Cato the Icelander
Victor Frans
Reynistaðarbók (AM 764 4to, ca. 1376–1386) contains a summary of Roman history likely based on vernacular source common to Rómverja saga.1 A passage therein is some importance for our understanding Hugsvinnsmál, the Old Norse translation Dicta or Disticha Catonis, yet it has received little scholarly attention until this point.2 Describing aftermath defeat Pompey Great at Pharsalus and later that his allies in Africa, includes comment Cato Younger was author poem question. It does not, however, give Latin title but version, presupposing an equivalence between original translation. The Hugsvinnsmál draws name Cato, derived from catus (wise, clear-sighted), translating into counterpart hugsvinnr joining supposed author's ‘speaking name’ with mál dicta (sayings). Through these other means which will be addressed below, AM 4to ties school curriculum, past poetic tradition together: Þá er Julius hafði sigrat Yspaniam ok Yberium ferr hann út yfir hafit eftir Pompeio, áttu þeir tvær orrostur. Var hin síðari í Thessalonialandi. Fellu þar flestir kappar Pompei, en sjálfr flýði með honum spekingr, gjört hefir Hugsvinnsmál. Pompeius á Egiptaland vænti sér friðar. En varð drepinn svikliga þeim hætti Septimius, riddari Tholomei konungs þá réð Egiptalandi.3 Ok sá bana sinn ráðinn, vafði mötlinum um höfuð lauk saman augun helt öndunni, eigi vildi spilla sinni frægð né einu andvarpi. var laginn gegnum sverði, þagði sem sauðr, svá hans æfi.Cato enn Leptis spurði þau tíðindi Juba konungr sigraðr fallinn. Þóttiz sjá ríki mundi ganga alla veröld, engum kosti þjóna. Tók þat ráð drekka eitr sínum vilja, dó því.4(When had conquered Hispania Iberia, he sailed across sea after Pompey, they fought two battles. last one Thessaly. There, most Pompey's champions fell, himself fled together him wise, who composed Egypt hoped safety there, treacherously slain way, knight King Ptolemy, then ruled Egypt, [led away men struck down]. When saw death looming, draped head cloak, closed eyes held breath, did not wish diminish fame even single sigh. He pierced sword, kept as silent sheep, thus life ended.Cato still when heard news defeated fallen. seemed could see how power would stretch over whole world, wished no way serve him. thereupon resolved drink poison, own free will, died way.)5To expand upon my introductory remarks, I want focus three possible implications reference Cato's authorship: I. Firstly, text mention have been expected, instead version In words, despite divergences form content, very represented if were complete agreement its textual model.II. are furthermore presumed penned by particular Uticensis, rather than any candidates authorship. Even so, knowledge famous (or indeed lesser-known hypothetical) Catones may prevalent Iceland time. This statement might, therefore, merely assumption part writer unaware problem. There must case associating since etymology immediately clear without help glosses commentaries, Hugsvinnr being fairly close name, stems (wise). imply continued awareness work original.III. Lastly, noteworthy reader assumed familiar suggesting well known. This, combination simple regular meter, repetition formulae and—in regard pre-Christian past—harmless point use within educational context.To test validity claims, essential understand poems interpreted earlier scholarship.The suggested date composition Catonis (henceforth DC) gradually pushed back new evidence come light. Modern scholars initially repetitive commonplace truisms typical late antique literature, all perceived stagnation. oldest explicit letter Emperor Valentinian, written personal physician sometime 364 375 AD, referring “illud Catonis” (that [saying] Cato), followed dicts.6 Already mid-third century, Christian poet Commodian seems drawn inspiration few sayings DC. Later studies also identified paraphrases DC funerary inscriptions stemming second notably dated tentatively around 100 AD.7 Since Lucan, 65 named preface book II made person this, dating AD now likely. perhaps light renewed interest during time Younger, whose might used lend authority work, Serena Connolly, fitting collection moral teachings.8 Throughout Middle Ages there much speculation identity titular below relation account Reynistaðarbók.There taught Visigothic Spain, here transmitted Italy Carolingian world churchmen fleeing Muslim invasion.9 Spain 57 short prose precepts, breves sententiae, interpolated prefatory epistle poem, though possibility exists work. Whatever be, seem accepted commented Remigius Auxerre (ca. 841–908) Expositio super Catonem.10The question relevance interpretation preserved manuscript, Codex Veronensis Bibliothecae Capularis 163 fol. (ninth century), headed M. ad filium suum, which, we shall see, affinity Icelandic title. more commonly known, refers dactylic hexameter couplets, appears both medieval manuscripts early print. called Libri philosophi, slightly recent according Boas, Ethica occurs Carmina Burana printed editions.11The takes advice father son, stressing honesty, diligence, piety kindness.12 addition meter language, ideal use, attested throughout Ages, often appearing Donatus's grammar. Catoniani, collections texts intended beginners Latin, testifies poem.13 are, addition, various glosses, commentaries introductions work—the ascribed Auxerre, Catonem, already mentioned—as number paraphrases, reworkings, extended versions edited modern times titles novus, rhythmicus, interpolatus, leoninus, secundus.14 Some texts, others exercises verse composition, using starting synonyms, antonyms, variation different stylistic figures. Further proof poem's popularity abundance translations prose. English, Anglo-Norman (no less three), French, Occitan, High German, Franconian, quite Italy, instance Venetian seven known Tuscany alone.15 translated Greek Byzantine monk Maximus Planudes (d. 1310).16Though teachings large extent agreed views morality, interpretations distichs, Richard Hazelton shown, pointing similarities Book Proverbs, Epistles Paul, writings church fathers.17 One gloss describes “satis concordans scripturis que instruunt mores, sicut Proverbia Salomonis vel Liber sapiencie” (conforming scriptures teach morals, such Proverbs Solomon Wisdom).18 distichs regularly associated four cardinal virtues, their classical origin, become central thought: “materia hoc opere sunt quattuor virtutes principales, scilicet iusticia, prudencia, fortitudo, temperancia” (Cato's subject matter justice, prudence, fortitude, temperance).19 Hazelton's “Cato simply ‘safe’ nor teaching negligible; converted utilitas.”20 meant benefit (prodesse) readers “ut . animum nostrum honestam vitam deducamus” (in order us direct mind towards honorable life).21 should noted utilitas emphasized manuscript where words harðla nytsöm, “very useful,” added title.22Since read secular surprising Icelander take task making sources, first make appearance First Grammatical Treatise, distich quoted vernacular.23 Moreover, fragment IV DC, possibly thirteenth 2010 Åslaug Ommundsen National Museum Reykjavík (Þjms. fragm. 104). Another 103) originally same contained portions versified Æsop another constituted Catonianus. demonstrates type beginner's circulation Iceland.24 From Late mentioned inventory Viðey monastery 1397 med Glosa (Cato gloss).25 On basis examples, reasonable assume, just Hermann Pálsson did, played important role clerical education infancy.26The Hsv) similarity gnomic poetry vein Hávamál contemporary Sólarljóð.27 Just like eddic poems, Hsv ljóðaháttr similarly contain life, Sólarljóð imparted son.28Hsv generally ranked among best said greater effect original's precepts variety structure rhythm. many cases resorts formulaic expressions, highly regular, discussed later.There 50 fragments Hsv, only small medieval. lack witnesses could, attributed wear tear inevitably befalling exemplars popular relationship complex, stemma established previous researchers shows divided main branches witnesses: 624 (fifteenth closer text, especially appear, mainly five manuscripts, Lbs 1199 (seventeenth eighteenth century) complete, having verse.29 Tuvestrand edition aforementioned emendations, while SkP editors Tarrin Wills Stefanie Würth supplementing readings witnesses.30It unclear whether began oral composition. context product learned Latinate milieu, following adapting experimenting methods. easy tell branch translation, considerable differences them, drafts poet, else improved centuries.31 fact memorized, may, conceivable, long native poetry. Nor disregarded writing, memorized orally, refined, whereupon down again, giving rise scribal traditions.32 If transmission oral, explain smaller groups manuscripts.33 details committed memory; emphasis learning through reading invariably replaced verbs pertaining hearing remembrance. Many changes recitation. stanza places audience aural setting, addressing them reminiscent Vǫluspá skaldic “Heyri seggir” (may listen), “praecepta mea ita legito ut intellegas” (read you understand), (st. 2) proclaims “mun þú eptir öll” (remember it).34 practice reflect actually used, clarifying function Hsv.The model belonged Vulgate tradition. To specific, Ruggerini finds so-called Vulgata recentior, incorporating traits recentissima, “period transition half twelfth beginning century.”35 uncertain made, linguistic criteria, recognized Hugo Gering, rule out primarily due enclitic negations -a -at.36 scholarship accepts 1200 century.37The thoroughly several points matter, example 96, stanzas (III. 11; IV. 35), encouraging son content what grieve loss material things.38 poet's good, fails grasp allusions mythology, concerning Kairos (Lat. Caerus), god opportunity. curl hair front otherwise bald head, implying fleeting moment seized; once passed, too grasp.39 metaphor volatility life. alone this; English similar misunderstanding, interprets obscure allusion symbol wealth.40The evidently calque corresponding neuter plural genitive names signifying “wise” “clear-sighted.” Medieval somewhat faulty etymology, comes Greek, idea mediated Isidore Seville writers, Conrad Hirsau, active century.41 adjective (with Sabine origin), Greek.42 dependent introduction intention adaptation original. brings method.Most saying, exception 1–16, adapted 52, 109, 110, 146, distichs. prefaces ones before books II–IV, translated, III placed end. Gerhard Alexander theorizes reasons discrepancies translation: leave “unisländisches” (un-Icelandic) omits mistakes transmission, either corrupt errors copying translation.43 Concerning “un-Icelandic” ideas original, telling translator's cultural environment. exhortation “Litteras disce” (learn letters) 38 becomes “rúnir nem þú” runes) 12.44 Things relating setting left out, forum, wine divorce (DC 5, II. 21, III. 12), poets Vergil, Æmilius Macer Ovid praef.) “bragnar spakir” (wise men; st. 56).45 Likewise, view evident stanza, worth quoting full:46Gamansamlig ljóðskaltu af greppum nemaok mörg fræði muna,þvít ágætlig ljóðbera fyrir ýta sonuskáld til skemtanar.47This can compared text: Multa legas facito, perlectis perlege multa,nam miranda canunt, sed non credenda poetae.48(Make sure much, read, examine much; sing things marveled at, believed.)Though admittedly poets’ ability amuse translator omitting inherent untrustworthiness embody ethos Iceland, skalds seen authorities antiquity. self-critical approach thought undermine itself.The makes changes. As observed, imperative, prefers impersonal constructions maðr, parallel poetry.49 doing aim produce varied style, considering almost finite imperative. Others tendency associate specific situations render abstract concepts concrete words; instance, (IV. 18) speaks old age, (Hsv 122) replaces “öldruðum afa” (an elderly grandfather).50 Furthermore, speaker patently present additions singular, “tel ek” 17), “trú ek,” 78), “sá 80), “hygg 95, 105, 135, 136, 143), penultimate 148): “Ástsamlig / mun þú, einkason, ek hefi kvæði kent” (My remember loving lay).51 genre, presence manner, Hsv's near-contemporaries Merlínússpá Sólarljóð.Some attributable Christianization Several concern references mythology. Besides misunderstanding above, alluding Janus unrecognizable Hsv: Quod sequitur specta quodque imminet ante, videto:illum imitare deum, partem qui spectat utramque.52Um lítazþarf maðr veguok við villu varaz;glöggþekkinnskyldi gumna hverrok fróðr forsjáll vera.53While difficult above consciously deity. Perhaps lost adapt; chose paraphrase opening Hávamál: Gáttir allar,áðr gangi fram,um scoðaz scyli,um scygnaz scyli;þvíat óvíst vita,hvar óvinirsitia fleti fyrir.54(Every entrance, proceed, scan spy; cannot foes seated hall.)In Venus Bacchus given “lostasemi” “ofdrykkja” 132), accurate personifications love drinking 30).55 Similarly, Fortuna never included translation.56 omission deities necessarily Christianization; rendering meaningful audience, cases, find counterparts gods.Similarly, draw far-reaching conclusions God singular editions gods plural. Granted trying restore, (though others), variants manuscripts.57 Here probably dealing affecting existing analysis runs difficulty; exact translator, itself, inevitable target remain cases.A feature closely related influence vocabulary Hsv. Larrington numerous closest parallels homilies religious texts. They list heiðinn (as describing Hugsvinnr), lærifaðir, hreint hjarta, syndugr, himneskr, líkamr, líkams lestir, lostasemi, sællífi (eternal life), synd, reykelsi, ǫlmusa jarðligr, gæska (grace), heilsa (to save) vǫmm (sin).58 distinctly mentioning. “eins guðs” (of god) 119 manifests belief denigrating lust “ljót munúð” (ugly bodily desire) 73 emphasizing virtues “Þarflátr þakklátr skaltu þínum guði vera” (You humble thankful your God) 3, 1 “Deo supplica” (pray God).59 cleric, seeing experience sermons Latin.To summarize, hints uses vocabulary, consistently tenets Christ, Mary, saints. At time, paradoxically pagan practices culture removed, anything remotely connected heathendom. therefore so monotheization, placing dim past. relates represented, discuss next section.To provide historical background Lucan's Pharsalia, accessus summa historiae, outline events leading up complementing narrative poem. served minor sources saga fill certain gaps story, surviving model.60 disputed between, hand, posited historiae and, other, Jakob Benediktsson maintained directly saga, turn rested Veraldar Svanhildur Óskarsdóttir pointed explanation why found saga.61 Either expanded source, longer, pared transmission. Þorbjörg Helgadóttir put forth hypothesis sections passages Clemens unidentified Lucanum.62 each show distinctive missing others, enough conclude begun Romulus Remus, stretching reign Augustus.63 Younger's authorship uncertainty detail passing authors texts.64 inconceivable summa. remains Younger. high consider Hugsvinnsmál” Hugsvinnsmál).65The choice summarist puzzling reasons. begin with, presents equivalent unrecognizable. far obvious listeners Cato; dislodges position favor progeny. These understood exceedingly free—by word word, fit context—it essentially Using Rita Copeland's term, say “appropriated” original; “[displaces] proposes serve. Like commentary, tends represent itself ‘service’ authoritative source; displaces originary force models.”66A attitude observed parts summary. noted, explanations clearly audience.67 mentioning clari
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