French Abbesses in Action: Structuring Carolingian and Cluniac Communities
S Mary
Although this essay surveys the roles of abbesses in French monasteries from ninth through eleventh centuries, some relevant comparisons may also be made to women ascetics earlier Christian centuries. The examples early superiors were doubtless known hagiography and emulated by those who came later.From at least fourth century west, led a variety monastic experiments under Caesarian, Benedictine or Augustinian rules individual customs their houses.(49) Some men often attached as priests brothers, times enough numbers that community has been considered house.(50)Religious might number many hundred, but most women's small poor semi-eremitic character.(51) foundations Merovingian period survived, disappeared. later refounded Carolingians for nuns even given monks canons.(52)There seem have frequent pressures communities sought resist. Anglo-Saxon double houses eremitical groups tended, after Norman conquest, concentrated into single-sex supervision bishop men's monastery.(53) Lay benefactors well intentioned clerical guides protect nuns, physically spiritually. New flexible organization, time tended become more structured regulated outside authorities.(54) From Caesarius Arles Francis Assisi there efforts on part male founders cloister orders limit independence abbess than abbots.(55) Women's rarely had resources counterparts succumbed hard times.(56) In reforms such Cluniacs Cistercians, only added later, firmly established.(57)The Ninth Eleventh CenturiesThe sources studying life, uses which scholars are putting them, multiplied recent years. they lived, manuals advice other prescriptive now less trusted reflect realities lives. Actual are, course, sprinkled chronicles, letters hagiography. Customaries, rituals obituaries among can shed light authority activities.(58) Monastic architecture liturgy site them within communities.(59) Charters especially rich information about relationships monastics with around them.(60)The patterns continuity develop certain particular accept reject. increasingly hierarchical structures medieval church reserved prioress position high respect. held office deacon exercised powers comparable own jurisdictions.(61) Abbesses usually local aristocracy could hold counts royalty.(62) Many once married experience world brought positions.(63) an was woman not vision, visions, her dreams prophecies reinforced mundane powers.(64)If sometimes cloistered, were, if all did keep horse going out business one eleventh-century Notre Dame, Saintes, did, still found abroad when affairs demanded.(65) Unlike abbots, quarters enclosure, study shown likely dwell, common dormitory, internal rooms easily accessible nuns.(66) However, chambers, received lay litigants refectory meeting conduct necessary business. …
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