A Revolutionary Narrative of European History: Bonneville's History of Modern Europe (1789-1792)
Matthijs Lok
L'Europe est le théâtre sur lequel on a toujours vu vrai caractère de l'homme se déployer avec plus grands avantages. Nicholas Bonneville (1789) It is generally accepted that ‘Europe’ historical continent shaped by its past. But the idea of Europe as and whole concept European history have their own too.1 In this essay, I will describe ‘(re-) invention history’ in specific moment: French revolution 1789–92. Most research ideals revolutionaries deals with attempts to attain ‘eternal peace’ institutional design through establishment (con)federation revolutionary sister republics.2 So far expression (as well counterrevolutionary) ideas historiography has received less attention.3 History writings, however, are crucial sources for study identities.4 The imagining Europe's past, present future writing, which we can term ‘historical Europeanism’, rather neglected topic within post-revolutionary Europe.5 essay (re)construction past decade examined, using curious (1760–1828) main case study. published three-volume Modern (L'Histoire l'Europe moderne), 1789 (vols I–II) 1792 (vol. III).6 work, had already started before outbreak revolution, he made use narrative defend cause Revolution. Bonneville's work was neither very original nor brilliant. Essentially, it formed an adaption translation older Scottish historian William Russell (1741–93). History, interest clearly demonstrated how could be appropriated new political purposes national context. intended his pedagogical large audience, especially children. therefore give us some insight into notions, perhaps even consciousness, people who did not belong elite period transition, although discuss depth readership work. Over last decades much important been done analysing ‘construction’ different countries.7 field research, ‘European often regarded variation history.8 many ways, contention undoubtedly true. dimension Europe: usually country author ‘essence’ history. Leading historians such Voltaire Robertson also national, colonial universal (world) well. This contends, nonetheless, histories do entirely overlap forms separate, relatively autonomous historiographical category self-proclaimed tradition canon, described. Stuart Woolf defined histories’ ‘histories viewed unitary understood signify more than aggregate states’.9 As see, Bonneville, contemporaries, believed should just summing-up individual histories, but instead capture unique esprit’. definitions what observed, shown example Nicolas Bonneville. next section first examine construction ‘modern Europe’, particularly eighteenth century, formation canon historians’. Then focus literary intellectual ambitions cosmopolitan influenced esotericism. III History’ criticism ‘ancient analysed. Consequently short overview freedom clerical tyranny given. conclusion, extent Revolution presented turning point ‘history history’. publish modern Europe. He build preceding decades.10 scholars Antoine Lilti Céline Spector, among others, argued during enlightened conceived time comprehensive crafted. According century three meanings: federal project peace’, market trading place ‘commerce’ finally notion civilisation’.11 civil society (société européenne) view phenomenon consisted rupture humanistic republic letters.12 became object philosophical enquiry knowledge narrative.13 English scholar Karen O'Brien, characteristic Enlightenment ‘the elaboration common descriptive model separately periodised ancient, medieval, early stages’.14 A reading transition from medieval feudal commercial social systems shared these despite differences. beginning traced Middle Ages after collapse Roman empire. supposedly oppressive feudalism undermined development cities, trades, education knowledge. Catholic Church described most Protestant or solely force purely civilising institution. For Robertson, sixteenth particular moment saw rise dynamic states’ system strong monarchies, so final stage history, according historians, coming societies where commerce refined manners brought prosperity increasing number people.15 transnational character becomes evident ‘Notice principal written affairs’, preceded introduction volume notice based Letter Condorcet 1787, announced plans Europe.16 preliminary text discussed merits, flaws, French, German British earlier, providing legitimation publication aim legitimate demonstrating deficits existing Perhaps implicitly, created highly selective historians. mentioned instance only German, sources, leaving out other traditions. His good hierarchies between centre peripheries.17 Only had, apparently, authority make decisions belonged emphasis traditions marked contrast with, instance, Italian dominance regarding Europe, prevalence Spanish Dutch humanist scholarship, let alone central, eastern northern Also Christian-inspired were mostly absent. referred few derogatory words influential bishop Bossuet (1627–1704).18 At end revealed book best five-volume popular (1741–93).19 eyes avoided dryness Germans, Pufendorf, lightness successors.20 esteemed ‘clarity, style, precision, elegance’.21 appreciated fact events, analysed general ‘progress arts civilization’ every epoch.22 However, Russell's showed serious deficiencies opinion. Apart factual mistakes, above all compiler often, eyes, erroneous translations. himself possess genius, reflected genius others Voltaire, Montesquieu, Hume, Ferguson.23 discussion Russell, still kind spare effort ‘zeal’ ‘compiler’ ‘usefulness’ perfect Finally, valued notes references, authorities, criterion trustworthy apparently rare eighteenth-century historiography.24 abundant praise course surprising. multivolume wrote soon dissatisfied writings: decided produce mere ‘slavishly follow’ agreement publisher Durand adapt volumes under name.25 series letters, done, several chapters, ‘in manner Voltaire’.26 These improvements concerned style errors. removed ‘national injuries’ Russell.27 Although stated ‘without fatherland master’ (sans pays sans maître), ended letter writing would audience. is, therefore, illustration ‘travelling’ narratives traditions, shows ‘foreign’ at same adapted contexts audiences.28 must context activities. born 1760 Evreux (Normandy) son procurator good-humoured imagination. left hometown scandal surrounding enthusiastic views Rousseau, went Paris linguistics languages financial aid philosophe d'Alembert.29 lived multilingual environment, regularly meeting Americans, Englishmen Germans speaking languages. life exemplifies strict division literature exist late century.30 1780s worked translator theatre pieces, by, Goethe Schiller, novels.31 1786 travelled England, member London freemason lodge supposed infiltration freemasonry Jesuit order. 1788 returned France. involved Revolution, elector city charged provisions, positions, proposing Parisian ‘garde bourgeoise’. conducted kinds activities journal Le Tribun du Peuple, Mirabeau. 1790 established ‘Cercle Social’, forum aimed inclusive open, exclusive closed clubs Jacobins.32 1791 magnum opus De L'esprit des religions considerable success. After closure Cercle Social 1791, journals associated Girondins.33 firmly writers play leading role transformations. took downward turn. During Terror, narrowly escaped guillotine probably native Normandy. Under Napoleon, suspected oppositional comparing Napoleon ‘dictator’ Cromwell, kept surveillance. 1800 printing press forfeited resulting ruin translating Thomas Paine's Maritime Pact. 1815 emigrated United States, where, help friend Paine, wife children living since 1802. 1819 earned meagre bookshop until death 1828 great difficulties ‘half mad’. heyday no doubt half decade, when publications appeared. conservative climate Napoleonic Empire Restoration monarchy, peripheral person, ‘a fire extinguished misery disease’.34 Fortunes, revived son, Benjamin, eventually US army.35 Already Europe’ request Neveu. recycled ‘preliminary notice’ sketched wider Letter. ambition complementing ‘elementary our visionary prejudices Europeans’. paint vision bright ‘to open Europeans’.36 nations realized true interests, continued prophetic utopian vein, they allow ‘man genius’ (‘l'homme genie’) bring them happiness devour shadows demons hide’ (‘dévorer les ténèbres où cachent démons’).37 ‘enemies humanity’ vane try extinguish ‘flame reason’, kindled Rousseau d'Alembert supported people.38 hopefully 1787 expected near there unity mutual understanding. Tyranny dictatorship, caused ignorance, disappear. Superstition men judgement relying false authorities imposters. Earth awake ‘lethargical sleep’. natural equality reinstated, including Africans.39 contract beneficial basis community.40 empirical facts collect long-term underpinned esoteric predictions development. planned layered parts audiences levels understanding: part events (‘histoire la naissance et bouleversemens moderne’) ‘men classes’. mainly divided four, unequal increasingly shorter periods: fall empire Peace Westphalia (1648), Aix Chapelle (1748), 1748 1763, fourth American independence 1783.41 second grand description sciences arts’, cultivated spirits, progress civilization. third human spirit small group ‘sensitive reflective humans beings’. meaning inner mechanisms summarized entitled ‘Les pourquoi? Ou Récapitulation générale ‘histoire notre modern’.42 mystical layers ever smaller circles men, freemasons.43 respect, interestingly, precursor counterrevolutionary Joseph Maistre (1753–1821), workings religious ‘revealed’ elevated sensitive spirits.44 achieve ambitions. participation turmoil habit working projects time, prevented completion plans.45 end, narrative: (1789, title page Geneva, mentioned) Holy Emperor 1005. (also 1789) king Alfred 899 Magna Carta (1215). years later, (or ‘year one republic’ page), chronicles 1190 onwards foundation Swiss 1308. start explained ‘Europe’, chosen subject ‘main mankind’. Following ‘man’ stage’.46 Europeans prism history.47 unique, Eurocentric region globe contract. come surprise Franco-centric, close relationship naturally ‘most monarchy’ followed Spain.48 explicitly states compilation countries: superseded written. ‘spirit (esprit) Europe’. explain behind them. dismissed providence prevalent Bossuet. Instead chronicling focused moments change, revolutions points history.49 experiencing provided hide agenda underlying explicit about it. I, going turn attention towards missing’.50 required necessitated answer call ‘voice people’ (La voix tout un people). provides telling politics, points, production An elementary missing. We flooded ancient read [useless details as] archbishop Mainz eaten army rats dolls embrace courtesans… . disappear quickly, lose precious find better use, sage [Rousseau] said.51 approvingly quoted compared ‘old medals’ current coins: rested cabinets, whereas circulated used men.52 interesting era following fifteenth centuries. return classical ideas, argued, Around 1500 ‘Europe transformed’ (‘Europe change face’), ‘republic’ balance power superior existed Greece.53 result spread press, discovery Americas, increased communications arts, attained higher degree perfection either Greece Rome.54 seemed regard equivalent Ancien Régime monarchy tribes predecessors revolutionaries. Intensely studying useless nothing teach us. contribution ‘querelle’ ancients moderns, confidently surpassed world respects, respect.55 ‘The everything necessary understand empires’, wrote.56 Tellingly, Rome given pages Underlying certain present.57 past.58 groundbreaking resulted need continuity tradition, significantly writing.59 uniqueness newness ‘our times’ (‘nos temps modernes’)60 radical mission fill void. young audience why ‘fanaticism’, ‘tyranny’ ‘superstition’ able suppress ‘reason’ ‘progress’.61 arguing form government empire, prevailed.62 centuries then, suppressed class fanatical ignorant priests, aided selfish princes noblemen.63 countering argument later formulated Edmund Burke, insisted historically grown institutions essentially product despotism. called abolish reform them: hour come: purified earth longer forth absolute kings, viziers, priests volcanoes.’64 convinced happy ending: ‘In long run, always righteous people, enlightened, attentive, generous grow pale destroy superstition.’65 was, struggle oppression ended. Montesquieu Boulainvilliers, Germanic despotic uniformity effectively began Europe’.66 ‘established ruins [of empire] governments, (mœurs): accomplished striking history’.67 both destructive creative moment.68 virtuous installed democracy, making predecessor tribes, weakened internal quarrels wars. Nonetheless, lasting legacy order never suppressed.69 Even feudalism, flawed system, once laid foundations truly Charlemagne, ‘French’ Charlemagne ambivalent. On hand, hailed bringer civilization material progress. other, chastened him indulgence churchmen. mocked those despaired Carolingian empire: detrimental freedom.70 Pope adopt striving homogeneous monarchy.71 Church, positive Islam. Mohammed Mecca ideal spiritual temporal monarchy. prince enlightenment people. Islamic rule Spain high level civilization, Christian country, praised. Spain, ‘second rank France, depicted dominated oppressed monstrous monks.72 concentrated English, history; Byzantine over – Hungary, Poland, Sweden central theme ignorance reason.73 Ages, dealing supremacy pope emperor, crusades Arab Turks. clergy again cast evil geniuses, hovering shadow secretly instructing greedy power-hungry monarchs.74 interpreted attempt papacy establish theocratic crusades, sees hand papacy, monarchy: Greek [Byzantine] model; chain reason’.75 Much devoted surprising historian. invasion England Conqueror disaster freedom-loving Anglo-Saxons. run 1066 led diminishment corruption morals lack liberty. 1215 representative institutions, freest world’,76 liberty Europe.77 nineteenth François Guizot, difference Asia overdrawn: continents characterized fragmentation violent wars.78 1792, ‘Year Republic’. circumstances insertion ‘kings commit perjury’ (‘les rois parjurés’). line argumentation difficult follow, appears deposition referring examples revolts against tyrants history.79 counterpoint King John ‘Lackland’ (1166–1216) demonstrated, possible accept people's representation combine monarchy.80 kings committed perjury perfectly exemplified malleability adapting fast-changing relevance events. Full disapproval disgust (‘dégout’ ‘horreur’), chronicled emperor volume. impartial peace-loving mediator, aggressive sharp warmongering league Hanseatic cities stood ‘reason’, ‘peace’ ‘freedom’. Interestingly developing terror abolition publication, kings. Louis IX ‘Saint Louis’ (1214–70) ‘good’ ‘patriotic’ deceived starting persecutions committing crusades. Remarkable too Muslims Christians, Moors being reasonable tolerant Christians intolerant fanatics.81 Spirit Religions (1791), themselves henceforth ‘Francs’, name ‘true (‘véritable ami l'humanité’).82 ‘these (‘ces moderns’) developments Britain.83 Britain voice institutions. countries follow England's free triumph fanaticism tyranny. Equality He, surprisingly someone caught up middle unnecessary peaceful means.84 unfolding progress, then rest adhered Whig interpretation suddenly switched era: happen estate, representatives constitutionally enshrined freedom.85 paid dark sides describing tyrannical Celtic Scots Welsh. ruler. Swiss, noble ‘Celtic’ schemes Habsburg rulers Empire. Obviously, revolt 1308 time.86 seminal Past Another Country’, Tony Judt 1945 1989 redefined forgotten). year western zero (Stunde Null), conflict nationalism, leave experience war occupation. sense violence warfare integration project, observed post-war decades.87 Judt, order, reconfiguration memory historiography: forced East-European transformations West decades-long taboos wartime memory. There infinite revisions reinterpretations, recent look again, anywhere.’88 makes convincing self-evident given, closely related itself. explored effects another key history: detail create narrative, volume, century. version inserted comments. Furthermore, demonstrates connection revelation mechanism beliefs, visions ways foreshadowing clear conception be: countries, capturing spirit’. ‘modern’, irrelevant
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