Rivers of Risk and Redemption in Gregory of Tours’ Writings
Ellen F. Arnold
Previous articleNext article FreeRivers of Risk and Redemption in Gregory Tours’ WritingsEllen F. ArnoldEllen Arnold Search for more articles by this author Ellen is Associate Professor History at Ohio Wesleyan University Delaware, OH (e-mail: [email protected])PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailQR Code SectionsMoreIn the fifth book his Franks, Tours recounts a series devastating river floods throughout southern Gaul: “In year reign King Childebert [580], great filled Auvergne, so much that twelve days rains did not stop. The floodwaters were they poured into Limagne—so badly many who had yet sown their grain unable do so. rivers Loire Flavaris (which called Allier) other rushing swelled up overran banks point never before been exceeded.”1 resulted loss cattle, crops, infrastructure, including damages city walls Lyons. these damaging as part narrative omens disaster. This flood was also reported Marius Avenches, wrote, “in month October, territory Vallensi, Rhone flooded, amount harvest ruined: within Italy flooded farmers suffered ruin.”2 According Gregory, 580 saw possible meteorite fall near Tours, an earthquake Bordeaux accompanied rockfalls fires no clear cause, must have “stirred God.” Orleans burnt down, Bourges “struck hail.” disaster followed disease—an epidemic dysentery struck “all Gaul.”3River play similar starring role HF 5.41, where again compiles omens, time datable between 581 583. These portents included wolf entered Poitiers, destructive wind, fiery skies, strange behavior roosters, flooding: “The higher than before, waters reached all way down confluence with Cher. … moon darkened, comet appeared. A plague amongst people followed.”4 Though Michael McCormick et al. demonstrated Gregory’s reports noteworthy seasonal 580s are reinforced dendrochronological data, historicity my primary concern. Instead, I am interested understanding how tales fit environmental imagination—how he encouraged readers perceive Gaul landscape full routine risks—risks could be mitigated through actions local communities bishops superseded direct intervention Martin saints Gaul.Gregory (538–94) means neglected figure; both later medieval writers modern scholars depended heavily on interpretations early Francia, volume quality writing make voice one most resonant historians hagiographers. As Thomas Noble notes, “simultaneously essential, intriguing, maddening,”5 almost medievalists wrestled prolific bishop. place survey different aspects world explored historians, Latinists, religious scholars; such effort would, fact, require its own.6 would like focus here aspect has thus far, surprisingly, largely neglected: representation perception natural water.Fig. 1. Key mentioned text.View Large ImageDownload PowerPointDespite writing, works remain untapped descriptions overlooked scholars. There few general exceptions broad lack attention nature. first disease look examples phenomena. For example, Tim Newfield Peregrine Horden discussed work evidence infectious diseases (both human animal).7 Christian Rohr provides extensive example surveys disasters. Rohr, points out surprising events, concludes despite some stories from earlier link catastrophe meaningful historical reaches own era, disasters become fully realistically described. believes only careful witness reporter but “unmistakable interest events.”8There De cursu stellarum, treatise astronomy, though it received less might expect. Stephen C. McCluskey’s highlights trajectory ancient astronomical treatises knowledge.9 Finally, another exception lies two scholar patristics Giselle de Nie use astronomy springboards discussions waters, trees, seeds, extraordinary phenomena writing. pieces provide thorough assessment will understandings miracles, baptism, spiritual redemption ways which God used signs prodigies warnings.10 Yet Nie’s flew under radar scholarship, part, perhaps, because written 1979 1985, when history infancy, emerged recognized field.11 And revisit build themes, increased awareness history, ecocriticism, degree engaged actors ecosystems.De just published new edition translation miracle collections, making her nod rest corpus.12 Danuta Shanzer observed, miracles long taken back seat: “Time mind, Histories precedence. reasons clear. They Big Book narrates important political events.”13 traces since publication Peter Brown’s translations Edward James Raymond van Dam, notes (as arguably true hagiography general), “Virtually everyone (and really mean historians) taps Miracles vertically little regard pattern continuity.”14All told, spite scholarly projects pay cities, cult centers, church urban landscapes intersect, very, very paid environment.15 Ian Wood’s reconstruction spaces asking questions about geography relative location Gallic fails discuss (with single Rhone, relevant undermines buildings Vienne). His map even mislabels Rhone!16 An equally striking absence nature 2002 collection World includes essays explicitly devoted agricultural or representations nature.17 Nancy Gauthier’s essay continuity economic change does address can understand transformation, she rivers, decision emphasize importance. “the River Ouche wealth fish,” description Dijon environment, particularly fields, waters. writes addition fish-filled Ouche, “another small (fluviolum) comes north. Entering gate, passing bridge, leaves flowing gentle waves around city’s defenses. Moreover, turns watermills gate wondrous speed.”18 Gautier discusses passage, claims “emphasizes walls,” paying elements finds central.19The centrality imagination suggested prominence (real allegorical) structure organization work. He opens paradise quickly discussion water blood Christ’s Passion. links sacrifice salvific flow body paradise, names four-fold Lamb.”20 After recounting Fall, moves briskly accounts Flood (1.4) Red Sea (1.10). ends 1 account Saint Martin’s moving along Vienne Elisha’s rainmaking opening chapter 2. then 3 there hard winter, harsher normal, ice froze swift-flowing solid, offered solid purchase if earth.”21 middle books begin end life events powerful people, returns using structural guides, noting flooding 9.44. penultimate entire horrible weather 591, outbreaks. intense drought animal murrains torrential rains: hay destroyed downpours rain swelling failed, vines hand abundance; acorns grew harvested.”22The Rhine, appear dominant receive attention, following name: Aisne, Allier, Cher, Clain, Dordogne, Garonne, Isère, Jordan, Main, Marne, Mayenne, Mosel, Nile, Orge, Oust, Saȏne, Scheldt, Seine, Suzon, Tiber, Unstrut, Vienne, Woëvre.23 Jordan belong discourse sacral topography extends beyond Gaul, majority Gallic. course pages sites battles, conduits trade travel, parts often hostile dangerous world. crossed armies, bishops, pilgrims, fishermen, flooding, freezing, steady backdrop narrates. So why apparently invisible historians?Surveys turn hardly any Tours. In what sure field’s standard reference work, Environmental Medieval Europe, Richard Hoffmann mentions twice, John Aberth’s Middle Ages, completely absent.24 Perhaps pre-Christian cults, André Guillerme cites passage study urbanism France.25 conversations McCormick’s products, seriously contend context focused issue disasters.26 overall, (I suspect) viewed dynastic political. ignored elaborated elsewhere.27Turning our vital deepen lived experience influenced concepts spirituality, meaning lives deaths Gaul. It help us better practical cultural responses risk hazard, well complex interacted responded environments.“I judge things know”: Experiencing EnvironmentIn (historical, hagiographical, scientific) we encounter allows individual experiences share page collective memory previous literary works. occasionally tells set far-off landscapes, focuses places closely identified with. Helmut Reimitz, discussing History, “from beginning book, reporting narrative, presents himself bishop prestigious influential figures kingdom. We may therefore assume Spielräume—his room/s manoeuvre author—were related social experience.”28Gregory’s relatives towns, monasteries, knew intimately. pointed earliest hagiographical attempts, shrine-based Julian (VSJ), “Gregory sets ball rolling autobiographical epigraphic invention Julian’s head Vienne. centre walk-ons cameos reveal family’s cults saint.”29 She makes assertion Life Fathers (VP), connecting devotion directly idea holy space: Mediterranean desert feats ascetics bishops. But private aim commemorating members family.”30 Lewis Thorpe, translator densest occur contexts familiar Thorpe that, while rich vibrant, “when find ourselves Barcelona Bellinzona Carthage ample opportunity colour large scale, himself, take it.”31Though lacking outside traveled it. bishop, extensively bishopric, kingdom attendee councils events. Halfond “traveling bishops” Merovingian episcopal obligations connected roads, waterways territories. Furthermore, “these men stature” comfort, immune realities discomfort travel.32 firsthand knowledge describes works, world, seems quite accurate. is, indeed, moment observation northern lights (8.17). Carignan Ardennes them three consecutive nights, providing colorful dynamic description. suggests “is testimony intellectual honesty capable considering partly explanation which, confesses, frightened him much.”33In treatise, stellarum ratio (CS), produced star table intended determine monastic services. drew Roman observation. McCluskey argues “was merely repeating material; reflect application observations problem regulating prayer.” adds monastery “on north bank offers unrestricted view horizon presumes.”34 Halfond’s significance across echoes point, asserts bulk recorded Historiae ones theory, able observe eyes.”35Christian showed wide regular irregular atlas CS based precise off traditional patterns.”36 examining disastrous flash 563, characterizes “exceptionally realistic” depiction subsequent landslides happen.37 unlikely site, settings probably personal knowledge.Gregory’s friend, poet hagiographer Venantius Fortunatus, gives further familiarity authors travel. poem superlative qualities (exaggerated!) Fortunatus fends rightful disbelief claiming personally river: “I it; know.”38 instance, recalled trip Mosel patrons, abbess/queen Radegund daughter Agnes. shows energy violence storms reminder eloquent voices rarely survive befall anyone happen instant. writes: driven wearily craft danger, fierce driving North wind turned upside raised billows curled threateningly; holding agitated floods; forth invaded fresh terrain.” If anything, flood) worsened. “As entrusted ragged roaring torrent here, unfettered storm raged terrifying blasts stern rise bow fell liquid peaks, climbing watery paths mountain-mass shifted; boat held atop swirling eddy, sailor occupied clouds, then, back, returned fields.”39 Unsurprisingly, given description, stormy, shipwrecks poets hagiographers alike.Gregory, too, near-shipwreck victim. incident Garonne (discussed below) stands out, time. While visiting royal court Koblenz, involved nighttime crossing took care note town castle named streams Rhine equally, joined together place.”40 late night court, headed after dark “hit upon shore prepared him.” got in, alongside “a random suddenly people.” believed relics carried protected him, returning hastily shore, drained stream.”41As charged upkeep infrastructure daily economy riverine concerns. Throughout tended towards presenting navigation unsafe obstacles stability. explicating relations God, saints, nature, behavior, sees potentially salvific—rivers springs protect just, punish wicked, offer renewal communities. experienced miracle, understood him. oppositional, hazards potential salvation belief worked actively supernatural worlds. Equally importantly, however, remind everyday environments shaped divine, abbots, leaders ideals communities’ material concerns success.The Mosel—a Risk?The present appearing active site connection travelers miraculous. risk. setting emphasizes associated society dependent communications.Early on) hundreds major minor rivers. Rivers trade, communications, development. Boats plied routinely rivers—in smaller boats importance regional linked network times. With afforded fuller glimpse travel exists until Carolingian era Continent 1000 England.42 Premodern industry. speak “unregulated” compared today, fact altered regulated enhance usefulness growing cities. Early built canals, constructed mills millraces, dammed create millponds fishponds, temporary permanent fishing shorelines.43 Bridges, ports transformed access aided navigation. By 500s, short, deeply enmeshed residents central towns.Yet need cautious here; source vitality, stable. dams, weirs, bridges brought closer contact dynamics increasing likelihood disruptions system. Seasonal snow melts normal erratic patterns unregulated meant downstream commonplace. Carolingian-era annals include something frequency experienced. ninth century alone, report eighteen separate years floods, heavy rains, forth; several see multiple chronicles same flood, suggesting either ubiquity geographic extent those (or both). Sometimes, claim extensiveness made directly, 834, Annals Xanten year, whole earth greatly water.” frequently, seem show sober scale caused large-scale floods. annalist 864 “that extended Rhine’s channel far Xanten,” presumably infrastructure.44Yet damaging, catastrophic. moderns highly controlled riverscapes, always case. Petra Van Dam premodern European “amphibious”—adapting changing waterscapes surrounded them.45 risk, Christopher Gerrard David Petley “several features agrarian household Europe served buffer ‘slow-onset’ failures,” and, suggest, flooding.46 Even so, presented problems communities, risks interrupted disrupted fisheries, muddy fields extreme washed-out crossings, damaged bridges, lost life.One river. writings late-antique writers, fertile lush, lifeline economy, pride, identity, whose key cities villas perched, traffic empire flowed. main stage poems stories. best known Ausonius’s fourth Mosella, 438-line ostensibly hymn praise river, Ausonius feature shaping identity. complicated rich, representative people. “ship-bearing sea, sloping gliding thy crystal depths peer lakes, brooks [it could] match hurrying flow, cool surpass limpid draughts.”47 poem, recognizes riverscape mountains, fish, plants, animals, lushly imagined, products bounty, ingenuity, belonging, play.Gregory’s friend he, shipwreck drowning, tempted power beauty ruins restored. On voyage immortalized verse, noted passed Trier give power. round sides crags threatening heights, sharp rocks pierce rugged stretch lofty rock, rough outcrops, rises stars. unyielding stones free without fruit; indeed fruitful wine…. [P]atches cultivated shine amidst savage rocks.”48 described bounty Metz. metaphor, clearly appreciated valued sake: “With stream Moselle spreads main, softly rolls water; laps banks, scented verdant sward, wave gently washes grassy blades.”49Gregory’s hand, pastoral. similarly visible, ruptured. constantly fluctuating changeable—unpredictable disruptive. strike, nearly sunk. infrastructural safety, fits unremarkably hagiographic tradition exploring against life. (VSM) story details transit. salt merchant Metz, docked Mos
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