PMC4811296_01
The Neolithic mound of Barcin Hoyuk, western Turkey: a seven meter high elevation of cultural layers for more than 7000 years (photo F. Gerritsen)
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Fig1
It is the oldest Neolithic site in the region, making it of particular interest regarding the spread of farming from the regions of origin (southeast and central Anatolia) to northwest Anatolia (Fig. 1).
The relations between natural selection and niche construction through time showing two different outcomes, the genetic and ecological inheritance. In the latter process human interference through social learning and physical elements will add an ecological inheritance to the next cycle of natural selection and niche construction (after Kendal et al.)
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Fig2
In standard evolutionary theory (SET) environmental change depends exclusively on environmental states, evolutionary change in organisms relates to both organisms' states and environmental states, while adaptive evolutionary change is assumed to be governed by natural selection alone (Fig. 2). The ecological inheritance can be comprised in a form of behaviour (semantic information), through social learning, and by material culture, the so called physical resources of inheritance (e.g. artefacts) (Fig. 2).
Map of Europe with locations of four geoarchaeological and landscape archaeological case studies presented in this paper
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Fig3
In Western-Turkey, Barcin Hoyuk is a 8500 year old Neolithic mound (6500 cal BC) which has been (geo-) archaeologically explored over the past years (3. in Fig. 3; Gerritsen et al.; Groenhuijzen et al.). The Netherlands, North Sea Region, as well as a case studies from the Mediterranean area (Greece) are presented to examine and illustrate the potential of geoarchaeology and landscape archaeology for NCT (Fig. 3). In terms of coastal management it can be stated that people at that time were reactive (in a passive mode) against the threat of the rising water (Fig. 3).
Schematic diagram shows change in reaction of humans against rising sea level and coastal hazards throughout the Holocene in the Netherlands (adapted from Borger et al.)
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Fig4
Already 2000 years ago human influence had become a dominant factor in steering natural processes in the coastal zone (De Gans; Vos and Van Heeringen; de Ridder, Fig. 4). Around 2000 years ago humans changed their attitude against coastal defence: instead of just reacting to higher water levels by raising surface level in a passive mode they changed to a proactive way of water management during Roman times and even earlier such as the construction of dams, dikes, dwelling mounds (the first since 2500-2600 BP) and canals (De Gans; De Ridder, Fig. 4).
Storm surge barrier in the 'Oosterschelde' estuary, signature of coastal defence after 1953 disaster that flooded the south-western part of the Netherlands (Zeeland; photo A.M.J. de Kraker)
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Fig5
Until now, these structures are the ultimate pro-active response of humans to sea level rise and coastal defence issues (Fig. 5; Borger et al.).
Southern lake shore of Lake Kalodiki where cored sediments show evidence of deforestation and increased runoff in the past. The increased runoff has most likely resulted in the deposition of slope fans that have reached the lake shore as is shown in the picture (photo R. Lelivelt)
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Fig6
The lithostratigraphical profiles of cored sediments demonstrated changing sedimentary environments within this time period (Fig. 6).