Gertrude's tonsure: an examination of hair as a symbol of gender, family and authority in the seventh-century<i>Vita</i>of Gertrude of Nivelles
Susan W. Wade
Abstract Using the seventh-century Vita of Gertrude Nivelles, this paper examines story Gertrude's tonsure in connection with Frankish attitudes about hair-cutting, family, gender and authority. The is unique hagiography early medieval Western female saints. was inspired by many examples renunciation hair-cutting including Bible, Patristic writing, Germanic practices myths. However, if considered light distinctly beliefs relationship hair, family lineage inheritance, mother Itta appears to have used male symbol monastic as a method protecting inheritance for foundation monastery Nivelles. As saved girl from forced marriage, Itta's actions tonsuring her daughter paradoxically re-emphasised meaning royal men voluntary monks within society. Keywords: Nivellesfemale tonsureearly women religioushair hair-cuttingFrankish societyearly monasticism Acknowledgements I am indebted American Association University Women generous summer publication grant that helped support my work finishing article. would like thank Jane Schulenburg, Katherine A. Smith Jill N. Claster their carefully critiques earlier drafts paper. also express deep gratitude on-going encouragement received mentor friend, Penelope D. Johnson, whose critical assessments been, continue be, invaluable. Any errors text are own. Notes 1 following abbreviations paper: MGH: Monumenta Germaniae Historica; PL: Patrologiae cursus completus series Latina; SRM: Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum. ‘Ut non violatores animarum filiam suam ad inlecebras huius mundi voluptates per vim raperent, ferrum tonsoris arripuit et capillos sanctae puellae instar coronae abscisit.’ B. Krusch, ed., Geretrudis virginis, Fredegarii aliorum Chronica, Vitae sanctorum, ed. Krusch. MGH SRM 2 (Hanover: Hahn, 1888), 453–64. Krusch identified edited two nearly contemporary versions earliest Vita, which he titled A B; unless otherwise indicated, citations refer A, slightly older than written before 700, possibly around 670. See J.J. Hoebanx, L'abbaye de Nivelles dés origines au XIVe siècle (Brussels: Palais des Académies, 1951), 25–30. Schulenburg writes, be singular European saints: J. Forgetful Their Sex: Female Sanctity Society ca.500–1100 (Chicago: Chicago Press, 1998), 155–66. 3 According Edward James, seventh century classic Roman ‘corona’ norm Gaul: E. ‘Bede Tonsure Question’, Pertitia (1984): 85–98 (96). 4 Palladius, Lausiac History, trans. Robert T. Meyer. Ancient Christian Writers Series 34 (New York: Paulist 1964), 97. 5 Paul states it shameful pray heads covered uncovered. does suggest who refuse wear veil should shave heads; however, immediately insists shaving head act (1 Cor. 11:3–6). 6 In his letter Eustochium, ‘On Virgin's Profession’, Jerome discusses young try attract attention they walk streets quotation, ‘Thou hast whore's forehead.’ F.A. Wright, trans., Letters (Cambridge, MA: Harvard 1933), 81. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, ‘Word, Spirit Power: Early Communties’, Spirit: Leadership Jewish Traditions, Rosemary Ruether Eleanor McLaughlin Simon Schuster, 1979), 44–51. 7 ‘The Acts Paul’, Apocryphal New Testament, Montague Rhodes James (Oxford: Clarendon 1924), 277. 8 Jerome, 117. 9 Throughout Letter how ‘false virgins’ might still appear virginal dress hairstyle. Additionally, Laeta outlining virgin Paula's education, relates Praetextata, altered waved hair Eustochia order make more beautiful potential suitors. During night, Praetextata visited vision Christ, threatened punishment, saying, ‘Have you presumed lay sacrilegious hands upon God's virgin?’ – again suggesting professed could not same manner typical girl. 351. 10 Self-tonsure among probably marked transition ‘eunuchs God’. Sex, 156. 11 Caesarius Arles, Regula sanctarum virginum aliaque opuscula sanctimoniales directa, Germanus Morin. Florilegium patristicum tam veteris quam medii aevi auctores complectens (Bonn: P. Hanstein, 1933). 12 One example Middle Ages found life Ermelinde, cut off an effort forestall marriage; cutting Ermelinde successfully deformed herself making ‘physically unacceptable’ marriage. S. Ermelindis Acta Sanctorum. Octobris XII, Oct. 29, eds. Van Hecke others Petrum Joannem Vander Plassche, 1867), 849; Papula, Gregory Tours, Liber gloria confessorum, Miracula opera minora, 1, fasc. 1885), 756–7. 13 For Eugenia, Sanctae Eugeniae, virginis ac martyris, J.-P. Migne. PL 21 (Paris: Garnier Fratres, Editories Migne Successores, 1878), cols. 1105–22.The phenomenon holy dressing common hagiographic traditions Eastern Church often associated redemption prostitutes, legends Pelagia Antioch Mary Egypt. This tradition suggests loss visual attributes biologically purification unrestrained sexuality. Pelagia, see Deacon others, Pelagiae, 73 Migne, 1879), 663–72A; Mary, Sophronius, Mariae Aegypticaie, meretricis, 73, 671–90B. Evelyne Patalagean, ‘L'histoire la femme déguisée en moine l’évolution sainteté féminine à Byzance', Studi Medievali 3rd series, 17 (1976): 597–623 (609). 14 Conrad Leyser suggests, Thecla's been model tonsure; seems likely daughter's were influenced cultural assumptions prevalent Merovingian Leyser, ‘Long-Haired Kings Short-Haired Nuns: Power Gender Gaul’, Medieval World (March–April 1992): 37–42. 15 Hoebanx Irish monk living at Nivelles: 30–1. establishment double house occurred several stages; abbey dated sometime between 648 649, Fosses created refuge St Feuillen 651. Additamentum Nivialense Fuilano, Passiones vitaeque sanctorum Merovingici, 1902), 449–50: ‘Quo multo post patricio viros peregrinos despiciente expulsi sunt, sed religiosissima Dei famula Idobergane cognominae Itane eiusque filia sacra Christi virgine Garetrude honorifice suscepti ipso etiam Grimaldo praeside eisdem sanctis congratulante viris atque villa, quae ex nomine fluminis decurrentis nuncupatur Bebrona, ordinate monasterium religiosorum construxit monachorum, predicta cuncta necessaria ministrante.’ Dierkens, ‘Saint Amand fondation l'abbaye Nivelles’, Revue du Nord 68 (1986): 325–34 (331). describes Dierkens 656–7. 16 Catherine Peyroux, ‘Gertrude's Furor: Reading Anger Saint's Life’, Anger's Past: Social Use Emotion Ages, Barbara Rosenwein (Ithaca: Cornell 39. Geretrudis. 2, 456. 18 614, Clothar II ordered capital punishment abducted forcibly married religious; practice abducting monasteries continued, Council Clichy excommunication abductors religious 626. By end century, growth prompted kings ‘take all under protection’. Suzanne Fonay Wemple, Society: Marriage Cloister 500–900 (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania 1981), 158. 19 While after Grimoald's attempted coup death, makes no references involvement or decisions regarding governance Nivialiense played major role Fosses' foundation. Regine le Jan has suggested, founding opposition wealthy powerful neighbours concerned increasing power family. Régine Jan, ‘Convents, Violence, Competition Francia’, Topographies Frans Theuws, Mayke De Jong Carine van Rhijn (Boston: Brill, 2001): 244–69 (248). 20 ‘[E]t nepotam secus pedes eius cunabulis sub regulae normam sacris litteris inbutam nutritam Vulfetrude vice sua coactam gregem regere Dei, pauperibus ministrare constituit.’ 460. ‘Sans doute, reste-t-elle fidèle une règle mixte, colombano-bénédictine jusqu'au VIII siècle’: 22 ‘Neben der Columbani sind die Donati und cuiusdam wichtigsten inhaltlichen Quellen zum Iro-Frankischen Klosterwesen.’ Diem, ‘Das Ende monastischen Experiments: Liebe, Beichte Schweigen virgines’, religiosa Between Late Antiquity High Ages: Structures, Developments Spatial Contexts, Gert Melville Anne Müller (Münster: LIT-Verlag, 2011): 81–136 (87). 23 Donatus, virgines, 87 1863), col. 296, Chapter 74: ‘Caveatur omnino ne qualibet occasione praesumat altera aliam defendere sororem monasteria aut quasi tueri, si consanguinitatis propinquitate iungatur.’ Benedictine Rule, 69, monasterio alter alterum defendere’, Benedicti Regula, Rudolph Hanslik. Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum 27. 2nd edn. (Vienna: Holder-Pichler-Tempsky, 1977), 174. 24 cuiusdam. 88 1850), 1070, 23: ‘Defendere proximam vel consanguineam monasterio, nullo modo permitti censemus … Et veritate crucifixit mundo iam Christo vivit cur facinoribus labentes pro familiaritate defendat?’ 25 ‘Rewriting Benedict: virgines Intertextuality Tool Construct Monastic Identity’, Journal Latin (2007): 313–28 (320). 26 anonymous historiae Francorum, 316, Dagobert's removal Grimoald: ‘Decedente vero tempore, defuncto Sighiberto rege, Grimoaldus filium parvolum Daygobertum totundit Didonemque Pectavensem urbis episcopum Socia peregrinandum eum direxit, suum regno constituens.’ chronologies Childebert's reign death well established, dating 656 662. Rosamund McKitterick, Kingdoms Under Carolingians Longman, 1983), 25–6. 27 discussion coup, Ian Wood, (Harlow: 1994), 222. 28 460: ‘[E]x odio paterno, ut reges, reginae, sacerdotes invidiam diabuli illam suo loco primum suasionem, postmodum vellent trahere, res quibus benedicta puella praeerat, iniquiter possiderent.’ 63. 29 ‘Sed Domini misericordia orationibus protecta, omnibus suis adversariis Christus, cui se ancillam devovit, miro restitit, ita ei Deus gratiam contulit, qui antea cupiditatem raptores accusatores fuerunt postea largitate beneficiis extiterunt defensores.’ Wulftrude being noble ancient family: antiquo Franquorum genere claro ipsa edita fuit’: 30 Nuns’, 40. 31 56: ‘Capita numquam altiori ligent, hoc mensura encausto fecimus.’ virginum, Morin, 19. 32 87, 293C: nunquam altiora ligentur, nisi quomodo mensuram incausto 33 Based on reading Byzantine author Agathias' observance royalty, Averil Cameron ‘while never all, subjects only had cut, but actually forbidden grow beyond certain length.’ Cameron, ‘How Did Wear Hair?’, Belge Philologie d'Histoire 43 (1964): 1203–16 (1213). ‘Merovingian Kings’, 1214. 35 When referring Pactus uses single compiled notations variations Karl August Eckhardt, legis Salicae. MGH, Leges nationum Germanicarum 4, part 1962). Eckhardt's edition includes range manuscript redactions Pactus, A–C. Eckhardt A1 oldest version, Clovis. include law; fines child's without permission do until A3, later redaction code, latter sixth century. 36 Salicae, 89–90: ‘Si quis puerum crinitum ingenuum sine consilio parentum suorum totunderit, fuerit adprobatum, mallobergo uuerdade MDCCC denarios faciunt solidos XLV culpabilis iudicetur’; ingenuam puellam totunderit theuischada iudicetur.’ 37 little list penalties aimed controlling feuds. Patrick Geary although codification concerns, laws ‘pure custom’, product long influence tribes. Geary, Before France Germany Oxford 1988), 91. 38 Maximilian Diesenberger, ‘Hair, Sacrality Symbolic Capital Kingdoms’, Construction Communities Richard Corradini, Max Diesenberger Helmut Reimitz 2003), 175–212 (185). 39 Deacon, Historia Langobardorum, L. Bethmann G. Waitz. Langobardicarum Italicarum, Saec. VI–IX 183: ‘Circa haec tempora Carolus princeps Francorum Pipinum Luidprandum iuxta morem capillum suscipere; caesariem incidens, pater effectus est multisque ditatum regis muneribus genitori remisit.’ 40 points reforms Louis Pious penalising boys veiling girls, problem existed much ‘relationship spiritual communities fixed’, particularly understanding rights oblates inherit. Capital’, 186. 41 ‘[Q]uod mater filius Chlodomeris, quos supra memoravimus, unico affectu diligeret.’ Libri historiarum X, W. Lewison. 1901), 118. History Franks, Lewis Thorpe (London: Penguin 1974), 42 Childebert sent Lothar message warning Clotild's intentions suggested plans action; either give haircuts reduce them status ordinary citizens simply kill take territory. ‘Mater nostra fratris nostri secum retinet vult eos donari; debes velociter adesse Parisius, habito communi consilio, pertractare oportet, quid fieri debeat, utrum incisa caesariae reliqua plebs habeantur, certe interfectis regnum germani inter nosmet ipsus aequalitate habita dividatur. Ibid.’ ‘Tunc Childeberthus Chlothacharius miserunt Archadium, meminimus, reginam cum forcipe evaginatoque gladio. Qui veniens, ostendit reginae utraque, dicens: “Voluntatem tuam, o gloriosissima regina, fili tui domini expetunt, pueris agendum censeas, incisis crinibus vivere iubeas, utrumque iugulare.”’ 44 1211. 45 noted Chlodovald wish earthly things, remained priest days understood save life. 119: ‘Tertim Chlodovaldum conpraehendere potuerunt, quia auxilium virorum fortium liberatus est. His postpositum terrenum, Dominum transiit, sibi manu propria incidens clericus factus est, bonisque operibus insistens, presbiter ab migravit.’ 46 Gregory's language describing event emotional perhaps even hyperbolic. examination depiction murder Clotilde's grandsons, concludes decision connected importance honour: ‘the hairstyle Merovingians represented symbolic family.’ 196. 47 Anon., 317. ‘Ebroinum totundunt eumque Luxovio Burgundia dirigunt.’ 48 SRM, 318: ‘Ebroinus capillis crescere sinens, congregates sociis, hostiliter caenubio egressus, Francia revertitur armorum apparatus.’ J.M. Wallace Hadrill, Chronicle Fredager Thomas Nelson Sons, 1960), 81, paints Ebroin ‘oppressive’ ‘deceitful’ leader. 49 212. 50 K.A. Salicae: capitula legi Salicae addita. Legum 1969), 260, CIV code: ‘De muliere caesa excapillata, 1. Si mulierem excapillaurit, obbonis terram cadat, XV iudicetur; 2. uero uittam soluerit, capilli scapulam tangant, XXX 3. servus percusserit excapillauerit, manum perdat V reddat; 4. pregnantem uentre renis pugno calce pecus excutiat illa propter grauata usque mortem, CC 5. pecut mortuum excusserit euaserit, DC 6. mulier propterea mortua fuerit, DCCCC 7. mulier, aliqua causa uerbum missa MCC 8. infans excutetur, MMCCCC conponat.’ Fisher Drew translates having haircut, considering verb caedo means strike down, offences contained title causing woman's passage injured killed. Laws Salian 1991), 147. 51 501. 52 Poitiers followed rule thus these wore tied up veils. 507: ‘Spoliato denudata discissa abbatissa, graviter ridiculum ducta tracta compita retrusa, etsi ligata, libera.’ 53 M.E. Moore, Sacred Kingdom: Bishops Rise Kingship: 300–800 (Washington: Catholic Press America, 2011), 54 386: ‘Urscinus Cadurcinsis episcopus excommunicatur, eo quod Gundovaldum excipisse publice confessus, accepto huiusmodi placito, paenitentiam tribus annis agens, neque barbam tonderit, vino carnibus absteniret, missas celebrare, ordinare aeclesiasque crisma benedicere, eulogias dare paenitus auderet, utilitas tamen aeclesiae ordinationem, sicut solita erat, exerceretur.’ 55 Diem identifies rules Aurelian, Ferreolus, Tarnatensis patrium tertium influential monachorum Columban. development use sixth-century Francia, Albrecht Das monastische Experiment. Die Rolle Keuschheit bei Entstehung westlichen Klosterwesens Lit, 2005), 203. 56 Bishop 545–51, Aurelian founded Saints-Apôtres 547 and, according Adalbert Vogüé, Aurelian's drew heavily Caesarius. Caesarius's rule, recruits promised ‘persevere death’; Vogüé notes direction deviation Caesarius: Histoire littéraire movement monastique dans l'antiquité. Part Vol. 9, Le monachisme latin. Cesaire d'Arles Gregoire Tours (525–590) Éditions Cerf, 2004), 158–60. 57 adds Ananias wife Sapphira tempted retain personal property tonsured. made offering Apostles held some back own use. Peter confronted deception ‘fell down dead’. Acts, 5:1–5. monachos, 1866), 389: IV. laicus tonsurandus illius confessione mittatur, testimonio sit. Quod tonsuratus, habitu religioso venerit, excipiatur, superius diximus, chartas proprium saeculo habuerat, faciat; nihil reservet alienet; id exhibuerit, omnia potestatem tradat abbatis, timens exemplum Ananiae Saphirae partem obtulerunt, infideliter reservaverunt.’ 58 Experiment, 59 68, 385–6: repudiates saeculi voluptatibus temporalibus gaudiis contemptis simul spretis, eligeretis sanctissimae vitae nirorem, virginitatis castitatis complectentes amorum tota viscerum cordis aviditate sectantes.’ 60 Jacqueline Murray argues beards ‘heat’ ‘outward sign man's abandonment sex gender’: Murray, ‘One Flesh, Two Sexes, Three Genders?’, Identity Europe: Perspectives, Lisa Bitel Felice Lifshitz Philadelphia 2008), 34–51 (44). 61 ‘[A]dhuc servantes fidem, mentiri Deo tonsuram noscuntur’: Hanslik, (1: 7–8). 62 6): ‘Tertium teterrimum genus sarabaitarum, nulla regula adprobati experientia magistra aurum fornacis, plumbi natura molliti.’ 63 Lynda Coon, Dark Age Bodies: Practice West 77. 64 Columban instruction houses Cassian desert fathers, mainly ascetic devotion. Columbanian Rule ‘Monachis, mundus cruxifixus ipsi cupiditas cavenda nimirum dum solum superflua habere damnabile velle. Quorum census voluntas quaeritur; relinquentes omnia, Christum dominum timoris cruce cottidiani sequentes, caelis habent thesauros.’ Concerning monk's self-determination, records ‘Mortificationis igitur triplex ratio: animo discordare, lingua libita loqui, ire quoquam absolute.’ Columbanus, coenobialis, Sancti Opera, G.S.M. Walker (Dublin: Dublin Institute Advanced Studies, 1970), 127 140. information intent Columban's rules, J.B. Stevenson, Rules Columbanus’, Columbanus: Studies Writings, Michael Lapidge (Woodbridge: Boydell Brewer, 1997), 203–16; ‘Monks, Kings, Transformation Sanctity: Jonas Bobbio End Holy Man’, Speculum 82 521–59 (528). 65 Walker, 142: quempiam amicorum saecularium viderit conlocutus iussione, epistolam cuiuscumque susceperit, tribuere presumpserit abate, superpositione.’ 66 ‘[N]ihil reservans omnibus, quippe illo nec proprii corporis habiturum scit’: 150–1 (58: 24–5). 67 M. Jong, Samuel's Image: Child Oblation 1996), 26. Most state property. 278, 8, one property, prohibiting ownership pens, further dictates woman cannot ‘command’ body. ‘monacha’ can ‘claim’ property: 88, 1066. 69 died 669 succeeded Agnes, chosen community but, Wulftrude, described similar upbringing Gertrude. Agnes first companions may related her, nothing niece. virtutibus Geretrudis, 464–74: familia unianimiter omnes unam nobile ortam elegerunt abbatissam, nomen erat similiter nutrita fuerat beata Geretrude’ (467). 70 Although saint, hagiographer, sought disconnection blood subsequent composed attest great placed Carolingians. eleventh-century narrative, now thirteenth-century Brussels, Bibliothèque Royale Belgique, MSS 7487–91, follows complex narrative history, starting father Pippin ending Charlemagne. focus Carolingian dynasty Sylvie Balau write ‘étranger sainte consacré tout entièrement glorification membres sa royale famille’. Balau, Les sources l'histoire Liège culture civilisation, 1982), 240–1. 71 J.M.H. Smith, ‘Gender Ideology’, Religion, R.N. Swanson Boydell, 58. Society, 72 Coates, ‘Regendering Radegund? Fortunatus, Baudonivia Problem (1998): 37–50 (49), both Radegund's hagiographers, Venantius Fortunatus Baudonivia, depict Radegund woman’, authors ‘sought replace aristocratic social ideal viewed devoted wives child bearers based rejection sexuality desire angels’. hagiographer dramatic scene tonsure.
Journal of Medieval History