Holy Roman Empire 1300–1650
Between the High Middle Ages and 1806, much of Central Europe was encompassed by an entity called Holy Roman Empire (Heiliges Römisches Reich in German spoken most its inhabitants). The polity’s name derived from claims rulers—elected as “kings Romans” sometimes subsequently crowned “Roman emperors”—to be successors Charlemagne ultimately antique Rome, to defenders Catholic Church Christendom. Debates continue about when exactly “Holy Empire” began. Both 9th-century Carolingian 10th-century Ottonian realms are contenders, although Latin term sacrum Romanum imperium did not gain widespread currency until 13th century. In period c. 1300–1650, focus this bibliography, exhibited important differences other Europe, notably elective system monarchical succession, residual claim universal authority (to co-exercised, theory, with papacy), exceptional fragmentation among increasingly autonomous principalities, bishoprics, lordships, cities (often “territories”). It also notionally housed emerging polities their own right, such Swiss Confederation kingdom Bohemia; relationship premodern remains a contentious historiographical issue. At same time, it shared some basic characteristics neighboring kingdoms, being monarchy that governed concert aristocratic community estates at representative institutions (the diets, or Reichstage, they were known around 1500), polity came identified national deutsche Nation). Recent decades have therefore seen lively debates how ought defined categorized, “constitution” (Reichsverfassung)—or, another idiom, political culture—operated. While several ambitious long-term histories attempted synthesize unwieldy evidence, is keep mind challenges generalizing large over many centuries. As well exhibiting considerable diversity across space, changed substantially time respects. A phase dynastic competition high politics before 1437 gave way near-monopoly control imperial office Habsburgs thereafter. “monistic” government, theoretically coordinated top-down monarchs, developed into “dualistic” conception power which governance via collective institutions. regions, landscape utterly fragmented intertwined jurisdictions held myriad competing actors gradually replaced more clearly centralized territories arranged hierarchically under princely families. Finally, division between Catholics various Protestant confessions course 16th early 17th centuries contributed both calamitous conflict Thirty Years’ War) reshaping constitution manage new confessional configuration 1555 “Religious Profane Peace” Augsburg, 1648 Treaty Osnabrück). long rich tradition regional history (Landesgeschichte) German-speaking lands has enabled these changes studied local central level, recent scholarship made clear perspectives indispensable understanding Empire’s complex structures dynamics.
Renaissance and Reformation