6" title="ဂျာမန်နီယံ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><A href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><A href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="जर्मेनियम – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><A href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="जर्मेनियम – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><A href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B2%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9E%E3%83%8B%E3%82%A6%E3%83%A0" title="ゲルマニウム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr"><A href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><A href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Norwegian" lang="no" hreflang="no" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><A href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><A href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germani" title="Germani – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or"><A href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%AE" title="ଜର୍ମାନିଅମ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><A href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniy" title="Germaniy – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><A href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%AE" title="ਜਰਮੇਨੀਅਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi"><A href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="जर्मेनियम – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><A href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%85" title="جرمینیم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms"><A href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germani_(element)" title="Germani (element) – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><A href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><A href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/German" title="German – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><A href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ%C3%A2nio" title="Germânio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><A href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniu" title="Germaniu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><A href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyu" title="Germanyu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><A href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Германий – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa"><A href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="जर्मेनियम – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><A href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq"><A href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><A href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniumi" title="Germaniumi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><A href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girmaniu" title="Girmaniu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><A href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><A href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ%C3%A1nium" title="Germánium – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><A href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanij" title="Germanij – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so"><A href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jermaaniyaam" title="Jermaaniyaam – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><A href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8E%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%85" title="جێرمانیۆم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><A href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Германијум – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><A href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanijum" title="Germanijum – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><A href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rmanium" title="Gérmanium – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Sunda</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><A href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><A href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><A href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="செருமேனியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><A href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Германий – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча/tatarça</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><A href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82" title="జెర్మేనియం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><A href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="เจอร์เมเนียม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><A href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Германий – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><A href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyum" title="Germanyum – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><A href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9" title="Германій – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><A href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A6%D9%85" title="جرمانیئم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug"><A href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%90%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%89%D9%8A" title="گېرمانىي – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep"><A href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanii_(himine_element)" title="Germanii (himine element) – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><A href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gecmani" title="Gecmani – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical"><A href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8D%BA" title="鍺 – Classical Chinese" lang="zh-classical" hreflang="zh-classical" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><A href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyo" title="Germanyo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><A href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9D" title="גערמאניום – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo"><A href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%E1%BA%B9%CC%81rm%C3%A1n%C3%AD%E1%BB%8D%CC%81m%C3%B9" title="Jẹ́rmáníọ́mù – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><A href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%8D%BA" title="鍺 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><A href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%94%97" title="锗 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</A></LI><LI class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp"><A href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C9%9Br%C9%A9man%C9%A9y%C9%94m" title="Zɛrɩmanɩyɔm – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</A></LI>				</UL>
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