Urban heat island

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<H1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Urban heat island</H1>			<DIV id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content">
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<A href="/wiki/Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</A>, an example of an urban heat island. Normal temperatures of Tokyo go up more than those of the surrounding area.</DIV>
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<P>An <B>urban heat island</B> (<B>UHI</B>) is an <A href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban area</A> or <A href="/wiki/Metropolitan_area" title="Metropolitan area">metropolitan area</A> that is significantly warmer than its surrounding <A href="/wiki/Rural_area" title="Rural area">rural areas</A> due to human activities. The <A href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</A> difference usually is larger at night than during the day, and is most apparent when <A href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">winds</A> are weak. UHI is most noticeable during the <A href="/wiki/Summer" title="Summer">summer</A> and <A href="/wiki/Winter" title="Winter">winter</A>. The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces.<SUP id="cite_ref-dx.doi.org_1-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-dx.doi.org-1">[1]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-2">[2]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">Waste heat</A> generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor.<SUP id="cite_ref-liyan2012_3-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-liyan2012-3">[3]</A></SUP> As a population center grows, it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature. The less-used term <B>heat island</B> refers to any area, populated or not, which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area.<SUP id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-4">[4]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Monthly <A href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">rainfall</A> is greater downwind of cities, partially due to the UHI. Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of <A href="/wiki/Growing_season" title="Growing season">growing seasons</A>, and decreases the occurrence of weak <A href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornadoes</A>. The UHI decreases <A href="/wiki/Air_quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Air quality">air quality</A> by increasing the production of pollutants such as <A href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</A>, and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their <A href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</A>.</P>
<P>Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island. Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of <A href="/wiki/Green_roof" title="Green roof">green roofs</A> and the <A href="/wiki/Reflective_surfaces_(climate_engineering)" title="Reflective surfaces (climate engineering)">use of lighter-colored surfaces</A> in urban areas, which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat.</P>
<P>There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming. Research on China<SUP id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-5">[5]</A></SUP> indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30%.<SUP id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-6">[6]</A></SUP> On the other hand, one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends.<SUP id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-7">[7]</A></SUP> Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change.<SUP id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-8">[8]</A></SUP></P>
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<DIV id="toc" class="toc">
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<H2>Contents</H2>
<SPAN class="toctoggle"> [<A role="button" tabindex="0" class="togglelink">hide</A>] </SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><A href="#History"><SPAN class="tocnumber">1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">History</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><A href="#Causes"><SPAN class="tocnumber">2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Causes</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><A href="#Diurnal_behavior"><SPAN class="tocnumber">3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Diurnal behavior</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><A href="#Seasonal_behavior"><SPAN class="tocnumber">4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Seasonal behavior</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><A href="#Prediction"><SPAN class="tocnumber">5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Prediction</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><A href="#Impact_on_animals"><SPAN class="tocnumber">6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Impact on animals</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><A href="#Other_impacts_on_weather_and_climate"><SPAN class="tocnumber">7</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Other impacts on weather and climate</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><A href="#Health_effects"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Health effects</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><A href="#Inequality_of_tree_canopy_cover"><SPAN class="tocnumber">8.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Inequality of tree canopy cover</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><A href="#Impact_on_nearby_water_bodies"><SPAN class="tocnumber">9</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Impact on nearby water bodies</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><A href="#Impact_on_energy_usage"><SPAN class="tocnumber">10</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Impact on energy usage</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><A href="#Mitigation"><SPAN class="tocnumber">11</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mitigation</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><A href="#Mitigation_policies,_measures_and_other_strategies"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Mitigation policies, measures and other strategies</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><A href="#AB32_scoping_plan"><SPAN class="tocnumber">12.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">AB32 scoping plan</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><A href="#Implementation_of_policies"><SPAN class="tocnumber">13</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Implementation of policies</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><A href="#AB32_and_urban_heat_islands"><SPAN class="tocnumber">14</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">AB32 and urban heat islands</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><A href="#EPA_Compendium_of_Strategies"><SPAN class="tocnumber">15</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">EPA Compendium of Strategies</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><A href="#Incentives"><SPAN class="tocnumber">16</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Incentives</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><A href="#Weatherization"><SPAN class="tocnumber">17</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Weatherization</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><A href="#Outreach_and_education"><SPAN class="tocnumber">18</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Outreach and education</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><A href="#Tree_protection_ordinances"><SPAN class="tocnumber">19</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Tree protection ordinances</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><A href="#Co-benefits_of_mitigation_strategies"><SPAN class="tocnumber">20</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Co-benefits of mitigation strategies</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><A href="#Trees_and_gardens_aid_mental_health"><SPAN class="tocnumber">20.1</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Trees and gardens aid mental health</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><A href="#Tree_planting_as_empowerment_and_community_building"><SPAN class="tocnumber">20.2</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Tree planting as empowerment and community building</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><A href="#Green_roofs_as_food_production"><SPAN class="tocnumber">20.3</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Green roofs as food production</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><A href="#Green_roofs_and_wildlife_biodiversity"><SPAN class="tocnumber">20.4</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Green roofs and wildlife biodiversity</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><A href="#Urban_forests_and_a_cleaner_atmosphere"><SPAN class="tocnumber">20.5</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Urban forests and a cleaner atmosphere</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><A href="#Green_building_programs"><SPAN class="tocnumber">20.6</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Green building programs</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><A href="#Cost_analysis"><SPAN class="tocnumber">21</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Cost analysis</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><A href="#Global_warming"><SPAN class="tocnumber">22</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Global warming</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><A href="#Urban_cold_island"><SPAN class="tocnumber">23</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Urban cold island</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class="tocnumber">24</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">See also</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><A href="#References"><SPAN class="tocnumber">25</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">References</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><A href="#Further_reading"><SPAN class="tocnumber">26</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">Further reading</SPAN></A></LI>
<LI class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class="tocnumber">27</SPAN> <SPAN class="toctext">External links</SPAN></A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<P></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="History">History</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>The phenomenon was first investigated and described by <A href="/wiki/Luke_Howard" title="Luke Howard">Luke Howard</A> in the 1810s, although he was not the one to name the phenomenon.<SUP id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-9">[9]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Causes">Causes</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:Newyork_heat_island.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Newyork_heat_island.jpg/220px-Newyork_heat_island.jpg" width="220" height="442" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Newyork_heat_island.jpg/330px-Newyork_heat_island.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Newyork_heat_island.jpg/440px-Newyork_heat_island.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="1084" /></A>
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Thermal (top) and vegetation (bottom) locations around <A href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</A> via infrared satellite imagery. A comparison of the images shows that where vegetation is dense, temperatures are cooler.</DIV>
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<P>There are several causes of an urban heat island (UHI); for example, dark surfaces absorb significantly more <A href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">solar radiation</A>, which causes urban concentrations of roads and buildings to heat more than suburban and rural areas during the day;<SUP id="cite_ref-dx.doi.org_1-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-dx.doi.org-1">[1]</A></SUP> materials commonly used in urban areas for pavement and roofs, such as <A href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</A> and <A href="/wiki/Asphalt" title="Asphalt">asphalt</A>, have significantly different thermal bulk properties (including <A href="/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific heat capacity">heat capacity</A> and <A href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</A>) and surface radiative properties (<A href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</A> and <A href="/wiki/Emissivity" title="Emissivity">emissivity</A>) than the surrounding rural areas. This causes a change in the <A href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">energy budget</A> of the urban area, often leading to higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas.<SUP id="cite_ref-Okeljnljn_10-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Okeljnljn-10">[10]</A></SUP> Another major reason is the lack of <A href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspiration</A> (for example, through lack of vegetation) in urban areas. The U.S. Forest Service found in 2018 that cities in the United States are losing 36 million trees each year.<SUP id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-11">[11]</A></SUP> With a decreased amount of vegetation, cities also lose the shade and cooling effect of trees, and the removal of carbon dioxide.<SUP id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-12">[12]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-13">[13]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Other causes of a UHI are due to geometric effects. The tall buildings within many urban areas provide multiple surfaces for the reflection and absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are heated. This is called the "<A href="/wiki/Urban_canyon" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban canyon">urban canyon effect</A>". Another effect of buildings is the blocking of wind, which also inhibits cooling by <A href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</A> and prevents pollutants from dissipating. Waste heat from automobiles, air conditioning, industry, and other sources also contributes to the UHI.<SUP id="cite_ref-liyan2012_3-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-liyan2012-3">[3]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-14">[14]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-15">[15]</A></SUP> High levels of pollution in urban areas can also increase the UHI, as many forms of pollution change the radiative properties of the atmosphere.<SUP id="cite_ref-Okeljnljn_10-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Okeljnljn-10">[10]</A></SUP> As UHI raises the temperature of cities, it also increases the concentration of ozone, a greenhouse gas whose production accelerates with an increase in temperature.<SUP id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-16">[16]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Some cities exhibit a heat island effect, largest at night. Seasonally, UHI shows up both in summer and winter.<SUP id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-17">[17]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-18">[18]</A></SUP> The typical temperature difference is several degrees between the center of the city and surrounding fields. The difference in temperature between an inner city and its surrounding suburbs is frequently mentioned in weather reports, as in "68 °F (20 °C) downtown, 64 °F (18 °C) in the suburbs". "The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be 1.8–5.4 °F (1.0–3.0 °C) warmer than its surroundings. In the evening, the difference can be as high as 22 °F (12 °C)."<SUP id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-19">[19]</A></SUP><SUP class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<I><A href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources"><SPAN title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. EPA webpage makes this extreme claim (22F/12C) with a footnote citation to an online scientific paper that nowhere mentions the claim. EPA has been alerted and is investigating. Below, the lead sentence of the Mitigation section cites more-realistic numbers (9F/5C). (August 2015)">unreliable source?</SPAN></A></I>]</SUP></P>
<P>The UHI can be defined as either the air temperature difference (the canopy UHI) or the surface temperature difference (surface UHI) between the urban and the rural area. These two show slightly different diurnal and seasonal variability and have different causes <SUP id="cite_ref-Chakra_20-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Chakra-20">[20]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Diurnal_behavior">Diurnal behavior</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Diurnal behavior">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</A> stated that "it is well-known that compared to non-urban areas urban heat islands raise night-time temperatures more than daytime temperatures."<SUP id="cite_ref-grida.no_21-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-grida.no-21">[21]</A></SUP> For example, <A href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</A>, <A href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</A> is 0.2 °C <SPAN class="nowrap">(0.4 °F)</SPAN> cooler for daily maxima and 2.9 °C <SPAN class="nowrap">(5.2 °F)</SPAN> warmer for minima than a nearby rural station.<SUP id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-22">[22]</A></SUP> A description of the very first report of the UHI by <A href="/wiki/Luke_Howard" title="Luke Howard">Luke Howard</A> in the late 1810s said that the urban center of London was warmer at night than the surrounding countryside by 3.7 °F <SPAN class="nowrap">(2.1 °C)</SPAN>.<SUP id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-23">[23]</A></SUP> Though the warmer air temperature within the UHI is generally most apparent at night, urban heat islands exhibit significant and somewhat paradoxical diurnal behavior. The air temperature difference between the UHI and the surrounding environment is large at night and small during the day. The opposite is true for skin temperatures of the urban landscape within the UHI.<SUP id="cite_ref-Roth_24-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Roth-24">[24]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Throughout the daytime, particularly when the skies are free of clouds, urban surfaces are warmed by the absorption of <A href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">solar radiation</A>. Surfaces in the urban areas tend to warm faster than those of the surrounding rural areas. By virtue of their high <A href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">heat capacities</A>, urban surfaces act as a giant reservoir of heat energy. For example, concrete can hold roughly 2,000 times as much heat as an equivalent volume of air. As a result, the large daytime surface temperature within the UHI is easily seen via thermal remote sensing.<SUP id="cite_ref-Lee_25-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Lee-25">[25]</A></SUP> As is often the case with daytime heating, this warming also has the effect of generating <A href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convective</A> winds within the urban <A href="/wiki/Boundary_layer" title="Boundary layer">boundary layer</A>. It is theorized that, due to the atmospheric mixing that results, the air temperature perturbation within the UHI is generally minimal or nonexistent during the day, though the surface temperatures can reach extremely high levels.<SUP id="cite_ref-Cam_26-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Cam-26">[26]</A></SUP></P>
<P>At night, the situation reverses. The absence of solar heating causes the atmospheric convection to decrease, and the urban boundary layer begins to stabilize. If enough stabilization occurs, an <A href="/wiki/Inversion_(meteorology)" title="Inversion (meteorology)">inversion layer</A> is formed. This traps urban air near the surface, and keeping surface air warm from the still-warm urban surfaces, forming the nighttime warmer air temperatures within the UHI. Other than the heat retention properties of urban areas, the nighttime maximum in urban canyons could also be due to the blocking of "sky view" during cooling: surfaces lose heat at night principally by radiation to the comparatively cool sky, and this is blocked by the buildings in an urban area. Radiative cooling is more dominant when wind speed is low and the sky is cloudless, and indeed the UHI is found to be largest at night in these conditions.<SUP id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-27">[27]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Seasonal_behavior">Seasonal behavior</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Seasonal behavior">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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<P>The urban heat island temperature difference is not only usually larger at night than during the day, but also larger in winter than in summer. This is particularly so in regions where snow is pervasive, as cities generally retain snow for much shorter time periods than the surrounding countryside (due to higher capacity to retain heat, as well as human-activity such as plowing). This decreases the albedo of the city and thereby magnifies the heating effect. Higher wind speeds in rural areas, particularly in winter, can also function to make them cooler than urban areas. Regions with distinct wet and dry seasons will exhibit a larger urban heat island effect during the dry season. The <A href="/wiki/Time_constant" title="Time constant">thermal time constant</A> of moist soil is much higher than that of dry soil.<SUP id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-28">[28]</A></SUP> As a result, moist rural soils will cool slower than dry rural soils and act to minimize the nocturnal temperature difference between urban and rural regions.<SUP id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-29">[29]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Prediction">Prediction</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prediction">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>If a city or town has a good system of taking weather observations the UHI can be measured directly.<SUP id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-30">[30]</A></SUP> An alternative is to use a complex simulation of the location to calculate the UHI, or to use an approximate empirical method.<SUP id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-31">[31]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-32">[32]</A></SUP> Such models allow the UHI to be included in estimates of future temperatures rises within cities due to climate change.</P>
<P>Leonard O. Myrup published the first comprehensive numerical treatment to predict the effects of the urban heat island (UHI) in 1969. His paper surveys UHI and criticizes then-existing theories as being excessively qualitative. A general purpose, numerical energy budget model is described and applied to the urban atmosphere. Calculations for several special cases as well as a sensitivity analysis are presented. The model is found to predict the correct order of magnitude of the urban temperature excess. The heat island effect is found to be the net result of several competing physical processes. In general, reduced evaporation in the city center and the thermal properties of the city building and paving materials are the dominant parameters. It is suggested that such a model could be used in engineering calculations to improve the climate of existing and future cities.<SUP id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-33">[33]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Impact_on_animals">Impact on animals</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Impact on animals">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P><A href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">Ant</A> colonies in urban heat islands have an increased heat tolerance at no cost to cold tolerance.<SUP id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-34">[34]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Species that are good at colonizing can utilize conditions provided by urban heat islands to thrive in regions outside of their normal range. Examples of this include <A href="/wiki/Grey-headed_flying_fox" title="Grey-headed flying fox">grey-headed flying fox</A> (<I>Pteropus poliocephalus</I>) and the <A href="/wiki/Common_house_gecko" title="Common house gecko">common house gecko</A> (<I>Hemidactylus frenatus</I>).<SUP id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-35">[35]</A></SUP> Grey-headed flying foxes, found in <A href="/wiki/Melbourne,_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Melbourne, Australia">Melbourne, Australia</A>, colonized urban habitats following increase in temperatures there. Increased temperatures, causing warmer winter conditions, made the city more similar in climate to the more northerly wildland habitat of the species.</P>
<P>With attempts to mitigate and manage urban heat islands, temperature changes and availability of food and water are reduced. With temperate climates, urban heat islands will extend the growing season, therefore altering breeding strategies of inhabiting species.<SUP id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-36">[36]</A></SUP> This can be seen the best in the effects that urban heat islands have on water temperature. With the temperature of the nearby buildings sometimes reaching over 50 degrees different from the near-surface air temperature, precipitation will warm rapidly, causing runoff into nearby streams, lakes and rivers (or other bodies of water) to provide excessive thermal pollution. The increase in the thermal pollution has the ability to increase water temperature by 20 to 30 degrees. This increase will cause the fish species inhabiting the body of water to undergo thermal stress and shock due to the rapid change in temperature to their climate.<SUP id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-37">[37]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Urban heat islands caused by cities have altered the <A href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</A> process.<SUP id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-38">[38]</A></SUP> Selective pressures like temporal variation in food, predation and water are relaxed causing for a new set of selective forces to roll out. For example, within urban habitats, insects are more abundant than in rural areas. Insects are <A href="/wiki/Ectotherms" class="mw-redirect" title="Ectotherms">ectotherms</A>. This means that they depend on the temperature of the environment to control their body temperature, making for the warmer climates of the city perfect for their ability to thrive. A study done in <A href="/wiki/Raleigh,_North_Carolina" title="Raleigh, North Carolina">Raleigh, North Carolina</A> conducted on <A href="/w/index.php?title=Parthenolecanium_quercifex&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parthenolecanium quercifex (page does not exist)">Parthenolecanium quercifex</A> (oak scales), showed that this particular species preferred warmer climates and were therefore found in higher abundance in the urban habitats than on <A href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</A> trees in rural habitats. Over time of living in urban habitats, they have adapted to thrive in warmer climates than in cooler.<SUP id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-39">[39]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The presence of non-native species is heavily dependent on the amount of human activity.<SUP id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-40">[40]</A></SUP> An example of this can be seen in the populations of <A href="/wiki/American_cliff_swallow" title="American cliff swallow">cliff swallows</A> seen taking nests under the eaves of homes in urban habitats. They make their homes using the shelter provided by the humans in the upper regions of homes, allowing for an influx in their populations due to added protection and reduced predator numbers.</P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Other_impacts_on_weather_and_climate">Other impacts on weather and climate</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other impacts on weather and climate">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Aside from the effect on temperature, UHIs can produce secondary effects on local meteorology, including the altering of local wind patterns, the development of <A href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">clouds</A> and <A href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">fog</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">humidity</A>, and the rates of precipitation.<SUP id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-41">[41]</A></SUP> The extra heat provided by the UHI leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity. In addition, the UHI creates during the day a local low pressure area where relatively moist air from its rural surroundings converges, possibly leading to more favorable conditions for cloud formation.<SUP id="cite_ref-Hee_42-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Hee-42">[42]</A></SUP> Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 20 miles (32 km) to 40 miles (64 km) downwind of cities, compared with upwind.<SUP id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-43">[43]</A></SUP> Some cities show a total precipitation increase of 51%.<SUP id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-44">[44]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Research has been done in a few areas suggesting that metropolitan areas are less susceptible to weak tornadoes due to the turbulent mixing caused by the warmth of the urban heat island.<SUP id="cite_ref-tornado_project_45-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-tornado_project-45">[45]</A></SUP> Using satellite images, researchers discovered that city climates have a noticeable influence on plant growing seasons up to 10 kilometers (6.2 miles) away from a city's edges. Growing seasons in 70 cities in eastern North America were about 15 days longer in urban areas compared to rural areas outside of a city's influence.<SUP id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-46">[46]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Health_effects">Health effects</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Health effects">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
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Image of <A href="/wiki/Atlanta" title="Atlanta">Atlanta, Georgia</A>, showing temperature distribution, with blue showing cool temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appear white.</DIV>
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<P>UHIs have the potential to directly influence the health and welfare of urban residents. Within the United States alone, an average of 1,000 people die each year due to extreme heat.<SUP id="cite_ref-Changnon_47-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Changnon-47">[47]</A></SUP> As UHIs are characterized by increased temperature, they can potentially increase the magnitude and duration of <A href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">heat waves</A> within cities. Research has found that the mortality rate during a heat wave increases exponentially with the maximum temperature,<SUP id="cite_ref-Buechley_48-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Buechley-48">[48]</A></SUP> an effect that is exacerbated by the UHI. The nighttime effect of UHIs can be particularly harmful during a heat wave, as it deprives urban residents of the cool relief found in rural areas during the night.<SUP id="cite_ref-Clarke_49-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Clarke-49">[49]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Research in the United States suggests that the relationship between extreme temperature and mortality varies by location. Heat is more likely to increase the risk of mortality in cities in the northern part of the country than in the southern regions of the country. For example, when <A href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</A>, <A href="/wiki/Denver" title="Denver">Denver</A>, or <A href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</A> experience unusually hot summertime temperatures, elevated levels of illness and death are predicted. In contrast, parts of the country that are mild to hot year-round have a lower public health risk from excessive heat. Research shows that residents of southern cities, such as <A href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</A>, <A href="/wiki/Tampa" class="mw-redirect" title="Tampa">Tampa</A>, <A href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Phoenix,_Arizona" title="Phoenix, Arizona">Phoenix</A>, tend to be acclimated to hot weather conditions and therefore less vulnerable to heat related deaths. However, as a whole, people in the United States appear to be adapting to hotter temperatures further north each decade. However, this might be due to better infrastructure, more modern building design, and better public awareness.<SUP id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-50">[50]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Increased temperatures have been reported to cause <A href="/wiki/Heat_stroke" title="Heat stroke">heat stroke</A>, <A href="/wiki/Heat_exhaustion" title="Heat exhaustion">heat exhaustion</A>, <A href="/wiki/Heat_syncope" title="Heat syncope">heat syncope</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Heat_cramps" title="Heat cramps">heat cramps</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-Review1_51-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Review1-51">[51]</A></SUP> Some studies have also looked at how severe heat stroke can lead to permanent damage to organ systems.<SUP id="cite_ref-Review1_51-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Review1-51">[51]</A></SUP> This damage can increase the risk of early mortality because the damage can cause severe impairment in organ function.<SUP id="cite_ref-Review1_51-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Review1-51">[51]</A></SUP> Other complications of heat stroke include <A href="/wiki/Acute_respiratory_distress_syndrome" title="Acute respiratory distress syndrome">respiratory distress syndrome</A> in adults and <A href="/wiki/Disseminated_intravascular_coagulation" title="Disseminated intravascular coagulation">disseminated intravascular coagulation</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-WHO_52-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-WHO-52">[52]</A></SUP> Some researchers have noted that any compromise to the human body's ability to <A href="/wiki/Thermoregulation" title="Thermoregulation">thermoregulate</A> would in theory increase risk of mortality.<SUP id="cite_ref-Review1_51-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Review1-51">[51]</A></SUP> This includes illnesses that may affect a person's mobility, awareness, or behavior.<SUP id="cite_ref-Review1_51-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Review1-51">[51]</A></SUP> Researchers<SUP id="cite_ref-WHO_52-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-WHO-52">[52]</A></SUP> have noted that individuals with cognitive health issues (e.g. <A href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</A>, <A href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">dementia</A>, <A href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</A>) are more at risk when faced with high temperatures and "need to take extra care"<SUP id="cite_ref-Review1_51-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Review1-51">[51]</A></SUP> as cognitive performance has been shown to be differentially affected<SUP id="cite_ref-Cognitive_Performance_53-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Cognitive_Performance-53">[53]</A></SUP> by heat. People with diabetes,<SUP id="cite_ref-Review1_51-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Review1-51">[51]</A></SUP> are overweight,<SUP id="cite_ref-WHO_52-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-WHO-52">[52]</A></SUP> have sleep deprivation,<SUP id="cite_ref-WHO_52-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-WHO-52">[52]</A></SUP> or have cardiovascular/cerebrovascular conditions should avoid too much heat exposure.<SUP id="cite_ref-Review1_51-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Review1-51">[51]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-WHO_52-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-WHO-52">[52]</A></SUP> Some common medications that have an effect on thermoregulation can also increase the risk of mortality. Specific examples include <A href="/wiki/Anticholinergics" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticholinergics">anticholinergics</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Review1_51-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Review1-51">[51]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Diuretics" class="mw-redirect" title="Diuretics">diuretics</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-Review1_51-9" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Review1-51">[51]</A></SUP> phenotiazines<SUP id="cite_ref-WHO_52-5" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-WHO-52">[52]</A></SUP> and <A href="/wiki/Barbiturates" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbiturates">barbiturates</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-WHO_52-6" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-WHO-52">[52]</A></SUP> Not only health, but heat can also affect behavior. A U.S. study suggests that heat can make people more irritable and aggressive, noting that violent crimes increased by 4.58 out of 100,000 for every one degree increase in temperature.<SUP id="cite_ref-DOE_54-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DOE-54">[54]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A researcher found that high UHI intensity correlates with increased concentrations of air pollutants that gathered at night, which can affect the next day's <A href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air quality</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-DOE_54-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DOE-54">[54]</A></SUP> These pollutants include <A href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Volatile organic compounds">volatile organic compounds</A>, <A href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</A>, <A href="/wiki/Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">nitrogen oxides</A>, and <A href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">particulate matter</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-WHO_52-7" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-WHO-52">[52]</A></SUP> The production of these pollutants combined with the higher temperatures in UHIs can quicken the production of <A href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-DOE_54-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DOE-54">[54]</A></SUP> Ozone at surface level is considered to be a harmful pollutant.<SUP id="cite_ref-DOE_54-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DOE-54">[54]</A></SUP> Studies suggest that increased temperatures in UHIs can increase polluted days but also note that other factors (e.g. <A href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">air pressure</A>, <A href="/wiki/Cloud_cover" title="Cloud cover">cloud cover</A>, <A href="/wiki/Wind_speed" title="Wind speed">wind speed</A>) can also have an effect on pollution.<SUP id="cite_ref-DOE_54-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-DOE-54">[54]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</A> notes that it "is difficult to make valid projections of heat-related illness and death under varying climate change scenarios" and that "heat–related deaths are preventable, as evidenced by the decline of all-cause mortality during heat events over the past 35 years".<SUP id="cite_ref-CDC_55-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-CDC-55">[55]</A></SUP> However, some studies suggest the possibility that health impacts from UHIs are disproportionate because the impacts can be unevenly distributed based on a variety of factors (e.g. age,<SUP id="cite_ref-WHO_52-8" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-WHO-52">[52]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Diaz_article_56-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Diaz_article-56">[56]</A></SUP> ethnicity and socioeconomic status<SUP id="cite_ref-Harlan_article_57-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Harlan_article-57">[57]</A></SUP>). This raises the possibility of health impacts from UHIs being an <A href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</A> issue.</P>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Inequality_of_tree_canopy_cover">Inequality of tree canopy cover</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Inequality of tree canopy cover">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<DL>
<DT>Relationship between neighborhood income and tree canopy cover</DT>
</DL>
<P>In recent years, researchers have discovered a strong correlation between neighborhood income and tree canopy cover. In 2010, researchers at Auburn University and University of Southern California found that the presence of trees are "highly responsive to changes in [neighborhood] income."<SUP id="cite_ref-Demand_58-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Demand-58">[58]</A></SUP> Low-income neighborhoods tend to have significantly fewer trees than neighborhoods with higher incomes. They described this unequal distribution of trees as a demand for "luxury," rather than "necessity."<SUP id="cite_ref-Income_Inequality_59-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Income_Inequality-59">[59]</A></SUP> According to the study, "for every 1 percent increase in per capita income, demand for forest cover increased by 1.76 percent. But when income dropped by the same amount, demand decreased by 1.26 percent."<SUP id="cite_ref-Income_Inequality_59-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Income_Inequality-59">[59]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Trees are a necessary feature in combating the urban heat island effect because they reduce air temperatures by 10 °F or 5.5 °C,<SUP id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-60">[60]</A></SUP> and surface temperatures by up to 20-45 °F or 11-25 °C.<SUP id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-61">[61]</A></SUP> Researchers hypothesized that less-well-off neighborhoods do not have the financial resources to plant and maintain trees. <A href="/wiki/Affluent" class="mw-redirect" title="Affluent">Affluent</A> neighborhoods can afford more trees, on "both public and private property."<SUP id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-62">[62]</A></SUP> Part of this is also that wealthier homeowners and communities can afford more land, which can be kept open as <A href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">green space</A>, whereas poorer ones are often rentals, where landowners try to maximize their <A href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">profit</A> by putting as much <A href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">density</A> as possible on their land.</P>
<P>Additionally, many <A href="/wiki/Blogging" class="mw-redirect" title="Blogging">blogging</A> sites overlay <A href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">satellite imagery</A> provided by <A href="/wiki/Google_Maps" title="Google Maps">Google Maps</A> and <A href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</A> data to confirm or debunk the aforementioned research.<SUP id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-63">[63]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Impact_on_nearby_water_bodies">Impact on nearby water bodies</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Impact on nearby water bodies">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>UHIs also impair water quality. Hot pavement and rooftop surfaces transfer their excess heat to stormwater, which then drains into storm sewers and raises water temperatures as it is released into streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes. Additionally, increased urban water body temperatures lead to a decrease in diversity in the water.<SUP id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-64">[64]</A></SUP> In August 2001, rains over <A href="/wiki/Cedar_Rapids,_Iowa" title="Cedar Rapids, Iowa">Cedar Rapids, Iowa</A>, led to a 10.5C (18.9F) rise in the nearby stream within one hour, which led to a fish kill. Since the temperature of the rain was comparatively cool, it could be attributed to the hot pavement of the city. Similar events have been documented across the American Midwest, as well as Oregon and California.<SUP id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-65">[65]</A></SUP> Rapid temperature changes can be stressful to aquatic ecosystems.<SUP id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-66">[66]</A></SUP> <A href="/wiki/Permeable_paving" title="Permeable paving">Permeable pavements</A> may mitigate these effects by percolating water through the pavement into subsurface storage areas where it can be dissipate through absorption and evaporation.<SUP id="cite_ref-coolpave_67-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-coolpave-67">[67]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Impact_on_energy_usage">Impact on energy usage</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Impact on energy usage">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><A href="/wiki/File:NASA_SLC_Urban_Heat_Island_Effect_Roof.jpg" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/NASA_SLC_Urban_Heat_Island_Effect_Roof.jpg/250px-NASA_SLC_Urban_Heat_Island_Effect_Roof.jpg" width="250" height="124" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/NASA_SLC_Urban_Heat_Island_Effect_Roof.jpg/375px-NASA_SLC_Urban_Heat_Island_Effect_Roof.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/NASA_SLC_Urban_Heat_Island_Effect_Roof.jpg/500px-NASA_SLC_Urban_Heat_Island_Effect_Roof.jpg 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="482" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:NASA_SLC_Urban_Heat_Island_Effect_Roof.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Images of Salt Lake City, Utah, show positive correlation between white reflective roofs and cooler temperatures. Image A depicts an aerial view of <A href="/wiki/Salt_Lake_City" title="Salt Lake City">Salt Lake City</A>, Utah, site of 865,000-square-foot (80,400 m<SUP>2</SUP>) white reflective roof. Image B is a thermal infrared image of same area, showing hot (red and yellow) and cool (green and blue) spots. The reflective vinyl roof, not absorbing solar radiation, is shown in blue surrounded by other hot spots.</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>Another consequence of urban heat islands is the increased energy required for <A href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</A> and <A href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</A> in cities that are in comparatively hot climates. The Heat Island Group estimates that the heat island effect costs <A href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</A> about <A href="/wiki/US$" class="mw-redirect" title="US$">US$</A>100 million per year in energy.<SUP id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-68">[68]</A></SUP> Conversely, those that are in cold climates such as <A href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow, Russia</A> would have less demand for heating. However, through the implementation of heat island reduction strategies, significant annual net energy savings have been calculated for northern locations such as Chicago, Salt Lake City, and Toronto.<SUP id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-69">[69]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mitigation">Mitigation</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mitigation">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><A href="/wiki/File:20080708_Chicago_City_Hall_Green_Roof.JPG" class="image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/20080708_Chicago_City_Hall_Green_Roof.JPG/220px-20080708_Chicago_City_Hall_Green_Roof.JPG" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/20080708_Chicago_City_Hall_Green_Roof.JPG/330px-20080708_Chicago_City_Hall_Green_Roof.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/20080708_Chicago_City_Hall_Green_Roof.JPG/440px-20080708_Chicago_City_Hall_Green_Roof.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></A>
<DIV class="thumbcaption">
<DIV class="magnify"><A href="/wiki/File:20080708_Chicago_City_Hall_Green_Roof.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></A></DIV>
Green roof of <A href="/wiki/Chicago_City_Hall" title="Chicago City Hall">City Hall</A> in <A href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</A>, <A href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</A>.</DIV>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<P>The temperature difference between urban areas and the surrounding suburban or rural areas can be as much as 5 °C (9.0 °F). Nearly 40 percent of that increase is due to the prevalence of dark roofs, with the remainder coming from dark-colored pavement and the declining presence of vegetation. The heat island effect can be counteracted slightly by using white or reflective materials to build houses, roofs, pavements, and roads, thus increasing the overall <A href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</A> of the city.<SUP id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-70">[70]</A></SUP> Relative to remedying the other sources of the problem, replacing dark roofing requires the least amount of investment for the most immediate return. A <A href="/wiki/Cool_roof" class="mw-redirect" title="Cool roof">cool roof</A> made from a reflective material such as vinyl reflects at least 75 percent of the sun's rays, and emit at least 70 percent of the solar radiation absorbed by the building envelope. Asphalt built-up roofs (BUR), by comparison, reflect 6 percent to 26 percent of solar radiation.<SUP id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-71">[71]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Using light-colored concrete has proven effective in reflecting up to 50% more light than asphalt and reducing ambient temperature.<SUP id="cite_ref-coolpave_2_72-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-coolpave_2-72">[72]</A></SUP> A low albedo value, characteristic of black asphalt, absorbs a large percentage of solar heat creating warmer near-surface temperatures. Paving with light-colored concrete, in addition to replacing asphalt with light-colored concrete, communities may be able to lower average temperatures.<SUP id="cite_ref-worldchange_73-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-worldchange-73">[73]</A></SUP> However, research into the interaction between reflective pavements and buildings has found that, unless the nearby buildings are fitted with reflective glass, solar radiation reflected off light-colored pavements can increase building temperatures, increasing air conditioning demands.<SUP id="cite_ref-Yaghoobian_74-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Yaghoobian-74">[74]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-75">[75]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A second option is to increase the amount of well-watered vegetation. These two options can be combined with the implementation of <A href="/wiki/Green_roof" title="Green roof">green roofs</A>. Green roofs are excellent insulators during the warm weather months and the plants cool the surrounding environment. Air quality is improved as the plants absorb carbon dioxide with concomitant production of oxygen.<SUP id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-76">[76]</A></SUP> The city of New York determined that the cooling potential per area was highest for street trees, followed by living roofs, light covered surface, and open space planting. From the standpoint of cost effectiveness, light surfaces, light roofs, and curbside planting have lower costs per temperature reduction.<SUP id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-77">[77]</A></SUP></P>
<P>A hypothetical "cool communities" program in <A href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</A> has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 °C (5 °F) after planting ten million trees, reroofing five million homes, and painting one-quarter of the roads at an estimated cost of US$1 billion, giving estimated annual benefits of US$170 million from reduced air-conditioning costs and US$360 million in smog related health savings.<SUP id="cite_ref-Heat_Islands_78-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Heat_Islands-78">[78]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Mitigation strategies include:</P>
<UL>
<LI><B>White roofs</B>: Painting rooftops white has become a common strategy to reduce the heat island effect.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_79-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-79">[79]</A></SUP> In cities, there are many dark colored surfaces that absorb the heat of the sun in turn lowering the <A href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</A> of the city.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_79-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-79">[79]</A></SUP> White rooftops allow high solar reflectance and high solar emittance, increasing the albedo of the city or area the effect is occurring.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_79-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-79">[79]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B>Green roofs</B>: Green roofs are another method of decreasing the urban heat island effect. Green roofery is the practice of having vegetation on a roof; such as having trees or a garden. The plants that are on the roof increase the albedo and decreases the urban heat island effect.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_79-3" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-79">[79]</A></SUP> This method has been studied and criticized for the fact that green roofs are affected by climatic conditions, green roof variables are hard to measure, and are very complex systems<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_79-4" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-79">[79]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B>Planting trees in cities</B>: Planting trees around the city can be another way of increasing albedo and decreasing the urban heat island effect. Trees absorb <A href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</A> and provide shade. It is recommended to plant <A href="/wiki/Deciduous" title="Deciduous">deciduous</A> trees because they can provide many benefits such as more shade in the summer and not blocking warmth of winter<SUP id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-80">[80]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Green_parking_lot" title="Green parking lot">Green parking lots</A>:</B> Green parking lots use surfaces other than asphalt and vegetation to limit the impact urban heat island effect.</LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN id="Mitigation_policies.2C_measures_and_other_strategies"></SPAN><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Mitigation_policies,_measures_and_other_strategies">Mitigation policies, measures and other strategies</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mitigation policies, measures and other strategies">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="AB32_scoping_plan">AB32 scoping plan</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: AB32 scoping plan">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>AB32 required the California Air Resources Board to create a scoping plan. This plan is California's approach on how to carry out their goal of combatting climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions by 2020 to levels from the 1990s. The scoping plan had four primary programs, advanced clean cars, cap and trade, renewables portfolio standard and <A href="/wiki/Low-carbon_fuel_standard" title="Low-carbon fuel standard">low-carbon fuel standard</A> all geared toward increased energy efficiency. The plan has main strategies to reduce green house gases such as having monetary incentives, regulations and voluntary actions. Every five years the scoping plan is updated.<SUP id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-81">[81]</A></SUP></P>
<UL>
<LI><B>The advanced clean car rules program</B> was made to reduce tail pipe emissions. The Air Resources Board approved the program to control emissions for newer models from the year 2017 to 2025. Some of their goals by 2025 are to have more environmentally superior cars to be available in different models and different types of cars. New automobiles will emit 34 percent fewer global warming gases and 75 percent fewer smog-forming emissions. And if fully implemented consumers can save an average of $6,000 over the life of the car.<SUP id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-82">[82]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B>The renewable portfolio standard</B> mandates to increase <A href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</A> from a variety of sources such as <A href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar power</A> and wind. Investor-owned utilities, community choice aggregators and electric service providers are required to increase <A href="/wiki/Procurement" title="Procurement">procurement</A> to 33% by 2020.<SUP id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-83">[83]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B>Low carbon fuel standards</B> is administered by the <A href="/wiki/California_Air_Resources_Board" title="California Air Resources Board">California Air Resources Board</A> and attempts to make wider choice of cleaner fuels to Californians. Producers of petroleum-based fuels are required to reduce the <A href="/wiki/Carbon_intensity" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon intensity">carbon intensity</A> of their products to 10 percent in 2020.<SUP id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-84">[84]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B>Cap and trade</B> is designed to reduce the effects of <A href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</A> by setting a cap on <A href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</A> released into the <A href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</A>. The cap will decline approximately three percent each year in 2013. The trading will create incentives to reduce the effects of climate change in California communities by reducing greenhouse gases through investments in clean technologies.<SUP id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-85">[85]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
<P><B>Clean Air Act</B></P>
<P>The <A href="/wiki/EPA" class="mw-redirect" title="EPA">EPA</A> has initiated several air quality requirements that help reduce <A href="/wiki/Ground-level_ozone" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground-level ozone">ground-level ozone</A> that leads to urban heat islands. In the Clean Air Act, one of the EPA's chief policies, there are certain regulations that are put in place to ensure the state's emissions stay below a certain level. Included in the Clean Air Act, all states must set forth a <A href="/wiki/State_Implementation_Plan" title="State Implementation Plan">State Implementation Plan</A> (SIP) which is designed to guarantee all states meet a central air quality standard.<SUP id="cite_ref-epa.gov_86-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-epa.gov-86">[86]</A></SUP></P>
<P><B>State implementation plans and policies</B></P>
<UL>
<LI><B>The Emerging and Voluntary Measures Policy</B> allows a state to add unconventional forms of heat island mitigation. This can include removing <A href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</A> after it has already been emitted into air, water, or soil. These measures are not implemented into law, but they do make it possible for certain parties to voluntarily become more efficient. The purpose of this policy is for all polluting sources to follow by example and use the most successful forms of mitigation.<SUP id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-87">[87]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
<UL>
<LI><B>The Guidance on State Implementation Plan Credits for Emissions Reductions from Electric-Sector Energy Efficiency or Renewable Energy Measures</B> is an educational tool for states to create an up-to-date and well-organized SIP. It allows states to include plans that meet the guidelines or plans that exceed expectations. Based on the success of their SIP, some states can have their plans incorporated into other SIPs.<SUP id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-88">[88]</A></SUP></LI>
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<UL>
<LI><B>The Bundled Measures Policy</B> authorizes different factions within the state to collaborate on mitigation projects. This policy takes a more of a community-based approach by adding several groups for the purpose of multiple perspectives and inventive approaches. The Bundled Measures Policy is one method that generates co-benefits for both parties.<SUP id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-89">[89]</A></SUP> In example, if a partaking business were to add cool roofs, there will be a reduction in greenhouse gases which is beneficial for the environment as well as the need for excess energy which is beneficial for the business.</LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Implementation_of_policies">Implementation of policies</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Implementation of policies">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>The Seattle Green Factor, a multifaceted system for urban <A href="/wiki/Landscaping" title="Landscaping">landscaping</A>, has seen much success in the mitigation of urban heat islands. The program focuses on areas that are prone to high pollution, such as business districts. There are strict guidelines for any new <A href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">construction</A> that exceeds roughly 20 parking spaces, and this platform helps developers physically see their levels of pollution while trying different methods of construction to figure out the most effective course of action. Seattle has correspondingly produced a "score sheet" for cities to use in their city planning.<SUP id="cite_ref-epa.gov_86-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-epa.gov-86">[86]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="AB32_and_urban_heat_islands">AB32 and urban heat islands</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: AB32 and urban heat islands">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI>Urban heat islands increase demand for energy consumption during the summer when temperatures rise. As a result of increased energy consumption, there is an increase in air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. This policy focuses on lowering greenhouse emissions, which contributes to lowering the heat island effect.<SUP id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-90">[90]</A></SUP></LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="EPA_Compendium_of_Strategies">EPA Compendium of Strategies</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: EPA Compendium of Strategies">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>This compendium focuses on a variety of issues dealing with urban heat islands. They describe how <A href="/wiki/Urban_heat_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban heat islands">urban heat islands</A> are created, who is affected, and how people can make a difference to reduce temperature. It also shows examples of policies and voluntary actions by state and local governments to reduce the effect of urban heat islands<SUP id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-91">[91]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Incentives">Incentives</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Incentives">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><B><A href="/wiki/Sacramento_Municipal_Utility_District" title="Sacramento Municipal Utility District">Sacramento Municipal Utility District</A></B> (SMUD) and the Sacramento Tree Foundation have partnered to provide the city of Sacramento shade trees for free. The program allows citizens to receive trees from four to seven feet tall. They also give them fertilizer, and delivery, all at no cost. They encourage citizens to plant their trees to benefit their home by reducing air conditioning costs. Approximately more than 450,000 shade trees have been planted in the Sacramento area.<SUP id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-92">[92]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B>The Eco-Roof Incentive Program</B>: In Canada, <A href="/wiki/Grants" class="mw-redirect" title="Grants">grants</A> are distributed throughout Toronto for installing green and cool roofs on residential and commercial buildings. This will reduce usage of energy and lower green house gas emissions.<SUP id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-93">[93]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI><B>Tree vitalize</B>: This program is a partnership with multiple entities that focuses on helping restore tree cover in the city, it also educates citizens about the positive effects of trees on climate change and the urban heat island effect. And another goal they have is to build capacity among local governments to understand, protect and restore their urban trees. Because there is a need for educating citizens about the maintenance of trees, Treevitalize provides nine hours of classroom and field training to community residents. The classes cover a variety of topics such as tree identification, pruning, tree biology, and proper species selection.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_94-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-94">[94]</A></SUP></LI>
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<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Weatherization">Weatherization</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Weatherization">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P><A href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Energy">U.S. Department of Energy</A> Weatherization Assistance Program helps low income recipients by covering their heating bills and helping the families to make their homes energy efficient. In addition, this program allows states to also use the funds to install cooling efficiency measures such as shading devices.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_94-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-94">[94]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Outreach_and_education">Outreach and education</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Outreach and education">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI><B>Tree Utah</B>: a statewide <A href="/wiki/Non-profit_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-profit organization">non-profit organization</A> is dedicated to educating communities about the environmental and social benefits provided by trees. They are also committed to planting thousands of trees throughout the state of Utah.<SUP id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-95">[95]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The <A href="/wiki/Lawrence_Hall_of_Science" title="Lawrence Hall of Science">Lawrence Hall of Science</A> at <A href="/wiki/UC_Berkeley" class="mw-redirect" title="UC Berkeley">UC Berkeley</A> has a high-school level course called Global Systems Science. The course focuses on a variety of topics including climate change and the greenhouse effect.<SUP id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-96">[96]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Tree_protection_ordinances">Tree protection ordinances</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Tree protection ordinances">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<UL>
<LI>A variety of local governments have implemented tree and landscape ordinances, which will help communities by providing shade during summer. Tree protection is an ordinance that does not allow someone to <A href="/wiki/Prune" title="Prune">prune</A> or remove trees without a city permit. An example is the city of <A href="/wiki/Glendale,_California" title="Glendale, California">Glendale, California</A>: Through the Indigenous Tree Ordinance, the city of Glendale protects the following species of trees, the <A href="/wiki/California_sycamore" class="mw-redirect" title="California sycamore">California sycamore</A>, the <A href="/wiki/Coast_live_oak" class="mw-redirect" title="Coast live oak">coast live oak</A>, mesa oak, <A href="/wiki/Valley_oak" class="mw-redirect" title="Valley oak">valley oak</A>, <A href="/wiki/Scrub_oak" title="Scrub oak">scrub oak</A>, <A href="/wiki/California_bay" class="mw-redirect" title="California bay">California bay</A>. Anyone who is planning on removing or <A href="/wiki/Pruning" title="Pruning">trimming</A> the trees has to obtain an indigenous tree permit. Within the permit they have to provide detailed information about the number of trees affected, trunk diameter and the health of the tree itself. They also have to submit photographs of the site, and a site plan sketch.<SUP id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-97">[97]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Another example is the city of <A href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley</A>, California. The tree protection ordinance prohibits the removal of <A href="/wiki/Coast_live_oak" class="mw-redirect" title="Coast live oak">coast live oak</A> trees and any excessive <A href="/wiki/Pruning" title="Pruning">pruning</A> that can cause harm to the tree is also prohibited. The only exception is if the tree is poses a danger to life or limb and danger to the property.<SUP id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-98">[98]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>The city of <A href="/wiki/Visalia,_California" title="Visalia, California">Visalia, California</A>, has implemented a street tree ordinance intended to promote and regulate the <A href="/wiki/Planting" class="mw-redirect" title="Planting">planting</A>, maintenance, and protection of street trees within the city. Their <A href="/wiki/Local_ordinance" title="Local ordinance">ordinance</A> does not allow street trees to be altered, <A href="/wiki/Pruned" class="mw-redirect" title="Pruned">pruned</A> or removed. Street trees are also protected during construction.<SUP id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-99">[99]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Co-benefits_of_mitigation_strategies">Co-benefits of mitigation strategies</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Co-benefits of mitigation strategies">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Trees_and_gardens_aid_mental_health">Trees and gardens aid mental health</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Trees and gardens aid mental health">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>A large percentage of people who live in <A href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban areas</A> have access to parks and gardens in their areas, which are probably the only connections they have with nature. A study shows that having contact with nature helps promote our <A href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</A> and well-being. People who had access to gardens or parks were found to be healthier than those who did not.<SUP id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-100">[100]</A></SUP></LI>
<LI>Another study done investigating whether or not the viewing of natural scenery may influence the recoveries of people from undergoing surgeries, found that people who had a window with a scenic view had shorter postoperative hospital stays and fewer negative comments from nurses.<SUP id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-101">[101]</A></SUP></LI>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Tree_planting_as_empowerment_and_community_building">Tree planting as empowerment and community building</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Tree planting as empowerment and community building">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Los Angeles <A href="/wiki/TreePeople" title="TreePeople">TreePeople</A>, is an example of how <A href="/wiki/Tree_planting" title="Tree planting">tree planting</A> can empower a community. Tree people provides the opportunity for people to come together, build capacity, community pride and the opportunity to collaborate and <A href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">network</A> with each other.<SUP id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-102">[102]</A></SUP></LI>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Green_roofs_as_food_production">Green roofs as food production</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Green roofs as food production">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Growing food on rooftops could be an option for fast growing communities. Popular plants grown for food include, <A href="/wiki/Chives" title="Chives">chives</A>, <A href="/wiki/Oregano" title="Oregano">oregano</A> and <A href="/wiki/Lavender" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender">lavender</A> these plants are <A href="/wiki/Suitable" class="mw-redirect" title="Suitable">suitable</A> for <A href="/wiki/Green_roofs" class="mw-redirect" title="Green roofs">green roofs</A> because they are <A href="/wiki/Evolutionarily" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionarily">evolutionarily</A> equipped for <A href="/wiki/Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Mediterranean climate</A>.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_103-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-103">[103]</A></SUP></LI>
</UL>
<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Green_roofs_and_wildlife_biodiversity">Green roofs and wildlife biodiversity</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Green roofs and wildlife biodiversity">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Green roofs are important for <A href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</A> because they allow organisms to inhabit the new garden. To maximize opportunities to attract wildlife to a green roof, one must aid the garden to be as diverse as possible in the plants that are added. By planting a wide array of plants, different kinds of <A href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrate</A> species will be able to colonize, they will be provided with <A href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">foraging</A> sources and habitat opportunities.<SUP id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_103-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-103">[103]</A></SUP></LI>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Urban_forests_and_a_cleaner_atmosphere">Urban forests and a cleaner atmosphere</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Urban forests and a cleaner atmosphere">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<UL>
<LI>Trees provide benefits such as absorbing carbon dioxide, and other pollutants.<SUP id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-104">[104]</A></SUP> Trees also provide shade and reduce ozone emissions from vehicles. By having many trees, we can cool the city heat by approximately 10 degrees to 20 degrees, which will help reducing ozone and helping communities that are mostly affected by the effects of climate change and urban heat islands.<SUP id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-105">[105]</A></SUP></LI>
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<H3><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Green_building_programs">Green building programs</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Green building programs">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H3>
<P>Voluntary green building programs have been promoting the mitigation of the heat island effect for years.<SUP id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-106">[106]</A></SUP> For example, one of the ways for a site to earn points under the US Green Building Council's (USGBC) <A href="/wiki/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design" title="Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design">Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design</A> (LEED) Green Building Rating System is to take action that reduces heat islands, minimizing impacts on microclimates and human and wildlife habitats. Credits associated with reflective roofing or planted roofs can help a building achieve LEED certification. Buildings also receive credits by providing shade.<SUP id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-107">[107]</A></SUP> Similarly, The <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thegbi.org/">Green Building Initiative</A> (GBI)'s <A href="/wiki/Green_Globes" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Globes">Green Globes</A> program awards points to sites that take measures to decrease a building's energy consumption and reduce the heat island effect. As many as 10 points may be awarded to sites with roof coverage from vegetation, highly reflective materials, or a combination of the two.<SUP id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-108">[108]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Cost_analysis">Cost analysis</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Cost analysis">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Every year in the U.S. 15% of energy goes towards the <A href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</A> of buildings in these urban heat islands. According to Rosenfeld et al., "the air conditioning demand has risen 10% within the last 40 years."<SUP id="cite_ref-Rosenfeld,_Arthur_H._1998_109-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rosenfeld,_Arthur_H._1998-109">[109]</A></SUP> Home and business owners alike can benefit from building a cool community. A decrease in energy usage directly correlates to cost efficiency. Areas with substantial <A href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</A> and reflective surface materials used for roofs of houses, pavement, and roads are proven to be more effective and cost efficient.</P>
<P>In a case study of the <A href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Basin" title="Los Angeles Basin">Los Angeles Basin</A>, simulations showed that even when trees are not strategically placed in these urban heat islands, they can still aid in minimization of pollutants and energy reduction. It is estimated that with this wide-scale implementation, the city of Los Angeles can annually save $100M with most of the savings coming from cool roofs, lighter colored pavement, and the planting of trees. With a citywide implementation, added benefits from the lowering smog-level would result in at least one billion dollars of saving per year.<SUP id="cite_ref-Rosenfeld,_Arthur_H._1998_109-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Rosenfeld,_Arthur_H._1998-109">[109]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The cost efficiency of <A href="/wiki/Green_roofs" class="mw-redirect" title="Green roofs">green roofs</A> is quite high because of several reasons. According to Carter, "A conventional roof is estimated to be $83.78/m<SUP>2</SUP> while a green roof was estimated at $158.82/m<SUP>2</SUP>."<SUP id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-110">[110]</A></SUP> For one, green roofs have over double the lifespan of a conventional roof, effectively decelerating the amount of roof replacements every year. In addition to roof-life, green roofs add <A href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">stormwater</A> management reducing fees for utilities. The cost for green roofs is more in the beginning, but over a period of time, their efficiency provides financial as well as health benefits.</P>
<P>In Capital E Analysis' conclusions of the financial benefits of green buildings, it was determined that green roofs successfully lowered energy usage and raised health benefits. For every square foot of green roof used in one study the savings amounted to $5.80 energy-wise. There were also savings seen in the emissions, water, and maintenance categories. Overall, the savings amounted to $52.90-$71.30 on average while the cost of going green totaled -$3.00-$5.00.<SUP id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-111">[111]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Global_warming">Global warming</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Global warming">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Because some parts of some cities may be hotter than their surroundings, concerns have been raised that the effects of <A href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</A> might be misinterpreted as an increase in <A href="/wiki/Global_warming" title="Global warming">global temperature</A>. Such effects are removed by <A href="/wiki/Homogenization_(climate)" title="Homogenization (climate)">homogenization</A> from the raw climate record by comparing urban stations with surrounding stations. While the "heat island" warming is an important local effect, there is no evidence that it biases <I>trends</I> in the homogenized <A href="/wiki/Historical_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical temperature record">historical temperature record</A>. For example, urban and rural trends are very similar.<SUP id="cite_ref-grida.no_21-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-grida.no-21">[21]</A></SUP></P>
<P><SPAN id="Third_Assessment_Report_from_the_IPCC"></SPAN> The <A href="/wiki/IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Third Assessment Report">Third Assessment Report from the IPCC</A> says:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>However, over the Northern Hemisphere land areas where urban heat islands are most apparent, both the trends of lower-<A href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">tropospheric</A> temperature and surface air temperature show no significant differences. In fact, the lower-tropospheric temperatures warm at a slightly greater rate over North America (about 0.28°C/decade using satellite data) than do the surface temperatures (0.27°C/decade), although again the difference is not statistically significant.<SUP id="cite_ref-grida.no_21-2" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-grida.no-21">[21]</A></SUP></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P><SPAN id="Ground_temperature_measurements"></SPAN> Ground temperature measurements, like most weather observations, are logged by location. Their siting predates the massive sprawl, roadbuilding programs, and high- and medium-rise expansions which contribute to the UHI. More importantly, station logs allow sites in question to be filtered easily from data sets. Doing so, the presence of heat islands is visible, but overall trends change in magnitude, not direction. The effects of the urban heat island may be overstated. One study stated, "Contrary to generally accepted wisdom, no statistically significant impact of <A href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</A> could be found in annual temperatures." This was done by using satellite-based night-light detection of urban areas, and more thorough homogenisation of the time series (with corrections, for example, for the tendency of surrounding rural stations to be slightly higher in elevation, and thus cooler, than urban areas). If its conclusion is accepted, then it is necessary to "unravel the mystery of how a global temperature time series created partly from urban <A href="/wiki/In_situ#Earth_and_atmospheric_sciences" title="In situ">in situ</A> stations could show no contamination from urban warming." The main conclusion is that <A href="/wiki/Microscale_meteorology" title="Microscale meteorology">microscale</A> and local-scale impacts dominate the <A href="/wiki/Mesoscale_meteorology" title="Mesoscale meteorology">mesoscale</A> impact of the urban heat island. Many sections of towns may be warmer than rural sites, but <A href="/wiki/Surface_weather_observation" title="Surface weather observation">surface weather observations</A> are likely to be made in park "cool islands."<SUP id="cite_ref-Peterson_112-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Peterson-112">[112]</A></SUP></P>
<P>Not all cities show a warming relative to their rural surroundings. After trends were adjusted in urban <A href="/wiki/Weather_station" title="Weather station">weather stations</A> around the world to match rural stations in their regions, in an effort to homogenise the temperature record, in 42 percent of cases, cities were getting <I>cooler</I> relative to their surroundings rather than warmer. One reason is that urban areas are heterogeneous, and weather stations are often sited in "cool islands" – parks, for example – within urban areas.<SUP id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-113">[113]</A></SUP></P>
<P><SPAN id="Studies_in_2004_and_2006"></SPAN> Studies in 2004 and 2006 attempted to test the urban heat island theory, by comparing temperature readings taken on calm nights with those taken on windy nights.<SUP id="cite_ref-Parker2004_114-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Parker2004-114">[114]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-115">[115]</A></SUP> If the urban heat island theory is correct then instruments should have recorded a bigger temperature rise for calm nights than for windy ones, because wind blows excess heat away from cities and away from the measuring instruments. There was no difference between the calm and windy nights, and one study said that "we show that, globally, temperatures over land have risen as much on windy nights as on calm nights, indicating that the observed overall warming is not a consequence of urban development."<SUP id="cite_ref-Parker2004b_116-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Parker2004b-116">[116]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Black2004_117-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Black2004-117">[117]</A></SUP></P>
<P><SPAN id="skeptics"></SPAN> A view often held by those who reject the evidence for <A href="/wiki/Global_warming" title="Global warming">global warming</A> is that much of the temperature increase seen in land based thermometers could be due to an increase in urbanization and the siting of measurement stations in urban areas.<SUP id="cite_ref-Black2004_117-1" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Black2004-117">[117]</A></SUP> For example, <A href="/wiki/Ross_McKitrick" title="Ross McKitrick">Ross McKitrick</A> and <A href="/wiki/Patrick_J._Michaels" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrick J. Michaels">Patrick J. Michaels</A> conducted a statistical study of surface-temperature data <A href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">regressed</A> against socioeconomic indicators, and concluded that about half of the observed warming trend (for 1979–2002) could be accounted for by the residual UHI effects in the corrected temperature data set they studied—which had already been processed to remove the (modeled) UHI contribution.<SUP id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-118">[118]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-119">[119]</A></SUP> Critics of this paper, including <A href="/wiki/Gavin_A._Schmidt" class="mw-redirect" title="Gavin A. Schmidt">Gavin A. Schmidt</A>,<SUP id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-120">[120]</A></SUP> have said the results can be explained away as an artifact of spatial <A href="/wiki/Autocorrelation" title="Autocorrelation">autocorrelation</A>. McKittrick and Nicolas Nierenberg stated further that "the evidence for contamination of climatic data is robust across numerous data sets."<SUP id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-121">[121]</A></SUP></P>
<P>The preliminary results of an independent assessment carried out by the <A href="/wiki/Berkeley_Earth_Surface_Temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature">Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature</A> group, and made available to the public in October 2011, found that among other scientific concerns raised by skeptics, the urban heat island effect did not bias the results obtained by NOAA, the Hadley Centre and NASA's GISS. The Berkeley Earth group also confirmed that over the past 50 years the land surface warmed by 0.911 °C, and their results closely matched those obtained from earlier studies.<SUP id="cite_ref-Nature1011_122-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Nature1011-122">[122]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-SciDaily1011_123-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-SciDaily1011-123">[123]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Guardian1011_124-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Guardian1011-124">[124]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-bbcBlack_125-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-bbcBlack-125">[125]</A></SUP><SUP id="cite_ref-Econ1011_126-0" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-Econ1011-126">[126]</A></SUP></P>
<P><SPAN id="Climate_Change_2007"></SPAN> <I>Climate Change 2007</I>, the <A href="/wiki/IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Fourth Assessment Report">Fourth Assessment Report from the IPCC</A> states the following.</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>Studies that have looked at hemispheric and global scales conclude that any urban-related trend is an order of magnitude smaller than decadal and longer time-scale trends evident in the series (e.g., Jones et al., 1990; Peterson et al., 1999). This result could partly be attributed to the omission from the gridded data set of a small number of sites (<1%) with clear urban-related warming trends. In a worldwide set of about 270 stations, Parker (2004, 2006) noted that warming trends in night minimum temperatures over the period 1950 to 2000 were not enhanced on calm nights, which would be the time most likely to be affected by urban warming. Thus, the global land warming trend discussed is very unlikely to be influenced significantly by increasing urbanisation (Parker, 2006). ... Accordingly, this assessment adds the same level of urban warming uncertainty as in the TAR: 0.006°C per decade since 1900 for land, and 0.002°C per decade since 1900 for blended land with ocean, as ocean UHI is zero.<SUP id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-127">[127]</A></SUP></P>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
<P><SPAN id="2014_study"></SPAN> A 2014 study published in the <A href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</A> looks at the potential of large-scale urban adaptation to counteract the effects of long-term global <A href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</A>. The researchers calculate that without any adaptive urban design, by 2100 the expansion of existing U.S. cities into regional <A href="/wiki/Megalopolis_(city_type)" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalopolis (city type)">megalopolises</A> could raise near-surface temperatures between 1 and 2 degrees Celsius over large regions, "a significant fraction of the 21st-century greenhouse gas-induced climate change simulated by global climate models." Large-scale adaptive design could completely offset this increase, however. For example, the temperature increase in California was calculated to be as high as 1.31 degrees Celsius, but a 100% deployment of "cool roofs" would result in a temperature drop of 1.47 degrees Celsius—more than the increase.<SUP id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-128">[128]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Urban_cold_island">Urban cold island</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Urban cold island">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<P>Ironically, the same urban area that is hotter in the day, can be colder than surrounding rural areas at ground level at night, leading to a new term <I>urban cold island</I>. Snow cover for example in rural areas, insulates plants. This was an unexpected discovery when studying the response of plants to urban environments.<SUP id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><A href="#cite_note-129">[129]</A></SUP></P>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic heat">Anthropogenic heat</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Cool_roof" class="mw-redirect" title="Cool roof">Cool roof</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Urban_climatology" title="Urban climatology">Urban climatology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Urban_dust_dome" title="Urban dust dome">Urban dust dome</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">Urban reforestation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Urban_thermal_plume" title="Urban thermal plume">Urban thermal plume</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="References">References</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;">
<DIV class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns">
<OL class="references">
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<LI id="cite_note-16"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-16"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Union of Concerned Scientists. "Rising Temperatures, Worsening Ozone Pollution." Climate Change and Your Health (2011): n. pag. Print.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-17"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-17"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Imyunku (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.pusan.ac.kr/~imyunkyu/research/about_UHI.html">"Learning About Urban Heat Islands"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Pusan_National_University" title="Pusan National University">Pusan National University</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Learning+About+Urban+Heat+Islands&rft.pub=Pusan+National+University&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Imyunku&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.pusan.ac.kr%2F~imyunkyu%2Fresearch%2Fabout_UHI.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-18"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-18"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Hinkel, Kenneth M. (March 2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geography.uc.edu/~kenhinke/uhi/">"Barrow Urban Heat Island Study"</A>. Department of Geography, <A href="/wiki/University_of_Cincinnati" title="University of Cincinnati">University of Cincinnati</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-08-02</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Barrow+Urban+Heat+Island+Study&rft.pub=Department+of+Geography%2C+University+of+Cincinnati&rft.date=2003-03&rft.aulast=Hinkel&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geography.uc.edu%2F~kenhinke%2Fuhi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-19"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-19"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Heat Island Effect. By EPA. N.p., 29 August 2013. Web. 31 August 2015. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.epa.gov/heatisld/about/index.htm">http://www.epa.gov/heatisld/about/index.htm</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Chakra-20"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Chakra_20-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">T. Chakraborty; C. Sarangi; S. N. Tripathi (2017). "Understanding Diurnality and Inter-Seasonality of a Sub-tropical Urban Heat Island". <I>Boundary-Layer Meteorology</I>. <B>163</B> (2): 287–309. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017BoLMe.163..287C">2017BoLMe.163..287C</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10546-016-0223-0">10.1007/s10546-016-0223-0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boundary-Layer+Meteorology&rft.atitle=Understanding+Diurnality+and+Inter-Seasonality+of+a+Sub-tropical+Urban+Heat+Island&rft.volume=163&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=287-309&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10546-016-0223-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017BoLMe.163..287C&rft.au=T.+Chakraborty%3B+C.+Sarangi%3B+S.+N.+Tripathi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-grida.no-21"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-grida.no_21-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-grida.no_21-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-grida.no_21-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</A> (2001). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090612185622/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/052.htm#2221">"Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Chapter 2.2 How Much is the World Warming?"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/052.htm#2221">the original</A> on 2009-06-12<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+2001%3A+The+Scientific+Basis.+Chapter+2.2+How+Much+is+the+World+Warming%3F&rft.date=2001&rft.au=IPCC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.grida.no%2Fclimate%2Fipcc_tar%2Fwg1%2F052.htm%232221&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-22"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-22"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">M. Carmen Moreno-garcia (1993-10-28). "Intensity and form of the urban heat island in barcelona". <I>International Journal of Climatology</I>. <B>14</B> (6): 705–710. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994IJCli..14..705M">1994IJCli..14..705M</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjoc.3370140609">10.1002/joc.3370140609</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Climatology&rft.atitle=Intensity+and+form+of+the+urban+heat+island+in+barcelona&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=705-710&rft.date=1993-10-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjoc.3370140609&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994IJCli..14..705M&rft.au=M.+Carmen+Moreno-garcia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-23"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-23"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Keith C. Heidorn (2009). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/history/howard.htm">"Luke Howard: The Man Who Named The Clouds"</A>. Islandnet.com<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Luke+Howard%3A+The+Man+Who+Named+The+Clouds&rft.pub=Islandnet.com&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Keith+C.+Heidorn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.islandnet.com%2F~see%2Fweather%2Fhistory%2Fhoward.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Roth-24"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Roth_24-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">M. Roth; T. R. Oke & W. J. Emery (1989). "Satellite-derived urban heat islands from three coastal cities and the utilization of such data in urban climatology". <I>International Journal of Remote Sensing</I>. <B>10</B> (11): 1699–1720. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989IJRS...10.1699R">1989IJRS...10.1699R</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1080%2F01431168908904002">10.1080/01431168908904002</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Remote+Sensing&rft.atitle=Satellite-derived+urban+heat+islands+from+three+coastal+cities+and+the+utilization+of+such+data+in+urban+climatology&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1699-1720&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01431168908904002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989IJRS...10.1699R&rft.au=M.+Roth&rft.au=T.+R.+Oke&rft.au=W.+J.+Emery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Lee-25"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Lee_25-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">H.-Y. Lee (1993). "An application of NOAA AVHRR thermal data to the study or urban heat islands". <I>Atmospheric Environment</I>. <B>27B</B>: 1–13. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993AtmEB..27....1L">1993AtmEB..27....1L</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0957-1272%2893%2990041-4">10.1016/0957-1272(93)90041-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmospheric+Environment&rft.atitle=An+application+of+NOAA+AVHRR+thermal+data+to+the+study+or+urban+heat+islands&rft.volume=27B&rft.pages=1-13&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0957-1272%2893%2990041-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993AtmEB..27....1L&rft.au=H.-Y.+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
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<LI id="cite_note-28"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-28"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Swaid, Hanna (1991). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/095712729190005Y?via%3Dihub">"NOCTURNAL VARIATION OF AIR-SURFACE TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS FOR TYPICAL URBAN AND RURAL SURFACES"</A>. <I>ScienceDirect</I>. <B>25</B>: 333–341. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991AtmEB..25..333S">1991AtmEB..25..333S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0957-1272%2891%2990005-Y">10.1016/0957-1272(91)90005-Y</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">7 December</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ScienceDirect&rft.atitle=NOCTURNAL+VARIATION+OF+AIR-SURFACE+TEMPERATURE+GRADIENTS+FOR+TYPICAL+URBAN+AND+RURAL+SURFACES&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=333-341&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0957-1272%2891%2990005-Y&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991AtmEB..25..333S&rft.aulast=Swaid&rft.aufirst=Hanna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2F095712729190005Y%3Fvia%253Dihub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-29"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-29"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Imamura, I.R. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.witpress.com/Secure/elibrary/papers/AIR93/AIR93031FU.pdf">"Role of soil moisture in the determination of urban heat island intensity in different climate regimes"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">7 December</SPAN> 2017</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Role+of+soil+moisture+in+the+determination+of+urban+heat+island+intensity+in+different+climate+regimes&rft.aulast=Imamura&rft.aufirst=I.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.witpress.com%2FSecure%2Felibrary%2Fpapers%2FAIR93%2FAIR93031FU.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-30"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-30"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Steeneveld, G.J. (2011). "Quantifying urban heat island effects and human comfort for cities of variable size and urban morphology in the Netherlands". <I>Journal of Geophysical Research</I>. <B>116</B>: D20129. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011JGRD..11620129S">2011JGRD..11620129S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1029%2F2011JD015988">10.1029/2011JD015988</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Quantifying+urban+heat+island+effects+and+human+comfort+for+cities+of+variable+size+and+urban+morphology+in+the+Netherlands&rft.volume=116&rft.pages=D20129&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2011JD015988&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011JGRD..11620129S&rft.aulast=Steeneveld&rft.aufirst=G.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-31"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-31"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Kershaw, T. J.; Sanderson, M.; Coley, D.; Eames, M. (2010). "Estimation of the urban heat island for UK climate change projections". <I>Building Services Engineering Research and Technology</I>. <B>31</B> (3): 251–263. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1177%2F0143624410365033">10.1177/0143624410365033</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Building+Services+Engineering+Research+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Estimation+of+the+urban+heat+island+for+UK+climate+change+projections&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=251-263&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0143624410365033&rft.aulast=Kershaw&rft.aufirst=T.+J.&rft.au=Sanderson%2C+M.&rft.au=Coley%2C+D.&rft.au=Eames%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-32"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-32"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Theeuwes, N. E.; Steeneveld, G.J.; Ronda, R.J.; Holtslag, A.A.M. (2017). "A diagnostic equation for the daily maximum urban heat island effect for cities in northwestern Europe". <I>International Journal of Climatology</I>. <B>37</B>: 443–454. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017IJCli..37..443T">2017IJCli..37..443T</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjoc.4717">10.1002/joc.4717</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Climatology&rft.atitle=A+diagnostic+equation+for+the+daily+maximum+urban+heat+island+effect+for+cities+in+northwestern+Europe&rft.volume=37&rft.pages=443-454&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjoc.4717&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017IJCli..37..443T&rft.aulast=Theeuwes&rft.aufirst=N.+E.&rft.au=Steeneveld%2C+G.J.&rft.au=Ronda%2C+R.J.&rft.au=Holtslag%2C+A.A.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-33"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-33"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Myrup, Leonard O. (1969). "A Numerical Model of the Urban Heat Island". <I>Journal of Applied Meteorology</I>. <B>8</B>: 908–918. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969JApMe...8..908M">1969JApMe...8..908M</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0450%281969%29008%3C0908%3AANMOTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0450(1969)008<0908:ANMOTU>2.0.CO;2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Meteorology&rft.atitle=A+Numerical+Model+of+the+Urban+Heat+Island&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=908-918&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0450%281969%29008%3C0908%3AANMOTU%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969JApMe...8..908M&rft.aulast=Myrup&rft.aufirst=Leonard+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-34"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-34"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Michael J. Angilletta Jr mail, Robbie S. Wilson, Amanda C. Niehaus, Michael W. Sears, Carlos A. Navas, Pedro L. Ribeiro (February 2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000258">"Urban Physiology: City Ants Possess High Heat Tolerance"</A>. <I>PLoS ONE</I>. <B>2</B>: e258. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PLoSO...2..258A">2007PLoSO...2..258A</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000258">10.1371/journal.pone.0000258</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1797824">1797824</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17327918">17327918</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLoS+ONE&rft.atitle=Urban+Physiology%3A+City+Ants+Possess+High+Heat+Tolerance&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=e258&rft.date=2007-02&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1797824&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17327918&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000258&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PLoSO...2..258A&rft.au=Michael+J.+Angilletta+Jr+mail%2C+Robbie+S.+Wilson%2C+Amanda+C.+Niehaus%2C+Michael+W.+Sears%2C+Carlos+A.+Navas%2C+Pedro+L.+Ribeiro&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.plosone.org%2Farticle%2Finfo%253Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0000258&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN><SPAN class="citation-comment" style="display:none; color:#33aa33; margin-left:0.3em">CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (<A href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_Multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list">link</A>)</SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-35"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-35"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Shochat, Eyal; Warren, Paige S.; Faeth, Stanley H.; Mclntyre, Nancy E.; Hope, Diane (April 2006). "From Patterns to Emerging Processes in Mechanistic Urban Ecology". <I>Trends in Ecology & Evolution</I>. <B>21</B>: 3. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2005.11.019">10.1016/j.tree.2005.11.019</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=From+Patterns+to+Emerging++Processes+in+Mechanistic+Urban+Ecology&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2006-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2005.11.019&rft.aulast=Shochat&rft.aufirst=Eyal&rft.au=Warren%2C+Paige+S.&rft.au=Faeth%2C+Stanley+H.&rft.au=Mclntyre%2C+Nancy+E.&rft.au=Hope%2C+Diane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-36"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-36"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Shochat, Eyal; Warren, Paige S.; Faeth, Stanley H.; Mclntyre, Nancy E.; Hope, Diane (April 2006). "From Patterns to Emerging Processes in Mechanistic Urban Ecology". <I>Trends in Ecology & Evolution</I>. <B>21</B>: 3. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2005.11.019">10.1016/j.tree.2005.11.019</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=From+Patterns+to+Emerging++Processes+in+Mechanistic+Urban+Ecology&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=3&rft.date=2006-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2005.11.019&rft.aulast=Shochat&rft.aufirst=Eyal&rft.au=Warren%2C+Paige+S.&rft.au=Faeth%2C+Stanley+H.&rft.au=Mclntyre%2C+Nancy+E.&rft.au=Hope%2C+Diane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-37"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-37"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://islands.environment.umn.edu/research/themes/">"Islands in the Sun"</A>. <I>Institute on the Environment</I>. University of Minnesota.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+on+the+Environment&rft.atitle=Islands+in+the+Sun&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fislands.environment.umn.edu%2Fresearch%2Fthemes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-38"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-38"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Shochat, Eyal; Warren, Paige S.; Faeth, Stanley H.; Mclntyre, Nancy E.; Hope, Diane (April 2006). "From Patterns to Emerging Processes in Mechanistic Urban Ecology". <I>Trends in Ecology & Evolution</I>. <B>21</B>: 4. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2005.11.019">10.1016/j.tree.2005.11.019</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=From+Patterns+to+Emerging++Processes+in+Mechanistic+Urban+Ecology&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2006-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2005.11.019&rft.aulast=Shochat&rft.aufirst=Eyal&rft.au=Warren%2C+Paige+S.&rft.au=Faeth%2C+Stanley+H.&rft.au=Mclntyre%2C+Nancy+E.&rft.au=Hope%2C+Diane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-39"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-39"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Tang, Teri. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://askabiologist.asu.edu/plosable/where-are-insects">"Where are the Insects?"</A>. <I>School of Life Sciences</I>. Arizona State University<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">19 October</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=School+of+Life+Sciences&rft.atitle=Where+are+the+Insects%3F&rft.aulast=Tang&rft.aufirst=Teri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faskabiologist.asu.edu%2Fplosable%2Fwhere-are-insects&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-40"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-40"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">McDonnell, Mark J. (1997). "Ecosystem processes along an urban-to-rural gradient". <I>Urban ecosystems</I>. <B>1</B>: 26.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Urban+ecosystems&rft.atitle=Ecosystem+processes+along+an+urban-to-rural+gradient&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=26&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=McDonnell&rft.aufirst=Mark+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-41"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-41"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Arizona Board of Regents (2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.is/20071123091726/http://asusmart.com/urbanclimate.php">"Urban Climate – Climate Study and UHI via the Internet Wayback Machine"</A>. <A href="/wiki/Arizona_State_University" title="Arizona State University">Arizona State University</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asusmart.com/urbanclimate.php">the original</A> on 2007-11-23<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-08-02</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Urban+Climate+%E2%80%93+Climate+Study+and+UHI+via+the+Internet+Wayback+Machine&rft.pub=Arizona+State+University&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Arizona+Board+of+Regents&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fasusmart.com%2Furbanclimate.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Hee-42"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Hee_42-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Chiel C. van Heerwaarden & J. Vilà-Guerau de Arellano (2008). "Relative humidity as an indicator for cloud formation over heterogeneous land surfaces". <I>Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences</I>. <B>65</B> (10): 3263–3277. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JAtS...65.3263V">2008JAtS...65.3263V</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F2008JAS2591.1">10.1175/2008JAS2591.1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Atmospheric+Sciences&rft.atitle=Relative+humidity+as+an+indicator+for+cloud+formation+over+heterogeneous+land+surfaces&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=3263-3277&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F2008JAS2591.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008JAtS...65.3263V&rft.au=Chiel+C.+van+Heerwaarden&rft.au=J.+Vil%C3%A0-Guerau+de+Arellano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-43"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-43"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Fuchs, Dale (2005-06-28). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/weather/Story/0,2763,1516375,00.html">"Spain goes hi-tech to beat drought"</A>. <A href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-08-02</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spain+goes+hi-tech+to+beat+drought&rft.pub=The+Guardian&rft.date=2005-06-28&rft.aulast=Fuchs&rft.aufirst=Dale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fweather%2FStory%2F0%2C2763%2C1516375%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-44"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-44"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A href="/wiki/Goddard_Space_Flight_Center" title="Goddard Space Flight Center">Goddard Space Flight Center</A> (2002-06-18). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080612173654/http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/topstory/20020613urbanrain.html">"NASA Satellite Confirms Urban Heat Islands Increase Rainfall Around Cities"</A>. <A href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="National Aeronautics and Space Administration">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/topstory/20020613urbanrain.html">the original</A> on June 12, 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-07-17</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NASA+Satellite+Confirms+Urban+Heat+Islands+Increase+Rainfall+Around+Cities&rft.pub=National+Aeronautics+and+Space+Administration&rft.date=2002-06-18&rft.au=Goddard+Space+Flight+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Ftopstory%2F20020613urbanrain.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-tornado_project-45"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-tornado_project_45-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051114213725/http://www.tornadoproject.com/myths/myths.htm">"Myths and Misconceptions about Tornadoes"</A>. <A href="/w/index.php?title=Tornado_Project&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tornado Project (page does not exist)">Tornado Project</A>. 1999. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tornadoproject.com/myths/myths.htm">the original</A> on 2005-11-14<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2008-06-24</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Myths+and+Misconceptions+about+Tornadoes&rft.pub=Tornado+Project&rft.date=1999&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tornadoproject.com%2Fmyths%2Fmyths.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-46"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-46"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Gretchen Cook-Anderson (2004-06-29). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2004/0801uhigreen.html">"Urban Heat Islands Make Cities Greener"</A>. <A href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-08-02</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Urban+Heat+Islands+Make+Cities+Greener&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2004-06-29&rft.au=Gretchen+Cook-Anderson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fcenters%2Fgoddard%2Fnews%2Ftopstory%2F2004%2F0801uhigreen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Changnon-47"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Changnon_47-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">S. A. Changnon, Jr.; K. E. Kunkel & B. C. Reinke (1996). "Impacts and responses to the 1995 heat wave: A call to action". <I>Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</I>. <B>77</B> (7): 1497–1506. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996BAMS...77.1497C">1996BAMS...77.1497C</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0477%281996%29077%3C1497%3AIARTTH%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077<1497:IARTTH>2.0.CO;2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Meteorological+Society&rft.atitle=Impacts+and+responses+to+the+1995+heat+wave%3A+A+call+to+action&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1497-1506&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0477%281996%29077%3C1497%3AIARTTH%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996BAMS...77.1497C&rft.au=S.+A.+Changnon%2C+Jr.&rft.au=K.+E.+Kunkel&rft.au=B.+C.+Reinke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Buechley-48"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Buechley_48-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">R. W. Buechley; J. Van Bruggen & L. E. Trippi (1972). "Heat island = death island?". <I>Environmental Research</I>. <B>5</B> (1): 85–92. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972ER......5...85B">1972ER......5...85B</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0013-9351%2872%2990022-9">10.1016/0013-9351(72)90022-9</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5032927">5032927</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research&rft.atitle=Heat+island+%3D+death+island%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=85-92&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5032927&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0013-9351%2872%2990022-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1972ER......5...85B&rft.au=R.+W.+Buechley&rft.au=J.+Van+Bruggen&rft.au=L.+E.+Trippi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Clarke-49"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Clarke_49-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">J. F. Clarke (1972). "Some effects of the urban structure on heat mortality". <I>Environmental Research</I>. <B>5</B> (1): 93–104. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972ER......5...93C">1972ER......5...93C</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2F0013-9351%2872%2990023-0">10.1016/0013-9351(72)90023-0</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5032928">5032928</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Research&rft.atitle=Some+effects+of+the+urban+structure+on+heat+mortality&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=93-104&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5032928&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0013-9351%2872%2990023-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1972ER......5...93C&rft.au=J.+F.+Clarke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-50"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-50"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Robert E. Davis; Paul C. Knappenberger; Patrick J. Michaels & Wendy M. Novicoff (November 2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241712">"Changing heat-related mortality in the United States"</A>. <I>Environmental Health Perspectives</I>. <B>111</B> (14): 1712–1718. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.6336">10.1289/ehp.6336</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241712">1241712</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14594620">14594620</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Changing+heat-related+mortality+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=1712-1718&rft.date=2003-11&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1241712&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14594620&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.6336&rft.au=Robert+E.+Davis&rft.au=Paul+C.+Knappenberger&rft.au=Patrick+J.+Michaels&rft.au=Wendy+M.+Novicoff&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1241712&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Review1-51"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Review1_51-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Review1_51-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Review1_51-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Review1_51-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Review1_51-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Review1_51-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Review1_51-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Review1_51-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Review1_51-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Review1_51-9"><SUP><I><B>j</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Kovats, R. Sari; Hajat, Shakoor (April 2008). "Heat Stress and Public Health: A Critical Review". <I>Annual Review of Public Health</I>. <B>29</B> (1): 41–55. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.publhealth.29.020907.090843">10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090843</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Heat+Stress+and+Public+Health%3A+A+Critical+Review&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-55&rft.date=2008-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.publhealth.29.020907.090843&rft.aulast=Kovats&rft.aufirst=R.+Sari&rft.au=Hajat%2C+Shakoor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-WHO-52"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-WHO_52-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-WHO_52-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-WHO_52-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-WHO_52-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-WHO_52-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-WHO_52-5"><SUP><I><B>f</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-WHO_52-6"><SUP><I><B>g</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-WHO_52-7"><SUP><I><B>h</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-WHO_52-8"><SUP><I><B>i</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Koppe, Christina; Sari Kovats; Gerd Jendritzky; Bettina Menne (2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euro.who.int/en/publications/abstracts/heat-waves-risks-and-responses">"Heat-waves: risks and responses"</A>. <I>Health and Global Environmental Change Series</I>. <B>2</B>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+and+Global+Environmental+Change+Series&rft.atitle=Heat-waves%3A+risks+and+responses&rft.volume=2&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Koppe&rft.aufirst=Christina&rft.au=Sari+Kovats&rft.au=Gerd+Jendritzky&rft.au=Bettina+Menne&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.euro.who.int%2Fen%2Fpublications%2Fabstracts%2Fheat-waves-risks-and-responses&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Cognitive_Performance-53"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Cognitive_Performance_53-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Hancock, P. A.; Vasmatzidis, I. (January 2003). "Research Article". <I>International Journal of Hyperthermia</I>. <B>19</B> (3): 355–372. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1080%2F0265673021000054630">10.1080/0265673021000054630</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Hyperthermia&rft.atitle=Research+Article&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=355-372&rft.date=2003-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0265673021000054630&rft.aulast=Hancock&rft.aufirst=P.+A.&rft.au=Vasmatzidis%2C+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-DOE-54"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-DOE_54-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-DOE_54-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-DOE_54-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-DOE_54-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-DOE_54-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eereblogs.energy.gov/buildingenvelope/file.axd?file=2011/10/uhi_report.pdf">"Assessment of International Urban Heat Island Research"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>U.S. Department of Energy Report</I>. Navigant Consulting<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">30 April</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Department+of+Energy+Report&rft.atitle=Assessment+of+International+Urban+Heat+Island+Research&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eereblogs.energy.gov%2Fbuildingenvelope%2Ffile.axd%3Ffile%3D2011%2F10%2Fuhi_report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-CDC-55"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-CDC_55-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/effects/heat_related.htm">"Heat-Related Morbidity and Mortality"</A>. <I>U.S. Center for Disease Control</I>. USA Government<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">30 April</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Center+for+Disease+Control&rft.atitle=Heat-Related+Morbidity+and+Mortality&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fclimateandhealth%2Feffects%2Fheat_related.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Diaz_article-56"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Diaz_article_56-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Díaz, J.; Jordán, A.; García, R.; López, C.; Alberdi, J.; Hernández, E.; Otero, A. (1 February 2014). "Heat waves in Madrid 1986–1997: effects on the health of the elderly". <I>International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health</I>. <B>75</B> (3): 163–170. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00420-001-0290-4">10.1007/s00420-001-0290-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Archives+of+Occupational+and+Environmental+Health&rft.atitle=Heat+waves+in+Madrid+1986%E2%80%931997%3A+effects+on+the+health+of+the+elderly&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=163-170&rft.date=2014-02-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00420-001-0290-4&rft.aulast=D%C3%ADaz&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Jord%C3%A1n%2C+A.&rft.au=Garc%C3%ADa%2C+R.&rft.au=L%C3%B3pez%2C+C.&rft.au=Alberdi%2C+J.&rft.au=Hern%C3%A1ndez%2C+E.&rft.au=Otero%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Harlan_article-57"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Harlan_article_57-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Harlan, Sharon L.; Brazel, Anthony J.; Prashad, Lela; Stefanov, William L.; Larsen, Larissa (December 2006). "Neighborhood microclimates and vulnerability to heat stress". <I>Social Science & Medicine</I>. <B>63</B> (11): 2847–2863. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.socscimed.2006.07.030">10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.07.030</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+%26+Medicine&rft.atitle=Neighborhood+microclimates+and+vulnerability+to+heat+stress&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2847-2863&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.socscimed.2006.07.030&rft.aulast=Harlan&rft.aufirst=Sharon+L.&rft.au=Brazel%2C+Anthony+J.&rft.au=Prashad%2C+Lela&rft.au=Stefanov%2C+William+L.&rft.au=Larsen%2C+Larissa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Demand-58"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Demand_58-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Zhu, Pengyu; Zhang Yaoqui (2008). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169204607002174">"Demand for Urban Forests in United States Cities"</A>. <I>Landscape and Urban Planning</I>. <B>84</B>: 293–300. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.landurbplan.2007.09.005">10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.09.005</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">7 May</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Landscape+and+Urban+Planning&rft.atitle=Demand+for+Urban+Forests+in+United+States+Cities&rft.volume=84&rft.pages=293-300&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.landurbplan.2007.09.005&rft.aulast=Zhu&rft.aufirst=Pengyu&rft.au=Zhang+Yaoqui&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0169204607002174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Income_Inequality-59"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Income_Inequality_59-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Income_Inequality_59-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">De Chant, Tim. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persquaremile.com/2012/05/17/urban-trees-reveal-income-inequality/">"Urban Trees Reveal Income Inequality"</A>. Per Square Mile<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">7 May</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Urban+Trees+Reveal+Income+Inequality&rft.pub=Per+Square+Mile&rft.aulast=De+Chant&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersquaremile.com%2F2012%2F05%2F17%2Furban-trees-reveal-income-inequality%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-60"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-60"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treepeople.org/top-22-benefits-trees">"Top 22 Benefits of Trees"</A>. <I>Tree People</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">7 July</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tree+People&rft.atitle=Top+22+Benefits+of+Trees&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.treepeople.org%2Ftop-22-benefits-trees&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-61"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-61"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/mitigation/trees.htm">"Trees and Vegetation"</A>. <I>EPA.gov</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">7 July</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EPA.gov&rft.atitle=Trees+and+Vegetation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fheatisland%2Fmitigation%2Ftrees.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-62"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-62"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Chant, Tim. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://persquaremile.com/2012/05/17/urban-trees-reveal-income-inequality/">"Urban Trees reveal income inequality"</A>. <I>Per Square Mile</I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">7 July</SPAN> 2014</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Per+Square+Mile&rft.atitle=Urban+Trees+reveal+income+inequality&rft.aulast=Chant&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpersquaremile.com%2F2012%2F05%2F17%2Furban-trees-reveal-income-inequality%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-63"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-63"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sutroforest.com/2012/06/04/trees-and-income-inequality/">"Save Mount Sutro Forest"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">22 July</SPAN> 2016</SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Save+Mount+Sutro+Forest&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsutroforest.com%2F2012%2F06%2F04%2Ftrees-and-income-inequality%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-64"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-64"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">NYS DEC. "Streams Tributary to Onondaga Lake Biological Assessment." Dec.ny.gov. N.p., 2008. Web. 12 September 2013.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-65"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-65"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Paul A. Tipler & Gene Mosca (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BMVR37-8Jh0C&pg=PA686&lpg=PA686&dq=satellite+temperature+urban+heat+island+book#v=onepage&q=satellite%20temperature%20urban%20heat%20island%20book&f=false"><I>Physics for Scientists and Engineers</I></A>. <A href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers_(United_States)" title="Macmillan Publishers (United States)">Macmillan</A>. p. 686. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-0124-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4292-0124-7">978-1-4292-0124-7</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-01-14</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+for+Scientists+and+Engineers&rft.pages=686&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4292-0124-7&rft.au=Paul+A.+Tipler&rft.au=Gene+Mosca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBMVR37-8Jh0C%26pg%3DPA686%26lpg%3DPA686%26dq%3Dsatellite%2Btemperature%2Burban%2Bheat%2Bisland%2Bbook%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dsatellite%2520temperature%2520urban%2520heat%2520island%2520book%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-66"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-66"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/hiri/about/index.htm">"Urban Climate – Climate Study and UHI"</A>. <A href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">United States Environmental Protection Agency</A>. 2009-02-09<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Urban+Climate+%E2%80%93+Climate+Study+and+UHI&rft.pub=United+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.date=2009-02-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fhiri%2Fabout%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-coolpave-67"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-coolpave_67-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/pdf/CoolPavementReport_Former%20Guide_complete.pdf">"Cool Pavement Report"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</A>. June 2005. pp. 21, 43<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2013-01-15</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cool+Pavement+Report&rft.pages=21%2C+43&rft.pub=Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fheatisland%2Fresources%2Fpdf%2FCoolPavementReport_Former%2520Guide_complete.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-68"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-68"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Sheng-chieh Chang (2000-06-23). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090311050754/http://eetd.lbl.gov/heatisland/EnergyUse/">"Energy Use"</A>. Environmental Energies Technology Division. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/EnergyUse/">the original</A> on March 11, 2009<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Energy+Use&rft.pub=Environmental+Energies+Technology+Division&rft.date=2000-06-23&rft.au=Sheng-chieh+Chang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feetd.lbl.gov%2FHeatIsland%2FEnergyUse%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-69"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-69"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vinylroofs.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/aging_weathering.pdf">"Aging and Weathering of Cool Roofing Membranes"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <A href="/w/index.php?title=Cool_Roofing_Symposium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cool Roofing Symposium (page does not exist)">Cool Roofing Symposium</A>. 2005-08-23<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2010-08-16</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aging+and+Weathering+of+Cool+Roofing+Membranes&rft.pub=Cool+Roofing+Symposium&rft.date=2005-08-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvinylroofs.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2011%2F06%2Faging_weathering.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-70"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-70"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Albers, R. A. W., Bosch, P. R., Blocken, B., Van Den Dobbelsteen, A. A. J. F., Van Hove, L. W. A., Spit, T. J. M., ... & Rovers, V. (2015). Overview of challenges and achievements in the Climate Adaptation of Cities and in the Climate Proof Cities program. Building and environment, 83, 1-10.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-71"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-71"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054154/http://vinylroofs.org/resources/coof-roofing-codes-programs-standards/index.html">"Comprehensive Cool Roof Guide from the Vinyl Roofing Division of the Chemical Fabrics and Film Association"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vinylroofs.org/resources/coof-roofing-codes-programs-standards/index.html">the original</A> on 2013-09-21.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comprehensive+Cool+Roof+Guide+from+the+Vinyl+Roofing+Division+of+the+Chemical+Fabrics+and+Film+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvinylroofs.org%2Fresources%2Fcoof-roofing-codes-programs-standards%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-coolpave_2-72"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-coolpave_2_72-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/pdf/CoolPavementReport_Former%20Guide_complete.pdf">"Cool Pavement Report"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</A>. June 2005. p. 14<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-02-06</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cool+Pavement+Report&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fheatisland%2Fresources%2Fpdf%2FCoolPavementReport_Former%2520Guide_complete.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-worldchange-73"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-worldchange_73-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation book">Al Gore; A. Steffen (2008). <I>World Changing: A User's Guide for the 21st Century</I>. New York: Abrams. p. 258.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Changing%3A+A+User%27s+Guide+for+the+21st+Century&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=Abrams&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Al+Gore&rft.au=A.+Steffen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Yaghoobian-74"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Yaghoobian_74-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Yaghoobian, N.; Kleissl, J. (2012). "Effect of reflective pavements on building energy use". <I>Urban Climate</I>. <B>2</B>: 25. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.uclim.2012.09.002">10.1016/j.uclim.2012.09.002</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Urban+Climate&rft.atitle=Effect+of+reflective+pavements+on+building+energy+use&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=25&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.uclim.2012.09.002&rft.aulast=Yaghoobian&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Kleissl%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-75"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-75"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE id="CITEREFYangWangKaloush2013" class="citation">Yang, Jiachuan; Wang, Zhihua; Kaloush, Kamil E. (October 2013), <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ncesmart.asu.edu/docs/smart/unintended-consequences-1013.pdf"><I>Unintended Consequences: A Research Synthesis Examining the Use of Reflective Pavements to Mitigate the Urban Heat Island Effect</I></A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>, Tempe, Arizona: NCE SMART Innovations<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2013-11-25</SPAN></SPAN></CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unintended+Consequences%3A+A+Research+Synthesis+Examining+the+Use+of+Reflective+Pavements+to+Mitigate+the+Urban+Heat+Island+Effect&rft.place=Tempe%2C+Arizona&rft.pub=NCE+SMART+Innovations&rft.date=2013-10&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Jiachuan&rft.au=Wang%2C+Zhihua&rft.au=Kaloush%2C+Kamil+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fncesmart.asu.edu%2Fdocs%2Fsmart%2Funintended-consequences-1013.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-76"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-76"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vinylroofs.org/resources/green-planted-roofs/index.html">"Green (Planted) Roofs"</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2010-08-07</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Green+%28Planted%29+Roofs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvinylroofs.org%2Fresources%2Fgreen-planted-roofs%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-77"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-77"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">New York City Regional Heat Island Initiative (October 2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyserda.ny.gov/programs/environment/emep/project/6681_25/06-06%20Complete%20report-web.pdf">"Mitigating New York City's Heat Island With Urban Forestry, Living Roofs, and Light Surfaces"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. p. ii<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-18</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mitigating+New+York+City%27s+Heat+Island+With+Urban+Forestry%2C+Living+Roofs%2C+and+Light+Surfaces&rft.pages=ii&rft.pub=New+York+State+Energy+Research+and+Development+Authority&rft.date=2006-10&rft.au=New+York+City+Regional+Heat+Island+Initiative&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nyserda.ny.gov%2Fprograms%2Fenvironment%2Femep%2Fproject%2F6681_25%2F06-06%2520Complete%2520report-web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Heat_Islands-78"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Heat_Islands_78-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Arthur Rosenfeld; <A href="/wiki/Joseph_Romm" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Romm">Joseph Romm</A>; Hashem Akbari; Alana Lloyd (February–March 1997). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070714173907/http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/PUBS/PAINTING/">"Painting the Town White – and Green"</A>. MIT Technology Review. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/PUBS/PAINTING/">the original</A> on 2007-07-14<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-09-29</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Painting+the+Town+White+%E2%80%93+and+Green&rft.pub=MIT+Technology+Review&rft.date=1997-02%2F1997-03&rft.au=Arthur+Rosenfeld&rft.au=Joseph+Romm&rft.au=Hashem+Akbari&rft.au=Alana+Lloyd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feetd.lbl.gov%2FHeatIsland%2FPUBS%2FPAINTING%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-autogenerated3-79"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_79-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_79-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_79-2"><SUP><I><B>c</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_79-3"><SUP><I><B>d</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated3_79-4"><SUP><I><B>e</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Zinzi, M., and S. Agnoli. "Cool and green roofs. An energy and comfort comparison between passive cooling and mitigation urban heat island techniques for residential buildings in the Mediterranean region." Energy and Buildings. 55. (2012): 66-76. Print.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-80"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-80"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Rosenfield, Arthur, Joseph Romm, Hashem Akbari, and Alana Lloyd. "Painting the Town White -- and Green." MIT Technology Review. N.p., 14 07 1997. Web. 25 Feb 2014.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-81"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-81"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">AB 32 Scoping Plan." Scoping Plan. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/scopingplan/scopingplan.htm">http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/scopingplan/scopingplan.htm</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-82"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-82"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"California's Advanced Clean Cars Program." Advanced Clean Cars. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/consumer_info/advanced_clean_cars/consumer_acc.htm">http://www.arb.ca.gov/msprog/consumer_info/advanced_clean_cars/consumer_acc.htm</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-83"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-83"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"California Renewables Portfolio Standard (RPS)." California Publics Utilities Commission. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.cpuc.ca.gov/PUC/energy/Renewables/">http://www.cpuc.ca.gov/PUC/energy/Renewables/</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-84"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-84"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Low Carbon Fuel Standard." Low Carbon Fuel Standard. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.energy.ca.gov/low_carbon_fuel_standard/">http://www.energy.ca.gov/low_carbon_fuel_standard/</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-85"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-85"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Cap-and-Trade Program." Air Resources Board. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/capandtrade/capandtrade.htm">http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/capandtrade/capandtrade.htm</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-epa.gov-86"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-epa.gov_86-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-epa.gov_86-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies | Heat Island Effect | US EPA." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 16 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/pdf/ActivitiesCompendium.pdf">http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/pdf/ActivitiesCompendium.pdf</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-87"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-87"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Roadmap for Incorporating Energy Efficiency/Renewable Energy Policies and Programs into State and Tribal Implementation Plans." US EPA." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, July 2012 n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2014.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-88"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-88"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Incorporating Emerging And Voluntary Measures In A State Implementation Plan (SIP). "EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, September 2004. Web. 12 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.epa.gov/ttn/caaa/t1/memoranda/evm_ievm_g.pdf">http://www.epa.gov/ttn/caaa/t1/memoranda/evm_ievm_g.pdf</A>></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-89"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-89"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Page, Stephen, "Guidance on Incorporating Bundled Measures in a State Implementation Plan." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, 16 Aug. 2005 Web. 12 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.epa.gov/ttn/caaa/t1/memoranda/10885guideibminsip.pdf">http://www.epa.gov/ttn/caaa/t1/memoranda/10885guideibminsip.pdf</A>></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-90"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-90"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">AB 32 Scoping Plan." Scoping Plan. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/scopingplan/scopingplan.htm">http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/scopingplan/scopingplan.htm</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-91"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-91"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies | Heat Island Effect | US EPA." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/compendium.htm">http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/compendium.htm</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-92"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-92"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"SMUD." SMUD Video Player. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.smud.org/en/video/cc-single-rebranded.html?bclid=38536226001&bctid=20363808001">https://www.smud.org/en/video/cc-single-rebranded.html?bclid=38536226001&bctid=20363808001</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-93"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-93"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Ecoroof Incentive Program." Live Green Toronto, n.d. Web. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.greenroofs.org/resources/EcoRoofBrochure_Email_2013.pdf">http://www.greenroofs.org/resources/EcoRoofBrochure_Email_2013.pdf</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-autogenerated2-94"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_94-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated2_94-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"TreeVitalize." TreeVitalize. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-95"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-95"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"About." TreeUtah. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-96"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-96"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Global Systems Science." Global Systems Science. N.p., 2012. Web. 06 Apr. 2014.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-97"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-97"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Indigenous Tree Program." City of Glendale, CA :. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.glendaleca.gov/government/city-departments/public-works/indigenous-tree-program">http://www.glendaleca.gov/government/city-departments/public-works/indigenous-tree-program</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-98"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-98"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"Tree Protection Program - City of Berkeley, CA." Planning and Development-City of Berkeley, CA. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/Planning_and_Development/Home/Tree_Protection_Program.aspx">http://www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/Planning_and_Development/Home/Tree_Protection_Program.aspx</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-99"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-99"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">"City of Visalia - Street Tree Ordinance." Street Tree Ordinance. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Apr. 2014. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.ci.visalia.ca.us/depts/parks_n_recreation/urban_forestry/street_tree_ordinance.asp">http://www.ci.visalia.ca.us/depts/parks_n_recreation/urban_forestry/street_tree_ordinance.asp</A>>.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-100"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-100"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Maller, C. "Healthy Nature Healthy People: 'contact with Nature' as an Upstream Health Promotion Intervention for Populations." Health Promotion International 21.1 (2005): 45-54. Print.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-101"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-101"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Ulrich, R (1984). "View through a Window May Influence Recovery from Surgery". <I>Science</I>. <B>224</B> (4647): 420–21. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984Sci...224..420U">1984Sci...224..420U</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.6143402">10.1126/science.6143402</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=View+through+a+Window+May+Influence+Recovery+from+Surgery&rft.volume=224&rft.issue=4647&rft.pages=420-21&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.6143402&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984Sci...224..420U&rft.aulast=Ulrich&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-102"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-102"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Wilmsen, Carl. Partnerships for Empowerment: Participatory Research for Community-based Natural Resource Management. London: Earthscan, 2008. Print.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-autogenerated1-103"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_103-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_103-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Dunnett, Nigel. Small Green Roofs: Low-tech Options for Greener Living. Portland, Or.: Timber, 2011. Print.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-104"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-104"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Hilltop Arboretum. "Nature the Changing Climate and You: Act Locally!" 5.4 (2007). Web. <<A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://hilltop.lsu.edu/hilltop/hilltop.nsf/$Content/Newsletters/$file/07winter.pdf">http://hilltop.lsu.edu/hilltop/hilltop.nsf/$Content/Newsletters/$file/07winter.pdf</A>></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-105"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-105"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">McPherson, Gregory, James Simpson, Paula Peper, Shelley Gardner, Kelaine Vargas, Scott Maco, and Qingfu Xiao. "Coastal Plain Community Tree Guide: Benefits, Costs, and Strategic Planting". USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. (2006). Web.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-106"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-106"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120321035335/http://www.vinylroofs.org/resources/coof-roofing-codes-programs-standards/voluntary-green-building-programs/index.html">"Voluntary Green Building Programs"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vinylroofs.org/resources/coof-roofing-codes-programs-standards/voluntary-green-building-programs/index.html">the original</A> on 2012-03-21.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Voluntary+Green+Building+Programs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvinylroofs.org%2Fresources%2Fcoof-roofing-codes-programs-standards%2Fvoluntary-green-building-programs%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-107"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-107"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=5546">"LEED 2009 for New Construction and Major Renovations Rating System"</A>. US Green Building Council. November 2008<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2010-08-17</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=LEED+2009+for+New+Construction+and+Major+Renovations+Rating+System&rft.pub=US+Green+Building+Council&rft.date=2008-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usgbc.org%2FShowFile.aspx%3FDocumentID%3D5546&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-108"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-108"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120321035335/http://www.vinylroofs.org/resources/coof-roofing-codes-programs-standards/voluntary-green-building-programs/index.html">"Green Globes"</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://vinylroofs.org/resources/coof-roofing-codes-programs-standards/voluntary-green-building-programs/index.html">the original</A> on 2012-03-21<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-07-27</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Green+Globes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvinylroofs.org%2Fresources%2Fcoof-roofing-codes-programs-standards%2Fvoluntary-green-building-programs%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Rosenfeld,_Arthur_H._1998-109"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Rosenfeld,_Arthur_H._1998_109-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Rosenfeld,_Arthur_H._1998_109-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Rosenfeld, Arthur H., et al. "Cool communities: strategies for heat island mitigation and smog reduction." Energy and Buildings 28.1 (1998): 51-62.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-110"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-110"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Carter, Timothy; Keeler, Andrew (2008). "Life-cycle cost–benefit analysis of extensive vegetated roof systems". <I>Journal of environmental management</I>. <B>87</B> (3): 350–363. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jenvman.2007.01.024">10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.01.024</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+environmental+management&rft.atitle=Life-cycle+cost%E2%80%93benefit+analysis+of+extensive+vegetated+roof+systems&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=350-363&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jenvman.2007.01.024&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft.au=Keeler%2C+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-111"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-111"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text">Kats, Gregory. Green building costs and financial benefits. Boston, MA: Massachusetts Technology Collaborative, 2003.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Peterson-112"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Peterson_112-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">T. C. Peterson (2003). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/wmo/ccl/rural-urban.pdf">"Assessment of Urban Versus Rural In Situ Surface Temperatures in the Contiguous United States: No Difference Found"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Journal of Climate</I>. <B>16</B> (18): 2941–2959. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JCli...16.2941P">2003JCli...16.2941P</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0442%282003%29016%3C2941%3AAOUVRI%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<2941:AOUVRI>2.0.CO;2</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Climate&rft.atitle=Assessment+of+Urban+Versus+Rural+In+Situ+Surface+Temperatures+in+the+Contiguous+United+States%3A+No+Difference+Found&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=2941-2959&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2F1520-0442%282003%29016%3C2941%3AAOUVRI%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JCli...16.2941P&rft.au=T.+C.+Peterson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncdc.noaa.gov%2Foa%2Fwmo%2Fccl%2Frural-urban.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-113"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-113"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">J. Hansen; R. Ruedy; M. Sato; M. Imhoff; W. Lawrence; D. Easterling; T. Peterson & T. Karl (2001). "A closer look at United States and global surface temperature change". <I>Journal of Geophysical Research</I>. <B>106</B>: 239–247. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JGR...10623947H">2001JGR...10623947H</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1029%2F2001JD000354">10.1029/2001JD000354</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=A+closer+look+at+United+States+and+global+surface+temperature+change&rft.volume=106&rft.pages=239-247&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2001JD000354&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001JGR...10623947H&rft.au=J.+Hansen&rft.au=R.+Ruedy&rft.au=M.+Sato&rft.au=M.+Imhoff&rft.au=W.+Lawrence&rft.au=D.+Easterling&rft.au=T.+Peterson&rft.au=T.+Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Parker2004-114"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Parker2004_114-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">D. E. Parker (2004). "Climate: Large-scale warming is not urban". <I><A href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</A></I>. <B>432</B> (7015): 290. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Natur.432..290P">2004Natur.432..290P</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F432290a">10.1038/432290a</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15549087">15549087</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Climate%3A+Large-scale+warming+is+not+urban&rft.volume=432&rft.issue=7015&rft.pages=290&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15549087&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F432290a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004Natur.432..290P&rft.au=D.+E.+Parker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-115"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-115"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">David E. Parker (2006). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hadobs.metoffice.com/urban/Parker_JClimate2006.pdf">"A demonstration that large-scale warming is not urban"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I><A href="/wiki/Journal_of_Climate" title="Journal of Climate">Journal of Climate</A></I>. <B>19</B> (12): 2882–2895. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JCli...19.2882P">2006JCli...19.2882P</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1175%2FJCLI3730.1">10.1175/JCLI3730.1</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Climate&rft.atitle=A+demonstration+that+large-scale+warming+is+not+urban&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2882-2895&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2FJCLI3730.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006JCli...19.2882P&rft.au=David+E.+Parker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhadobs.metoffice.com%2Furban%2FParker_JClimate2006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Parker2004b-116"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Parker2004b_116-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Parker, David E. (2004). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928025651/http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/projects/soap/pubs/papers/jones_Nature2004.pdf">"Large-scale warming is not urban"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>Nature</I>. <B>432</B> (7015): 290–290. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Natur.432..290P">2004Natur.432..290P</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F432290a">10.1038/432290a</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15549087">15549087</A>. Archived from <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/projects/soap/pubs/papers/jones_Nature2004.pdf">the original</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN> on September 28, 2007<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-08-02</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Large-scale+warming+is+not+urban&rft.volume=432&rft.issue=7015&rft.pages=290-290&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15549087&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F432290a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004Natur.432..290P&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cru.uea.ac.uk%2Fcru%2Fprojects%2Fsoap%2Fpubs%2Fpapers%2Fjones_Nature2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Black2004-117"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <A href="#cite_ref-Black2004_117-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: </SPAN><SUP><I><B>a</B></I></SUP></A> <A href="#cite_ref-Black2004_117-1"><SUP><I><B>b</B></I></SUP></A></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Black, Richard (2004-11-18). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4021197.stm">"Climate change sceptics 'wrong<SPAN style="padding-right:0.2em;">'</SPAN>"</A>. <A href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2007-08-02</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Climate+change+sceptics+%27wrong%27&rft.pub=BBC+News&rft.date=2004-11-18&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fuk_news%2F4021197.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-118"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-118"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">McKitrick, R.R.; Michaels, P.J. (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uoguelph.ca/~rmckitri/research/jgr07/M&M.JGRDec07.pdf">"Quantifying the influence of anthropogenic surface processes and inhomogeneities on gridded global climate data"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. <I>J. Geophys. Res</I>. <B>112</B>: D24S09. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JGRD..11224S09M">2007JGRD..11224S09M</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1029%2F2007JD008465">10.1029/2007JD008465</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Geophys.+Res.&rft.atitle=Quantifying+the+influence+of+anthropogenic+surface+processes+and+inhomogeneities+on+gridded+global+climate+data&rft.volume=112&rft.pages=D24S09&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2007JD008465&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007JGRD..11224S09M&rft.aulast=McKitrick&rft.aufirst=R.R.&rft.au=Michaels%2C+P.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uoguelph.ca%2F~rmckitri%2Fresearch%2Fjgr07%2FM%26M.JGRDec07.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-119"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-119"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uoguelph.ca/~rmckitri/research/jgr07/M&M.JGR07-background.pdf">Non-technical summary of M&M 2007 by McKitrick</A></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-120"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-120"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Schmidt, G. A. (2009). "Spurious correlations between recent warming and indices of local economic activity". <I>International Journal of Climatology</I>. <B>29</B> (14): 2041–2048. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009IJCli..29.2041S">2009IJCli..29.2041S</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjoc.1831">10.1002/joc.1831</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Climatology&rft.atitle=Spurious+correlations+between+recent+warming+and+indices+of+local+economic+activity&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=2041-2048&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjoc.1831&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009IJCli..29.2041S&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=G.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-121"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-121"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Ross McKitrick; Nicolas Nierenberg (2010-01-01). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iospress.metapress.com/content/J5NM8R5454555368">"Socioeconomic patterns in climate data"</A>. <I>Journal of Economic and Social Measurement</I>. <B>35</B> (3): 149–175. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.3233%2FJEM-2010-0336">10.3233/JEM-2010-0336</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+and+Social+Measurement&rft.atitle=Socioeconomic+patterns+in+climate+data&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=149-175&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3233%2FJEM-2010-0336&rft.au=Ross+McKitrick&rft.au=Nicolas+Nierenberg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fiospress.metapress.com%2Fcontent%2FJ5NM8R5454555368&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN>. Also see <A rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://rossmckitrick.weebly.com/temperature-data-quality.html">[1]</A> for a non-technical summary, and comments on the publication delay.</SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Nature1011-122"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Nature1011_122-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Jeff Tollefson (2011-10-20). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/news/2011/111020/full/news.2011.607.html">"Different method, same result: global warming is real"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Nature_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature News">Nature News</A></I>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews.2011.607">10.1038/news.2011.607</A><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+News&rft.atitle=Different+method%2C+same+result%3A+global+warming+is+real&rft.date=2011-10-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnews.2011.607&rft.au=Jeff+Tollefson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnews%2F2011%2F111020%2Ffull%2Fnews.2011.607.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-SciDaily1011-123"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-SciDaily1011_123-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111021144716.htm">"Cooling the Warming Debate: Major New Analysis Confirms That Global Warming Is Real"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Science_Daily" title="Science Daily">Science Daily</A></I>. 2011-10-21<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+Daily&rft.atitle=Cooling+the+Warming+Debate%3A+Major+New+Analysis+Confirms+That+Global+Warming+Is+Real&rft.date=2011-10-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2011%2F10%2F111021144716.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Guardian1011-124"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Guardian1011_124-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Ian Sample (2011-10-20). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/oct/20/global-warming-study-climate-sceptics">"Global warming study finds no grounds for climate sceptics' concerns"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Global+warming+study+finds+no+grounds+for+climate+sceptics%27+concerns&rft.date=2011-10-20&rft.au=Ian+Sample&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2011%2Foct%2F20%2Fglobal-warming-study-climate-sceptics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-bbcBlack-125"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-bbcBlack_125-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation news">Richard Black (2011-10-21). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15373071">"Global warming 'confirmed' by independent study"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</A></I><SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-21</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Global+warming+%27confirmed%27+by+independent+study&rft.date=2011-10-21&rft.au=Richard+Black&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-15373071&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-Econ1011-126"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-Econ1011_126-0"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/node/21533360">"Climate change: The heat is on"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</A></I>. 2011-10-22<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2011-10-22</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Climate+change%3A+The+heat+is+on&rft.date=2011-10-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnode%2F21533360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-127"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-127"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation web">Kevin E. Trenberth; Philip D. Jones; Peter Ambenje; Roxana Bojariu; David Easterling; Albert Klein Tank; David Parker; Fatemeh Rahimzadeh; James A. Renwick; Matilde Rusticucci; Brian Soden & Panmao Zhai (2007). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter3.pdf">"IPCC Fourth Assessment Report - Chapter 3 - Observations: Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change"</A> <SPAN style="font-size:85%;">(PDF)</SPAN>. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. p. 244<SPAN class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <SPAN class="nowrap">2009-06-27</SPAN></SPAN>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IPCC+Fourth+Assessment+Report+-+Chapter+3+-+Observations%3A+Surface+and+Atmospheric+Climate+Change&rft.pages=244&rft.pub=Intergovernmental+Panel+on+Climate+Change&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Kevin+E.+Trenberth&rft.au=Philip+D.+Jones&rft.au=Peter+Ambenje&rft.au=Roxana+Bojariu&rft.au=David+Easterling&rft.au=Albert+Klein+Tank&rft.au=David+Parker&rft.au=Fatemeh+Rahimzadeh&rft.au=James+A.+Renwick&rft.au=Matilde+Rusticucci&rft.au=Brian+Soden&rft.au=Panmao+Zhai&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Fpdf%2Fassessment-report%2Far4%2Fwg1%2Far4-wg1-chapter3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-128"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-128"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><CITE class="citation journal">Georgescu, Matei; Morefield, Philip E.; Bierwagen, Britta G.; Weaver, Christopher P. (2014). <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3939866">"Urban Adaptation Can Roll Back Warming of Emerging Megapolitan Regions"</A>. <I><A href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</A></I>. <B>111</B>: 2909–2914. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..111.2909G">2014PNAS..111.2909G</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1322280111">10.1073/pnas.1322280111</A>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</A> <SPAN class="plainlinks"><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3939866">3939866</A> <IMG alt="Freely accessible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" title="Freely accessible" width="9" height="14" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></SPAN>. <A href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</A> <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24516126">24516126</A>. <A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journalistsresource.org/studies/environment/climate-change/urban-adaptation-global-warming">Lay summary</A> – <I>JournalistsResource.org</I>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Urban+Adaptation+Can+Roll+Back+Warming+of+Emerging+Megapolitan+Regions&rft.volume=111&rft.pages=2909-2914&rft.date=2014&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3939866&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24516126&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1322280111&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014PNAS..111.2909G&rft.aulast=Georgescu&rft.aufirst=Matei&rft.au=Morefield%2C+Philip+E.&rft.au=Bierwagen%2C+Britta+G.&rft.au=Weaver%2C+Christopher+P.&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3939866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI id="cite_note-129"><SPAN class="mw-cite-backlink"><B><A href="#cite_ref-129"><SPAN class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up </SPAN>^</A></B></SPAN> <SPAN class="reference-text"><A rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://phys.org/news/2016-12-urban-cold-islands-evolution-cities.html">http://phys.org/news/2016-12-urban-cold-islands-evolution-cities.html</A></SPAN></LI>
</OL>
</DIV>
</DIV>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<DIV class="refbegin" style="">
<UL>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">Arnfield, A. John (1 January 2003). "Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island". <I>International Journal of Climatology</I>. <B>23</B> (1): 1–26. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003IJCli..23....1A">2003IJCli..23....1A</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjoc.859">10.1002/joc.859</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Climatology&rft.atitle=Two+decades+of+urban+climate+research%3A+a+review+of+turbulence%2C+exchanges+of+energy+and+water%2C+and+the+urban+heat+island&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-26&rft.date=2003-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjoc.859&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003IJCli..23....1A&rft.aulast=Arnfield&rft.aufirst=A.+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book">Gartland, Lisa (2008). <I>Heat islands: understanding and mitigating heat in urban areas</I>. London: Earthscan. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781844072507" title="Special:BookSources/9781844072507">9781844072507</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heat+islands%3A+understanding+and+mitigating+heat+in+urban+areas&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Earthscan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781844072507&rft.aulast=Gartland&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation journal">P. D. Jones; P.Y. Groisman; M. Coughlan; N. Plummer; W.-C. Wang; T.R. Karl (1990). "Assessment of urbanization effects in time series of surface air temperature over land". <I>Nature</I>. <B>347</B> (6289): 169–172. <A href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990Natur.347..169J">1990Natur.347..169J</A>. <A href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</A>:<A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//doi.org/10.1038%2F347169a0">10.1038/347169a0</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Assessment+of+urbanization+effects+in+time+series+of+surface+air+temperature+over+land&rft.volume=347&rft.issue=6289&rft.pages=169-172&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F347169a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1990Natur.347..169J&rft.au=P.+D.+Jones&rft.au=P.Y.+Groisman&rft.au=M.+Coughlan&rft.au=N.+Plummer&rft.au=W.-C.+Wang&rft.au=T.R.+Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
<LI><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/wiki/Helmut_Landsberg" title="Helmut Landsberg">Helmut E. Landsberg</A> (1981). <I>The Urban Climate</I>. New York: Academic Press. <A href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</A> <A href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-435960-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-435960-4">0-12-435960-4</A>.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Urban+Climate&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-12-435960-4&rft.au=Helmut+E.+Landsberg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
<UL>
<LI><CITE class="citation book"><A href="/w/index.php?title=Jamal_Khodakarami_and_Mojtaba_Hatami&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jamal Khodakarami and Mojtaba Hatami (page does not exist)">J. Khodakarami</A>; M.Hatami (2016). <I>Heat Island: A New Variable In Architecture and Urbanism</I>. Tehran, In Persian: Fekreno Book.</CITE><SPAN title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heat+Island%3A+A+New+Variable+In+Architecture+and+Urbanism&rft.place=Tehran%2C+In+Persian&rft.pub=Fekreno+Book&rft.date=2016&rft.au=J.+Khodakarami&rft.au=M.Hatami&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUrban+heat+island" class="Z3988"><SPAN style="display:none;"> </SPAN></SPAN></LI>
</UL>
<H2><SPAN class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</SPAN><SPAN class="mw-editsection"><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</SPAN><A href="/w/index.php?title=Urban_heat_island&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</A><SPAN class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</SPAN></SPAN></H2>
<TABLE role="presentation" class="mbox-small plainlinks sistersitebox" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;color:#000">
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<TD class="mbox-image"><IMG alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" class="noviewer" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></TD>
<TD class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <I><B><A href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Urban_heat_islands" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Urban heat islands">Urban heat islands</A></B></I>.</TD>
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<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090612185622/http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/052.htm#2221">Land-Surface Air Temperature</A> - from the <A href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heatisland.lbl.gov/">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Heat Island Group</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=43">The Surface Temperature Record and the Urban Heat Island</A> From RealClimate.org</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://isu1.indstate.edu/heatisland/">Urban Heat Island research group</A> - NSF project, Department of Geography, Indiana State University</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.urbanheatislands.com/">UrbanHeatIslands.com</A> - Urban Heat islands in Canada and the world</LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coolrooftoolkit.org">Cool Roof and Pavement Toolkit</A></LI>
<LI><A rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalcoolcities.org">Global Cool Cities Alliance</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Brightness_temperature" title="Brightness temperature">Brightness temperature</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paleotempestology" title="Paleotempestology">Paleotempestology</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy data</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years" title="Temperature record of the past 1000 years">Record of the past 1,000 years</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><A href="/wiki/Global_warming" title="Global warming">Anthropogenic</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Attribution_of_recent_climate_change" title="Attribution of recent climate change">Attribution of recent climate change</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">Black carbon</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Global_warming_and_deforestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming and deforestation">Deforestation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's radiation balance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</A></LI>
<LI>(<A href="/wiki/Infrared_window" title="Infrared window">Infrared window</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</A></LI>
<LI>(<A href="/wiki/Halocarbon" title="Halocarbon">Halocarbons</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Land use, land-use change and forestry">Land use, land-use change and forestry</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Tropospheric_ozone" title="Tropospheric ozone">Tropospheric ozone</A></LI>
<LI><A class="mw-selflink selflink">Urban heat island</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bond_event" title="Bond event">Bond events</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_oscillation" title="Climate oscillation">Climate oscillations</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedback" title="Climate change feedback">Feedbacks</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Atlantic_multidecadal_oscillation" title="Atlantic multidecadal oscillation">AMO</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><A href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Models</A></TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Atmospheric_thermodynamics" title="Atmospheric thermodynamics">Atmospheric thermodynamics</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming">Scientists opposing the mainstream assessment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Global_warming_conspiracy_theory" title="Global warming conspiracy theory">Global warming conspiracy theory</A></LI>
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<LI>(<A href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Argentina" title="Climate change in Argentina">Argentina</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Bangladesh" title="Climate change in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_European_Union" title="Climate change in the European Union">European Union</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Scotland" title="Climate change in Scotland">Scotland</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Korea" title="Climate change in South Korea">South Korea</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Sweden" title="Climate change in Sweden">Sweden</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Tuvalu" title="Climate change in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Climate change in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">United States</A>)</LI>
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<DIV id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Politics_of_global_warming" title="Politics of global warming">Politics</A></DIV>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
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<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Clean_Power_Plan" title="Clean Power Plan">Clean Power Plan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</A></LI>
<LI>(<A href="/wiki/Manufactured_controversy" title="Manufactured controversy">Manufactured controversy</A>)</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/March_for_Science_2017" class="mw-redirect" title="March for Science 2017">March for Science</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/People%27s_Climate_March" title="People's Climate March">People's Climate March</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC / FCCC)</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Global_climate_regime" title="Global climate regime">Global climate regime</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
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<DIV id="Potential_effects_and_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming" title="Effects of global warming">Potential effects and issues</A></DIV>
</TH>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">General</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arctic_dipole_anomaly" title="Arctic dipole anomaly">Arctic dipole anomaly</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arctic_haze" title="Arctic haze">Arctic haze</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Arctic_methane_release" class="mw-redirect" title="Arctic methane release">Arctic methane release</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture" title="Climate change and agriculture">Climate change and agriculture</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_ecosystems" title="Climate change and ecosystems">Climate change and ecosystems</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Climate change and gender</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Climate change and poverty</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Current_sea_level_rise" class="mw-redirect" title="Current sea level rise">Current sea level rise</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Economics_of_global_warming" title="Economics of global warming">Economics of global warming</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Effect_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity">Effect on plant biodiversity</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health" title="Effects of global warming on human health">Effects on health</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of climate change on humans">Effects on humans</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_marine_mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of climate change on marine mammals">Effects on marine mammals</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Environmental_migrant" title="Environmental migrant">Environmental migrant</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Extinction_risk_from_global_warming" title="Extinction risk from global warming">Extinction risk from global warming</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change,_industry_and_society" title="Climate change, industry and society">Industry and society</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Iris_hypothesis" title="Iris hypothesis">Iris hypothesis</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Megadrought" title="Megadrought">Megadrought</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Physical_impacts_of_climate_change" title="Physical impacts of climate change">Physical impacts</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Polar_stratospheric_cloud" title="Polar stratospheric cloud">Polar stratospheric cloud</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Runaway_climate_change" title="Runaway climate change">Runaway climate change</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">Shutdown of thermohaline circulation</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">By country</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming_on_Australia" title="Effects of global warming on Australia">Australia</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia" title="Effects of global warming on South Asia">South Asia</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Effects_of_global_warming_on_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of global warming on India">India</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal" title="Climate change adaptation in Nepal">Nepal</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/National_Climate_Assessment" title="National Climate Assessment">United States</A></LI>
</UL>
</DIV>
</TD>
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<DIV id="Mitigation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Mitigation</A></DIV>
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<TR style="display: none;">
<TD colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em"></DIV>
<TABLE class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0">
<TBODY><TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><A href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</A></TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Clean_Development_Mechanism" title="Clean Development Mechanism">Clean Development Mechanism</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Joint_Implementation" title="Joint Implementation">Joint Implementation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Bali_Road_Map" title="Bali Road Map">Bali Road Map</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/2009_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" title="2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference">2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference</A></LI>
</UL>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Governmental</TH>
<TD class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px">
<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/European_Climate_Change_Programme" title="European Climate Change Programme">European Climate Change Programme</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/G8_Climate_Change_Roundtable" title="G8 Climate Change Roundtable">G8 Climate Change Roundtable</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme" title="United Kingdom Climate Change Programme">United Kingdom Climate Change Programme</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</A>
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Paris_Agreement" title="United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement">United States withdrawal</A></LI>
</UL>
</LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Regional_climate_change_initiatives_in_the_United_States" title="Regional climate change initiatives in the United States">Regional climate change initiatives in the United States</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/List_of_climate_change_initiatives" title="List of climate change initiatives">List of climate change initiatives</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Emissions reduction</TH>
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<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Carbon_credit" title="Carbon credit">Carbon credit</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Carbon-neutral_fuel" title="Carbon-neutral fuel">Carbon-neutral fuel</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Carbon_offset" title="Carbon offset">Carbon offset</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Emissions trading</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Fossil-fuel_phase-out" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil-fuel phase-out">Fossil-fuel phase-out</A></LI>
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<TR>
<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><A href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" title="Carbon neutrality">Carbon-free</A> energy</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</A></LI>
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<DIV style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<UL>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</A></LI>
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<TH scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Other</TH>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios" title="Climate change mitigation scenarios">Climate change mitigation scenarios</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_engineering" title="Climate engineering">Climate engineering</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Individual_and_political_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual and political action on climate change">Individual and political action on climate change</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">Urban reforestation</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_Action_Plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate Action Plan">Climate Action Plan</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Climate_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate action">Climate action</A></LI>
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<DIV id="Proposed_adaptations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><A href="/wiki/Adaptation_to_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptation to global warming">Proposed adaptations</A></DIV>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Damming</A> <A href="/wiki/Glacial_lake" title="Glacial lake">glacial lakes</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Drought_tolerance" title="Drought tolerance">Drought tolerance</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation investment</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Rainwater_tank" title="Rainwater tank">Rainwater storage</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Avoiding_dangerous_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Avoiding dangerous climate change">Avoiding dangerous climate change</A></LI>
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<LI><A href="/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index of climate change articles</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change" title="Category:Climate change">Category:Climate change</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Category:Global_warming" title="Category:Global warming">Category:Global warming</A></LI>
<LI><A href="/wiki/Portal:Global_warming" title="Portal:Global warming">Portal:Global warming</A></LI>
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