Reframing the “Documentary Revolution” in Medieval Italy
Maureen C. Miller
Previous articleNext article FreeReframing the “Documentary Revolution” in Medieval ItalyMaureen C. MillerMaureen Miller Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmailPrint SectionsMoreIn last quarter of nineteenth century, clerics congregation San Salvatore Naples were preparing a petition, or maybe legal defense, regarding their taxes. Someone from appears have been delegated research and document exemption tax called collecta, as historian Hiroshi Takayama termed it, “the notorious collecta.” Imposts identified with fearsome appellation first appear under twelfth-century Norman kings southern Italy infrequent, extraordinary levies. Frederick II, that stupor mundi thirteenth made them annual developed both rates systems collection even papacy considered excessive.1 The notes our late nineteenth-century researcher on Salvatore’s exemptions survive today cardboard box at Archivio Storico Diocesano Naples.2 They are certainly not notable monuments resistance, which had into fine art peninsula long before. But researcher’s consultation volumes containing copies thirteenth- fourteenth-century documents does merit notice. From his notes, it these collections congregation’s included sources early year 1213. For now, I want call your attention fact drawn up Italy; created an ecclesiastical institution; archived, conserved, consulted until least closing decades century. Sadly, like many historical medieval Italy, they did Second World War.The registers being century archived future use is significant because undermines claims exceptionally innovative, “revolutionary,” documentary sophistication city-republics northern whose history dominates narratives Italian Middle Ages. There two persistent obstacles understanding phenomenon change Italy. First tendency historians focus either secular institutions institutions. deeply engrained tradition writing histories north-central separately. Both inherited conventions support excellent richly textured local studies. inadequate capturing addressing complex, widely experienced transformations. Each generation scholars, course, innovates contributes growth knowledge within frameworks pressing issues its era. This one good reason cross-generational dialogue.Luckily, us privileged kind dialogue frequently. As near end my teaching career, years discussion having students bearing particularly stimulating fruit research. Here, another obstructive academic convention surfaces, see separate, competing, spheres. most better sharing than letting questions influence it. Fortunately, repeating courses regular rotation allows some queries sink in, if slowly. finally emboldened me venture out earlier scholars.I. QuestionsLet begin, then, those student background genesis. At very dawn dreamed what be field: decade, remained but dream: life was dominated sections Western Civilization survey. When could offer seminar, encouraged topics broad interest (e.g., Crusades) would ensure decent enrollment small college 1,600 students. Halfway through second decade thanks great department chair—George Mason University’s Jack Censer—I got chance teach upper-division course probably common, reproduced syllabus encountered “medieval Italy” graduate school, where studied eminent historian: Doktorvater, David Herlihy. he researched taught part gave birth urban republics communes now wealthiest region it.3Herlihy’s motives focusing social historian. A Byzantinist well doctorate, convert study communal What appealed him enough voluminous documentation—the tens thousands notarial documents—that produced conserved cities copious documentation allowed write illumined lives marginalized actors, women.4 He other medievalists responded inequities then challenged society, bringing new long-appreciated works seeking approaches, sources, methods undermine partial version In case studies, allure bounty during Ages continues factor dominance general narratives.But there also factors behind historians’ preoccupation half peninsula. Over forged nation-state, city provided successful example victory over external domination forum debating alternatives monarchy structure governance. contrast Italy’s continuous subordination foreigners twelfth famously allied defeated Emperor Barbarossa 1176. historians, autonomous “ideal principle” (principio ideale) intense research.5 Through analyses political development, across when elite commune contested, debated merits oligarchic democratic narratives, monitory examples: failed experiments democracy passions masses inevitably led tyranny.6 discipline professionalized, continuing salience such debates rich available fuel established Ages, pattern reinforced Republic 1946.7 Thus, emphasis past rooted time master’s 1982. Looking back realize never questioned geographical discrimination: enthusiasm socially politically progressive agenda Herlihy’s propelled headlong archival riches.But, asked, about South? myriad forms basic question raised survey Were Was commercial revolution Did South universities Bologna Padua? poetry written South’s vernacular similar Dante’s dolce stil nuovo? These all doctoral training previous prepared answer. And why asking? Mostly knew ancestors who emigrated United States, forebearers come North. came South.8 twentieth centuries, millions Italians majority impoverished villages Sicily, Calabria, Puglia, Basilicata. unification 1860s beginning War 1914, close five million peasants, third population, left crushing poverty homeland seek work North America.9 Work found, hostility. nineteenth- twentieth-century undesirable immigrants. Although descendants immigrants White, first-generation described “swarthy,” lazy, innately criminal, “as bad Negroes.”10The prejudices faced America, however, them; fellow citizens barbarous savages. sixteenth Counter-Reformation missionaries likened Calabrians animals dubbed “our Indies.”11 Modern positivism further essentialized north-south polarity racialized opposition between Aryan ethnicity peninsula’s north—characterized physique, morality, civic-mindedness—and “barbarous” Mediterranean South—marked weakness inclination toward immorality criminality—was disseminated period, national constellation known “Southern Question” (questione meridionale)—that is, causes “backwardness” how might solved? Many different causes—economic, political, social, cultural—occupied intellectuals publication Pasquale Villari’s elucidation problem Lettere meridionali 1875, concerns continue relevant.12 Economic aspects Southern Question, fact, remain urgent, wake 2008 global recession: 2019, population per capita income only fifty-six percent central parts economic Question relevant: northerners’ racist views prominent among gained renewed potency 1980s rise right-wing, originally separatist, Lega Nord—now discreetly rebranded simply Lega.13In neither poor nor backward. major so Europeans invaded Normans eleventh Angevins, Aragonese, Spanish Hapsburgs, Bourbons Scholars intensively explored impact monarchs later fortunes region’s economy, II’s regularization generalization collecta has particular scrutiny.14 despite politics, remains under-represented narrations history.When asked various versions “what South?” prompted integrate delighted doing slowly revising incorporating Byzantine, Arab, Norman-Hohenstaufen Their questions, indeed, analytical framework present version, comparative north, south, central—that papal—Italy interrogating similarities differences cultures regions. It much now. learned lot process, helped begin still applied Why north south treated separately? More important, equally? To give just ready example, volume New Cambridge History covering devoted four chapters, totaling eighty-five pages, while covered twenty-four pages.15 true experiences different, quantity surviving regions unequal, linguistic demands mastering complete body greater. All figure separate unequal treatment halves. studying overcoming imbalance requires ways.II. Révolution documentaireIn 2014 began researching changing material Central leap dependence upon single-sheet parchments, charters, widespread “registers.” capacious term used designate parchment booklets books varied considerably form content. earliest usage, regestum registrum letters memorials, can lists. While register Mantua, registers, comprised chiefly lists lands held locales, Benedictine monastic community Cava de’ Tirreni Salerno incomes reckoned coin measures agriculture products.16 Collected documents, Europe usually cartularies, frequently discussed Regestum farfense compiled Abbey Farfa Libri iurium, rights, emerged city-states centuries relating rights claimed governments treaties communities rulers.17 Not collections, entirely copies. Some summaries systematically add originals chronological sequence, others deftly intermingle originals.18 Formats vary widely: pocket-sized gigantic. bound codices survived unbound gatherings common relate lands, incomes, assist collection, exercise. reason, administrative codices. Materially, redacting data notebooks, gatherings, quaterni, often intrigued archives kinds initially redacted change: parchments overwhelmingly record donations property, exchanges leases exact same types transactions. So form?Looking secondary literature brought frustration clarity. Most oft-cited essay leading historian, Jean-Claude Maire Vigueur, enormous contributions Ages.19 Entitled “Révolution documentaire et révolution scripturaire: Le cas de l’Italie médiévale,” piece appeared venerable journal Bibliothèque l’École des chartes 1995.20 argued administration via notebooks (quaterni) constituted “documentary revolution.” Vigueur’s manifesto generally revolution’s makers leaders notaries specifically thirteenth-century movement Popolo. Popolo hardly represented people, although status leadership any degree, somewhat less aristocratic consular solidified power commune’s existence.21 movements pursue equitable policies assessment undertook public projects construction aqueducts bring fresh water center, infrastructure grain provisioning, plazas roads, cathedrals.22 Vigueur insisted innovations fostered hyper-elite temporary chief executives Podestà, “revolution” justified describing “rapid radical” changes “which accompanied mutation regime, substituted itself nobility principal functions government.”23Unsurprisingly, welcomed notion revolution”; burnished specialization underwrote plethora codicological studies source editions.24 unconvinced narrow attribution Paolo Cammarosano, took broader view. book Italia medievale, Cammarosano sketched period hegemony production conservation extending antiquity fourteenth quantitative explosion number rapid multiplication typologies kingdom broke initiated fundamental documents. himself acknowledged length role innovation, underscoring fifteenth general, affecting private texts narrative traditional institutions.”25 Despite admirable breadth Cammarosano’s study—note temporal institutions—work since focused communes. scholarship undermined sharp distinction (like rights), served collect safeguard (such deliberations councils ongoing records judicial fiscal administration), contended directly enacted innovative character governing force pre-Popolo broadly recognized detailed individual genres finium “boundary books” enumerated, measured, delimited properties center surrounding countryside. Particularly influential evidence novelty published Hagen Keller’s project “Pragmatische Schriftlichkeit,” especially findings redaction statutes centuries.26But revolution” development governments? Already ago, scholars documented registers.27 few registers—such series bishops Trent 1205, Mantua commencing 1214—originated quite before communes.28 Might church revolutionary?Indeed, dioceses produce millennium. keeping correspondence, sporadically, 354. We Gregory Great’s sixth- seventh-century survival papyrus 880s copied onto parchment. Honorius I’s eleventh-century canonical Cardinal Deusdedit, compilations canons reference papal letters. sparse wonder, Veronika Unger has, whether Innocent III (r. 1198–1216). bears noting Great 590–604) III, six (876–82) Pope John VIII’s and, famous VII (1073–85).29 Moreover, distinctive producing tenth Ravenna creating akin deemed revolutionary republics. Thirty-six folios Breviarium ecclesiae Ravennatis, 960–83, clearly extensive. Organized topographically, registrations charters see’s rights: liber iurium one. archiepiscopal archive fragments, each labeled breviarium format tenth-century breviarium, suggests sporadically produced.30Indeed, we look closely governments, innovators churches. Orvieto, key using single-leaf occurred bishop’s court 1211, next cathedral chapter 1215, government 1220. Città di Castello 1192, episcopal 1207, 1221.31 Whether level tiny Umbrian diocese Castello, chronology sketches shared pattern: mark watershed. may watershed definitely seem conserving registers. relatively wealthy Rome poorer Castello. latter continued quaterni 1207 ten huge volumes, create after innovating 1192 volume: eleven dozen fourteenth.32 Even impressive continuity evident 1214 century.33So, relying compiling revolution,” communes, limited Lots making archiving ones first. tempted, point research, short establishing point. students’ classroom kept coming mind: South?III. Going SouthI set try find out. occur too? North, ninth on. entire peninsula, Romanized antiquity, entrance Germanic peoples Lombards 568 cultural rupture: Lombard Pavia duchies: Spoleto centered Benevento. Carolingian conquest 774 rupture, Arab Byzantine Sicily Aghlabid emirs Ifriqiya (827–902). sum, roughly 850, incorporated empire, divided Lombard, Islamic rule.34 fragmentation gradually overcome mainland centuries. comes regno or, subsequently, “Two Sicilies.”35These no consider assessing traditions Italy.36 taken consideration, clear: (namely, deep South, Calabria) administered rulers successors dafātir, likely maintained civil wars Kalbid era 1040s, Jeremy Johns argued, land inhabitants conquerors island centuries.37Given object all, developmental lag ancient civilizational “dark ages” descended portions arrival Lombards. Research reveals continuities royal Calabria indicates important discontinuities. Furthermore, level, monasteries different. represent exist significantly occurring comparable heralded North.At government, fragmentary observations possible. First, compelling duchies theme Longobardia (which predominantly Latinate population).38 Greek-speakers majority, found existing cadastral them, Greek personnel charge draw writs transfer bestowing followers allies. Vera von Falkenhausen concluded “that system regularly updated efficaciously functional.”39 Second, conquered similarly availed themselves Arabic boundaries villeins belonging lands; Arabic-proficient allies servants referenced transfer. Once distribution spoils over, continuation system.
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