The Enduring Attraction of the Pirenne Thesis
Bonnie Effros
Previous articleNext article FreeThe Enduring Attraction of the Pirenne ThesisBonnie EffrosBonnie Effros Search for more articles by this author Bonnie is Professor History and Rothman Chair Director Center Humanities Public Sphere at University Florida, in Gainesville, Florida (e-mail: [email protected])PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailQR Code SectionsMoreRereading PirenneAt beginning twenty-first century, as Europeans North Americans vigorously debate place Islam West, Henri Pirenne’s Mahomet et Charlemagne (1937) his explanation clash civilizations that led end Roman Empire has gained renewed popular relevance. Although interest was not Islam, but rather contribution Arab conquest Carolingian renaissance, work only continued garner attention last several decades but, a disturbing albeit unsurprising development, it also new set devotees. Indeed, attracted readers from among adherents European right-wing nationalism American neoconservatism. In their eagerness condemn rise Islamic fundamentalism menace global hegemony these historical revisionists have used decontextualized passages monograph argue he labeled ultimate danger Western civilization.1This ideological reading contrasts starkly with work’s nuanced interpretation reception medieval Mediterranean historiography, where what now known Thesis made its largest economic history.2 influence monograph’s argument ebbed flowed since time composition response contemporary trends studies,3 nearly eighty years after publication, medievalists continue merits contribution.4 Its studies varied regionally. Whereas Anglo-American, French, Italian scholars, on whole, generally accepted research priorities established while they questioned conclusions,5 impact Austrian German circles been markedly less profound than legacy contemporary, historian Alfons Dopsch.6 Medievalists specializing period epochs succeeded or those who history most apt embrace Pirenne.7 particular, influenced future development study economics successors, like Adriaan Verhulst Jean-Pierre Devroey, others.8 By contrast, whose interests focus Merovingian found narrative useful. He looked down epoch decadent followed Germanic invasions dismissed offering minimal innovation,9 characterization continues dog era popularly (or dismissed) Dark Ages.10It striking, then, formative almost never came be. The published we read today direct transcription manuscript desk succumbed prematurely illness 1935, shortly passing oldest son Henri-Édouard.11 Belgian historian’s wife Jenny (née Verhaegen) sole surviving Jacques invited Charles Vercauteren, one students, help prepare posthumous volume unfinished which had laboring up until demise.12 Published 1937, slim honed ideas Walloon scholar developed during First World War took concrete form composed early 1920s.13It appears derived foremost desire understand origins late-medieval cities, main research, Louis Ganshof attributed upbringing manufacturer.14 To end, argued there clean break between cities antiquity, lifeblood were Syrian merchants served mediators long-distance trade luxury objects, urban centers emerged central Middle Ages.15 estimation, classical died out course bequeathed nothing names walls towns churches late tenth eleventh centuries.16Pirenne wrote least part publications Dopsch.17 historian, Pirenne, continuity post-Roman pointed far greater role contributions willing countenance.18 Like French historians Fustel de Coulanges Ferdinand Lot,19 well majority archaeologists day viewed themselves heirs Rome Germania (and are thus Romanists),20 downplayed history. While liberally employing reference Romania regions conquered throughout text, avoided term whenever possible, no doubt because suggested an independent civilizational structure.21 way, society maintained character despite arrival concluded “infime minorité” barbarian immigrants,22 view embraced few scholars Germany Austria either twentieth century today.23As often recounted, another important source postimperial world presented training methodology cooperation number Karl Lamprecht 1890s inaugural decade century.24 However, death Pierre Battle Yser October 1914, internment civil disobedience prisoner-of-war camp 1915, disappointment Lamprecht’s many other colleagues’) unflinching support imperialism critical historiography even if did undo scholarship thinking.25 reaction events xenophobic Emile Mâle,26 experiences lowered considerably estimation nation, noted captivity 1920 Revue des deux mondes.27As ably documented Patrick Geary, Ian Wood, others, betrays concerns written. although given substantial foundational national pan-European perspectives conceptions Ages,28 perspective explored sufficiently till colonial postcolonial ways Orientalism affected nineteenth- twentieth-century perceptions birth Ages. Edward Said observed 1979 represented Other against Europe defined,29 suggestion opened way further exploration topic. This lacuna invitation reread just nationalist imperial context much silences claims about empires.30 reengaging text perspective, becomes evident some assumptions built into elegant framework vexing problems sought resolve related culture economy world. With benefit wealth archaeological data arisen largely Charlemagne, incumbent upon still defined underlying premises critique definitively embedded limitations imposed portrayal epoch. will be able solve all enigmas period, relinquish model too broad strokes problematic implications. transformation variable complex envisioned start should drive shape era.Pirenne MuhammadIn 1974, Peter Brown praised freeing antiquity impasse Romanist-Germanist debate,31 discussion divided sixteenth saw roots ancient (Romanists) gave credit invasion migration creation institutions (Germanists). eighteenth-century Germanist Henri, comte Boulainvilliers, emphasized significant discontinuities collapse brought so-called invasions, Romanist Jean-Baptiste Du Bos followers, remained relatively intact through successor kingdoms.32 clearly fell latter camp, denying Gibbon’s fissure attacks, building instead foundations predecessors, Numa-Denis La cité antique (1864). As 1939, Swedish numismatist Sture Bolin characterized aim thesis reducing extension distinctive own right. English version 1939 1952, differed Dopsch, placed emphasis innovation.33 unique especially Germanic) features effort show late-imperial Rome.34 According era, began period. institutions, feudalism, resembled Ages apparent overshadowed any Merovingians.35 inspiration Annalistes, notably Lucien Febvre Marc Bloch, whom mentored before inaugurated journal Annales 1929.36What others appreciated facility shifted centuries-old Roman-barbarian decline markers such quantifiable forms vitality.37 high praise deemphasized second arguably original wherein disruption unity, deemed essential characteristic Empire,38 conquests seventh eighth century. claimed control Punic Wars, severing East West creating Greek (rather Roman) could do little defend fleet possessions, including posts Naples, Venice, Gaeta, Amalfi.39 And, claim Arab-controlled devoid commercial activity hotly contested familiar 1940s,40 successive critiques uniquely larger staked Pirenne. Notably, Maurice Lombard demonstrated leaders, Byzantine Persian engaged extensively Pirenne.41 Bolin, too, interaction conducted via Mediterranean. forcefully sphere included was, anything, enlarged first Syria then Iraq.42Moreover, dimension religious dynamics West. study, Christian suggesting integral guaranteeing cultural (just believed disaccord over definition orthodoxy ensured rapid fall Syria, Palestine, Egypt domination).43 Importantly, dramatically different pagan Arian peoples, complete reorientation lands controlled:To tell truth, minority can transform people when wants dominate effectively, contempt it, considers matter exploit; case Normans England, Muslims everywhere sprang up, same Romans provinces. Germans wanted neither destroy nor exploit empire. Instead having empire, admired it. They anything oppose moral force. Their heroic ceased installation.44From hypothesized contrast spread tribes, readily assimilated, equilibrium—a order—upon leaders science Greeks art Persians, brokered possibility accommodation religions conquered. Unlike exclusively obedient God, Muhammad Prophet, heritage. devotion consequently impenetrable barrier, formed religion language, populations conquered.45As Paolo Delogu, effectively captured transition empire states pointing changed conditions political altered psychological attitudes. whereas invading cohorts might prepared acknowledge inferiority opposed Rome, due zeal conquerors intentionally subverted preexisting order.46 peoples blended population time, inclinations Arabs allegedly impossible. Arabs, forced assimilate allowed retain practices: “Germanic Romanized once entered Romania. Romans, Arabized Islam. It matters that, midst Ages, subsisted small communities Copts, Nestorians, above Jews. entire ambience profoundly transformed. There break, rupture past.”47 favor discontinuity conquest, sea cradle civilization became frontier.In view, siege Constantinople loomed large. Following anarchy Justinian II 711, Leo III Isaurian repel Umayyad 718 thanks use fire alliance Bulgarians. described event “the attack attempted city ‘protected God.’”48 contrasted success battle Poitiers (732), traditionally held. conflict lacked momentous hallmarks Constantinople’s victory persistence Muslim threat south Gaul following Martel Duke Odo (Eudes) Aquitaine Emir ‘Abd al-Rahman I.49 For considerable Carolingians. considered very equilibrium civilization.50The reasons radical stance entirely clear. biography does suggest motivation contention faith conservatism. inspired Godefroid Kurth’s Les origines la civilisation médiévale (1886), liberal Catholic father Protestant mother devout Catholic, critiqued mentor’s church modern civilization.51 Nor appear Belgium’s deep entrenchment violent colonization Congo 1880s,52 nowhere Charlemagne. Likely, sub-Saharan Africa irrelevant Africa.Although advanced archaeology rule Levant already established. Judging footnotes may reflective subject completed posthumously, particularly informed existing Abbasid Caliphates. expansion primarily destructive series razzias seems stereotypes prevalent day.53 ignorant Africa: traveled Algeria 1931, year centennial celebrations region, give lectures attended by, none Fernand Braudel.54 likewise two-month visit Cairo 1934.55 visits likely shaped conception off-the-cuff depiction unwavering attackers rigorous adherence military undertaking reflected uncritical Orientalist discourse permeated academic undertakings activities period.56Indeed, basic pronouncements mirrored dominant parlance respect unified Latin) indigenous resistance Africa.57 His definitive closure contemporaries’ arrogant confidence Europe’s civilizing mission vis-à-vis African Eastern colonies both times.58 opposition manner Catholicism steadily civilized adapted ways, essentialized rigid theocracy compromise.59 Perhaps upbeat conclusion assuaged lessons contemporaries dire consequences would result reversal order.60More specifically regarding point: silver lining balance power wrought caused Carolingians northwestern turn inward innovate politically, culturally, artistically know renaissance.61 gains tempered Viking incursions, linked barbarity Europe.62 For, recent neoconservative revisionist interpretations ended positive note. Despite flaws challenges, numismatists,63 and, years, archaeologists,64 enjoyed long-term precisely neatly changes thought think one. America, instance, resonance past focused origin ideals, customs, alterity, later century.65Thus, beyond seeing meditation how I renounce formerly scholarship,66 mindful relations nineteenth asymmetric ignorance approach surprise anyone, proclivity produce theories large parts humankind without learning cultures affected,67 tradition works justified former territories rightful restoration Europe.68 proclaimed “a occurred our days.”69 age deeply connected past. line thinking, come full circle. Just existed Muhammad, understood namely Europeans, restored again. Given realities post-9/11 politics, must wary relying uncritically binary account barbarity, Muslim. Perhaps, recently Richard Hodges, solution enlarging frame interactions. We consider modest appearance relative, China, topic powerful politics.70Archaeology Future ThesisSince mid-1930s, area landscape archaeology.71 archaeology, history, discipline contingent practitioners operate, useful improving understanding Ages.72 Integrated possess framed anthropological theoretical approaches, allows us reconsider fashion possible being agreement methods implications, greatest potential move vision processes transpired epoch.73Archaeology’s value questions, however, always immediately apparent. certainly interwar wrote, yet professionalized organized within provincial learned societies.74 Driven regional concerns, cemeterial excavations predominant genre Central Europe.75 Typological contents row graves fueled identification ethnic buried sites implications territorial Alsace Lorraine change effected invasions.76 excavation reports—which highly local mainly interested identity deceased warriors—did lend easily broader arguments, dealing production trade. Few day, aside Mikhail Rostovtzeff Social Economic (1926), availed record studying economy.77By intrinsically acquisition collections metropolitan museums, epigraphical remains, monuments, statuary.78 quite simple consisted cases clearing statues edifices debris subsequent centuries studying, drawing, collecting monuments inscriptions approaches borrowed architecture.79 addition, scholarly trained remains dating earlier third material evidence typically misdated, ignored, destroyed process excavation.80 written sources, aesthetic sensibilities, Maghreb addressed predated decline.81 such, disposed discussing vitality One exceptions trend, undertake Diehl, published, works, pathbreaking Ravenne: Études d’archéologie byzantine (1886) L’Afrique byzantine: Histoire domination en Afrique (533–709) (1896).82From 1930s, larger-scale trading elucidate existence outside These included, famously, Dorestad mouth Rhine Haithabu near Schleswig.83 excavations, colored nonetheless produced consumption.84 1940s 1950s, Birka, Southampton, Hamburg, Helgö, Kiev, Novgorod, locations.85 Hodges David Whitehouse, 1960s, New Archaeology (also called processual archaeology) openness toward scientific willingness engage data.86 techniques, field-walking surveys (a noninvasive method systematically collectively surveying plowed fields recording surface materials) aerial photography, offered helpful still-unexcavated field sites, generated quantities data. Postwar policies funding supported integration costly site confirmation refutation certain conquest. Excavations Marseilles, thriving century.87 Siraf Whitehouse introduced discussions considerations Mediterranean, Sassanid maritime Gulf.88By 1980s, advances revolutionized archaeologists’ periods, advocates Archae
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