Cultural Encounter, Race, and a Humanist Ideology of Empire in the Art of Trecento Venice
Thomas E. A. Dale
Previous articleNext article FreeCultural Encounter, Race, and a Humanist Ideology of Empire in the Art Trecento VeniceThomas E. A. DaleThomas Dale Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailQR Code SectionsMoreThe art trecento Venice, particularly official government settings San Marco Palazzo Ducale, has long been understood represent shift Venetian outlook. One can readily see turning away from its former political cultural dependency on Byzantine assert new self-confidence as cosmopolitan hub an international trade network emerging colonial power Levant, while simultaneously embracing lingua franca Europe, “maniera moderna” first described “gothic” beginning fifteenth century. I seek revise celebratory triumphalist narrative putting Venice’s embrace encounter appropriation conversation with genealogies topographies race racialization viewed through lens early Italian humanism ideas about empire. In asserting that certain image programs Venice mosaics, sculpture, illuminated manuscripts constitute “techniques race,” draw framework premodern articulated Sara Ahmed, scholar feminist, queer, racial studies. her essay “Race Sedimented History,” Ahmed argues, “The idea race, humans exist distinct groups common lines descent, was useful idea, which turn gives us different ideas: techniques rule … It is not there are races. But once human beings these terms, comes have kind existence.” further emphasizes materiality race: “To think sedimented history how matters matter.”1The visual images will explore here reveal at intrinsic material representations complex, even contradictory, attitudes toward religious difference Mediterranean world. Fig. 1, missal commissioned Doge Andrea Dandolo 1340s (Venice, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, MS lat. III, 111 [2116], fol. 142r), patron saint, Mark Evangelist, attacked Black African two light-skinned, turbaned Egyptians he celebrates Easter mass Alexandria.2 The threatening figure African, who embodies dehumanizing racialized frequently medieval Christian writings Ethiopian, takes lead violently strangling saint.3 Yet joined light-skinned Muslims, were considered likely converts due relative whiteness their skin.4Fig. 1. Saint Evangelist Alexandria. Missal Dandolo, c. 1343–45. (2116), 142r. Photo: Venice.View Large ImageDownload PowerPointFig. 2 one capitals Ducale: it remarkably naturalistic portrait Mongol appears together heads other physiognomic types used define races; elsewhere sculpture palace, Mongols labeled “Tartars,” term that, like “Ethiopian,” negative form Latin texts.5 Though sometimes interpreted celebrating expansive trading reaching far east China, images, my view, also embody race. propose contributed perception production emphasizing Trojan Roman descent advocating restoration universal new, form.Fig. 2. head. Detail capital P16 Peoples Diverse Nations, 1342–48. Museo dell’Opera, Venice. Author.View PowerPointIn what follows begin broader consideration constructions show genealogical conception visualized Fra Paolino Veneto’s compendium history, Chronologia magna. then visualization three contexts during fourteenth century: first, public cycles Basilica doge historian including mosaics Baptistery Pala feriale, painted Paolo Veneziano cover d’Oro, golden altarpiece high altar Marco; second, maps pictorial narratives Liber secretorum fidelium Crucis, crusading treatise authored merchant diplomat, Marin Sanudo Torsello; third, exterior or Doge’s Palace, begun 1340s. highlight promoting empire, Christianity projected ethnos superseding identifications. want foreground become apparent end paper, witnessed than simply fixed representation words process ultimately realized concretely series harmful discriminatory practices include legal exclusions prohibitions, well reprehensible enslavement theories environmental determinism provided justifications works discussed here.6 Also important emphasize, Geraldine Heng observed, complex interaction multiple racializing discourses, genealogy lineage “gentes,” nations whose bloodline “stirps” claimed be traced esteemed ancestors alongside pan-European discourses within claims universalism supersession all previous identities.7Before however, acknowledge importance time place America’s contested histories intersections University Virginia’s historic campus, where we gather today, founded Thomas Jefferson, principal Declaration Independence, held complicated views race,8 abolition slavery, yet relying enslaved people run his own estate fathering unacknowledged children American woman Sally Hemings.9 This concealed only recently officially acknowledged Jefferson’s Monticello estate, 2018. On Memorial Enslaved Laborers, dedicated 2021, honors memory Americans built original university buildings grounds.10 Equal circumference domed Rotunda, design derived Pantheon Rome, memorial shape broken shackles displays hundreds names placeholders thousands discovered. sacred space Americans, indeed counter-monument equestrian statue Robert Lee, potent symbol Confederacy focus Unite Right rally August 2017.For many medievalists, Charlottesville moment reckoning weaponization past white nationalists, displayed Norse runes, Celtic crusader crosses, fake armor Confederate Nazi flags references allegedly pure past.11 A response medievalists false emphasize globalism complexity. For example, scholars point Africans, Jews depicted mural painting Verona being welcomed Holy Emperor Frederick II, statement Frederick’s empire court;12 Maurice, convert Egypt, represented recognizable sub-Saharan features thirteenth-century Magdeburg, thus offering model redemption virtuous knighthood Africans inclusion universalizing imperium II.13 nationalist myths Middle Ages cannot so easily dismantled unless systemic racism underlies Western difference, they explicit forms discrimination tacit ones exclusion normativity. uncomfortable “sedimented histories” critical theory encourages uncover teach.14Accepting requires confront argument charged term, originated century, anachronistic misleading Europe. Bartlett William Chester Jordan cautioned criteria prejudice primarily cultural—religious, legal, linguistic—and malleable, modern immutable biologically based traits.15 There growing consensus, did clarifies “race” “a repeating tendency demarcate differences selectively essentialized absolute fundamental, order distribute positions powers differentially groups.”16 While theorization predominantly text-based, should obvious recent monuments: exercise domination. As Debra Strickland, Madeline Caviness, Asa Mittman shown, culture reinforces range signs—physiognomy, skin color, dress, topography, tropes such idol worship cannibalism.17 Yet, Pamela Patton Roland Betancourt emphasized, varies according context; thus, strident caricature northern European much scholarship contrasts nuanced view Iberia Eastern (“Byzantium”) resulting greater familiarity prolonged cohabitation alliances ethnic groups.18Venice’s conditioned close economic ties Levant. Adopting regional tradition had church nearby Aquileia, merchants seized Mark’s relics Alexandria 828, grounds Egyptian caliph dismantle saint’s shrine itself predestined final resting place.19 connection enhanced expanding under Mamluks thirteenth centuries, grains, textiles, luxury goods, but peoples diverse geographical origins, forcedly brought market same ships.20 Cultural fostered colonization Byzantium: wake Fourth Crusade 1204, acquired Crete, Negroponte, parts mainland Greece, Dalmatian coast. These outposts allowed expand beyond Sea documented Polo.21 At time, Venetians, forbade reside city prior creation ghetto sixteenth ostensibly because role moneylenders, came preside over large Jewish communities colonies Stato da Mar.22The underpinnings chronicles Franciscan, Veneto, 1320s 1330s, when served penitentiary diplomat papal court John XXII Avignon.23 working manuscript magna Z. 399 [1610]), presents summary table showing nations, royal dynasties, priests pontiffs, folio 1r biblical descendants Adam Eve (Fig. 3). Prologue, featured folio, defines purpose “show origin, six ages up present thanks picture events clearly just field crop known seed, tree root.”24Fig. 3. Prologue Descendants Eve. magna, 1320s. (1610), 1r. PowerPointJoan Holladay argued increasing frequency twelfth centuries visualize dynastic legitimacy, parallel Christ’s Tree Jesse.25 go suggest genealogies, drawing metaphors trees cultivation, racialized. Paolino’s Chronicle, linea regularis, vertical column center each folio’s verso, spine timeline history. shows depicting patriarchs, Adam, judges, kings Israel before giving way Persian rulers, finally emperors, starting Julius Caesar. Parallel columns devoted priesthood; Christ; Italy Latins; Troy, Sicily, Athens; eventually doges portraits, outlined red divided into temporal units horizontals, bloodline, classic definition appeared vernaculars Charles de Miramon demonstrated, oldest occurrences French, English directly derives, applied 1481 breeding birds, dogs, horses hunting, context, bloodlines masters.26 Old French Haraz, breeds horses, farther back, razza possible origins radix [root] Arabic ras [origin].27 Essential could apply gentes—the peoples, defined geography religion, descending sons Noah Abraham.The map (Figs. 4, 5) placed strategically 7r complement opposite concluding Priam progeny. second named Priam, grandnephew elder king son Polites, mentioned Aeneid “destined increase lowest row Trojans 4).28 adjacent text chronicle explains younger traveled ship Adriatic Venice.29 Antenor, another Trojan, marveling Priam’s achievement himself Padua Altinum.Fig. 4. Lineage. 6v. 5. Map 7r. PowerPointFra earliest extant plan 5), seed soil identifying colonists cultivators terrain.30 Oriented southeast Arsenale, Certosa, Castello top, details islands canals mudflats, Grand Canal, delineating forty-six parishes associated city’s founding families. Piazza Marco, Basilica, enclosed fortifications, feature prominently near middle map, does shipyard navy, top map. Rialto, settlement, indicated wooden bridge Canal. chronicle, diagrams, demonstrates affirmation essential explicating topographical pictures require explication texts. specifically connects Noahtic continents races maps, makes case interdependence “pictura,” arguing “impossible without world make of, mind grasp, said grandchildren Noah, Four Kingdoms regions, both divine writings.”31Fra assertion revised waves emigration mainland, invasion Huns fifth following Lombard 565.32 inheritance province Venetia Istria, century BCE. eighth CE, Paul Deacon asserted established there, Peter consecrate Hermagoras bishop, later replaced Aquileia Christians fled lagoon. may back twelfth-century Origo civitatum Italie seu Venetiarum.33 Competing inland repopulated Carolingians ninth pre-Roman lineage, affirming after ruins Troy.Venice adapted Guido delle Colonne’s Historia Troiana.34 chronicler Antenor “entered lagoon seven galleys, bound waterways.”35 lagoon, Eneti Venetici, name Aeneas, alleged founder Rome.36 updated Chronicle already populated itself, “the construction Rialto preceded Rome” Padua.37 Marco’s primacy among foundations responded rediscovery bodily remains heart 1283.38 Local antiquarian Lovato Lovati identified celebrated Antenor’s inscription monument encasing late antique sarcophagus containing cypress-wood coffin inscribed “Regis Antenoris Memoria.” Lovati’s epitaph, “voice straining peace fatherland,” anticipating humanist would restore peace.39 fuller account around 1300 Pace Ferrara’s poem Pietro Gradenigo:The renowned progeny noble walls upon Illyrian brine guided Latium Sicilian waters was, last, origin Romulus. arriving safely shores prudently occupied pleasant lands gulf And established, tried bring rights sea control. Little little head substance kingdom. From forth ruling scepter, [she] grown much, whole world, Rome herself inferior Venice.40A stage attempt gain upper hand pedigree recorded Torsello’s treatise, composed 1330s. introduces claim King king’s namesake. According Sanudo, band [Trojans], young offspring nephew sister Laomedon, questing ships sea, land, decided build dwellings preserve accustomed liberty, thinking unworthy freemen leading subject another.”41 Paralleling Sanudo’s account, seen earlier, specifies marveled cities Altinum.42Venice’s rivalry ancient 6).43 What significant dual topography hills antiquity: walls, major gates aqueducts; Colosseum center; (Santa Maria ad Martyres), church, nearby; bottom right Lateran outdoor display bronzes, Constantine, Spinario Thorn-puller, Marcus Aurelius, believed Constantine. meaning imperial lost Cola di Rienzo. Speaking 1347 advocate Empire, contrasted sorry condition found majesty she enjoyed; referring tablet Lex imperio vespasiani, observed given emperors renew present.44 prominence Constantinian strengthened renewal 6. Rome. 98r. PowerPointThis reverence highlights Alexander Lee shown consensus humanists Italy, Francesco Petrarca, desirable liberty warring communes.45 Despite admiration Cicero ideals republic, Petrarch part positive agenda recovery literature rhetoric foundation restoring Augustan peace. concepts evokes shared heritage states. Writing May 1354 dissuade him continuing war Genoa, appeals identity rooted land heritage: “resist, beg you, and, since blood flows consider commander’s words: ‘Lay aside your arms, O mine.’”46 enemies Italians characterized earlier letter June 1351 principally East, participating Nancy Bisaha “Orientalism” Greek others:Would Damascus Susa, Memphis Smyrna rather Genoa! Would you fighting Persians Arabs, Thracians Illyrians If still any respect name, those endeavor destroy brothers. Alas, Thebes ago, now throughout battlelines brothers drawn.47To enemies, adds topos monstrosity:A monstrous [genus] men miserable worthless lives shameful pay love war, wolves vultures delight slaughter allow flourishing state, entrusted wealthy beautiful region fall prey foreign famished wolves.48If accept Petrarch’s articulation tinged language geography, character, recognize normative complemented counterpart. emphasis Other invites visible contrast drawn single Eve, next opening draws Isidore Seville articulate Noah’s 7). 1v, regularis diagram Ark five compartments beside record salvation humanity flood. Shem, eldest, immediately beneath Asia. Japheth Europe.Fig. 7. His Three Sons. 1v. PowerPointHam’s occupies 2r 8). Seville, who, Etymologies, attributes casting Shem ancestor Asia, Ham Africa. commentators, curse mocking nakedness cast pall Ham’s line Ethiopians. copies Isidore’s Etymologies Tower Babel signal linguistic diversity genealogies.49Fig. 8. 2r. PowerPointAs Catherine Leglu argued, shaped terms physiognomy color genealogies.50 four nations: Chus Ethiopians, Mesarim Egyptians, Puth Troglodytes, Canaan Afri Phoenicians. Troglodytes dark-skinned significant, “monstrous races” thought Ethiopia Pliny Wonders East. made them susceptible racialization, apart localization Ethiopia, dwelling caves, lacking speech, penchant eating snakes.51 Egypt begins king, Festus, though type, flowing hair beard, distinguished darker gray skin. similar dark Pentecost mosaic 9), dating 1200, example desired conversion Church.Fig. 9. detail mosaic, 1200. Ekkehard Ritter, North Project Fieldwork Records Papers, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees Harvard University, Washington, DC.View PowerPointThe London, British Library, Egerton 1500 (fol. 3v; 10), translation Occitan, supervision resident Avignon. assumes artists version local, deployed pronounced iconography ty
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