The Great Tenth Century
The tenth century was a period of great artistic invention, most evidently in the Byzantine Empire under Constantine Porphyrogenitus (r. 913-959), but also ‛Abbāsid Samarra, Fatimid Cairo, Ottonian Trier, and Umayyad Córdoba. Each these dynastic kingdoms looked to Byzantium for enrichment their own visual cultures, all had direct dealings with Constantinople through envoys, trade or marriage. caliphs Córdoba drew on technical expertise often attributed fine work craftsmen, even when it executed by local artists. Christian north peninsula gazed towards Byzantium, knowledge mainly acquired prism Such manifold layered references architecture have led considerable academic entanglement. On other side Pyrenees, Carolingian France did not share fully this cultural milieu may experienced relative decline disintegration at end ninth century. Iberian preferred look south instead north, relations between them al-Andalus fluctuated across first years saw reign King Alfonso III Asturias that Emir ‛Abd Allah al-Andalus. Whilst sons Asturian king were without military success, al-Rahmān 912-961) made more rapid progress, 929 he position declare himself Caliph, challenge ‘Abbāsids Syria Fatimids Egypt. Ramiro II León 931- 951) brought some success notably battle Simancas (939). This enabled him, along counts Castile Pamplona, sign peace treaty 941. II's successors weaker, however, time died twenty later, León, Castile, Pamplona client states increased number professional slave soldiers his army (Saqā-liba), policy helped him extend control into North Africa, conquest Ceuta 931 set alliances Zanāta western Maghrib former governor Fez.