Introduction Carolingian cultures of dialogue, debate and disputation
M.B. de Jong|Irene van Renswoude
This collection of articles on the theme Carolingian cultures dialogue and debate may seem a contradiction in terms. After all, it has recently been argued that by end fourth century, Christianity had created authoritative structures knowledge which public disputation was replaced catechism-like exchanges. also spelled classical dialogue, is, searching open-ended exchange ideas as practised ancient world since days Socrates. Medievalists, other hand, have maintained something resembling sphere emerged so-called ‘high’ Middle Ages; lively wide-ranging debates engendered Investiture Controversy cited case point. A superficial combination both perspectives, however different, yields early medieval west its traditional guise convenient static backdrop articulates previous declines subsequent ‘rises’ phenomena connected with modernity. For obvious reasons, this image needs to be discarded, but not simply arguing for greater continuity, or attempting rehabilitate period roughly five centuries ‘actually’ much more culturally complex than hitherto assumed. On contrary, we should make most scholarly outside orbit Early Medieval Europe, these raise questions can fed productively into our own analytical framework. is why themed edition dialogues opens an extensive contribution late antique Christian dialogue. It reason Introduction shall take some time explore common ground between historians medievalists, well differences their approach. To put succinctly, all are concerned larger issues involved, such impact Christianity, shifting balance oral written culture. Nonetheless, recent among antiquity mostly revolved around question whether new religion did indeed brilliant culture open debate. Recently, contention challenged head-on regard Byzantium, attention literary complexity relevant sources. 1 The post-Roman west, however, part reconsiderations, largely because general assumption venues might enabled vanished along Roman empire. Whereas Augustine his flock remained attuned empire-wide religious contestation, Alcuin York representative restricted palace-connected elite, great ideals concerning literacy reform had, little practical effect society at large. Hence, still widely held offered room criticism tenacious based preconception expression divergent points view unthinkable ‘the Church’ dominant diversity oppressed. Free opinion supposed disappeared, possibilities ideas, very moment Emperor Justinian closed doors Academy Athens. While noted ‘free opinion’ idealistic construction first place, cannot denied unity level kingdoms empires professed ideal during Ages. Yet constantly negotiated, debated reformulated, if ever achieved. 2 Scholars, bishops rulers were intent establishing orthodoxy defending against heresy, true, orthodoxy, known, does exist itself. develops dialectical relationship ‘heresy’– position only modern sociologists religion, acknowledged Ages well. Debate heterodox thinkers considered necessary arrive ‘truth’. Criticism opinions welcomed political arenas (at least theory), long they served uncovering defence truth arguably benefitted good. Another notion absence need address from outset demise (formal) rhetoric. George Kennedy, authority field rhetoric Nachleben even went so far claim formal speech no longer regarded effective form persuasion, ‘men's minds actions manipulated brute force [. . .] logical argument’. 3 dwindled sixth seventh centuries, there fewer opportunities speaking. With decay fragmentation civic life, lost function oratory decline. Training argumentation became important, those elements rhetorical discipline useful redirected discourse. 4 Certainly, evidence direction weakening after municipal schools closed. Yet, tradition Cicero, Demetrius Quintilian, point return below. There continued occasions where one could show off one's skills persuasive We think assemblies smaller-scale deliberative meetings courts, described De ordine palatii, discussions margins ecclesiastical synods, imagine places training delivery must come useful. Although increasingly interpretation texts, communicated orally meetings, who speak received admiration contemporaries. In 800, Alcuin's student Candidus reported teacher how he admired outspoken Theodulf Orleans delivered assembly Rome same year. praised voice’ speaking out meeting. 5 eminently occasions, direct entourage eloquence. When Agobard Lyon Attigny 822, Louis God's inspiration interrogated present, uncovered elegant manner, ‘announced faithfully, word mouth’. 6 impressive Attigny, Abbot Adalhard Corbie, then old experienced orator. According biographer, Adalhard's eloquence ‘utterly suited persuasion dissuasion’. 7 Secular magnates took active discussions; especially contentious issue use land military purposes hotly 820s onwards, churchmen wanting set limits this, while saeculares res publica do without it. 8 rarely evidenced normative writing, despite strategic place conversion theological discussion communities. catechism question-and-answer any significant sense dialogue: forms aid controlled learning produce certain, fixed responses. 9 Richard Lim, albeit different reasons. antiquity, Lim argues, belonged elitist paideia. highly influential, yet ‘boutique genre’, therefore inclusive sermo humilis aimed reach many people possible, including lower social strata. Put briefly, inherent elitism called it, ill-suited communication masses, demand particular gradually disappeared. 10 As Averil Cameron pointed out, freedom, democracy Goldhill others identify ‘real’, Socratic, ideal. 11 related equally vexed transmitted through texts way reflect ‘real’ discussions. Since available constructs, ones presented spontaneous open-ended, sharp distinction viva voce helpful. What able grasp cultural proceed. 12 critique published year Cameron's, Peter Van Nuffelen primarily engages Lim's Public Disputation, Power, Social Order Late Antiquity (1995). 13 influential book doubt inspired verdict ‘end dialogue’, central argument ranges widely: about once wide-open intellectual horizons being narrowed increasing dominance orthodoxy. From century intellectually demanding prevailing norm practice began statements consensus. First, staged operations victory decided beginning, just survived exercises, predictable result. Nuffelen, transition events stilted productions represents evolutionist projection part. supposedly impromptu earlier disputations comes accounts, fictitious fifth- sixth-century successors. And instead taking latter mere real-life exchange, careful study fact shows valued gaining knowledge. 14 Whether textual reflects disputes moot point, surely becomes clear anymore real precisely authors persuade opponents. course tension reality, ‘was sustained belief power moral propriety reason’. 15 These dichotomies – versus literate, authority, competition group identities projected onto antiquity. They essential articulating pre-modern societies general, within grand narrative western history. More specifically, oppositions informed chaos stagnation, inspiring communication, existence perception state-like participation clergy latter. 16 yielded perspective world, wider Christian-Latin society, importance institutions, governance huge polity cohesion diverse elites. ‘The Church’, called, turns consist number ‘churches’ (ecclesiae), monasteries episcopal communities fabric politics. consequences consideration period. Modern thinking nature domain, example, Stuart Airlie reflected staunch ethos service aristocracy, palatium ninth-century authors, monarch never visited. 17 Chris Wickham argued, until turn millennium ad existed public; relatively weak states, publicus pervasive one, associated royal property, law officials assemblies, small. 18 Ecclesiastical institutions added list, dependencies court, integral ‘topography power’ debates, face-to-face written, place. council/synod glance forum resolving ‘public’, state-related, issues, less monastic community, keeps mind extent state depended access ignored domain. Many gatherings, heresy deviant practice, used under heading ‘theology’, now become mainstream Meanwhile, specialism takes toll, remain rise dynamic phenomena. One example Leidulf Melve's Inventing Sphere (2007), audacious firmly agenda research last decade. Melve aims large corpus letters treatises investiture generated eleventh constitute beginnings (Teilöffentlichkeit) Jürgen Habermas's word, namely informally broadly engaged critical debate, creating kind state. modernists spent already sixteenth seventeenth centuries; similar vein, adapted model order applicable Curiously, invention according begins right domain starts disintegrate Wickham. surprising, two talking related, means identical matters. Wickham's interest coherence elite committed defined ruler presence terms good; reference members elites legitimate kings emperors. legacy Rome, dominated Europe millennium, in. By contrast, informal phenomenon, Teilöffentlichkeit, intermediate zone official, government-controlled hand private other. recently, explored emergence sphere, modest well, divorce Lothar II Theutberga main example. 19 limits, theory ‘already’ period, implicit assumptions inevitable modernity shape civil society. von Moos Öffentlichkeit German specific ideologically loaded concept, opposition publicly visible secret, societies. quite English connotations weal 20 diverging traditions usages taken account. Valiant attempts made neutral westernized flexible tool exploring ‘a collective improvements (the good) stake’, neither belongs official nor area life qualified ‘private’. 21 necessarily depend external touchstones mass distance centre power, rather internal processes categorization reflexivity, inviting good criteria inclusion exclusion. Shmuel Eisenstadt Wolfgang Sluchter, influence ‘rests interpretations vis-à-vis other’. 22 Attractive though concept get us further, predominantly negative meaning ‘private’ (privatus) 23 problem tendency restrict politics secular, laity. Does escapes confines reaches laymen? not. 24 several contributions will show, best approach wealth ruled abbots. current scholarship disputation, times interchangeably. Indeed difficult three historically accurate justice vocabulary ‘Debate’ tends generic term socially relevant, private, persons; conducted face-to-face, arguments. Ages, ‘debate’ umbrella wide catchment area: refer acts latter; discussed persons via long-term overlapping groups. case, predestination’, church property’, participants media. explained, range what them ‘public’ goal. typically all-purpose ‘dialogue’ ‘disputation’ indicate discussion. ultimate goal ideally) find truth, reached techniques persuasion. dialogus disputatio, Latin equivalents ‘disputation’, either format real, conversation, represented. 25 literature bound up conventions go back ‘Socratic tradition’ Plato's dialogues, understanding term. parlance, usually amicable mind, conversation partners aim answers, respect each other's position. encountered studies (modern) interreligious also, seen, veneration present-day scholars open-mindedness character Greek mean combative competitive type agreement certain issue, disputants strive win beat opponent verbal combat. difference thus clear: altercation, contest. Unfortunately neat accord Bede uses equivalent Isidore defines persons. 26 Our moreover, label disputatio tend call Disputatio de rhetorica et virtutibus, commonly translated ‘Dialogue virtues’, see lies. terminology offer inadequate tools analyse ideology reasons discourse grounded later outlined. 27 serve heuristic device want rules time, established norms behaviour (literary) governed discussed, pay close words used, understand themselves perceived activity Inspired publications, interested undeniable historiography. 28 But important rhetoric, strategies debates? Did matter arguments learned fashion, adversaries supporters entourages arbiters threatened create scandal disorder? answer tempted handbooks. Formally, bearing dialectic, ‘art disputation’. Rhetoric pertained continuous speeches, disputation. 29 Nevertheless, handbooks treat topics art types proof, courtroom markedly If look manuscripts known read Cicero's inventione (fourth the) anonymous Rhetorica Herennium (long ascribed Cicero), hardly annotations margin linked actual practice. often densely annotated, mid-ninth attests intensive study. findings would suggest dialectic better doubt, Every speech, orator, answers disputants, wants achieve anything all. Instead relying entirely handbooks, fruitful elsewhere models turned examples convince view. Here Pascentius, Jerome's invectives Vigilantius, 30 imagined Robin Whelan issue. undermine opponent. handy Literary representations Fathers heretical opponents, mentioned above, codices contained patristic reason, special Whelan's exploration focus. Irene van Renswoude explores enquiry (again) proceedings councils discusses possible ‘rules engagement’ confrontations. she concludes, altercations smaller ponderous setting synods proper. topic Rutger Kramer's contribution, investigates ordines maintaining institutionalized context actually push effectuate correctio. Janneke Raaijmakers reader court-connected Claudius Turin Dungal, Claudius's lasting reputation solitary Protestant avant la lettre making, Warren Pezé, move high-level biblical commentators competing favour fall-out predestination clerics. participate controversy same, Pezé tips iceberg. Finally, Mayke Jong's Epitaphium Arsenii, text politically divided 840s 850s commitment articulately expressed. Conflict raised awareness shared values elites, secular. denominator spell dialoguing debating alive kicking moved directions, led past. generally accepted idea Church’. contest notion, joined forces Church consisted ‘churches’, plural. Any ninth start departure: abstract monolithic institution, bustling local churches (monasteries, bishoprics, parishes, involving high low lay people), inserted controversies empires. Rethinking exactly new, when communities, concepts state, lot work done. contribute.
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