Entering Behind the Veil: <i>Uurd</i> and the Evangelistic Ingenuity of the <i>Hêliand</i>
David Budtz Pedersen
Much recent scholarship on the ninth-century Old Saxon gospel harmony known as Hêliand has focused how poem presents Christ to its original audience. Written in early days of Franks’ religious domination Saxons, was almost certainly a pivotal text shaping Saxons’ understanding their new identity. Indeed, Stephen Pelle notes, by middle ninth century, “Continuing rebellions against Charlemagne and faith soon convinced Carolingian churchmen that forced baptism mandatory church attendance were not enough ensure obedience compliance.”1 As scholars have continually observed, very deliberately responds these tensions tailoring depiction Christ's life work political cultural circumstances audience.But been quite divided regarding what, precisely, Saxons supposed understand about from this text. There is no doubt his followers are sense “Germanized” Hêliand, alterations seem offer audience familiar exemplum emulate. But precise nature emulation far settled. Fr. G. Ronald Murphy, for example, finds tacit condoning violence certain changes Hêliand's handling Sermon Mount expansion Peter's attack Malchus Gethsemane, while Richard Fletcher asserts forcefully author “presents Christianity mild, peaceable faith” “nowhere even implicitly suggests might come another manner.”2 On more politically acute note, Perry Neil Harrison sees pathos-laden Massacre Innocents episode condemnation characterized Frankish efforts convert Saxony, Samuel J. Youngs views passive acceptance “fate” an admonishment accept with same passivity.3 Thus, there can be deliberate Germanization narrative communicates something specific audience, little agreement among is.The present essay seeks clarity questions purpose evangelistic opposed agenda work. However may be, it also, perhaps primarily, evangelism. notes prefatory fytt which source parallel, recording “hw sia [is gibodskip skoldin/ frummian, firiho barn” (ll. 8–9; best God's bidding carry out, children mankind).4 Given likely highly educated cleric, strains credulity think own feelings means Saxony converted deeply conflicted. And explorations reflects those necessary produce holistic view itself. author's personal confession Christian also sincere theologically nuanced, so ample reason consider possibility primary goal make better Christians rather than subjects or rulers.In other words, prioritizes thinking Christianly over behaving Christianly. paid great deal attention way events actions Germanized throughout text, they significantly less linguistic conceptual terms relevant audience.5 James E. Cathey observed some time ago, “constant redefinition one term another, restatement old idea concept, augmentation pre-Christian phraseology, semantic displacement equating words concepts.”6 Cathey's brief overview examples types invited further discussion ways such features produced “long penetration” thinking, call exploring subordinates uurd (fate, lot, providence) authority Christ.7 I argue that, through methods outlined Cathey, becomes conquest Germanic worldview conceives rival dominion.It important at outset situate my interpretation English cognate wyrd, commonly translated philology, within long vitriolic history fatalism. My aim rehearse arguments philologists who sought literature reconstruct cosmology.8 These often fixated occurrences wyrd literary record, particularly instances personified, arguing served supreme divinity Teutonic paganism. conclusively demonstrated, century half between conversion England earliest texts, along fact advent exclusively responsible written literacy contexts, precludes any preservation belief literature.9But am fully reactionary since beginning twentieth contend (and, extension, Norse cognates) comfortably Christianized “in we it.”10 demonstrated elsewhere, lightning rod anxieties cosmic governance vernacular literature, demonstrating dominion precisely focus many texts word occurs.11 Thus proposed “middle way” pagan interpretations suggesting refers unknown governs what “becoming” (from OE weorðan—“to become”). like Solomon Saturn II, The Wanderer, Seafarer subordinate God order allay existential text's characters.12 here demonstrate validity applying suggest dread “the becoming things” had alleviate captivate imagination Saxons.In significance initial effort redefine must begin near end account tearing temple curtain moment death. carefully emphasizes expands moment, receives only passing mention Tatian's Diatessaron (202)—the Hêliand—and similarly limited three synoptic gospels:13 . endi [fha lakan] tebrastan middion tu, r managan dagan themo uuhe innan uuundron gistriunidhl hangoda - ni muostun heliðo barn,thia liudi scauuon, huat under lacane uuashlages behangan: thuo mohtun horð sehanIudeo liudi. (LXVII.5658–70)(The colorful wonderfully woven day hanging without harm inside shrine [people, heroes’ sons, never allowed look holy things hidden behind curtain] torn two down middle—Jewish people could then see treasure-hoard! [p. 187].)14In seven poetic lines devotes event, he adds material detailed description curtain, articulation curtain's prohibitive ancient Jewish context, emphasis access provides ([treasure]-hoard; LXVII.5664–70).15 indeed pains Israelite perspective.To modern reader initiated into symbolic Holy Holies, unsurprising. removal barrier presence Yawheh profoundly moving. Prior destruction person Holies save high priest, once each year Yom Kippur, Day Atonement, most liturgical calendar.16 priest entered sacrifice atoned sins Israelites covered again covenant made patriarch Abraham. This offered before Ark Covenant, believed house earthly Yahweh, whose awesome essence all times fatal imperfect human.17 Even undergo strict purification process, required bells bound rope event struck dead Yahweh (resulting silencing bells) need removed inner sanctum anyone else entering.18 In light ritual, death represented sacrificial system defined Yahweh's relationship exodus slavery Egypt, marking perfect eternal confess Christianity.It terrifying, setting introduces power (maht godes) haunted imagination. When angel Gabriel appears Zechariah offers atonement narrative, names both uurdgiscapu (the workings uurd) maht godes God) active force prophecy:19 thi kind giboran,fon thînera alderu idis ôdan scoldiuuerðan thesero uueroldi, uuordun spâhi.. s haƀed im uurdgiscapu,Medot gimarcod godes. (II.123–125, 127–128)(a child will born you—from your elderly wife granted you world—and wise him, formed well 7].)The identification agent birth John Baptist simple apposition, though suspect inclusion named agents ambiguous.20 if case, significant. First, implies establishing conflation author, needs reinforcement conflation. Second, importantly, places alongside veil curtain. way, skillfully connects deep desires Judaic cultures.21While seems superficially support Christian, simplistic particular fails recognize perspective wrote dubiously literate chronologically geographically pre-Christian, Mediterranean context. yet work, space barred prior destruction. Zechariah's elaboration possibilities explain assumption audience's space: 1) knowledge perspective; 2) situation sufficient communicate significance; 3) parallel context existence itself excludes first option; otherwise left assume understood knowing basic Christ. accepting second option would require us willing monetize Yahweh. communicated system.22While subsequent establish shared responsibility process birth, specifically Baptist,23 later similar death.24 deaths prophetess Anna's husband (VI.512), widow Naim's son (XXVI.2189), wicked king Herod (9.761–62), rich man parable “The Rich Man Lazarus” (XLI.3354–56), (LVII.4778). association axiomatically explains healing blind men outside Jericho: menniscono barn:farad folgod, frôde sterƀad,uuerðad eft iunga aftar kumane,uueros auuahsane, unttat sie farnimid. (XLIV.3630–3633)(The sons mankind go sequence, die, young after wax older—until takes them away 118].)In fact, every occurrence associated either death, attested association.25While does explicitly share deaths, subtly undermines singular references metod (“the measurer”) cases (VI.511) (XXVI.2190). Of course overtly connotation godes, Prisca Augustyn Murphy conclude meant distinctly connotations.26 metod's meotod regularly used clear reference God,27 naming creates awkward redundancy sense. influence Insular missionaries relatively comfortable connotation.28 dual Baptist. ambiguity poet hints tendency equivocate name entity death.29 Such equivocation validate anxiety directs uurd/wyrd—the “becoming”—that plagued imagination.More importantly present, though, function human mortality—the movement death—resonates expressed lapsarian curse Judeo-Christian tradition. At so-called “Fall Man,” cursed humankind bring forth pain die (Gn 3:16). While childbirth imposed mother, King David (Ps 51:5) St. Paul (Rm 5:12–21) sort birthright. humans uurd, dead, expression righteousness tradition.And circles right back separation mortal creations without. For immediately articulating curse, banished Adam Eve Eden, placing Cherubim guards return 3:24). According Ex 25:18–20, command images angelic creatures grace Covenant housed creating link where walked freely “Fall,” temple, dwells but separate humanity. desire enter then, lift live forevermore Put delivered uurd.Despite parallels, appositional sustained Hêliand. Elizabeth awaits her delivery, reinforces uurdgiscapu's pregnancy (III.196–97), when Mary delivery giscapu overseer.30 comes deliver Jesus, behrtun (“bright workings”) inform (V.367). collocations do grounds rejecting Alfred Hagenlocher's conclusion always agent.31 (in cases) object proof refer “cosmic principle waxing waning life” subject God.32While agree ultimately supports Augustyn's conclusion, believe asserting too hastily glosses “semantic displacement” advocates. Indeed subordination God, arcane terrifying central project announcement complete. absence poetically conceptually authorial decision –giscapu recalls John, giscapu. uurd—or giscapu—is conspicuous, conspicuousness underscored adjective serves “heavy” stress alliteration.33 drawing lack least explicitly, governing He is, course, denying ambivalence significant harmonizing project.34 Regardless purpose, effect omission open uurd's domain somewhat smaller godes—that Christ.Accounts reveal uurd. Lazarus parable, attributed [adjective]-giscapu construction, reganogiscapu (41.3347; sovereign's workings”), comparable birth. Similarly, Bethany, whom resurrects, authority, Lazarus's sister Martha acknowledges wields resurrect brother “thurh thiu hlagon giscapu” (XLIX.40.60; “by decree fate” 132]). Judas divine (XXIII.2760–2784, LXI.5163–5170). case kept ambiguous text.Despite ambiguity, reveals clear, absolute, correlation character's alignment teachings surrounding participation alone agent, deceased characters hostile efforts. Herod's follows “Massacre Innocents”—when male Bethlehem killed hopes destroying Christ-child (IX.722–54).35 solely (or uurdgiscapu), type refuse give up favor earth sake (XLI.3376–86). hand, accounts ambiguously agentless enjoy unequivocal favor. experience heavenly treasures expense rewards (XLI.3379–82), resurrection Bethany example reward him (XLIX.4055–56). Similarly Baptist, introduced gesið heƀankuninges (2.129–30; “thane heaven's king”).36 Finally, metod, Widow son, presumably good standing tradition aware himself reconciliation provide. character abides hope communion symbolized control death.Of diminishing certainty meaningful, problematic. One expect Judas, individual betraying Christ, given unequivocally. Judas's ever identified. inconsistency explained interest role culpability. Pointing demonstrates emphasizing egregiousness betrayal Chieftain, heinous offense heroic culture, amounts assertion demise.37 suggestion why Baptist's despite obvious John's direct result effort; beheaded request niece (XXXIII.2745–76).38 Divine agency seems, absolve participated killing ignobly.This provide limit It does, however, Uurd conspicuously absent claim maintained until final Furthermore, free agency, individual's increasingly aligns herself promise authority.But perfectly inverts salvation (for word) cold, unfeeling, “becoming things.” Christ—the hêliand—of hero explicit proves wield resurrecting Naim. Martha's raise “shaping” elsewhere placed hêliand unique world—a noble uurd/wyrd insubordination it.In imagine wish-fulfillment, fantasy humanity immune natural represents corpus. all, frame narrator Wanderer uses define eardstapa (earth-stepper, wanderer) assert stoic heroism: “wyrd bið ful aræd” (l. 5; fixed”).39 Beowulf facing confrontation Grendel: “Gæð swa hio scel” 455; goes she shall”).40 cases, however speaker courage. things,” oblivion, face head-on. By contrast, titular aræd able supersede authority.Yet hero, aræd, submits avoid. apostles attributes imminent crucifixion acknowledging consistently evokes corpus: Thiu handun, mîn flêsk sorgun,letid mik lîchamo: lêð imu suîðouuîti te tholonne (LVII.4778–84)(Uurd hand flesh worried, body holding me back, loathe suffer 157].)This (and only) face, become during life. Furthermore prayer preceding admission, accepts willingly, full be: “ef nu uuerðen mag,” quað he,“mankunni generid, ne sî ik minan geƀelioƀan lîchamon liudio barnte uuêgeanne uundrun, thîn uuilleo sô,ik uuilliu gicoston: nimu thene kelik hand,drinku ina thie [diurðu], drohtin frô mîn,mahtig mundboro. Ni seh thu mines hêrflêskes gifôries. Ik fullon scaluuilleon thînen; haƀes gewald oƀar al.” (LVII.4760–68)(“If cannot rescued,” said, “unless body, love, terrible torture people—if You want way—then drink it. take chalice Your honor, Lord powerful Protector! Do flesh, out will. things!” 157].)While necessarily imply ability contradict it, complete happen makes relation unique. countermand earlier ontological submission. just willingly took upon accounts—the condemns mythos (2 Cor 5:21)—this delimiter life.And consummation submission demystifying narrative.41 here, draws locus demystification word, describing elaborations sources emphasize provided. Moreover, widely available “becoming.” Immediately recounting includes Matthew's saints: graƀu uuurðun giopanodddero manno, thuru drohtines craftan iro lchamon libbiandi astuodunupp fan erðu gigida tharmannon mrðu. (LXVII.5670–74)(graves opened up; and, Chieftain's power, got alive bodies, caught sight there, amazement beings 187].)While elaborated links paralleled associations mystery victory effect, revealed fear temporal inspired freed curse. longer.Insofar operates imagination, fit nicely B. Timmer's caveat wyrd/uurd (“lot”) directed providence.42 providential implied apposition uuilleon thînen ([The Father's] will) Gethsemane account, interpretation. hasty arrival elides care taking Far concepts together deliberately, using tropes contexts.43 After harmony, reimagines imbues values, harmony. equipped priori. defend conflations, foreign local audience.And examining inserted paradigm fascinating window concept identifies. We conclude, evoked terrified awe Israelites. thing yearned salvation, “thrownness” Northrop Frye, forces confront arbitrary fact.”44 More was, sense, lacked satisfying prophetic OT prophecies Israel's inevitable needed destabilize evoked.Just argued Christianizing. meaning went beyond innocuity translation “lot” “event.” say recoverable personality word's connotation. terrifying—a Orwellian utterly obfuscates teleological significance. culture philosophical nuance rigor reputation rarely enjoyed. evangelize forcing sociopolitical teaching essential teach worldview.
Journal of English and Germanic Philology