The Sexual Shame of the Chaste: ‘Abortion Miracles’ in Early Medieval Saints’ Lives
Zubin Mistry
In the early Middle Ages, gender distinctions commonly expressed ideas of polarity and hierarchy. one widely circulated Latin etymology, man (vir) derived from strength (virtus) woman (mulier) softness (mollities). Virtus mollities denoted moral as much physical difference; notable source for commonplace emphasised, this difference justified subjection to man.1 But history medieval is not straightforwardly story a stable system polarity, hierarchy subjugation. Gender was amenable varying ends interacted with different political, social religious impulses. Some historians have drawn attention complexity by identifying distinct groups which did conform conventional roles, late Roman Byzantine court eunuchs thirteenth-century dowagers, third genders.2 Like recent work on masculinities, interest in putative genders gauge historians’ evolving study use ways increasingly sharpen distinction between women's history.3 The interaction religion thought practice has also been rich, if still developing, forum here, too, identified genders. For Jo Ann McNamara argued that ‘monastic theorists tended conceptualize gender, apart two sexually active genders’. This enacted ‘spiritual parity’ endure beyond earlier centuries monasticism.4 If all found it germane see clergy or way, because lack critical religion. Ruth Mazo Karras seen fit apply Ockham's razor, arguing ‘genders should be multiplied necessity’ her own analysis distinctiveness post-Gregorian clerical masculinity.5 Whether monks, nuns and, more complicatedly, clerics constituted ideologies practicalities governing life distinguished them laity. Their lives were defined, part, mundane celestial possibilities opened up profession, routes men women took towards goal. memory what these relinquished entirely forgotten delineation their new roles permutations varied expression. Anglo-Saxon monastic theorist Aldhelm (c.639–709), example, partook, Emma Pettit's words, ‘shared invisible spiritual identity heavily indebted masculinity’. Monks alike enjoined contend ‘manfully’ (viriliter) battle against vices. visible dimensions life, however, dress demeanour, retained clear distinctions, transition entailed dramatic break than women.6 Elsewhere, hagiographers drew models sanctity characterising female transcending through virile asceticism transformation spiritualised motherhood. Often, Simon Coates shown his vitae sixth-century abbess Radegund Poitiers, blended elements models.7 Across diversity (and modern interpretations), chastity crucial sign distinction. fragile, an ‘unstable condition easily lost among pitfalls world’.8 From Christianity onwards, sexual lapses rude reminders individuals communities orientation sought reconfigure. When, century, Tertullian critiqued emergent custom Carthage virgins who had renounced marriage stand unveiled church, he noted acerbically after uncovering heads many ended covering bellies shame resorting abortion prevent public disclosure sin.9 punitive retribution remedy penance, responses such endeavoured recover communal experience contain turbulence sin chaste. article focuses questions examining unusual ‘abortion miracle’ motif hagiography Ireland. It Brigit Kildare male saints, Áed mac Bricc Cainnech Aghaboe: saint encounters nun breached vow become pregnant but, saint's intervention, pregnancy miraculously disappears. thoroughly scrutinised other episodes Irish hagiography. David Herlihy situated miracle interplay native paganism nascent Christianisation. Herlihy, stories glistened ‘aura archaism’ ‘strange, occasionally savage world, largely influenced traditional heathen customs, only slightly touched crude Christianity’.10 Other readings focused attitudes women. Noting place, commonly, then at least often enough appear without comment both secular ecclesiastical sources’, Lisa Bitel suggested miracles reflect ‘blasé attitude toward abortion’.11 Most recently, Maeve Callan hagiographic depictions ‘abortionist saints’, virginal restoration birth saints incestuous illegitimate unions ‘reflect remarkably permissive … traditionally taboo acts’, shared some prescriptive texts. provided gendered reading handling reproduction: incursions into reproductive matters, like those Cainnech, failed attempts appropriate control zone labour, turned needs, texts, explicitly refer abortionists, ‘represent morality “ordinary” Christians’.12 While readings, especially Callan's, are interest, question how erasure nun's could represented mark saintly fully explored. paper will approach lying heart light juncture religion, namely promotion protection chastity. saints’ emerged seventh eighth centuries, three famous fourth sixth can placed: Patrick, Columba Brigit. Brigidine Cogitosus (Cog.), monk Kildare, so-called Vita Prima (VP), earns its name order Bollandists’ edition Acta Sanctorum. Bollandists believed oldest vita, matter debated scholars. These works each distinctively continental hagiography, scripture, apocrypha create narratives Christian designed resonate milieus.13 Hereafter, picture becomes complicated following summary leans simplification. subsequent subjects, together redactions older vitae, produced around ninth Old Irish. Beyond earliest works, survived later compilations thirteenth Richard Sharpe called Dublin, Salamanca Oxford manuscripts fundamental principal editions draw differently compilations: Charles Plummer edited Dublin unique ones) while William W. Heist vitae.14 including intriguing differences motif. Sharpe's established that, whereas compiler manuscript amended material, codex conservative compiler. Thus Heist's edition) appears counterparts Plummer's edition). Further, within former, nine ten O'Donohue group, named scribal annotation, represent original collection pre-dates compilation codex. group preserved codex, argues, plausibly dated c.800.15 yields tentative working chronology emergence recycling dissipation. probably originated (or exemplar) century; adapted perhaps subsequently excised lives. (c.452/6–524/6/8), founder influential monastery pre-eminent saints.16 nineteenth became entwined goddess confluence scholarly trends popular receptions. appealed interested excavating mythologies putatively matriarchal prehistory exhuming personas whom energies nationalist coalesce.17 She endures icon feminist spirituality neo-paganism, epitomised Mary Condren's engaging but methodologically problematic history.18 Brigit's enduring popularity demonstrates convergence divergence thought. As Christina Harrington put it, ‘in very few areas scholarship so people's daily – Victorian scholarship, contemporary work’.19 Over course second half twentieth scholars relocated almost sources previously understood layers pre-Christian traditions cultural dynamics Christianising Ireland.20 Scholars sometimes goddess-saint connection illuminate vitae; focus shifted, entirely, forms, purposes contexts distinctly genre, hagiographical away fifth goddess. emerged, then, texts vested shaping past present. include Cogitosus's vita Prima. precise origin unclear no comparable survives literature.21 reasonably c.680, Prima, pre-date composed c.800, now-lost uncertain.22 With faith most powerful ineffable, she faithfully blessed who, integrity, fallen youthful concupiscence, whose womb now swelling pregnancy: conception disappeared, childbirth pain restored healthy penitence.25 On another occasion, God, Saint woman: when penitence. healed gave thanks God.26 different, first, terms politico-religious subtext. Whereas staking claim Kildare's pre-eminence pilgrimage site, written absence relics located activity across landscape Ireland, possibly context changing political situation increased tension Patrician Armagh north.27 Second, Brigits differed detail emphasis. Brigit, ‘whom God foreknew predestined according image’, marked precocious childhood.28 When parents desired marry off ‘according world’, approached bishop Mac Caille, ‘inspired above wanting devote herself chaste virgin God’. Struck ‘love chastity’, placed white veil over head. wood altar consecration, noted, visited pilgrims seeking relief afflictions.29 Though number ‘folkloric’ wrought standards, nonetheless, Bitel's ‘holy stereotypical virtues might Gaul Rome virtuous, tireless humble point seeming passivity’.30 devoted father brothers began pressurising marrying, prayed deformity stave suitors, whereupon eyes burst.31 But, unusually, peripatetic evocative heroic traditions, depiction commitment coloured distinctive traits. Her druid prophesied future eminence upon encountering mother, slave-girl Broicsech, father, Broicsech's master Dubthach.32 attracted fellow wanderings north territories orbit Patrick disciples.33 visit, resolved paternity dispute. A council bishops adjudicating professed alleged given child Patrick's followers. entrusted initially reluctant ascertaining truth. Disbelieving woman's account, cross mouth, causing head tongue swell up, infant's before asking him was. infant disclosed accused bishop's innocence revealed ‘certain sitting furthest end council-hall’; repented.34 ascetic transcended holy visionary recognised encounter, ‘type Mary’, symbolic mother.35 day, making journey, came place Druimard received great joy hospitality. gazing serving him, saw carrying child. Immediately stood [eating] food take flight place. Then confessed secretly sinned penance. And womb, immediately disappeared exist.39 certain living close fornicated, swelled asked bless illness. her, showing.40 Where authors obtained certain. Aidi contains vitae: foretelling bears comparisons recovered brooch finds parallel aid king's gold silver ornament.41 seems likely source. author Cainnech's may Aidi. Máire Herbert basis paralleled motifs episode comes rescuing sister abducted king.42 plausible, conscious switch saint, Cainnechi saint. After returned girl, conceived womb. stirred zeal justice, serpent's seed come alive, belly made empty.44 quite there. Dimma abduct Bruinech once again dropped dead sight him. Through prayers, Ciarán revived feud saved son fire. finally repented consecrated sons Ciarán. Ciarán's puts sharper relief. miracle, Bruinech's body became, Callan's ‘battlefield war waged authority [and] little site man's effacement another's virility’.45 same concern underline authority. Ideas condensed words recur versions: (tumescere) beginning show disappearance evanescence (evanescere) brought about blessing (benedicere). too. Unlike distanced matters. Áed's case, enigmatic response realising pregnant, dramatically leaving table, hints sense pollution confession community. penitential theme absent. brooch, something inadvertent there even whisper deception: altogether knew doing.46 condense reproduction status, typify wrest greater ideological reproduction.47 understanding significance motif, miraculous, gravitates sense. must first navigate potentially distorting effect motif's fate hands redactors editors. evidently scandalised nineteenth-century Catholics. Migne's Patrologia Latina, read preceding water ale lepers, allusion Christ's Cana, one, turning stone salt poor request. nowhere seen: miraculous undoing lapse sufficiently unsettling elliptical trace.48 Similarly, John O'Hanlon's ten-volume Lives Saints published 1875 synthesised multiple single narratives. explicit preface, syntheses excluded ‘no statement importance, judged consistent sound morals doctrine, edification’. Less explicitly, consonant aim excised, motif.49 compilers complicated, though here too detect editorial adjustments. redaction Aidi, spiritual, physical, consequences sin: ‘realised sin. aware learned sin, guilt front all, penance’.50 completely Plummer.51 Curiously, case Ciarán, moment disburdened closer candid versions miracles: ‘The seeing [Bruinech's] child, cross, stomach shrank, disappeared’.52 based Sharpe, omitted editor sensitive ‘passages remotely scandalous nature’. Perhaps scenario caused offence hint abortion: involvement dispute referred simply rather (virgo). Additionally, copies story.53 adjustments impulses underlie make tempting they, us, seem tolerant ought remembered edition. Not readers necessarily what, we presume, anxious editors did. suggest needs historicised terms. Sean Connolly implied writing ‘delightful naïveté’, realise they representing.54 fact, included diverse subtexts, suggesting edifying Dorothy Bray ‘possibility [early Irish] lesson offer frequently overlooked dismissed’.55 Hagiographers crafted ‘ecclesiastical public’ frequently, exclusively, receptive layered meanings.56 Saints’ were, ‘liturgical drama[s]’, out accompanying ritual feast days, invited audiences ‘learn example led piously, meditate journey catch thematic links, conceive deeper meaning events occurred receive encoded messages’.57 ‘moral lesson’ concerned reconciliation healing implication, communities, disruption context, fornication affliction lapsed ‘healthy’, medicine To audience encountered concerning expiation reintegration communities.58 rightly possibility virginity Here, importance Ireland broader penance significant.59 mid- Penitential Finnian, surviving penitentials handbooks confession, held vowed alike. canon infanticide, half-year any ‘woman destroyed someone's maleficium’ (a term connects magic poisoning), ‘sin manifest’. six years would ‘joined altar, say restore crown robe declared virgin’. Likewise, cleric fathered regain office year. Produced setting, viewed lens visibility. treated publicly stringently remained hidden.60 played intelligibility recourse conceal stressed dimension publicised Moreover, well familiar stricter rulings abortion. Collectio canonum Hibernensis, important law century proliferated continent, addressed section religious, lay, reiterated patristic conciliar left remedial open broached less mitigated consideration instance, quotation Jerome's letter Eustochium rebuked drank potions died process: triply damned ‘suicides, adulterers Christ parricides unborn children’.61 familiarity further, albeit later, support bear mind indeed, continent. Carolingian reader consulted containing whole able Halitgar Cambrai's penitential, incorporated condemnations singling ‘apothecary, female, [that is] killers children’.62 Hagiographic disciplined awareness entail, physically morally, recognised. want ‘serpent's alive’, rhetorically manipulation, disregard, emerging strictures calibrated penances varyingly defined stages fetal development.63 deliberately described not, deny conveying stake keeping secret. recognise understandings, avoid parturition rendered premature bloody flux miscarriage. One continent drawing stage ‘destruction liquid infant’.64 graphic visualisation seventh-century Spain. replying priest troubled problem whether blood splattered scourging resurrection, Braulio Saragossa unpleasant superfluities menstrual blood, semen miscarriage defuse concerns. ‘Why believed’, asked, ‘that human perishes humour generation (aborsus), resurrection either parent, indeed speak disgusting fluid inanimate foetus poured forth?’65 By speaking uterine evanescence, emptied vanished never been, elaborating euphemism abortion, carefully describing means. What truly erased, enters avoids bloody, impetus behind this, ‘pagan’ fossilised text lay symbolism regulae rules survived, connotations allowed hardly overstated. Many used uglier toils marriage, sexuality childbearing beauty virginity. Leander Seville counted ‘weight womb’ mortality ‘function fruit perish’ ‘primary dangers’ regula Florentina.66 poem virginity, Venantius Fortunatus wrote virgins, ‘stiffening does press down fetus shut within’ kind prenatal depression.67 implicit inscribed ‘without pain’. subtle collaboration absent Cainnech; significantly, notes, spares VP's version, ‘gave God’, evocation perspective.68 ‘childbirth pain’ weight, referring curse Genesis 3: 16 committed Eve descendants symbol sin.69 averted painful unwanted having allow transcend altogether, avoidance certainly transformed gender. Sexual threatened reversion back transformation: risked lapsing world behind. sinning remain unprofessed counterpart aftermath remedied allowing degradation Paradoxically, transform breached. I am grateful participants colloquium discussion; anonymous reviewer comments; Katherine Cross article.
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