The Face of the âPaganâ: Portraits of Religious Deviance on the Medieval Periphery
A. Beaudoin Perron
After much fruitful work on the institutional history of medieval frontier, scholars interested in interactions between corelands West and its expanding high-medieval peripheries have devoted increasing attention to ways which observers Latin-Christian center perceived edge, how they conceptualized fringe peoples who occupied it.11 For a sample range topics covered approaches taken frontier studies, see essays collected Robert Bartlett Angus MacKay, eds., Medieval Frontier Societies (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989) and, more recently, David Abulafia Nora Berend, Frontiers: Concepts Practices (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002). Among many monograph treatments, classic studies Spain R.I. Burns, The Crusader Kingdom Valencia: Reconstruction Thirteenth-Century Frontier, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University 1967), Middle Ages: From Empire, 1000–1500 (New York: St. Martin's, 1977), as well such excellent books last decade Brendan Smith, Colonisation Conquest Ireland: English Louth, 1170–1330 (Cambridge: Cambridge 1999), At Gate Christendom: Jews, Muslims, “Pagans” Hungary, c. 1000–1300 2001). broad outlines this historiography were established by Bartlett's 1982 essay “The Face Barbarian.”22 Bartlett, Gerald Wales 1146–1223 1982), recently reissued Wales: A Voice Ages (Stroud: Tempus, 2006). I refer here reprinted version. “Face Barbarian” is chapter 6 (131–46). In that piece, asked what individuals Holy Roman France, England saw when looked out at those geographical margins Western world, most notably Iberia, Celtic Britain, Scandinavia, Eastern Europe. conclusion was gazing upon their neighbors, people “barbarians.” Analyzing variety ethnographic texts from late eleventh early thirteenth centuries, including works Adam Bremen, Otto Freising, Helmold Bosau, Gunther Pairis, William Poitiers, (most significantly) Wales, demonstrated contours barbarism remarkably consistent whether subjects Nordic, Slav, Magyar, Welsh, or Irish.33 One might add Iberians too. portrait summarized also applied Basques Navarrese Codex Calixtinus. See Paula Gerson et al., Pilgrim's Guide: Critical Edition (London: Harvey Miller, 1998), 22–32. Though displaying some positive traits, martial prowess, hospitality, lack greed, overwhelmingly unflattering. Barbarians economically deficient virtue being nomadic transhumant, further result had peculiar diets based dairy meat rather than bread wine. They distinguished strange dress, weaponry, family structures. Politically, barbarians similarly wanting, an evaluation swung caricatures anarchy despotism. treacherous, failing keep agreements made with neighbors. Most luridly perhaps, sexually (or least maritally) deviant. discourse identified drew large measure Greco-Roman tradition, though heritage available writers only fragmentary partial manner. Herodotus, Strabo, Tacitus are sources familiar modern audiences, but host ancient turned ethnography occasion, Caesar, Sallust, Ammianus Marcellinus; collectively provided basic stock analytical categories specific stereotypes reprised ethnographers “long twelfth century.”44 (Gerald 144) regarded reinventing genre essentially without influence antiquity. And indeed now classics anthropology, History Herodotus Tacitus's Germania, all unavailable twelfth- thirteenth-century authors; work, for instance, survives single tenth-century manuscript, it not wholly unknown Ages, used directly indirectly Rudolf Fulda Bremen (see Roland Schuhmann, “tamquam oder quamquam: Zu Tacitus, 4 und zur Überlieferung der Germania im Mittelalter,” Glossa 79 (2003): 205–23). As acknowledges, however, tropes would percolated through encyclopedists Pliny Elder, Solinus, Isidore Seville 148). Mommsen's second edition Solinus's Collectanea (Berlin: Weidmann, 1895), lists over fifty manuscripts certainly probably before 1200, while Lindsay's Isidore's Etymologiae Clarendon, 1911) three dozen eighth tenth centuries alone. Common antiquity help account relative homogeneity accounts. What more, notion generated indelibly blood environment helped justify colonial conquest High Ireland, example, German ambitions ideas stimulate body research perceptions Latin periphery.55 frequent point departure later canonical Making Europe: Conquest, Colonization, Cultural Change, 950–1350 (Princeton: Princeton 1993), examines both difference across frontiers (more thoroughly) development framework relations. particularly direction has been closer investigation role race ethnic identities these formulated core projected onto “others,” latter appropriated reformulated own sense self.66 special thematic number Journal Early Modern Studies 31 (2001), especially Thomas Hahn, Difference Makes: Color Race World” (1–38); “Medieval Ethnicity” (39–56); Chester Jordan, “Why Race?” (165–73). make clear, there close connection “corelands” understood “others” within we consider Europe beyond boundaries Christendom. Indeed, surprising too easily overlooked ethnicity “non-Western” first contact Christendom's peripheries. Underappreciated discussion religion Europe's partes remotae, no small because regions themselves nominally fold church. did ignore ecclesiastical matters his internal “barbarians,” focus set biological, social, cultural, economic criteria defining gentes nationes (as put elsewhere, “descent, language, law, customs”)77 Ethnicity,” 47. tended obscure primary means European “estranged” writings center. This article will attempt redress, limits, church affairs aspect “peoples edge.” It argue accounts century dealing periphery reflection encompassing barbarism, tradition paralleled emergence term “ecclesiographic” rhetoric treated alien principally place religious deficiency interpreted specifically “pagan space” need evangelization, even if societies already Christian. clear example designated reference supposed paganism can be found discussions Ireland. Irish subject critical scrutiny side. Malmesbury Newburgh slandered lazy pastoralists.88 132. complete depiction island's culture society, comes whose Topographia Hiberniae considered full-blown ethnography.99 Following opinion 147). Written time Henry II's Ireland unabashedly rationalizing overlordship, treats living land. “Orientalizing” subject, declared that, just East noteworthy “certain wonders unique native it,” so should expect find “their natural marvels” “western peripheries.”1010 Hibernie (Text First Recension), ed. John J. O’Meara, Proceedings Royal Academy 52.C.4 (Dublin: Hodges, Figgis, Co., 1949), 119. text (134–35) where compares prodigia occidentalia ones Orient. Nature's sport included bizarre aspects physical analog oddities human inhabitants. Employing conventions reminiscent ethnography, called things negligent parenting, “uncouth” adornment, unchivalrous warfare, pastoral subsistence, perverse sexuality.1111 criticized neither swaddling nor bathing children (Top. Hib., 162) beards distinctive black-woolen clothing, rendered them “incultos” 162). He noted military methods (including horsemanship, combat, armaments, fortification) closely resembled guerilla tactics 166, 173). Classically, commented furthermore failed follow usual “order race”“a siluis ad agros, ab agris uillas ciuiumque conuictus,” preferring instead remain “‘race forest’ (gens siluestris) … , beasts alone bestial manner,” still herders despite fertility land 163). Regarding sexual practices, dwells length alleged fondness bestiality, lurid manner making kings Kennelcunill, prospective monarch reportedly copulated mare then bathed soup flesh, drinking broth sharing 145–47, 168). savagery result, argued, position (in hiis extremitatibus). “removed normal world certain other separated moderate pleasant peoples,” accident compounded primitivism inherent descent equally peripheral barbarous Basclenses (Basques).1212 On removed civilization, Gerald, Top. 163. Basques, 161. reiterates idea somehow interrelated. See, Calixtinus, printed Edition, vol. 1998). includes scathing Basque peoples, avers “black” descended Scots, Nubians, “Cornish men tails” (Cornubianos caudatos) (30). denies wicked nature, does claim “all become steeped accustomed born raised, embraced nature (alteram naturam).”1313 While utilized capacious spectrum traits classify alien, failings bulked among islanders’ deficiencies. Many claimed, never received baptism proper catechism, flaw blamed “negligence” clergy, preferred monastic solitude care.1414 168. Notwithstanding legacy Patrick, Christians “are very filthy race, enveloped vices.”“Very uncultivated rudiments faith,” do pay tithes, attend “with owed reverence,” refrain incest.1515 165–66. Meanwhile, attach tremendous sacral power bells croziers associated saints, quasi-magical way.1616 171–72. bachalls, Lisa M. Bitel, “Tools Scripts Cursing Ireland,” Memoirs American Rome 51/52 (2006–07), 5–27. Bitel shows, employed same relics, staves seem functioned occasions holy weapons. end, play comparatively minor Gerald's ethnography. least, one accepts assessment whole, profound reform sufficient eradicate barbarism. recitation Ireland's odious religiosity reads less like call change Christianity justification subjection Anglo-Norman lords. implication story tells about visit archbishop Cashel. hearing papal legate mock country confessor-saints lacking “crown martyrdom,” prelate replied “although our exceedingly barbarous, uncivilized, crude, nevertheless always custom show great honor reverence men, occasion strike against saints God. But (gens) arrived into realm able martyrs. Henceforth, martyrs regions.”1717 171. perspective alterity was, century. Another different deviance contained Bernard Clairvaux's Vita Malachy, Archbishop Armagh, written around 1150–1152. developing language ethnography.1818 139. indeed, terminology French abbot concurred “barbarous people” (populo barbaro) “wild race” (gente fera).1919 edited Leclercq H.M. Rochais Sancti Bernardi Opera, 3 (Tractatus opuscula) (Rome: Editiones Cistercienses, 1963). feral, chap. 1 5. Bernard's elaboration precisely constituted prescription done quite distinct Wales. Instead wide political, economic, social apply differentiate “civilized” society English, abbot's narrower features relating matters. Thus, Malachy said “nowhere yet experienced barbarism” Irish, he countrymen “wanton morals, wild rites, impious toward faith, terms laws, obstinate face discipline, foul life.” were, concluded, “Christians name only, heathens fact” (Christiani nomine, re pagani).2020 Bernard, S. Mal., 16. Malachiae, therefore, transformed paganism. deserve here. surely anyone passing acquaintance hear island referred pagan Nor himself ill-informed. aware deep Christianity, past (which acknowledged influential foundation Gallic centers Luxeuil).2121 12. referring pagans, course mean true worshipping gods Christ alongside gods. Rather, diagnosis practice form rigor. Like thus singled failure taxes dearth care country: (They) give tithes fruits, enter lawful marriage, confessions; none could either seek penance. Ministers altar few. laity lazy? not, after all, profit duties worthless people. churches heard preaching chanting.2222 pointed decadence monasticism.2323 13. whereas suggested tied Malachiae explained problems historically. Viking invasions “diabolical ambition powerful men” destroyed glorious past. Ever since then, “church discipline dissolved throughout whole censure weakened, emptied; savage everywhere replaced Christian gentleness; (paganismus quidam), introduced guise Christianity.”2424 12–13, 19. Rome. Phrasing challenge praised hero successfully restored order Forging ties curia monks Clairvaux, “sowed seed holy” “gave law life coarse law.”“You him searing flame consumed thorns crimes, axe hoe cast plants.” saint “tore roots rites [and] planted Church.”2525 6. Ridding “superstitions,” “best lawgiver” “whatever disorderly, dishonorable, twisted,” “heavenly laws” (iura caelestia), “laws full righteousness, modesty, honor,” meaning “the apostolic sanctions decrees fathers, customs church.”2626 7. “Barbaric laws,” reiterated “were away, introduced. Ecclesiastical accepted everywhere, contrary rejected.”2727 17. prior duritia (“obstinacy”) gave way; barbaries came halt “reproof” (correptionem) disciplinam. contrast Topographia, prescribed imperial remedy backwardness, approach calls transformation within. Diarmuid Scully noted, “second Patrick” re-enacted conversion needs stressed particular explicitly degenerate perspective) labeled reformed “law church.”2828 Scully, “Ireland Life Malachy: Representation Context,” Twelfth Century: Reform Renewal, Damian Bracken Dagmar Ó Riain-Raedel Four Courts 2006), 255–56. took pains institute sacramental practice, reason sought counsel Bishop Malchus Waterford, trained abroad Winchester presumably knew better “ritus universalis ecclesiae.”2929 8. When handpicked successor Celsus metropolitan candidacy supported another foreign ties, Gilbert, famous reforming bishop Limerick author treatise De statu ecclesiae, served see. Significantly, Malachy's acts plan trip fetch pallium, woolen band worn bishops sign tie papacy3030 A.S. Popek, Rights Obligations Metropolitans (Washington: Catholic America 1947), 71–72, 298–300. (thus far absent Ireland), pope, authority seemed nothing “safely (tute) action.”3131 33. Rome, missionary saint's limina sanctorum century, Boniface, toured sites city met Pope Innocent II, conditions apparently exotic curia. Upon sending back, pope demanded hold “general council” preparation formal petition pallium.3232 38. According “mores gentis, statum ecclesiarum, quanta terra Deus per eum (sc. Malachy) operatus fuisset.” attributed revival synodal activity country, having abandoned previously “priestly neglect” (negligentia sacerdotum).3333 42. Having held synod (at Inis Pádraig), died Clairvaux en route present retrieve pallium. out, gives short shrift earlier reformers Both Maol Muire O Doonan, Cashel, Gilbert councils 1101 1111, respectively) agents. Watt, Church 2nd College Dublin 10–12. Naturally, top-down Romanizing reforms Boniface him, welcomed openly resisted populist “wandering bishop” named Nigel, rested link possession revered objects allegedly stole staff adorned gold jewels supposedly touched Jesus.3434 22–25. differs offered up anthropological approach, common ground. notably, ultimate (if immediate) rhetorical wellsprings treatment lie literature. proselytizing, goal achieved largely agency elites cooperating To understand otherwise estimation “pagans,” briefly key evangelical tradition. Those tasked spreading gospel along simply concerned converting perhaps more) ensuring populations remained untainted old ways, stayed “correct,” standard defined narrowly faith broadly rite morals. danger presented (and to) thought acceptable non-Christian fifth Augustine rudibus catechizandis. treatise, Hippo warned new converts followed truly salvific life. Some “drunkards, greedy, cheaters, dice-players, adulterers, fornicators, fans public games.”3535 Augustine, catechizandis rudibus, I.B. Bauer, Corpus Christianorum, Series latina 46 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1969), 7.11. exactly pagan, people, actions, merely Christians,” norms conduct faithful.3636 7.11 25.48. 570s, (Pannonian-born) Iberian Martin Braga Augustine's catechetical correctione rusticorum. Aiming audience bookish Augustine's, Braga's attitude behavior. Martin's bigger threat, J.N. Hillgarth rural hew pre-Christian sensibilities, “pagani” evolve faithful, “Occasional Conformists.”3737 Hillgarth, “Popular Religion Visigothic Spain,” Spain: New Approaches, Edward James 1980), 3–60. pagans Conformists,” 50. may little way overt organized paganism, abounded must learned Romano-Iberian churchmen rank undergrowth wayward religiosities, unlettered traces folk belief. rusticorum, tapping rigorist strain espoused generation Caesarius Arles, attacked heathenism convert “straighten out” ignorant baptized grasp “pact God” implied mere acceptance belief.3838 Br
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