TEXT: Warrior 
  OSPREY 
  Kampfflieger: 
  Bomber Crewman of 
  the Luftwaffe 1939-45 
  Robert Stedman • Illustrated by Adam Hook 
  
  ROBERT STEDMAN is 
  a regular contributor to 
  international militaria 
  magazines and works as 
  a military advisor to TV, film 
  and theatre. Currently living 
  in the south of England, 
  Robert is a passionate 
  collector of First and Second 
  World War military uniforms 
  and equipment, and enjoys 
  restoring uniforms 
  in his spare time. 
  ADAM HOOK studied graphic 
  design, and began his work 
  as an illustrator in 1983. 
  He specializes in detailed 
  historical reconstructions, 
  and has illustrated Osprey 
  titles on the Aztecs, the 
  Greeks, the American Civil 
  War and the American 
  Revolution. His work features 
  in exhibitions and publications 
  throughout the world. 
  
  Warrior • 99 
  Kampfflieger: 
  Bomber Crewman of 
  the Luftwaffe 1939-45 
  Robert Stedman • Illustrated by Adam Hook 
  
  James Gardner (27/7/1914-31/12/2004) 
  Palestine 1934-35, Shanghai 1935-39, 
  with the BEF 1939, Dunkirk 1940, 
  Western Desert 1942-43, NW Europe 1944-45. 
  
  CONTENTS 
  INTRODUCTION 
  4 
  Kampfflieger 
  CHRONOLOGY 
  5 
  RECRUITMENT AND ENLISTMENT 
  6 
  Conscription 
  CONDITIONS OF SERVICE 
  8 
  Accommodation and food • Time off and discipline • Pay • Leave • Women • Promotion 
  TRAINING 
  12 
  Pilot selection • Pilot specialization • Aircrew selection • Aircrew specialization 
  APPEARANCE AND EQUIPMENT 
  18 
  Service dress and insignia • Aircrew badges • Awards • Flight gear • Organization 
  BELIEF AND BELONGING 
  23 
  Comrades • Estrangement and resentment • Coping strategies 
  ON CAMPAIGN 
  26 
  Logistics • Western Europe • Africa • The Russian Front • Mediterranean Theatre 
  BATTLE 
  41 
  Preparation • Take-off • Flight and navigation • Flak and fighter defences 
  Bomb-run and observation • Heading home • Damage • Landing 
  Evasion and capture • Casualties 
  BIBLIOGRAPHY 
  59 
  COLOUR PLATE COMMENTARY 
  59 
  INDEX 
  64 
  
  KAMPFFLIEGER: 
  BOMBER CREWMAN OF THE 
  LUFTWAFFE 1939-45 
  INTRODUCTION 
  The death of Generalleutnant Walter Wever in June 1936 effectively 
  sealed the fate of the Luftwaffe bomber arm. As Chief-of-Staff, 
  Wever foresaw the need for a long-range Luft-operationsarmee 
  (strategic air army) capable of destroying an enemy's industrial heart. 
  His successor, Albert Kesselring, instead evolved a vast fleet of 
  general-purpose medium bombers, functioning primarily in the 
  operational role. This was a kind of 'tactically strategic' force, intended 
  only to cripple enemy communications, supply lines and industry just 
  long enough to influence the outcome of a specific offensive. 
  The 
  purely 
  tactical operations would be 
  covered 
  by 
  the 
  Sturzkampfflugzeug (dive-bomber), in which the high command invested 
  near total faith. High-altitude bombing was considered costly and 
  imprecise, with much, if not all, of the bomb load falling wide of 
  its intended target (as later evidenced by the comparatively 
  messy Allied bombing patterns). The Stuka offered far 
  greater accuracy in return for a modest outlay in 
  aircraft, ordnance, fuel and personnel, and almost 
  eliminated the risk of damaging non-military areas. 
  Convinced of its war-winning properties by 
  operational trials in Spain, the Reichs Luftfahrt 
  Ministerium 
  (air ministry) 
  cancelled 
  all 
  long-range bomber developments in favour of 
  the 
  Stuka. 
  Dive 
  capability 
  became 
  a 
  prerequisite of all future bomber designs, and 
  was eagerly applied to anything that might be 
  capable of withstanding such 
  extreme 
  manoeuvres; even existing heavy-bombers 
  were modified 
  and tested, often 
  with 
  predictably tragic results. Consequently, the 
  Kampfgeschwadern (bomber squadrons) were 
  only ever equipped for rapid, but ultimately 
  \ 
  unsustainable, victory. 
  Kampfflieger 
  (bomber crewman) 
  Typically aged 18-21, the earliest recruits were 
  drawn from military families of good breeding, 
  usually the sons of Prussian career officers. Other 
  promising recruits came from army and naval 
  training academies. Officer-cadet Hajo Herrmann was 
  personally invited by Goring himself (while mounted on 
  horseback), as he crawled through an infantry exercise 
  'If I were to depict the face of 
  a Hun airman ... I should paint a 
  half-witted, leering, vicious face, 
  chosen from the denizens of 
  a lunatic asylum, roaring with 
  laughter as it tosses out its 
  missiles...' 
  words attributed 
  to 'Archbishop Partridge of 
  Portsmouth', in Der Adler 
  magazine, 1940. In reality the 
  Luftwaffe Kampfflieger was 
  little different from his Allied 
  counterpart. Far from home and 
  missing his family, he too served 
  his country, simply hoping to get 
  through it all. 
  
  in 1935. Once the nucleus was formed, 
  anyone who displayed the necessary level 
  of intelligence, commitment and initiative 
  was considered, regardless of background. 
  This particular branch of the Wehrmacht 
  (armed forces) attracted men of all social, 
  educational and economic backgrounds, 
  from shoemaker to count. While each was 
  shaped by his own unique circumstance, 
  experiences and decisions, they shared a 
  common thread in their desire to fly. 
  While some were immediately captivated 
  by bombers, a large proportion had 
  initially dreamed of becoming fighter 
  pilots. Those found 
  temperamentally 
  unsuited to this vocation were instead 
  redirected to train on multi-engine types. Although initially a 
  disappointment, this was in fact a great compliment to their technical 
  skills. The Luftwaffe saw the bomber arm as the true key to victory, and 
  the best recruits were thus guided to this elite corps. The fighter pilot 
  was an inventive, perhaps impulsive flyer, while service as a bomber 
  crewman demanded a far more deliberate and calculating approach. 
  They soon came to appreciate and enjoy their more interesting tasks. 
  Some aspired to command, while others were just happy to fly in 
  whatever capacity they could. Whatever their motivation, and however 
  they got there, these highly skilled and versatile men formed the very 
  backbone of the offensive air arm and took great pride in the fact that 
  they were Kampfflieger. 
  Kampfflugzeug crew, c. 1940-41. 
  The need for spectacles initially 
  eliminated a man's chances of 
  aircrew service, but wartime 
  needs led to a very slight 
  relaxation in this ruling. The 
  fact that the observer, an 
  Oberleutnant, greatly outranks 
  the Unteroffizier pilot may 
  seem surprising, but such 
  combinations were not 
  uncommon. 
  CHRONOLOGY 
  1 March 1935 
  13 August 1936 
  Jan-Feb 1937 
  February 1938 
  1 May 1939 
  26 September 1939 
  13 August 1940 
  30 August 1940 
  December 1940 
  16 January 1941 
  6 April 1941 
  31 May 1941 
  Luftwaffe publicly announced, new 
  uniform adopted. 
  First bombing, two Ju52s damage 
  Spanish Republican cruiser Jaime I. 
  Debut of Do17 and He111 with 
  Legion Condor. 
  Debut of Ju87, attack Teruel, Spain. 
  Kampf- and Stukageschwadern 
  raised from existing Gruppen. 
  Debut of Ju88, attack on HMS Ark 
  Royal and Hood. 
  'Adler tag' (Eagle Day), campaign to 
  destroy RAF. 
  Ju87 withdrawn from Kanalkampf 
  due to unacceptable losses. 
  Arrival in Mediterranean. 
  Bombing of Malta begins (becoming 
  the most bombed area on earth). 
  Operation Marita, simultaneous 
  invasions of Yugoslavia and Greece. 
  Accidental bombing of Dublin. 
  German government later pays 
  compensation to Eire government. 
  22 June 1941 
  Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of 
  Russia, is launched. 
  23 April 1942 
  Retaliatory 'Baedeker raids' 
  commenced against historic British 
  cities following Lubeck raid. 
  28 June 1942 
  Operation Blau, advances into 
  Sevastopol, Caucasus and 
  Don regions. 
  July 1942 
  Debut of only four-engine long-range 
  bomber, He177. 
  5 July 1943 
  Operation Zitadelle, the Kursk 
  offensive, begins. 
  21 January 1944 
  Operation Steinbock, limited reprise 
  of campaign against Britain. 
  21/22 June 1944 
  200 He111s of KG53 and 55 destroy 
  47 USAAF bombers and 15 fighters 
  on Poltava airfield, Russia, following 
  Berlin 'shuttle-raid' from UK. 
  December 1944 
  Debut of world's first jet-bomber, 
  Ar234. 
  7 March 1945 
  Ar234s commence ten-day attack on 
  Remagen Bridge. 
  
  RECRUITMENT AND ENLISTMENT 
  Politics undeniably played a major role in the lives of everyone in 1930s 
  Germany (insofar as they could hardly be avoided or ignored), but 
  contrary to Hitler's claim of having 'a National Socialist air force', the 
  average Kampfflieger held little or no particular interest in such matters, 
  outside their immediate effect upon his family and way of life. 
  Having been completely dissolved after the First World War, the 
  Luftwaffe had nothing to inherit from the old Reichswehr, and so this 
  branch of the armed forces naturally had to be regenerated under 
  government sponsorship. In that respect, it was indeed a National 
  Socialist air force, but few men joined for political reasons. Whether 
  they condoned, despised or were ambivalent toward Nazi policies, most 
  believed 
  that 
  the 
  NSDAP 
  (Nationalsozialistische 
  Deutsche 
  Arbeiterpartei, or NS German workers' party) offered Germany her best 
  hope of economic recovery. On a personal level, it would grant them 
  their only realistic chance of fulfilling their desire to fly. A degree of 
  National Socialist affiliation, therefore, seemed a small price to pay for 
  this privilege. 
  The miseries of depression, hyperinflation and Allied repression 
  throughout the 1920s drove many to seek an escape. They found it in 
  the skies. Initially, model aeroplane clubs were formed by small groups 
  of enthusiasts, soon growing into a popular and cheap hobby, with 
  countless meetings and distance-flying competitions later organized 
  throughout the Reich. Design, experimentation and construction of 
  these models provided a sound understanding of basic flight principles, 
  and several innovative ideas were thus born. Many future aircraft 
  engineers shared this background. The progression to gliding schools 
  {Segelschulen) quickly followed and flying became almost a national 
  pursuit, indeed, an obsession, with some 4,000 gliding clubs and fields 
  blossoming across Germany and Austria. Instructors were generally First 
  World War Fliegerkorps veterans. Flying provided German people with 
  the physical and spiritual means to leave their troubles on the ground, 
  and there was never a shortage of applicants. The government 
  enthusiastically encouraged membership, and soon formed the 
  Deutsche Luftsportverband (German air sports association), an overtly 
  paramilitary gliding and powered flight organization that would nurture 
  the nucleus of the Luftwaffe. 
  The covering organization for the fledgling air force was the 
  Lufthansa Verkehrsfliegerschule (commercial flying school) founded in 
  Berlin. The examiners could afford to be extremely selective and failure 
  rates were often above 90 per cent. During 1932 for example, over 4,000 
  had applied for pilot training. Following the ten-day course of entrance 
  exams, just 18 were accepted (one of whom was the 20-year-old Adolf 
  Galland, later one of the finest aces of the Second World War). This 
  deliberate and far-sighted policy ensured that the future Luftwaffe 
  would be built around a truly elite core; only the very best were available 
  to form the pre-war and early wartime Geschwadern (squadrons). 
  Conscription 
  Publicly announced 16 March 1935, the conscription of all German males 
  between the ages of 18 and 26 for compulsory military service was ratified 
  
  by the official Wehrgesetz (Military Service Act) 
  that followed on 21 March. Conscripts were 
  initially required to serve for one year, but this 
  was extended to two years from 24 August 1936. 
  Older men, aged between 27 and 35, were 
  evaluated for training in the Ersatzreserve I 
  (Primary Replacement Reserve). This training, 
  broken into several five to eight week periods, 
  usually totalled 
  28 weeks. Upon 
  com-
  pletion, these men could be advanced to 
  Unterofftzierschule as NCO candidates. 
  The arrival of the Kriegsbeorderung (call-up 
  paper) did not, however, mean immediate 
  enlistment. Prior to his commencement of 
  military service, from the age of 17 years, every man was obliged to fulfil 
  Reichsarbeitsdienst (Labour Service duty), the purpose of which was 
  two-fold. During the six-month compulsory service, he would be 
  actively involved in the construction of public facilities, monuments 
  and Autobahn motorways. In later years, Allied air raids diverted efforts 
  away from building a model European nation, to rebuilding the 
  existing one. RAD service typically involved the reconstruction of 
  bomb-damaged factories and constant improvements to 'Festungs 
  Europa' (Fortress Europe) costal defences. In addition to preserving 
  and protecting the Reich, RAD duty greatly enhanced fitness and 
  stamina among the military-aged male population, preparing them 
  both physically and mentally for service life. Essentially, this was basic 
  training, during which the future recruit took part in regular route 
  marches and sporting competitions. He mastered the rudiments of foot 
  drill and even the manual of arms, through the slightly peculiar 
  Spatenexerzieren (spade drill), often considered more difficult than rifle 
  drill proper. Herr Walter Glomp recalls that the soldier had to 
  remember to rotate the shovel sufficiently 'to avoid striking his own 
  head and shins with the blade'. 
  The conscript had no choice in the path his military service would 
  take, but was posted in accordance with prevailing Wehrmacht 
  requirements. With the start of war, the two-year time limitation was 
  suspended and conscripts (along with everybody else) were obliged to 
  serve for the duration of hostilities. The wartime conscript could still 
  volunteer for extended duty (from four-and-a-half years to 'lifetime' 
  service), beyond the cessation of war, although such a desire could only 
  be voiced during his first two years of service. Those electing for a 
  post-war career greatly improved their prospects for promotion. 
  Men who voluntarily enlisted prior to National Service age, or for 
  a longer period than required by law, enjoyed the privilege of the 
  choice of arm in which they could serve, and could even specify a 
  specialist unit (such as tanks, submarines, aircrew, for example). 
  Specific service could not be guaranteed, however, and those 
  fortunate enough to reach their desired posting were still subject to 
  appropriate medical and aptitude tests. The very act of volunteering 
  revealed an acceptance of military discipline, and these men were 
  generally rewarded with a significantly reduced RAD service 
  requirement of as little as two months. 
  German youths were enticed to 
  the bomber arm by songs such 
  as 'Stuka Vor!' (Stukas up front!), 
  'Rot Scheint die Sonne' (Red 
  shines the sun) and the urgent 
  'Bomben auf Engeland!' (Bombs 
  over England), a song hated by 
  battle weary aircrews for its 
  jingoism. Cinematic epics such 
  as 'Feuerstaufe' (Baptism of 
  Fire), 'Kampfgeschwader Lutzow' 
  and 'Stukas' were extremely 
  successful recruiting vehicles. 
  
  The recruits' previous RAD 
  service greatly eased the 
  instructors' task, but there 
  might still be an 'Uhrmacher' 
  (clockmaker) among them 
  to make repeated mistakes. 
  Others became 'Bettenbauer' 
  (bed-makers), akin to the 
  American Gl chant, 'he found a 
  home in the army!' Close-order 
  drill ensures full concentration, 
  as the consequences of one 
  man breaking step would be 
  extremely messy. 
  Mannschaften (other ranks) who had already signed up for an agreed 
  duration of at least four-and-a-half years (prior to the introduction of 
  conscription) were only classed as career soldiers after two years' service. 
  Service with the old Reichswehr (imperial defence), Fliegerschaft 
  (flying service) or the police forces prior to 1 March 1935 was counted 
  toward this obligation. 
  Those who wished to serve as Unteroffiziere (non-commissioned 
  officers) had, since the time of the Reichswehr, been required to sign up 
  for at least 12 years' service. This could originally be extended, in two-year 
  increments, up to 18 years, but this option was suspended in October 
  1939. NCOs who were technically eligible for discharge due to pre-war 
  service could not be released during wartime unless considered unfit. 
  Career officers were required to sign up for an unspecified period of 
  service, with each officer rank carrying its own obligatory retirement 
  age. An officer could be discharged, in peacetime only, if he was 
  considered unsuitable for promotion to the next grade. The maximum 
  retirement age was 65 years. 
  CONDITIONS OF SERVICE 
  Accommodation and food 
  General living conditions within a home Kaserne (barracks) were usually 
  very good. The six-man Stuben (rooms) were adequately furnished with a 
  table, chairs and iron-framed beds, with sheets and blankets, spaced a 
  regulation 80cm apart (the width of each man's locker). A Stubenalteste 
  (senior man), appointed from each Stubenbelegschaft (room complement), 
  was directly responsible to the Staffelkapitan for his comrades' adherence 
  to daily orders, duties and room cleanliness. Communal 
  ablutions rooms (with hot water) boasted several large 
  wash fountains, showers and sometimes baths. 
  Meals were generally of a good standard, although 
  portions were reduced under wartime restrictions, 
  freeing supplies for fighting troops. For Essenaugabe fur 
  Fruhost (early watch, i.e. breakfast) one could expect 
  bread rolls, coffee and preserves, while main meals 
  tended toward soups and casseroles, usually with a high 
  potato content. Sausages naturally featured in the weekly 
  diet, which included the traditional Sonntagsbraten 
  (Sunday roast) of beef with vegetables. Flieger Gerhard 
  Adam found his rations sufficient, 'but the young are 
  always hungry, we could have eaten more'. 
  Time off and discipline 
  The limited leisure time was usually filled by writing 
  letters home, or playing billiards and the ever popular 
  card game Skat. Some continued their model-making 
  hobby, the more accomplished craftsmen 
  often 
  producing recognition models. Several bases provided 
  facilities for photography, reading and various artistic 
  pursuits, and perhaps a gymnasium. Men of a musical or 
  thespian bent naturally gave impromptu performances 
  
  Well-armed pay clerks collect 
  wages from the Rechnungsfuhrer 
  (pay master), Crete, May 1942. 
  Note the special lockable cases, 
  heavily embossed 'Eigentum 
  Luftwaffe' (air force property), 
  carried by the sergeants for 
  secure transportation of 
  currency. The Tropenhelm 
  (topees) here appear to be the 
  olive-green Heer (Army) pattern, 
  fitted with Luftwaffe insignia, 
  issued to air force personnel 
  prior to adoption of their own 
  version. 
  for roommates and were frequently cajoled into organizing concert 
  parties (painfully familiar to most servicemen). Frontline bases were 
  regularly visited by travelling libraries and bookshops, music or theatre 
  companies and occasionally even mobile cinemas. In 1939 Goring barred 
  all servicemen from smoking in public and although available in the 
  Kasino (mess), alcohol was strictly rationed, with excessive drunkenness 
  resulting in up to 48 hours' incarceration. Even when relaxing at an 
  off-base bar, the need for sobriety in the morning meant things rarely got 
  out of hand. 
  For those who did transgress, typical punishments included extra 
  duties, confinement to barracks and, during flight training, push-ups 
  and airfield laps with parachutes strapped to their backs. Untidiness, 
  lateness or dereliction of duty drew similar punishment, with more 
  serious offences invoking temporary pay deductions or leave 
  cancellation. Discipline was firm but essentially fair, and most men came 
  to respect and value their NCOs for their even-handedness. 
  Pay 
  Luftwaffe personnel were paid on or about the 10th, 20th and 30th of 
  each month. The airman's Besoldung (salary) comprised many elements 
  and varied greatly, depending on allowances and conditions. Besides his 
  Grundgehalt (basic salary), during peacetime or non-active service, he 
  might receive Wohnungsgeld zuschutz (lodgings allowance), to cover 
  accommodation where billeting was unavailable. Personnel stationed 
  in Berlin, Hamburg and Vienna received an additional Ortliche 
  Sonderzuschlage (regional special surcharge), at three per cent of the 
  basic wage, because of the higher cost of living in those cities. Specialist 
  qualifications might entitle him to Gehaltz-Zuschutz (pay contributions), 
  whereas disciplinary fines or service loan repayments were covered by 
  Gehaltz-Kurzung (pay deductions). Berufssoldaten (professional soldiers) 
  were subject to a one per cent Lohnsteuer (income tax), calculated on a 
  Tagesatz (daily rate) and deducted on payment days (50 pfenning per 
  diem for Flieger, 75 pf for Gefreite, etc.), but this did not apply to 
  wartime conscripts. 
  Based on mid-war scales, the average Flieger started on 65 
  Reichsmarke (RM) per month, while a Gefreiter made 77 RM and an 
  
  Obergefreiter 98-105 RM. By the time he made Hauptgefreiter, his 
  income had almost doubled to 118.70 RM. 
  NCOs of Unteroffizier and Unterfeldwebel rank made around 
  128-160 RM and 170-180 RM respectively. Feldwebeln received a 
  modest increase to 195 RM, whereas Oberfeldwebel took just 5 RM 
  more. A Hauptfeldwebel was originally paid the same as an 
  Oberfeldwebel, plus a 5 RM monthly bonus (totalling 205 RM), but in 
  May 1942, his basic was raised to 250 RM and the bonus system 
  scrapped. The Stabsfeldwebel earned between 212.50 and 244.50 RM 
  per month after 13 to 18 years' service. 
  Officers' pay scales featured a notable stepped system, producing a 
  degree of overlap with wages of some higher or lower ranks. The lowest-
  grade Leutnant curiously received the same pay and allowances as an 
  Oberfeldwebel, while the remaining six grades rose in increments, of 
  around 25 RM each, to 300 RM. The lowest of four Oberleutnant grades 
  started on 283.34 RM, again rising in 25 RM steps to 350 RM. Three 
  Hauptmann grades rose neatly from 400, to 500 and 575 RM, while a 
  Major enjoyed a respectable 641.67 to 700 RM per month. The highest-
  paid 'frontline' officers were Oberstleutnant on 808.34 RM, and Oberst 
  with 1,050 RM. 
  A man's precise grade was chiefly dictated by the number of children 
  he had. In military service he was fed, clothed and housed by the 
  Wehrmacht, and the state family allowance was therefore reduced by ten 
  per cent. Child benefits were also reduced according to the size of his 
  family; by six per cent for one or two children, or three per cent for 
  three or four, but these deductions were amply compensated for by 
  military Kinderzuschlage (child allowance), based on a percentage of his 
  lodgings allowance. As a reward and incentive to procreation (supplying 
  more Aryans for the Reich), families of five or more incurred no 
  reduction to state benefits. If wounded and hospitalized, a 10-20 per 
  cent contribution was deducted, toward the cost of treatment, medical 
  supplies, food and laundry. A wounded general officer could expect fees 
  of up to 35 per cent.1 In the event of death, the airman's family would 
  still be well cared for, with a pension, child and housing benefits being 
  paid directly to the widow. 
  Wehrsold (active service pay), nicknamed 'Kopfgeld (head money) 
  since the First World War, supplemented basic wages, along with 
  Kriegsbesoldung (war pay) for frontline duties. On top of all this would be 
  the Fliegerzulage (flight pay); as pilot Peter Spoden recalls, crews received 
  'I think about 50 Marks or so per month, but we fellows were not 
  interested in money in those days'. He does add, however, that 'for every 
  take-off we got a 'Start-Ei' ('egg') until the end of the war. That was more 
  important.' Limited opportunities to spend this pay meant the greater 
  part was usually sent home. When Herr Spoden returned to post-war 
  Munich from POW camp, he was able to withdraw 'several hundred 
  devalued Reichsmark, worth a few cigarettes on the black market'. 
  Leave 
  Kampfflieger were entitled to at least 14 days' annual leave, though 
  depending on operational demands and personal circumstances, more 
  1 As an interesting aside, it took two years for a Flieger to earn what the lowest-paid Generalmajor made in 
  one month. 
  
  could sometimes be arranged. Before the 
  invasion of Russia, Urlaubsschein (leave 
  permits) for up to two weeks' Christmas 
  leave were occasionally still possible. 
  Seriously wounded men automatically 
  received Genesungsurlaub (convalescence 
  leave) following hospital treatment, and 
  by 1943 emotionally exhausted airmen 
  could be granted Erholungsurlaub (recu-
  peration leave) of up to one month. 
  Families left behind often faced equal 
  dangers 
  to 
  frontline 
  soldiers 
  and 
  Sonderurlaub (special leave) was only 
  granted to men stationed within a 
  reasonable distance of home, and only 
  upon the death of a parent; it was not 
  deducted from normal leave allowance. 
  Women 
  Besides Luftwaffenhelferinen (female auxiliaries), opportunities to meet 
  women were limited to brief off-duty periods in local villages. It was 
  seldom difficult for air crewmen to attract attention, and predatory girls 
  soon learned to recognize the distinctive qualification badges, 
  unsurprisingly gravitating toward pilots. (Many new pilots were 
  disappointed to learn they were not officially aircraft commanders, but 
  quickly realized that most others made the same assumption.) Where 
  leave restrictions prevented travel home, wives or girlfriends could 
  sometimes journey to nearby towns for a few days together, although 
  none were permitted on base for security reasons. Men who had already 
  found their sweethearts often felt it prudent to await peace before 
  making serious commitments. For those who chose to marry 
  immediately, group weddings were often arranged. After the usual 
  investigations into the future brides' racial purity, several airmen would 
  be granted a short pass (of a few hours) to wed before returning to duty. 
  For those overseas, this was simply not possible and so many had to make 
  do with a Ferntrauung (long-distance wedding service), conducted over 
  the telephone. Enforced separation tested any relationship, and some 
  airmen inevitably discovered a girlfriend, fiancee or even wife had taken 
  a new beau. Incidentally, from 30 November 1935, non-membership of 
  the NSDAP was legally recognized as grounds for divorce. 
  Originally comprising some 
  400,000 personnel, over 
  3,400,000 people served in 
  the Luftwaffe by 1945. Rapid 
  expansion demanded swift 
  construction of suitable billets. 
  Duck-board pathways prevented 
  heavy foot traffic reducing fields 
  to mud. An Unteroffizier oversees 
  the cleaning of tar-paper huts, 
  c.1940. The final daily duty was 
  the vigorous polishing of 
  marching boots and belt. 
  Promotion 
  The Luftwaffe was highly selective, and for the average recruit, the 
  likelihood of achieving a commission from the ranks was particularly 
  slim. Although a comparatively new service, the Luftwaffe suffered from 
  a privileged hierarchical system more akin to that of the Kaiser's army a 
  generation before. The majority of original staff and flying officers were 
  drawn from army and navy professionals, who brought many of their 
  traditions with them. Regular officers were 'elected' to their ranks by 
  fellow candidates in a passing-out ceremony. They were contemptuous 
  even of reserve officers, so the sight of enlisted airmen achieving success 
  frequently provoked much resentment and envy. 
  
  An ambitious junior air crewman would first have to court the 
  appropriate social circles if he was serious about promotion. That said, 
  many more egalitarian officers withstood opposition and ridicule from 
  their peers to help a protege. Yet once promoted, acceptance was 
  generally swift and complete. This lamentable air of snobbery persisted 
  well into 1941, but was steadily eroded by field promotions, necessary to 
  replace high officer casualties. To address these losses, from 1940 only 
  one officer was permitted per crew. A gradual levelling of rank disparity 
  between pilot and observer took place, Oberfeldwebeln becoming more 
  prevalent among both. In practice, a man's rank was almost irrelevant. 
  Position was based entirely upon ability, and Leutnante were frequently 
  appointed Staffelkapitan over higher-ranking officers. This policy ran 
  throughout operational structure, creating the peculiar situation in 
  which an Unteroffizier observer would have 'command' over an 
  Oberleutnant wireless-operator in flight, but reverted to normal 
  subordination on the ground. 
  Details of pay, leave and promotions were recorded in the Soldbuch 
  (pay book), along with enlistment, training, inoculations, uniform, 
  awards, optical and dental examinations. Reflecting heightened security 
  demands, the holder's photograph was fixed inside the cover from 1943. 
  A red pencil strike across the front of the Soldbuch indicates cancellation, 
  the soldier either a POW or deceased (Plate A1). 
  TRAINING 
  From 1935 the main priority of the Luftwaffe was to supply itself with pilots, 
  a priority very much reflected in its recruiting system. The raw conscript 
  would first be assigned to a Flieger-Ersatzabteilung (airman replacement 
  battalion; Fl.Ers.Abt), where after an introductory tour of the camp, 
  uniform issue and a Vereidigt (swearing-in) ceremony, he endured tetanus, 
  smallpox, 
  typhus, paratyphoid, 
  dysentery 
  and 
  cholera inoculations, usually all within a week or two. 
  In addition to the time-honoured regime of foot 
  drill, rifle drill, PT and military discipline, he also 
  learned basic map reading and elementary wireless 
  operation and procedure. 
  After 
  this six-month induction 
  period was 
  complete, all recruits were reviewed for possible 
  advancement 
  as pilots. Any likely 
  candidates 
  were sent to a Flug-Anwarterkompanie 
  (aircrew 
  candidate company), where they would be evaluated 
  during several tests in basic aviation theory. Those 
  who were deemed unsuitable for pilot training, yet 
  still showed promise as aircrew members, were then 
  sent on to a Flieger-Ausbildungsregiment (aircrew 
  development 
  regiment) 
  or Fl.AR. Here, 
  they 
  received a further two months of instruction in 
  preliminary navigation, wireless operation, mecha-
  nical aviation and gunnery, prior to selection for 
  specialist aircrew training in accordance 
  with 
  suitability and Luftwaffe needs. 
  A Flugzeugfuhrer-Anwarter 
  boards an Ar66c biplane, 
  c.1939. Instructors were 
  originally assigned four trainees 
  each, but the wartime influx 
  raised the average to six. 
  Although shocking to witness, 
  accidents became an accepted 
  hazard and little time was 
  wasted in getting students 
  airborne again. The 'obsolete' 
  Arado gave remarkably effective 
  frontline service with nocturnal 
  Storkungkampfstaffeln 
  (nuisance 
  bombing squadrons) in Russia 
  from 1943. 
  
  By the close of 1940, however, it was clear that the early 
  identification and training of these vital aircrew members 
  was just as important as that of pilots. Sixteen months of 
  intensive experience had given Luftwaffe recruiting and 
  training staff the ability to rapidly identify those men most 
  suited to pilot and aircrew training. The system was 
  thus rationalized and compressed (during a broad 
  restructuring of Luftwaffe commands undertaken that 
  December), to enable recruits to embark upon the most 
  appropriate training regime more quickly, and thus 
  enable the Luftwaffe to meet its aircrew personnel 
  demands sooner. 
  The Flieger-Ersatzabteilung was now bypassed, with all 
  new recruits instead being assigned directly to a 
  Flieger-Ausbildungsregiment, where they would receive 
  some of their basic military training, in conjunction with 
  the preliminary aviation instruction previously detailed. 
  Any potential pilots among them were sent on to 
  undergo the regular selection process within a Flug-
  Anwarterkompanie, where the remainder of their basic 
  training was completed simultaneously alongside the 
  aircrew evaluation tests. Upon successful completion of the 
  F1AR stage (extended to three to four months by 1943), 
  potential aircrew would progress to the appropriate 
  specialist schools. The remaining personnel not chosen for 
  further flight training would be redirected to a Fl.Ers.Btn. 
  in order to complete their basic training, and thence to an 
  alternative school for a branch most suited to their 
  particular skills and aptitude 
  Pilot selection 
  Upon assignment to a Flug-Anwarterkompanie, the Flugzeugfuhrer-
  Anwarter (pilot candidates) received instruction in basic flight theory 
  and rudimentary aeronautics while being assessed for advancement. 
  Those candidates displaying the required aptitude were then put 
  forward to Flugzeugfuhrerschule-A/B as soon as a place became available 
  (usually after about two months), to commence flight training proper. 
  At such schools, officially abbreviated to F.Z.S-A/B, but more 
  frequently referred to as ' A/B-Schulen , the cadet underwent four principal 
  levels of instruction, each requiring qualification for its own licence, 
  before advancement to the next stage. It was these licences, earned over a 
  period of six to nine months, that gave the schools their name. The 
  A-Schein introduced 
  the students to basic practical flying 
  in 
  dual-controlled light aircraft, covering take-off and landing, stall recovery, 
  etc., and eventually leading to solo flight. The A2-Schein demanded the 
  absorption of a great deal of theory, including aerodynamics, 
  meteorology, flying procedures and aviation law, in addition to the 
  practical application of aeronautical engineering, elementary navigation, 
  wireless procedure and Morse code. On top of all this, they gained more 
  flying experience on larger single-engine aircraft. The next level, the 
  B-Schein, required progression to high performance single- and 
  twin-engine machines, usually with retractable undercarriage, including 
  Trainee Beobachtere (observers) 
  hold course over a motorized 
  travelling landscape. Each must 
  select and 'strike' various targets 
  by pulling a wooden lever to his 
  left, firing the bombsight camera 
  shutter, and capturing an image 
  with superimposed cross-hairs 
  to verify his accuracy. Gearing 
  enables instructors to complicate 
  this task by applying realistic 
  lateral drift. A defused lamp 
  suspended beneath the gantry 
  simulates moonlight for 
  night-bombing exercises. 
  
  Bordfunker (signalmen) students 
  transcribe a rapid succession of 
  messages in a Morse decoding 
  exercise. All crewmen had to 
  memorize the phonetic alphabet 
  for correct radio procedure: 
  Anton - Berta - Casar - Dora -
  Emil - Friedrich - Gustav -
  Heinrich (or Henry) - Ida - Julius 
  - Kurfurst - Ludwig - Marta -
  Nordpol - Otto - Paula - Quelle -
  Richard - Siegfried - Toni - Ulrich 
  - Viktor - WiIhelm - Xavier (or 
  Xenophon) - Ypsilon - Zeppelin. 
  some older types of combat aircraft. Acquisition 
  of the final B2-Schein depended upon the cadet's 
  satisfactory accumulation of between 100 and 
  150 hours of flight time, some 14-17 months 
  after his induction. In late 1940, however, the 
  A/B-Schule training programme was updated to 
  take account of wartime demands for more 
  pilots. The schools maintained the high initial 
  selection standards, simply because of the vastly 
  increased number of enthusiastic volunteers 
  from which to choose, but a far greater emphasis 
  was now placed on practical flying skills from the 
  outset. The A2 licence was dropped, and that 
  particular phase of the training amalgamated 
  into the remaining licence grades, with the A-licence generally taking 
  three months to complete. The B1 brought the students into contact with 
  advanced single-engine planes, while the B2 consisted of advanced 
  navigation and the introduction to twin-engine aircraft.2 An elementary 
  K1 'Kunstflug (stunt-flying) aerobatics course was included, to provide all 
  new pilots with a good understanding of rudimentary evasive manoeuvres 
  (such as barrel rolls, loops and splits). This also enabled instructors to 
  readily identify any potential fighter pilots among their students, who 
  thereafter received more flying time than their fellow cadets. Upon 
  completion of the B2 phase the cadet would at last be granted his 
  Luftwaffenflugzeugfuhrerschein (air force pilots' licence), accompanied by 
  the highly prized Flugzeugfuhrerabzeichen (pilots' badge) - his 'wings'. After 
  an average of ten to thirteen months at A/B-Schule he was now, finally, a 
  fully qualified pilot. 
  Pilot specialization 
  It was at this juncture that the new pilots were categorized for service on 
  single- or multi-engine aircraft, and here the training paths divided. 
  Each was assigned to a specialist flying school, where he would undergo 
  intensive training for his allotted aircraft type and duty, with potential 
  fighter and ground-attack pilots being sent directly to Jagdflieger- and 
  Schlachtflug-Schulen respectively. 
  Those selected for dive-bomber training proceeded immediately to 
  Sturzkampffliegerschule. Potential Stuka crewmen had to endure around 
  15 physically demanding and nerve-wracking test dives (as passengers), 
  to confirm their suitability for continued training. Those for whom 
  the stresses proved 
  too great were generally transferred 
  to 
  Transportfliegerschulen, eventually serving with Kampfgeschwadern zur 
  besonderen Verwendungs (battle wings for special purposes, i.e. transport). 
  The Stuka-Schulen differed tremendously in their methods. Some 
  commenced dive-training almost immediately, while others waited until 
  around 100 hours of additional formation flying and aerobatics had 
  been accrued. The four-month training period (or sometimes, up to a 
  year) mainly concentrated on accuracy in various dive approaches, but 
  also included extra navigation and flight theory, with approximately 50 
  hours of flying time. 
  2 It must be noted that the many schools differed greatly in both method and available aircraft types and that, 
  seemingly, no two pilots underwent exactly the same training schedule. 
  
  Pilots destined to operate twin-engine aircraft did 
  not immediately advance to their own specialist 
  schools, however, but were instead sent on to 
  Flugzeugfuhrerschule-C or ' C-Schule , often sharing 
  location and airfield with a regular flight school. Here 
  they received advanced instruction in instrument and 
  astronomical navigation and the use of electrical and 
  radio direction-finding equipment. They studied the 
  complexities 
  and 
  handling 
  characteristics 
  of 
  multi-engine aircraft, including 50-60 hours of flight 
  time (rising to 70 hours by 1941), for which they were 
  taken up in small groups and rotated; as one took his 
  turn in the pilot's seat, a fellow student operated 
  throttle levers under instruction. During the course, 
  which lasted anything between two and six months, 
  pilots spent several hours on 'link' simulation trainers 
  (allowing them to get hopelessly 'lost' and recalculate 
  complex headings, without wasting valuable fuel). 
  Following 
  C-Schule, the men were assigned to a separate 
  Blindfliegerschule (blind flying school), for a four- to six-week advanced 
  course in instrument navigation and dead reckoning, with some 35-60 
  hours' flight time. When they eventually graduated around 20 months 
  later, these pilots were among the most highly trained specialists within 
  the Luftwaffe. With an average 300 flying hours behind them, they were 
  ready to proceed to their final schools for advanced training in one 
  particular 
  discipline 
  (bomber, 
  transport, 
  reconnaissance 
  or 
  heavy-fighter). 
  Details of every flight, including aircraft type, duration and purpose, 
  were recorded in the personal Flugbuch (log book), maintained 
  throughout (and occasionally beyond) the pilot's military service (Plate 
  H1). 
  Bordmechaniker (flight 
  mechanics) gain practical 
  experience as Flugzeugelektriker 
  (aircraft electricians) at a 
  dual-control trainer assembly 
  plant. Although his technical 
  skills were severely curtailed in 
  flight, the engineer's familiarity 
  with engine characteristics 
  enabled him to rapidly assess 
  performance and advise the 
  pilot when nursing a damaged 
  machine. (Hayley Morris) 
  Aircrew selection 
  Upon completion of basic training, each fresh crop of recruits was 
  posted from the numerous Fl.Ers.Abt. to the most appropriate branch 
  schools of the Luftwaffe, in accordance with individual ability and 
  manpower needs. The vast majority were inducted into the Flak artillery. 
  It was always possible to request a specific branch, however, according to 
  taste or perhaps family tradition, and there was never any shortage of 
  willing volunteers for pilot training, among them many groups of 
  friends who requested postings together. Despite their enthusiasm, 
  nothing was guaranteed, and the greater proportion of these hopefuls 
  were unsuccessful in their first application. That aside, those still 
  determined to fly could request consideration for training as another, 
  equally vital member of an aircrew. Added to this pool of volunteers was 
  the large number of ex-pilot-cadets who had 'washed-out' from A/B 
  schooling. While they had failed to meet the requirements to qualify 
  as pilots, they were not simply discarded from the flight branch, 
  but were instead re-routed with the other volunteers 
  to a 
  Flieger-Ausbildungsregiment. Here, they went through the standard two 
  months of preliminary aviation training, while being evaluated for 
  advanced training in one specific discipline, and were then posted to the 
  
  specialist school most appropriate to their abilities. As aircrew shortages 
  began to present serious problems around the mid-war period, 
  personnel already serving in other branches of the Luftwaffe could be 
  offered an aircrew evaluation test, even though they may never have 
  previously considered such a vocation. Men with above average 
  signalling skills were often drawn from the Luft-Nachrichtenregimenter 
  (air signals regiments) to retrain as Bordfunker (flight signalmen). A 
  large number of serving ground-crewmen had previously failed aircrew 
  selection and longed for such duties. 
  Aircrew specialization 
  Observer 
  Men chosen to fulfil the many complex duties of Beobachter originally 
  attended Navigations- 
  or Aufkldrungs-Schule 
  (reconnaissance 
  school) 
  until the formation of four dedicated Kampfbeobachterschulen 
  (battle 
  observers' schools) in autumn 1942. During their nine- to twelve-month 
  stay, they became proficient in navigation, cartography and 
  map 
  reading, photography, basic gunnery and aerial tactics. They learned to 
  operate all manner of navigational instruments, ranging from simple 
  flight computers to the latest radio guidance systems. Low-tech but 
  effective methods were also employed: sextant-reading practice was 
  carried out in chairs that the instructors shook to simulate aircraft 
  vibration and turbulence. A great deal of time was naturally devoted to 
  bomb-aiming, using Luft-Bildkamera 
  (aerial cameras) in place of 
  bomb-sights. In 1937 it was decided that the Beobachter would also serve 
  as the 'aircraft commander'. (In practice this was a very flexible title; 
  although Beobachtere had overall command in flight, and usually senior 
  rank, all personnel habitually referred to 'the pilot and his crew'.) These 
  men now had to possess suitable authority and leadership skills and 
  therefore attended either 
  Unteroffizier- or Offizier-Schule, 
  generally 
  graduating as Feldwebeln (sergeants) or Leutnante. 
  Flight gear was often worn 
  during gunnery practice to 
  familiarize Bordschutzen (air 
  gunners) with the restrictions 
  imposed by such bulky clothing. 
  Gunners frequently went rabbit 
  hunting with shotguns (and 
  ferrets) to help develop 'lead' 
  skills against unpredictable 
  targets. 
  
  Wireless operator 
  Trainee Bordfunker were required to undergo an intensive and 
  demanding nine-month course at Luftnachrichtenschule (air signals 
  school), alongside trainees destined for service in Flak and other units. 
  They studied ground wireless reception and transmission and had to 
  attain a proficiency in Morse code of at least 100 letters per minute 
  (sending and receiving). They also mastered theoretical navigation and 
  instrumentation, but were sent to another school (with airfield access) 
  for actual flight experience and practical navigation, map reading, and 
  radio direction-finding exercises. 
  Flight mechanic 
  The trainee Bordmechanik learned his trade at Flieger-technischeschule, over 
  a period of around nine months. He studied internal combustion 
  engine theory, elementary aerodynamics, and gained practical 
  experience on many types of aero engines. Students were sometimes 
  sent to work at aircraft factories for practical experience. Although this 
  may have initially seemed slightly demeaning, it gave them invaluable 
  and detailed experience of various aircraft systems, as well as inside 
  advice from the factory engineering staff themselves, for which the 
  'Bord-Wart' and his comrades might someday be very grateful. (The 
  various 'Wart' nicknames were derived from Wartung, meaning 
  maintenance.) 
  Engendering esprit de corps, 
  trainees sing as they return 
  to barracks. Crews assembled 
  at Grosskampffliegerschule 
  generally remained together, 
  but on very rare occasions a 
  pilot or observer might request 
  the transfer of an individual 
  if he lacked confidence in his 
  suitability. For any crew to 
  remain cohesive, it was vital that 
  they at least liked each other. 
  Air gunner 
  Bordschutzen perfected 
  their 
  craft 
  at 
  Fliegerschutzenschule (re-named Bordschutzen-
  schulen from January 1942), during a 
  rigorous five-month marksmanship and 
  gunnery course. This involved a great deal 
  of range work and familiarization with small 
  arms and machine guns of various types, 
  principally 7.92mm Mauser rifles and the 
  infantry version of the MG-13. Regular 9mm 
  pistol shooting helped maintain rapid 
  sighting accuracy. After camera gun practice 
  on trainer aircraft, they progressed to 
  air-to-air machine gunnery against towed 
  targets (which many found particularly 
  enjoyable), firing tracer-ammunition as an 
  aid to developing 'lead' skills. Assessed by 
  instructors, they tracked obsolete fighters in 
  dummy passes, but later progressed to 
  Me109 'attacks', which forced home the 
  startling reality of modern fighter speeds. 
  A high degree of cross-training was 
  incorporated into each curriculum, with every 
  crewman receiving instruction in navigation, 
  radio-telegraphy and aero engine principles. 
  This would enable crews to remain effective in 
  the event of casualties. Even after a long day's 
  training there was plenty of homework to be 
  
  done, with virtually every waking hour devoted to learning every aspect of 
  their trade. The Bordmechanik, Bordfunker and Bordschutze generally held 
  relatively junior grades, the majority serving as Gefreite or Unteroffiziere. 
  It should be noted that the numerous trade schools were not always 
  autonomous establishments, but were commonly housed within shared 
  bases, airfields and buildings. Furthermore, they routinely shared 
  aircraft and even flight time. Groups of student pilots, observers and 
  gunners (each with their respective instructors) squeezed aboard the 
  same aircraft for simultaneous training. 
  To alleviate frontline fuel shortages, training school supplies were 
  cut by almost half in 1942. Consequently, pilots began qualifying with 
  drastically reduced flight time, usually reaching an operational unit with 
  between 220 and 270 hours. Accident rates duly rose, with an average of 
  14 per cent of training aircraft destroyed annually, and eight per cent of 
  flights ending in fatalities. The various training programmes were 
  steadily compressed still further to cover the resulting replacement 
  deficiencies; the Beobachter course was reduced to six months or less, 
  sometimes incorporating less than 70 hours' flight time. 
  Upon completion of the specialist training, each man was awarded 
  an aircrew licence, Fliegerschein (Plate A2), accompanied by the 
  appropriate aircrew badge. The qualified crewmen were then 
  dispatched to one of five Grosskampffliegerschulen (higher bomber 
  schools), numbered 1-5, established at Tutow, Horsching, Greifswald, 
  Thorn and Parow respectively. Wireless operators among them might 
  alternatively be sent for dive-bomber training at a Sturzkampffliegerschule. 
  APPEARANCE AND EQUIPMENT 
  Service dress and insignia 
  In general appearance the Kampfflieger differed little from his comrades 
  in other branches. Headgear consisted of the peaked Schirmmutze (see 
  Plates B3 and B4), the Fliegermutze side cap (Plate D) and latterly 
  Einheitsfliegermutze field cap (Plate G). A four-pocket Tuchrock wool tunic 
  and Tuchhose trousers were issued for everyday wear (Plate B2), while the 
  Fliegerbluse (plates B3 and B4) was reserved for flight duties. By 1942, 
  production of the former had virtually ceased and men were instead 
  issued two Fliegerblusen, with one reserved for parade and Ausgehanzug 
  ('walking-out' dress). In everyday Dienstanzug (service dress), no 
  undershirt was to be visible. Officers and senior NCOs frequently 
  purchased high-quality versions of these items from approved German 
  outlets or civilian tailors in occupied countries, but all non-standard 
  garments required official acceptance prior to wear. Flight branch 
  uniforms, for both air and ground personnel, were denoted by Goldgelb 
  (golden-yellow) Waffenfarbe. This 'arm colour' took the form of piping 
  to the Schulterklappen (epaulettes) worn by NCOs and enlisted men, and 
  underlay to officers' rigid Schulterstuke (shoulder boards). It also formed 
  the body cloth of the distinctive Kragenspiegeln (collar patches). 
  A few units were distinguished by the wearing of Erinnerungsbander 
  (commemorative cuff titles) to the lower right sleeve of uniform tunics. 
  Adopted from 1935, these bands recalled prominent figures from 
  Luftwaffe history; KG1 Hindenburg', KG4 'General Wever', KG27 
  
  'Boelcke' and KG53 'Legion Condor' (Plate H2). Unique 
  among the Stuka-Geschwadern, StG2 wore the 'Immelmann' cuff 
  title. (Plate A3). Some sub-units produced their own unofficial 
  miniature pocket badges or lapel pins, but the origins and 
  symbolism of most are now sadly lost to history. Perhaps the 
  most famous semi-official distinction was the Edelweiss insignia 
  worn by KG51 personnel. Traditionally the reserve of mountain 
  troops, permission to fix this white metal badge to their 
  headgear was granted on 15 August 1942 by General Lanz, 
  in 
  honour 
  of 
  the 
  tactical 
  support 
  given 
  to 
  his 
  Gebirgsjager-Division 1 throughout the campaign in the 
  Caucassus. 
  Aircrew badges 
  A series of Militarfliegerabzeichen (military aircrew badges) was 
  adopted on 19 January 1935, eventually renamed Luftwaffen-
  Fliegerabzeichen on 8 June 
  1939. Pilots received 
  the 
  Flugzeugfuhrerabzeichen and observers the Beobachterabzeichen 
  (Plate H3). 
  The Flugzeugfuhrer-und-Beobachterabzeichen (pilot/observer's 
  badge) was awarded for dual-qualification, but holders had 
  to re-qualify for this status annually. Also known as the 
  'Doppelabzeichen' (double badge), it was identical in design 
  to the pilots' badge, but with the addition of a gold-coloured 
  wreath (Plate H4). Some pre-war pilots disparagingly called it 
  the 'Weder-noch-Abzeichen' (neither-nor-badge). The young 
  Leutnant Hajo Hermann naturally preferred to call his the 
  'Sowohl-als-auch-Abzeichen' (not-only, but-also-badge). 
  The clumsily titled Bordfunker-(Fliegerschutzen-) und 
  Bordmechaniker-(Fliegerschutzen-)-Abzeichen (Plate A4), sensibly 
  abbreviated to Bordfunkerabzeichen, was initially worn by 
  wireless operators, flight mechanics and air gunners. On 22 
  June 
  1942 
  the 
  Luftwaffen-Fliegerschutzenabzeichen was 
  introduced for flight mechanics and gunners only (Plate 
  H5). Originally made from nickel-silver, they were cast in 
  aluminium-alloy from September 1937. From 18 November 
  1937, metal badges were officially reserved for everyday dress, while 
  embroidered cloth versions were intended for flight clothing. Although 
  the regulation was frequently ignored, the cloth badges were more 
  comfortable under tight-fitting parachute harnesses and, moreover, 
  prevented unnecessary wear to the inflatable life-preserver. The wartime 
  decline in badge quality was reflected in its presentation packaging, 
  which declined from leatherette-covered cases to cardboard boxes and 
  paper envelopes. 
  From 13 May 1935, air crewmen not yet fully qualified for these 
  badges wore embroidered cloth insignia, denoting Fliegendes-Personal 
  (flight 
  personnel) 
  or 
  fliegertechnisches-Personal 
  (flight-technical 
  personnel), on the lower left sleeve (see Plate E). 
  Whereas the RAF and USAAF 
  automatically granted pilots the 
  minimum rank of sergeant and 
  2nd lieutenant respectively 
  (regardless of suitability), this 
  man was clearly considered 
  neither officer nor NCO material, 
  reflecting Luftwaffe policy of 
  separating rank from 'trade'. 
  While Gefreiter pilots were very 
  rare, some even held the lowest 
  grade of Flieger. 
  Awards 
  The Frontflugspange fur Kampfflieger (operational flight clasp for bomber 
  crewmen) was introduced on 30 January 1941, for level- and 
  
  dive-bomber crews. The clasp was awarded in three 
  classes: bronze for 20 missions, silver for 60 and gold for 
  110 (Plate H6, 7 and 8). Operational flights made from 
  1 September 1939 were considered in these totals, but 
  because of the wide variations in type and duration of 
  missions undertaken, not all were counted. On 22 April 
  1941, precise criteria were laid down for what 
  constituted a frontline flight: crews were required to 
  venture a minimum of 30 km into enemy airspace, or 
  100 km overseas (this measurement was taken from 
  German-held borders). It is worth noting that of KG4 
  pilot Lt Elmar Borsch's first 200 missions, only about 
  eight per cent lasted more than ten minutes over 
  enemy territory (his final total was 312). Flights that 
  took the crewman over enemy territory for more than 
  four hours counted as double, eight hours triple, 12 
  hours quadruple and quintuple for those in excess of 
  16 hours. This latter, phenomenal duration was added 
  on 28 January 1944 in respect of ever increasing ranges 
  the bombers were forced to travel to their targets, from 
  drastically 
  receding 
  German 
  frontline 
  airbases. 
  Following the invasion of the Soviet Union, it soon 
  became 
  evident 
  that 
  the 
  original 
  order 
  had 
  underestimated the speed at which airmen could 
  accrue missions, many far exceeding those represented 
  by the current highest-grade clasp. From 26 June 1942, 
  therefore, this golden clasp could be upgraded with the 
  addition of the Anhanger zur goldenen Frontflugspange, a 
  pendant in the form of a star flanked by laurel leaves 
  (Plate H9). When soldered beneath the clasp by a 
  jeweller, the pendant denoted a greatly increased total 
  of operational flights: 300 for bomber and 400 for 
  dive-bomber crewmen. By 29 April 1944, it was realized that even these 
  upgraded clasps were insufficient and, moreover, imprecise; a man with 
  over 600 missions to his credit wore the same badge as those with 'only' 
  300. A new range of hangers was thus designed to keep pace with each 
  airman's achievements. The Anhanger zur goldenen Frontflugspange mit 
  Einsatzzahl (with operational number) was a simple lozenge, again 
  supported by laurel leaves, displaying black-lacquered numerals 
  appropriate to the missions flown, commencing with 200 and rising in 
  increments of 100 (Plate H10). A unique, diamond-encrusted version of 
  this hanger was presented to Stuka-Experte Oberstleutnant Hans-Ulrich 
  Rudel, marking his 2,000th mission. 
  Flight gear 
  Fliegerkopfhauben (flight helmets) were issued in summer- and winter-
  weights, designated LKp S 1 Wand LKp W100 (see Plates A and C). The 
  improved '101' versions, which appeared in late-1940, were fitted with 
  superior communications equipment (Plates F3 and 5), and ridges on 
  the headphone casings held the goggles in place. An extra-lightweight 
  version, the LKp N 101 'Netzkopfhaube' with mesh crown, was available 
  from mid-1941 (Plate F4). 
  This Unteroffizier proudly 
  displays his four-year service 
  medal and 1934-pattern 
  Fliegerdolch (flyer's dagger) with 
  blue leather-bound scabbard. 
  Correctly worn squarely on the 
  left hip, it was habitually turned 
  to the fore whenever a camera 
  appeared. Crewmen frequently 
  breeched regulations by 
  retaining the Fliegendespersonal-
  Abzeichen sleeve insignia, 
  alongside a metal 
  Fliegerabzeichen. 
  
  Adopted in 1934, the one-piece Fliegerschutzanzug 
  (flight suit), or Kombination (overall), featured a 
  distinctive diagonal opening system, a slightly fussy 
  design that greatly eased donning and removal. Its 
  horizontally positioned fly zip was easy to operate 
  with one hand, an important consideration for a 
  busy pilot. However, in its final configuration, from 
  mid-1940, the fly zip was curiously re-orientated to a 
  vertical position, making one-handed operation 
  awkward. The summer-weight K So/34 underwent 
  numerous modifications, most notably the fitting of 
  Karl Heisler's quick-opening Reissverschluss (rip-
  fastener) to its left side. Winter-weight equivalents 
  included the sheepskin-lined cloth KW 1/33 
  designated for overland use. A diagonal zip replaced 
  its original button closure in 1940. The leather KW 
  s/34 provided superior insulation for overseas use. In 
  1940 a lightweight, velveteen-lined KW Fl.bR/40, of 
  synthetic 'Schappe twill cloth, was introduced for 
  'aircraft with restricted space'. Although not heated itself, an internal 
  wiring loom transferred current to electrically heated Heizbare-
  Fliegerpelzstiefel boots and FW m/40 gloves. 
  In 1941 each version was replaced by a Zweiteilig (two-piece) equivalent. 
  These eminently practical and comfortable garments provided voluminous 
  trouser pockets for a vast array of survival gear, with a flare pistol holster on 
  the right hip, for which cartridges were now carried in Patronengurt straps 
  worn on the calf or the ankle. K So/41 suits were produced in tan and 
  grey-blue cloth, often worn combined. The sheepskin-lined KWl/41 had a 
  blue cotton cloth shell, and the KW s/41 was now in more supple 
  sheepskin. 'Schappe' KW Fl.bR/41 suits are readily identified by external 
  heating contacts at forearm and upper-calf and the plum-coloured 
  velveteen collar. Special rank insignia, worn on both sleeves since 
  December 1935, were reduced to the left sleeve only in August 1942, but 
  seldom fitted to sheepskin garments. Alternatively, uniform epaulettes 
  were frequently added. 
  The archaic-looking Kapok-Schwimmweste 10-76A (life-vest) could sustain 
  significant damage with no adverse effects, but several unconscious airmen 
  were drowned when its large and very buoyant back panel inverted them 
  in rough waters. The 10-76 B1 version, introduced in late-1940, overcame 
  this danger with a simple yoke harness, and its improved collar could be 
  fastened by the wearer's comrades to support his mouth above water (Plate 
  C1). Despite appearances, these surprisingly lightweight vests were not 
  particularly restricting and remained popular for their comfort, insulation 
  and float characteristics. The inflatable Schwimmweste-pneumatisch 734 could 
  be activated by compressed air or orally (Plate B5). An early colour change 
  from brown to yellow greatly increased visibility. Its equally hazardous back 
  panel was simultaneously modified in the SWp 734 B1. The metal 
  mouthpiece caused several freezing injuries to air crewmen in the north 
  Atlantic, but was substituted by plastic on the SWp 734 B2 in early 1941 
  (Plate F5). 
  The three Fallschirm (parachute) types incorporated a quick-release 
  buckle identical to the British Irvin design, resulting from shared pre-war 
  This Leutnant sports typical 
  officer's attire for the first half 
  of the war, including splendidly 
  flared Stiefelhose breeches with 
  Reitstiefel boots. Accompanying 
  crewmen wear final and 
  early-1937 configuration K So/34 
  flight suits. Evolving throughout 
  its eight-year production, at least 
  ten variations of the K So/34 
  existed (seven conforming to 
  regulations). 
  
  research. Men requiring unrestricted 
  movement, 
  notably 
  observers 
  and 
  wireless operators, generally favoured the 
  Fallschirmgurt harness, to which the 
  Brustfallschirmpack (chest pack) was hastily 
  clipped before bailing out. The back-type 
  Rucken-fallschirm-12B (Plate A5), sup-
  ported by a metal tray, was frequently 
  used by air gunners and flight engineers, 
  while medium-bomber pilots invariably 
  used the Sitzfallschirm 30-IS-24B (see Plate 
  H). Stuka crews only employed the latter 
  two types. Late-production parachutes 
  utilized dark-green synthetic 'Perlon' or 
  ' Pe-Ce-Werkstoff harness webbing. 
  Body armour was not issued, crews 
  relying instead upon strategically placed 
  armour plating within the airframe. 
  Additional plating was often fitted to 
  aircraft by unit engineers, but had 
  adverse effects upon compass accuracy, 
  take-off weight, fuel consumption and 
  flight characteristics. Simply removing 
  the lining from a large-sized standard 
  issue 
  Stahlhelm 
  (steel helmet) 
  and 
  gluing horsehair pads inside improved 
  individual head protection. Ground crew 
  engineers later reshaped or cut away the 
  sides to adapt it for flight helmet headphones, but a purpose-designed 
  Fliegerstahlhelm was finally introduced in 1944, albeit in limited numbers. 
  Organization 
  The smallest autonomous component of a Kampfgeschwader was the 
  Staffel, comprising a wartime average of between nine and 12 aircraft, 
  generally flown in Kette (chains) of three. Three Staffeln constituted one 
  Gruppe, totalling 27-36 machines, of which four served as the 
  Stabschwarm staff element. Four such Gruppen composed the Geschwader, 
  fielding a total of 108-144 aircraft, with the staff units forming the 
  Stabsstaffel. It must be noted that establishments were flexible, with most 
  Gruppen raising or disbanding Staffeln as conditions dictated.3 
  Theoretically, 75 per cent of aircraft would remain airworthy, while the 
  reserve underwent routine maintenance. Wartime losses, repairs, 
  equipment and fuel shortages meant that, in reality, only about half were 
  combat-serviceable at any time. Each aircraft required a complete 
  mechanical overhaul after 100 hours' flight time, but operational demands 
  frequently stretched this to 150. Bodenpersonal (ground crews) of the 
  Flughafen-Betriebs-Kompanie (airfield works company) carried out 
  maintenance. Totalling approximately 150 officers and men, the Fl.B.K 
  comprised three Zugge (sections) of 30 men under command of a 
  Zugfuhrer (section leader), commonly known as the 'Erste-Wart' (first 
  A Feldwebel Flugzeugfuhrer 
  is dwarfed by his Ju87, Russia, 
  1942. In flight, and even on the 
  ground, it is often difficult to 
  comprehend the scale of the 
  truly enormous Stuka. Its SC250 
  cargo is here fitted with the 
  rarely seen 'Dinort-Spargel' 
  (asparagus) detonator arm, 
  designed by StG2-Kommodore, 
  Major Oskar Dinort. This 
  improvised device exploded the 
  bomb just above ground level 
  with devastating effect in 
  anti-personnel and vehicle 
  attacks. The 1,000ft average 
  release point ensured minimum 
  safe recovery and reduced target 
  evasion time. 
  3 From 1942, operational units were steadily depleted by fuel shortages, and the crews were retrained as Flak gunners 
  for Reich defence. 
  
  Produced in greater numbers 
  than any other type (c. 15,000), 
  the Ju88 was the very backbone 
  of the Kampfgeschwadern, 
  largely replacing the venerable 
  He111 by mid-1942. Its very 
  narrow fuselage placed all 
  four crewmen literally inches 
  from each other. Although 
  advantageous for cooperation 
  and moral support, one 
  well-aimed burst of flak or 
  cannon-fire could be devastating. 
  (Gregory Pons) 
  mechanic, or crew chief). Each Zug was responsible for the aircraft of one 
  Staffel, and generally consisted of 12 Flugzeugmechanichern (aircraft 
  mechanics), two Motorenschlossern (engine mechanics), one Feinmechaniker 
  (instrument mechanic), six Waffenwarte (armourers), six Bombenwarte 
  (bomb armourers), two Funkwarte (wireless fitters) and one Fallschirmwart 
  (parachute fitter). 
  BELIEF AND BELONGING 
  Throughout the early war years, Reichsmarschall Herman Goring made 
  great efforts to visit every Kampfgeschwader and most crewmen saw, if not 
  actually met, him at some point in their careers. The majority found 
  him a comical and slightly ridiculous figure in one of his self-designed 
  and liberally decorated sky-blue uniforms (he often changed several 
  times during each visit). He had the general aspect of a fat, overgrown 
  schoolboy, but was positively brimming with confidence 
  and 
  enthusiasm. Like most airmen, StG3 wireless operator Obergefreiter 
  Hans Wiedemann, 'didn't even talk about him', but what popularity 
  Goring did enjoy soon waned, as increasingly unreasonable demands 
  were heaped upon the Kampfgeschwadern and their over-stretched 
  fighter escorts. Directives were issued preventing all leave and rest. 
  Exhausted crewmen could no longer be relieved from operations to 
  recuperate - everyone had to fly. An average of two to three missions 
  was executed per night, regardless of weather conditions, with barely 
  an hour between each. As aircraft were hastily patched-up, refuelled 
  and rearmed, aircrews were debriefed, then re-briefed, and perhaps 
  able to grab a rushed meal before take-off. Oberkommando der 
  Luftwaffe 
  (Supreme Command) grew evermore obsessed with 
  numbers, and seemingly detracted from the limitations of worn-out 
  
  The close bonds enjoyed by 
  Kampfflieger transcended rank 
  and position. Most conferred 
  closely in all matters, be they 
  operational or personal, while 
  shared experiences and 
  memories of lost friends drew 
  them ever closer. The Luftwaffe 
  had no chaplains and few 
  psychologists, but these were 
  perhaps unnecessary. By far 
  the best counselling men could 
  receive was found in each 
  other's company. 
  men and aircraft. Even inexperienced crews had to join night 
  operations, with predictable results. The combination of tired air and 
  ground personnel, hurried maintenance and unproven 
  pilots 
  operating under strict light discipline, inevitably culminated in 
  disastrous runway accidents and mid-air collisions. Units sometimes lost 
  more men and machines on their own airfield than they did during the 
  mission itself. Nevertheless, confidence in Geschwader and Gruppe 
  commanders remained high. 
  Comrades 
  On rare occasions the Staffel might be blessed with an unexpected night 
  off, the mission scrubbed due to the very worst of weather. Having been 
  in a high state of nervous tension all day, the news brought tremendous 
  relief and aircrews seized the opportunity for a celebration. Before long, 
  every man had a drink in his hand, but their restricted alcohol intake 
  made even a few glasses of beer or wine seem more potent. Tired men 
  could only last so long before sleep beckoned and these parties 
  generally wound down as quickly as they started. For that night at least, 
  the spectre of death would not lurk at their shoulders. 
  Conversely, if mechanical failure or incomplete repairs had 
  prevented a crew from joining the mission, any sense of personal release 
  was tempered by concern for friends on other aircraft. Misplaced 
  feelings of guilt were compounded when comrades failed to return, but 
  ultimately the fatalistic airmen were glad to be out of it. 
  Estrangement and resentment 
  Crews routinely spent off-duty periods together, but were not always 
  accompanied by their officers, military protocol dictating two very 
  different relationships in air and on land. While the differences of rank 
  were instantly forgotten and irrelevant in flight, for some crews, as they 
  dismounted, the 'natural order' of officer and other-rank forced its way 
  between them once more. Officers from different crews who had 
  developed particular friendships in the mess would invariably meet to 
  share experiences of the mission. Meanwhile, the non-commissioned 
  and enlisted members of their respective crews, perhaps slightly uneasy 
  in the presence of unfamiliar officers, would 
  likewise gravitate toward each other. Despite 
  the equally close bonds that grew between 
  them, a similar segregation sometimes existed 
  even among Stuka pilots and their gunners. 
  This must not imply any falseness in the depth 
  of their friendships, but was simply the result 
  of proper military behaviour. 
  By mid-1941, a notable 
  degree 
  of 
  separation was emerging in the relationship 
  between air and ground crews, however. This 
  was in no small part due to the rapid turnover 
  in aircrew (new crews were lost after an 
  average of only three to four missions), 
  leaving little time or inclination for such 
  friendships to develop. Furthermore, the 
  steady decline in training standards meant 
  
  that inexperienced new pilots frequently reported mechanical faults 
  and concerns to the already over-burdened crew chief that, upon 
  investigation, proved insignificant or downright incorrect. Time and 
  effort had by then been expended for no good reason, sometimes 
  removing a perfectly serviceable aircraft from an operation, and leaving 
  the mechanics' opinion of the aircrew significantly marred. The 
  situation was so detrimental to squadron efficiency that attempts were 
  made to reintegrate the two groups by standing-down a crewman from a 
  mission while a ground crewman covered for him. This not only gave 
  the aircrews some much-needed rest, but also allowed the mechanics to 
  evaluate aircraft systems, defences and shortcomings in action (which 
  occasionally resulted in the design and installation of improved armour 
  or weapon mounts). The excitement of combat, as a 'reward' for 
  seemingly unnoticed efforts on the ground, highlighted the importance 
  of the ground crews' work and heightened their respect and 
  understanding of the aircrews' tasks. They, in turn, came to regard their 
  ground crew colleagues as more than just simple mechanics. While they 
  were a valuable means of team building, these job swaps were only made 
  on relatively short and simple operations. These exercises were 
  generally successful and some very close friendships evolved. 
  Other replacements were far less welcome. The occasional 
  appearance of a Kriegsberichter (war correspondent) was deeply resented 
  and commanders often flatly refused to tolerate their presence on 
  operational flights. Aircrew were contemptuous of Propaganda-Kompanie 
  reporters for the wildly inaccurate newspaper and radio claims they had 
  to endure, boasting great success for 'minimal losses'. In fairness, much 
  of the reporters' original text was corrupted (for dramatic and political 
  purposes) by propaganda ministry officials who seldom ventured 
  anywhere near an aircraft, let alone the frontline. Gobbels quickly 
  decreed that PK men must first undergo appropriate training, as air 
  gunners or even bombardiers, and some took a very active dual role in 
  campaigns from mid-1940 onward. By far the greatest contempt was 
  Crew chiefs jealously guarded 
  'their' machines and always 
  valued careful flight crews. With 
  the regular crew on leave, a crew 
  chief might occasionally report 
  an aircraft unserviceable, or 
  even delay repairs, to prevent 
  its reassignment to another less 
  experienced crew. (Gregory Pons) 
  25 
  
  reserved for the (thankfully rare) accompaniment of a 'Sandsack' 
  (sandbag) - a completely useless staff officer who contributed nothing 
  to the operation, thereby endangering the whole crew, and whose sole 
  intent was to qualify for a year's flight pay and an Iron Cross. 
  Coping strategies 
  Any change to normal routine, caused by illness, leave, replacement, 
  injury or death, could have a profound impact upon the cohesive 
  operation of the entire crew. Their effectiveness demanded complete 
  trust and familiarity, and was characterized by subtle practices and 
  signals unique to each crew and developed since their days at 
  Grosskampffliegerschule. It was in everyone's interest that replacements 
  settled in quickly, encouraged and aided by their new comrades. 
  The odds seemed so heavily stacked against survival that airmen 
  invariably developed some degree of superstition. They carried lucky 
  charms or observed certain rituals (similar to the USAAF fear of placing 
  a hat on a bed), but the precise nature of each man's atonement, of 
  course, varied tremendously. Friday 13th had the same significance as 
  for the British and Americans, while other chance events were 
  considered lucky omens. An airman who was presumed killed and his 
  family duly notified, but who later returned to his unit, was apparently 
  assured of survival, for example. 
  Most 18-year-old flyers brimmed with confidence on their first 
  missions. Gazing across a gently undulating mass of heavily laden 
  bombers, they felt invincible, but the first sight of a falling aircraft was a 
  chilling and mortifying experience. Virgin crews suddenly realized just 
  how vulnerable these machines were and became sharply aware of their 
  own fragility. Fragmentary apparitions were later recalled in vivid detail. 
  Whether swathed in fire, plummeting dumbly to earth trailing thick black 
  smoke, or suddenly bursting into a thousand pieces, the ghastly spectacle 
  stayed with them for life. It is impossible to imagine the distress felt by the 
  young airmen as they witnessed these surreal scenes, but as Stuka pilot 
  Horst Ramstetter observed, 'They came back crying their eyes out.' 
  No matter how the aircraft had died, gracefully or violently, it was a 
  vision that somehow stood out above the many horrors that most 
  Kampfflieger were forced to witness. Numbed by the dreadfully painful 
  loss of close friends, in time men grew to accept the passing of more 
  comrades as inevitable. They knew their own time would come too, they 
  just did not know when, where or how. Eventually, the news of death 
  would be registered without pity. Ju88-gunner Heinz Philip was holding 
  a particularly good hand when a mission interrupted a game of Skat. 
  When he returned, he sat and waited for the other three. They had 
  crashed on take-off and burned to death. Undeterred, he said, 'Well, 
  there must be someone around here who can finish this game.' There 
  was, 'so we finished the game'. In the words of General der Kampfflieger 
  Werner Baumbach, it was as if they had 'simply gone on ahead'. 
  ON CAMPAIGN 
  Movement of an air unit was a major logistical exercise, requiring 
  meticulous timing and coordination to ensure operational capability in 
  
  the shortest time possible. Once Fliegerhorst (air 
  station) boundaries had been confirmed, a few of 
  the more experienced pilots would immediately 
  scout the surrounding countryside, usually in 
  Fieslerl56 Storch liaison craft, locating and 
  mapping suitable emergency landing and aircraft 
  dispersal sites. 
  Logistics 
  A Kampfgeschwader-Fliegerhorst obviously demanded 
  a great deal of space. Geographical restrictions and 
  the need to deny enemy attackers a prime target 
  generally prevented an entire Geschwader (with 
  around 126 aircraft) operating from one field. 
  Despite the additional logistical demands, various 
  Staffeln would be located at separate Frontflugplatze 
  (frontline airfields), often many miles apart. 
  Advance units of pioneers, maintenance crews, 
  supply, administration and command personnel would be dispatched by 
  road to prepare the infrastructure of each airbase. Wherever possible, 
  existing military and civil airports were simply taken over, and extended to 
  cater for the numerous support and storage facilities vital for operations. 
  As soon as the airstrip was ready to accept traffic, aircraft would begin to 
  arrive, bringing with them the leading mechanics and essential stores that 
  would enable the Staffel to function, and even execute missions, prior to 
  the rest of the unit arriving by road. 
  Each Staffel required access to equipment stores, machine shops, 
  parachute drying and packing sheds, and secure but isolated 
  ammunition-, bomb- and fuel-dumps. Several units could share some of 
  these facilities wherever their respective fields were close enough, and 
  any tree-shielded minor roads within the area served as convenient 
  pre-camouflaged bomb-dumps. The initially open airfields naturally had 
  to be secured against sabotage, and so brick walls and fencing would be 
  erected around the entire perimeter, with the addition of regularly 
  spaced machine-gun towers and sometimes pillboxes. Concealed 
  dispersal pens and hard standing also had to be constructed. Overly tall 
  trees surrounding the airstrip (which were extremely hazardous in poor 
  visibility) were felled in the interests of safety, and warning lights fitted 
  to the tops of high buildings. Civilian construction companies were 
  frequently employed to assist Luftwaffe pioneer units in such tasks. One 
  Belgian contractor, employed to extend the runway for II./KG3 at 
  Antwerp=Deurne, also obligingly removed the spire of a church, which 
  was unfortunately in direct line of take-off. Sheep were often allowed to 
  roam the flattened grass airstrips, as a simple lawn-mowing expedient. 
  In addition to all these demands was the need to accommodate 2,500 
  men. The owners of nearby houses might be ordered to vacate their homes 
  with only 48 hours' notice, to be replaced by squadron personnel. Where 
  sufficient buildings could not be found, barrack huts had to be hastily 
  constructed by Luftwaffen-Bau-Battalionen (construction battalions), again 
  often assisted by locally drafted craftsmen and labour. Any available 
  personnel, including aircrews, were employed in the construction of slit 
  trenches - a chore made instantly worthwhile by the first air raid. 
  An all-sergeant crew enjoy a 
  brief leave together. Originally 
  a relatively comfortable posting, 
  increased Resistance activity 
  on the Western Front from 1943 
  prevented servicemen from 
  venturing out alone and contact 
  with locals had to be kept to 
  a minimum. (Radziwil Gogol) 
  
  A frontline Kampfgeschwader consumed around 1 1/2 tons of bread, 
  1/2 ton of meat, 1/3 ton of sausage and 1/2 ton of peas every day. The 
  administrative section, therefore, purchased a great deal of agricultural 
  produce from local farmers at government expense, easing a sizeable 
  part of the logistics train. Daily meals produced at the Kuchhaus 
  (cookhouse) were usually of a high standard and the individual airman 
  could often supplement his diet with regional delicacies and 
  merchandise. Unlike some liberating Allied units who later battled their 
  way through mainland Europe, the occupying German soldier always 
  expected to pay for such services and many farmers and restaurateurs did 
  lucrative business with their new (if otherwise unwelcome) customers. 
  Western Europe 
  Men based in Western Europe enjoyed a reasonably comfortable and 
  civilized existence, little removed from their home stations, with the 
  local civilian population of some countries often surprisingly well 
  disposed toward their new neighbours. While most resented the 
  occupation of their homeland, many citizens of Belgium and Holland in 
  particular could not help but be impressed by German military 
  achievements and displayed a curious admiration for air crewmen. 
  Although not overtly collaborationist, they occasionally insisted on 
  buying drinks and questioning the airmen about their daring exploits.4 
  The locals, with whom acquaintanceships grew, appreciated respectful 
  behaviour, and many were genuinely saddened when their resident 
  Geschwader transferred to another base. 
  If a short leave period prevented travel home to Germany, the 
  Kampfflieger could spend the available time exploring his immediate 
  surroundings. Even with wartime restrictions, public transport systems 
  were such that travel further afield was not impossible. Many indulged 
  in cultural and historic tours around ancient capitals and landmarks, 
  visiting museums and galleries. Enormous numbers of Wehrmacht 
  personnel undertook pilgrimages to the Ossuary of Verdun and the 
  many German and Allied cemeteries tracing the length of the previous 
  Western Front, often to visit the last resting place of a father or uncle. 
  Those in need of a more relaxing atmosphere could repair to the 
  Fliegerheim (flyers' home), established in Paris early 1941. This former 
  baroque palace in the Parc Monceau had been converted by German 
  construction firms, under guidance of the Sonderhaustab (special 
  buildings commission), to provide peaceful sanctuary for mentally and 
  physically drained aircrews. Staffed by Deutsches Rottes=Kreuz (German 
  Red Cross) workers, the hostel was well equipped with a very popular 
  table tennis and games room, a writing room, library and reading room, 
  several lounges and a refectory serving teas, coffee and light meals. The 
  wine cellar was appropriately transformed into the 'Bierstuberl' (beer 
  lounge). Overlooking the main entrance hall, a giant bronze bust of the 
  Fuhrer was installed at the foot of the marble staircase with its huge 
  ornamental wrought iron banister; this no doubt had its own effect 
  upon the men's flagging morale. 
  Paris was, of course, also a Mecca for those young airmen seeking a 
  rather more uplifting experience, and the nightclubs of Montmartre and 
  4 It is interesting to note that large numbers of Flemish volunteers later joined the Luftwaffe - the majority (c. 50,000) 
  serving in Flak batteries stationed in Holland. 
  \ 
  
  In a snapshot familiar to their 
  Allied opponents, members of an 
  Africa-based unit make their own 
  entertainment. Many elements 
  of the practical and comfortable 
  Luftwaffe-Tropenanzug are visible, 
  including long- and short-sleeve 
  shirts, assault trousers and 
  off-white wool socks. The flysheet 
  over the tent insulates a layer 
  of air, reducing the inside 
  temperature. (John S. Koller) 
  the Folies Bergere were ever popular destinations. Naturally, the local 
  femmes de la nuit were also kept busy. To German servicemen, prostitutes 
  were known either as 'Dirnen' (girls), the easily translated 'Huren' or more 
  poetically 'Bordsteinschwalben' (curbside swallows). The most common term, 
  however, was the rather unpleasant 'Nutten' (slits). 
  Other men were able to establish more meaningful relationships 
  with local girls, but tragically, many of these women were later subjected 
  to vile acts of humiliation and recrimination, meted out by their own 
  countrymen against perceived collaborators. KG26 pilot Horst Juventus 
  was so distressed by the disappearance of his French sweetheart, 
  following threats from the local Resistance, that he requested transfer 
  from operational duties, 'a pilot pining for lost love was no use at all ... 
  I could prove a real danger'. His girlfriend was never seen again. 
  Although all personnel had already received a full course of 
  immunization during their recruitment and training programmes, the 
  movement of a unit overseas entailed a further round of booster shots 
  for everyone. Contrary to the normal practice of injecting the upper 
  arm, throughout the Wehrmacht vaccinations were administered to the 
  chest: into a man's right breast if he were left-handed, or his left breast 
  if right-handed. Thus any temporary, localized paralysis caused by the 
  more virulent cholera and paratyphoid strains would not seriously 
  impede his daily duties. 
  Africa 
  For those stationed in Africa, scorching days, freezing nights and 
  viciously abrasive Ghibli sand storms made the western desert one of the 
  harshest environments in which Kampfflieger had to serve. Aircraft were 
  not the only things to suffer from the constant ingress of sand. The 
  sharp granules, which always got into any food (and everywhere else), 
  caused cumulative damage to tooth enamel, and dental complaints 
  became commonplace. Combined with a limited fluid intake, the 
  
  passing of sand through the digestive system could produce a painful 
  irritation all its own. But the human body is a remarkably adaptable 
  machine, and, in time, subtle physical changes took place. Servicemen 
  noticed a general deceleration in hair growth, reducing the need for 
  frequent shaving and thus conveniently saving water rations. Another 
  (less appealing) biological effect was the passing of a particularly dry 
  stool. On the infrequent occasions that a man needed to evacuate his 
  bowels in the latrine, or take a 'Spatengang' (spade walk), his intestinal 
  tract had already absorbed much of the moisture from the faeces. There 
  was always a little more to be extracted, however, and within moments 
  the deposit was neatly chopped up and carried away by 'Sheiss-kafer' 
  (identically known to the British as 'shite beetles'), that seemed to 
  appear from nowhere and disappeared just as smartly. 
  Personnel serving in North Africa were paid in Italian lire, although 
  the opportunities to spend any of it were somewhat limited. Leave was 
  infrequent and, in the more remote locations, quite pointless. 
  Nevertheless local Arab merchants soon learned to supply as many 
  demands as they could possibly identify, by way of services and bazaar 
  souvenirs. Just like their British opponents, many Germans picked up a 
  few words of Arabic or Swahili during their dealings with traders, and 
  daily conversation among themselves became liberally sprinkled with 
  these phrases. 
  Contact with women was virtually non-existent, and only likely at 
  major ports and cities. Where they could be found, very few German 
  servicemen would dare employ the indigenous 'working girls' as this was 
  in direct violation of the German Race Acts of September 1935 
  (designed to protect Aryan blood and German honour), a law 
  aggressively enforced by the Feldgendarmerie. Instead, such needs were 
  admirably fulfilled by the only officially sanctioned military brothel in 
  North Africa, at No. 4, Via Tassoni in Tripoli, entirely staffed by Italian 
  women. The use of no other establishment was permitted for enlisted 
  men and NCOs, including those licensed for Italian military use. 
  The Russian Front 
  There were many hazards of service in Russia. The infamously bitter 
  winters jammed control surfaces with ice and made tyres brittle. Slick 
  runways caused countless take-off and landing accidents, accounting for 
  as many losses as enemy action. Temperatures dropped to -30° F, causing 
  engine oil, grease and lubricants to freeze solid, and rendering up to 75 
  per cent of all aircraft inoperative throughout the winter of 1942. 
  Petrol-driven Karch heaters were employed in attempts to pre-warm (or 
  rather, thaw) the engines, cloaked in thermal jackets and fed through 
  'umbilical' hoses, although the process had to be commenced many 
  hours ahead of start-time. Typically, it was the ground crews who 
  suffered the cold more than most. Working both day and night with 
  intricate electrical, mechanical and engine components, which 
  prohibited the use of gloves and with the constant danger of exposed 
  skin bonding to frozen metal, they incurred high incidence of frostbite 
  and hypothermia. 
  Units lucky enough to have concrete billets or abandoned factories 
  at their disposal were forced to burn furniture, doors and window 
  frames in the absence of any other solid fuels. The majority of airfields 
  
  were bereft of such accommodation, and since tents were completely 
  inadequate, underground quarters had to be constructed. This 
  troglodyte existence did, at least, provide respite from the savage ice 
  winds and afforded some protection from incessant Red Air Force raids. 
  A Russian winter does not last forever, but the spring thaw merely 
  created alternative problems with which to bind a Kampfgeschwader. The 
  Rasputitsa (time of no roads), as the Russians themselves called it, 
  instantly reduced all unmetalled surfaces and airstrips to a sucking 
  morass. Baking hot and dusty summers brought dangers of their own, 
  with many ground crewmen succumbing to heat stroke. Vast crop fields 
  concealed another altogether unexpected problem. Personnel of KG51, 
  living in tented encampments at Balti in Bessarabia during 1941, spent 
  much of their time battling a plague of mice. Such infestation carried 
  high risks of disease, with droppings left in nibbled food stocks, the 
  undetected gnawing of aircraft components and equipment, and the 
  startling discovery of unwelcome company in personal kit. The heat also 
  had detrimental effects upon food preservation, with the resulting 
  generally poor diet and unsanitary conditions inevitably producing 
  gastroenteritis and dysentery. Autumn was but a short, muddy transition 
  to another bitter winter with frequent heavy downpours that flooded 
  airfields and accommodation. Although bitter, none of the subsequent 
  winters equalled that of 1941-42. 
  The demands heaped upon the Kampfgeschwadern stretched them to, 
  and often beyond, their limits. Crews made three to four sorties per day, 
  each between four and five hours long, and most units remained 
  operational for at least six months (some up to nine months) without a 
  single day off since the start of the campaign. Unsurprisingly, medical 
  officers of several units reported that extreme nervous exhaustion was 
  widespread among aircrews. Relentless long-range flights, constant 
  mortal fear and the physiological stresses of dive-bombing severely 
  Ostfront Kampfgeschwadern 
  suffered regular casualties to 
  Red Air Force harassing raids. 
  The Polikarpov Po2-equipped 
  units, including the all-woman 
  'Nachthexen' (night witches), 
  sometimes inflicted very heavy 
  damage; in November 1942, one 
  well-placed bomb on a fuel dump 
  at Armavir airfield touched off a 
  chain of explosions, destroying or 
  damaging almost 100 fully laden 
  He111s and Ju88s from several 
  Geschwadern. After a somewhat 
  lighter raid, crews salvage the 
  charred remains of a parachute, 
  probably to be fashioned into 
  scarves, Fusslappen (foot cloths) 
  or comfortable, lice-proof 
  underwear. 
  
  degraded bodily and mental constitution. Men 
  became fractious, a typical symptom of sleep 
  deprivation, sometimes breaking into unprovoked 
  weeping spasms. Air and ground crews alike were 
  on the verge of a collective nervous breakdown. 
  Some Geschwaderkommodore were forced to 
  implement timetables that at last made rest 
  periods possible in rotation. Men seized the 
  opportunity to sleep, sometimes for days at a time. 
  Others resolved to get as far away as possible, as 
  quickly as possible. Although rare and fleeting, a 
  little peace had great restorative power upon a 
  man's spirit. Returning mentally refreshed, he 
  nevertheless began to sink back into the general 
  state of nervousness within a few hours. 
  While leave shortages severely undermined 
  morale, perhaps the most distressing and all-
  pervading of miseries was the lack of contact with home. Although every 
  effort was made to convey mail to and from Germany, the demands for 
  ammunition, fuel and medical supplies across the 1,000-mile front 
  simply had to take priority. The desperately over-worked Transportflieger 
  did all they could to alleviate the situation, shoehorning mail sacks into 
  their Ju52s wherever possible, but untold tons of letters were never 
  delivered. Some units detailed men to undertake epic road journeys, 
  lasting several days, to deliver and collect mail from rear depots 
  themselves. A simple and effective expedient was finally devised in 1943 
  to establish occasional radio links with Berlin. A bomber flying at high 
  altitude, trailing its 75 yard-long cable aerial, enabled Luft-Nachrichten 
  signallers to relay short (often coded) messages between squadron 
  personnel and their families. The meteorological officer of KG51, 
  Doktor Rumbaum, learned of the birth of his daughter in this 
  humorous message: 'New tail-less aircraft type fit for take-off. 
  Production plant ready to accept further work.' 
  In the remote agricultural regions of Russia, Byelorussia and 
  Ukraine, most villagers (never enamoured of their Soviet overlords) 
  greeted the invading German army as liberators and proffered friendly 
  assistance. A mutually beneficial trading system was established with 
  peasant farmers who sold geese, eggs, pigs and cattle to the Kampfflieger 
  to supplement meagre rations. (This was in contrast to Red Army 
  soldiers, who, with little to exchange, simply commandeered supplies.) 
  Acts of fraternization carried enormous risk for the villagers, if 
  discovered by a Politruk or military Kommissar, yet they frequently 
  courted still greater danger by assisting shot-down Luftwaffe airmen to 
  return to their own lines. The slaughter of these docile villagers, 
  principally by SS-Einsatzgruppen under the edicts of Nazi racial policy, 
  soon squandered the potential of these helpful allies and ensured total 
  and brutal defeat for the Third Reich. 
  Dining al fresco. A 
  Mediterranean-based 
  Kampfflieger made this portrait 
  of his crewmates buying oranges 
  from a local trader, c.1942. The 
  Unteroffizier on the left has 
  applied a particularly sharp bend 
  to the crown stiffening-wire in 
  his Schirmmutze, contrasting 
  with that worn by the 
  Oberleutnant. The Uffz gunner 
  on the right wears a fashionably 
  shortened Fliegerbluse and 
  carries his camera, as per 
  regulations, on his left hip. He 
  also appears to have pinned 
  or sewn the crown pleat of 
  his Fliegermutze together, 
  presenting a slightly lower 
  and sharper profile. 
  Mediterranean Theatre 
  The demanding climate, ever diminishing supplies, and the seemingly 
  unending nature of the entire campaign, contrived to make the 
  Mediterranean one of the toughest theatres of the Second World War. 
  
  Unteroffizier (Bordfunker) II./Sturzkampfgeschwader 77, Neudorf-Oppeln, Silesia, September 1939 
  
  Training establishments (FI.Ers.Abt., FI.Anw.komp. and FI.A.R.), 1940 
  
  Survival equipment 
  
  D 
  Sturzkampffliegerschule 1, Wertheim-Regensburg, 1941 
  
  Il./Grosskampffliegerschule 2, Horsching-bei-Linz, Germany,1942 
  
  He111 Kampfflieger, 1943 
  
  Stab-Ill./Kampfgeschwader 2 'Holzhammer', Gilze-Rijen, Holland, 1944 
  
  Hauptmann (Flugzeugfuhrer Beobachter) Stab./Kampfgeschwader 76, Karstadt, Germany, May 1945 
  16 
  
  I./KG30 Bombenwart prepares 
  an SC250. The Geschwader's 
  own Platzsicherung (airfield 
  security) detachment was often 
  augmented by army reserve 
  personnel, such as this Landser 
  with M1916 Stahlhelm. Note the 
  extended dive-brake behind the 
  port engine nacelle, the black 
  and white stripes forming part 
  of the Balkankreuz insignia when 
  closed. (Gregory Pons) 
  This aside, the posting had its compensations. The Kampfflieger stationed 
  in Italy, Sicily, Salonika or the Greek Isles was almost overwhelmed by 
  the great range of local 'Delikatessen' that supplemented his diet. Meals 
  regularly featured fresh or sun-dried tomatoes and fish, oranges, 
  mandarins, cheeses, olives and, of course, plenty of pasta. Given the 
  chance, he could enjoy a tremendous selection of wines, too. Steeped in 
  history and culture, the Mediterranean region presented excellent leave 
  potential, and thousands explored the Acropolis, ancient Roman villas 
  and the comparatively modern architectural splendour of Rome. 
  Until 1943, an ostensibly Fascist Italy imposed none of the restrictions 
  found elsewhere and the Kampfflieger was able to consort freely with local 
  women. Alternatively, he could turn to one of countless civil or military 
  bordellos,5 such as that hosted by La Tenutaria del Casino or 'La Signora' 
  Luccia Cecotti, at No. 10, Via Ludovico Cavitelli, Cremona. This facility 
  was just one of several founded within range of the Caserna Manfredini, 
  an Italian Army barracks 80 km south-east of Milan. Although the girls at 
  these establishments were regularly checked, as in most armies, 
  contraction of any serious social disease was considered a self-inflicted 
  wound. If it was determined that the soldier had failed to exercise proper 
  precautions, he would be duly charged with such an offence. Several 
  brands of condom, such as 'Odilei' in Troppenfest (tropical) packaging, 
  were readily available to Wehrmacht personnel. 
  BATTLE 
  All operational orders originated at the 
  Gefechtsstand (battle 
  headquarters). The Kartenstelle (map room), chiefly responsible for 
  updating and issue of appropriate aerial maps, selected the general 
  routes in and out of the target area according to calculated range, as 
  dictated by aircraft type and bomb load. 
  The Wetterstelle (weather office) provided planners with constant reports 
  and forecasts, before and throughout each mission. Meteorological 
  personnel were affectionately known as Wetterfrosche (weather frogs; in 
  5 These institutions remained operational until abolished under the Legge-Merlin Act of 1956. 'No.10' is now a 
  restaurant, appropriately named La Trappola (the trap). 
  
  German folklore, frogs are renowned for 
  their forecasting prowess), or, less kindly, 
  Falsche prophete. Under command of the 
  Funk-u. Navigationsoffizier 
  (wireless and 
  navigation officer), the Bodenleitstelle (ground 
  control centre) informed aircrews of available 
  radio frequencies and take-off and landing 
  signals. Constant communication would be 
  maintained with the formation 
  through-
  out the flight, via the 
  GeschwaderLuft 
  nachrichtenkompanie (air signals company), 
  advising of any weather updates or last-minute 
  amendments to orders. In turn, they received 
  regular 
  reports 
  from 
  aircraft 
  wireless 
  operators, relaying any critical information back to the Gefechtsstand, who 
  could decide the required course of action and issue new orders as 
  necessary. From this basic information, the Staffelkapitan fixed the precise 
  approach, bomb-run sequences and exit routes, finally briefing the 
  squadron observers. 
  From 1940 a necessarily generous 400 Reichsmark bonus and extra 
  leave privileges were granted to specially selected, sometimes voluntary, 
  Zerstorerbesatzungen 
  (destruction crews). Written orders and 
  target 
  descriptions came directly from Fliegerkorps headquarters, and although 
  no time was specified, assignments were expected to be completed as 
  soon as possible. The aircraft commander theoretically decided the 
  exact method and time, based on prevailing conditions and crew 
  readiness, but was occasionally detailed 
  to execute 
  a 
  mission 
  immediately, regardless of these factors. The near-suicidal raids against 
  vital installations, principally aircraft factories, engine works and 
  airfields, were flown without fighter escort. Crews were obliged to 
  destroy their targets, in addition to regular operations. 
  An Obergefreiter Tankwart (fuel 
  maintenance man) tops up 
  Ju88 reserve tanks, while a 
  Waffenwart checks the B-Stand 
  guns. Aircraft often commenced 
  long-range missions with only 
  a partial fuel load, stopping at 
  forward airfields to fill up, and 
  ensuring maximum possible 
  reach. The various 'Wart' 
  nicknames were derived from 
  Wartung (maintenance). 
  Preparation 
  Aircrews themselves frequently knew little of the precise nature of their 
  target, sometimes not even the name of the city, and were often not 
  interested. Their only real concerns were to know about the levels and 
  type of defence they might expect to encounter. Only the Beobachter 
  (observer) needed to know that much detail, and even he received only 
  the shortest of briefings, with target descriptions often limited to little 
  more than map references. As the Staffel grew evermore familiar with 
  their operational areas and routes, information could be reduced to an 
  airfield or factory name only. Before long this was perfectly adequate, as 
  veteran crews could navigate by sight and memory alone. 
  Beobachtere were initially under very strict orders to avoid civilian 
  casualties wherever possible, to the extent of aborting an entire mission 
  if necessary. Enemy reports of deliberate 'terror raids' prompted 
  investigations by Fuhrerhauptquartier 
  (Fuhrer Headquarters) itself. The 
  offending aircrews were traced and interrogated to ensure they had 
  exercised all practical precautions. 
  On 
  24 
  August 
  1940, 
  British 
  jamming 
  of 
  the 
  Knickebein 
  radio-navigation 
  signals 
  caused 
  He111s 
  to 
  inadvertently 
  strike 
  blacked-out central London, believing it to be Shorts' aircraft factory. 
  
  A Motorenschlosser pre-warms 
  the engines. Flugzeugmechaniker 
  regularly attended courses on 
  the latest types and were usually 
  able to attend to any visiting 
  aircraft. 7./KG30 crew chief, 
  Oberfeldwebel Heiner Mank even 
  earned his unit a cash bonus by 
  inventing a special spanner for 
  a particularly inaccessible Ju88 
  sparkplug. Additional paint layers 
  on this I.Gruppe machine 
  indicate switches to and from 
  night operations. (Gregory Pons) 
  The Luftwaffe continued to concentrate on 
  military targets, but five seemingly 'unprovoked' 
  RAF raids on Berlin eventually incited retaliation 
  on 7 September, intended to force a return to 
  military targeting. Hereafter, mission briefings 
  could not have been more succinct: London, 
  Bristol, Coventry. Escalating casualties merely 
  ensured a bitter duel, killing 60,000 British and 
  600,000 German civilians by 1945. 
  Crews gathered their gear for the long trek to 
  dispersal. Civilian buses had originally been 
  commandeered for this purpose, but ever 
  present fuel shortages curtailed such luxuries 
  and most had to walk (sometimes well over a 
  mile) to the flight line. Ground crews helped 
  airmen into their flight suits, and life-vests and parachute harnesses were 
  adjusted to a tight fit. 
  These physical preparations did at least provide a brief distraction 
  from impending mental stresses. Most felt a degree of anxiety before 
  every mission, sometimes evolving into great fear, resulting in trembling, 
  clammy sweats or a dizzy, sick feeling. In extreme cases, men found their 
  legs momentarily refused to move or, conversely, turned to jelly. Some 
  attempted to stifle their nerves by singing or humming a favourite tune. 
  He111-Bordschutze Gerhard Adam admits 'OK, I was afraid', but his 
  comrades encouraged him with 'witty and funny remarks' throughout 
  his very first combat sortie, over Leningrad in late 1942. Fear was not 
  confined to inexperienced crewmen, however, and even seasoned 
  veterans could be reduced to vomiting before an operation. 
  Unteroffiziere airman and 
  Funkwart work together on the 
  cockpit. Some ground crewmen, 
  having watched others depart 
  and (hopefully) return in the 
  machines they spent countless 
  hours maintaining, volunteered 
  as reserve aircrew. Following 
  appropriate instruction, they 
  covered for resting, injured 
  or lost personnel as flight 
  engineers, wireless operators 
  and gunners. (Gregory Pons) 
  Take-off 
  The crew ambles reluctantly toward the belly of their machine, perhaps 
  exchanging a few words with the Erste-Wart, seeking reassurance that all will 
  be well. Everyone climbs aboard and squeezes awkwardly into his post, as a 
  Schwarze ('blackie', a nickname for ground crew mechanics) slams the 
  gondola entry hatch shut. A few minutes later, when everyone is strapped 
  into take-off positions, the pilot enquires over the intercom 'Alles Klar?' 
  
  ('All clear?'). Each crewman responds in turn, and the intercom is 
  switched off. 
  The crew sits in silence, awaiting the signal from the crew chief 
  standing just ten yards in front of the nose, while he in turn watches for 
  a signal from the Start- u. Landeaufsichtsoffizier (take-off and landing 
  look-out officer). The hands of the cockpit clock deliberately count off 
  the final seconds, and the signal is at last given. Suddenly, the airfield 
  erupts into frantic action as ground control staff wave arms and signal 
  flags in all directions. The Flugzeugfuhrer shouts from his open window 
  to the crew chief, 'Voraus alles klar?', and the chief confirms all-clear 
  ahead. Ground control staff and every observer have received a flight 
  plan from the Gefechtsstand, detailing take-off sequence and time slots 
  allocated to each aircraft. The pilot calls 'Backbord frei!' (port free) as he 
  presses the starter, clutch in, and the 1200hp engine whines and 
  splutters until, with a burst of oily grey smoke driven down into the 
  ground, the props catch and accelerate to a shimmering blur -
  'Steuerbord frei!' When both are running, he gives each full throttle in 
  turn to test the generators. Between them, pilot and observer check 
  oil-pressure and temperature, coolant, hydraulic and fuel pressure, fuel 
  and oil level gauges in well-rehearsed sequence. Engines burst into life 
  at intervals around the field, as lead aircraft are already thundering 
  down the airstrip. 
  The pilot reduces the revs and applies wheel brakes, easing the 
  pressure against the chocks, which are whipped away by ground 
  crewmen. The Erste-Wart shouts the traditional 'Bremsklotze weg!' (chocks 
  away), barely audible amid the din of the entire Staffel's aircraft, and 
  steps to one side. Throttles are eased open and the machine shudders 
  across the field toward the foot of the strip, at night defined by green 
  lamps. This scurry of activity is a welcome distraction to the crews, who 
  are glad to be moving at last. 
  A flag, or at night a lamp or green flare, signals the start of the 
  take-off run. Brakes on, half-throttle and then three-quarter-throttle is 
  applied as the aircraft strains to be released. The Beobachter watches the 
  instrument panel and signalled that all is well. The Flugzeugfuhrer 
  releases the brakes and the machine lurches forward. Full-throttle is 
  piled on as they race down the 1,500yd (1,400m) runway at around 140 
  mph (220 km/h). Judging the precise moment, the pilot winds the trim 
  lever with his left hand, pushing down the tail, and hauling back the 
  control column with his right. The nose and undercarriage begin to lift 
  just as the red lamps, marking the final 600ft of runway, flash by 
  underneath. The barely airborne machine sways through the backwash 
  of preceding aircraft, only seconds ahead, as the pilot retracts the 
  undercarriage in the desperate struggle for aerodynamics. At around 
  300ft, the giant eventually settles into a steady, laborious climb. Flaps are 
  retracted and, with an unnerving sink and accelerating lurch, the 
  ungainly metal lump suddenly becomes an aeroplane. Propeller blades 
  are trimmed to a deeper pitch and throttles reduced, as the now stable 
  craft enters a graceful and positive climb. At night, perimeter and 
  runway lights are extinguished as the last aircraft leaves the field. 
  Limited facilities available to frontline units often called for ingenuity; 
  at Gerbini, Sicily, 7./KG30 had to illuminate their airstrip with the 
  headlights of strategically parked cars. 
  
  For the return journey, the crew 
  notes airfields and emergency 
  landing sites in case of 
  mechanical failure or serious 
  injury. Introduced during 1940, 
  the SC1000 'Hermann' featured 
  an arrester-ring around its nose, 
  preventing the device from 
  burying itself too deeply before 
  detonation, ensuring maximum 
  blast effect above ground level. 
  (Gregory Pons) 
  In mixed formations, slow-climbing Dol7s and 
  He111s took off first; the superior climb-rate of the 
  Ju88 enabled them to catch up easily. The lead 
  aircraft must maintain constant speed and height 
  for the fleet to assemble on him, until finally the 
  lead Beobachter sets a course for the target. The 
  fleet briefly continues under navigation lights to 
  establish safe spacing at night, but these would 
  have to be extinguished about four minutes into 
  the flight. Every crewman scours the darkness, 
  nerves chewed by constant risk of collision (a 
  frighteningly easy occurrence even in daylight). 
  The 
  wireless 
  operator 
  double-checks 
  his 
  radio-telegraphy and telephony set, and reports, 
  'FT Klar'. The craft is now ready for its part in the mission. A weighty silence 
  descends upon the crew as they climb higher, and further away from their 
  present home - perhaps for good. The formation might stay together for 
  Grosseinsatz (massed attack) against a single target, or split at pre-arranged 
  points, toward individual objectives, in small groups or even individually. 
  Flight and navigation 
  With aircraft swaying gently in formation, in-flight checks are carried out; 
  the Beobachter and Flugzeugfuhrer examine their shared instrument arrays, 
  the former operating switches and fuel transfer levers, more conveniently 
  located for him than the pilot. At night, the Bordfunker maintains constant 
  communication with immediately flanking aircraft, in order to hold 
  position and report any mechanical or medical emergencies. He also 
  monitors ground direction-finding equipment in concert with the 
  Beobachter. The Bordschutzen meanwhile attend to their weapons and 
  ammunition supplies, firing short test bursts over open land or sea. On 
  larger aircraft, the Bordmechanik might also assist with some general duties. 
  Although they had their intercom system, most crews preferred to 
  communicate with simple gestures and sign language of their own 
  invention. Outward and return flights granted rare opportunities for 
  solitude and there was no need to interrupt a comrade's thoughts with 
  Briefings were typically held 
  outdoors, only retreating to 
  cover in poor weather. A group 
  of Beobachtere study their route 
  for the coming mission, aided 
  by a Hauptmann briefing officer. 
  Generally experienced crewmen 
  themselves, many of these 
  officers suffered from guilt and 
  stress, provoked by sending 
  young men into battle from 
  which they frequently did not 
  return. 
  
  A hydraulic Bomben-beladewagen 
  (bomb-loading trolley) positions 
  an SC500 under the grinning 
  canine features of a Ju87, for a 
  raid on Valletta, Malta, May 1942. 
  Echoing the Battle of Britain, the 
  costly air campaign sufficiently 
  depleted the island's defences 
  for a well-supported invasion to 
  succeed. Hitler's concerns over 
  high casualties, and unwillingness 
  to divert materiel from his 
  Russian campaign, again resulted 
  in cancellation. Thus another vital 
  hub for regional control was 
  ceded to a near-beaten enemy. 
  regular and mundane navigational data until the enemy frontline grew 
  near. The longer journeys common to the Eastern Front would be passed 
  in idle chat and banter. Imminent home leave was always cause for great 
  excitement, and crews often spent virtually the entire flight discussing 
  how they intended to spend it, the mission itself of secondary concern. 
  At 7,000ft, air humidity is quickly evaporated into steam by 
  friction-generated wingtip heat, with the condensation trails, or 
  'contrails', scratching unmistakable tracks across the sky. Greater danger 
  appears at 18,000ft as the temperature drops to around -30°F and 
  moisture freezes against control surfaces, air-intakes and propellers. 
  Fine, needle-like crystals squeeze through tiny cracks in the Plexiglas 
  nose, peppering the skin with a stinging mist. Unchecked, ice will cause 
  engine seizure, so regular inspections are carried out. Climbing through 
  the damp cloud band nearer the sun melts the ice, but this too could be 
  hazardous. Accompanied by loud cracking noises, chunks of solid ice 
  break free to slam into the fuselage, occasionally smashing off the radio 
  mast. At increased altitude, the rarefied air grows even colder and 
  demands pure oxygen, although prolonged dependency on it has a 
  wearying effect, even in healthy young men. At night, all interior lights 
  are extinguished as they near the enemy front, and an almost complete, 
  inky blackness descends upon the aircraft, leaving only the dim glow of 
  luminous instrument dials. Complete radio silence is imposed and the 
  formation spreads out to reduce the likelihood of collision. The tension 
  increases with the knowledge that already-alerted defences await them. 
  The Beobachter had previously noted distinctive geographical features 
  upon his map, providing accurate datum points throughout the flight. 
  Reaching these points on time confirms original wind speed and drift 
  calculations. If not, flight time, airspeed and distance covered are used to 
  determine actual conditions. These new calculations will then be applied 
  to future headings. 
  Experienced crews welcomed the appearance of searchlights and 
  distant flak as a helpful navigational aid. They could recognize cities from 
  
  their searchlight signature alone, and simply circumnavigate dangerous 
  areas. Certain unconcealable landmarks, such as major rivers and power 
  stations, provided excellent reference points. Large and easily defined 
  towns were familiar features and at lower levels, aircraft could simply 
  follow major road and railway lines directly to their targets. 
  Heavy fog presented great navigational and formation problems, but 
  wing-mounted fog lamps were seldom used as the reflection generally 
  exacerbated 
  the 
  situation. 
  In 
  such 
  poor 
  conditions, 
  enemy 
  counter-measures on the ground could be remarkably successful. On 30 
  August 1940 'Starfish' decoy fires lit in British fields to simulate blazing 
  cities, deceived a heavy raid against Liverpool into bombing a Welsh 
  hillside. Even if these massive oil-fed infernos could be distinguished as 
  subterfuge, they occasionally masked the intended target with such 
  dense smoke that an accurate strike was impossible, forcing 
  the fleet to abort its primary mission to seek secondary or 
  opportunity targets. In favourable conditions, however, the 
  Beobachter was seldom fooled; regular instrument fixes 
  generally enabled him to find his target. 
  Flak and fighter defences 
  Approaching 
  known 
  anti-aircraft 
  emplacements, 
  the 
  Flugzeugfuhrer throttles back both engines to confound 
  predictor crews' attempts to determine his altitude and 
  course. If the gunners should hear his muted engines, they 
  might assume from the pitch that this machine is beyond 
  range - a common and surprisingly effective ruse. By 
  sporadically desynchronizing his engines, an experienced 
  pilot could even influence the direction of fire, teasing it 
  away from his planned approach route. The bomber might 
  fly on unmolested, but a swaying searchlight could suddenly 
  find and lock onto its prey, flooding the cockpit with blinding 
  white light. Soon other ghostly fingers converge on the 
  bomber, 'handing over' the captive aircraft to neighbouring 
  batteries as it enters the next zone. The Flakwaltz begins with 
  III./KG30 Hauptmann fastens 
  his silk scarf, 1940. At this time, 
  KG30 aircrews sported neckwear 
  in Gruppe colours, matching 
  the background shield of their 
  Geschwader insignia (white, 
  red and yellow respectively). 
  Although non-regulation, their 
  purpose was threefold: they 
  provided important symbols of 
  unit identity; they offered comfort 
  and protection from chafing; and 
  they were convenient recognition 
  panels in the event of ditching. 
  (Gregory Pons) 
  Winching an SC1000 (2,205lb) 
  into position, via block-and-
  tackle anchored to the tail 
  wheel. All available ground 
  crewmen were commandeered 
  for this Herculean task, and 
  aircrews routinely lent a hand. 
  Throughout 1940, German 
  ordnance suffered a 20 per 
  cent failure rate, sometimes 
  due to sabotage by courageous 
  enforced factory workers. 
  (Gregory Pons) 
  
  a sudden dive, jerking wildly, 
  before 
  climbing back up to evade the searchlights' 
  grasp. The pilot buys a few moments of dark 
  safety, until an angrily sweeping, silver shaft 
  catches metal once more. 
  The first AA-tracers, known as Bugeleisen 
  (flat irons), lazily arc through the formation 
  and 
  are 
  closely followed 
  by 
  several 
  innocuous-looking puffs of black smoke by 
  day, or sharp flashes by night, usually 
  inaudible over the drone of engines. As the 
  gunners find the range, aircraft are jolted 
  violently and engines falter from the blast 
  waves of AA shell-bursts above and below, 
  sending shards of white-hot steel to clatter 
  against the wings like gravel thrown at a tin 
  shed. The loud metallic bang of a large 
  shell-splinter 
  punching 
  through 
  the 
  fuselage, 
  mindlessly 
  scything 
  through 
  everything in its way, produces a loud, 
  howling noise to add to the general melee 
  and 
  the 
  acrid, 
  sulphurous 
  smell 
  of 
  explosives. 
  British AA-fire was generally restricted to 
  a precise, narrow band. Royal Artillery 
  gunners rightly prided themselves on their 
  fire discipline and accuracy, only rarely 
  resorting to deeper or scattered barrage in 
  desperation. The bright, fleeting muzzle 
  flashes on the ground gave brief warning of 
  approaching AA-fire, but aircraft in close 
  formation could do little to avoid it. Instead, 
  the crews had to ride the storm with every muscle clenched, often 
  causing violent, uncontrollable trembling deep within the stomach. It 
  was not unknown for men to wet their trousers, particularly during 
  low-level approaches at around 2,000-3,000ft. 
  At these heights, reaction and firing times of ground or naval 
  defences were significantly reduced, but the bombers' immediate 
  manoeuvring space was also curtailed in the event of fighter attack. An 
  extremely low-level raid was famously executed by Do 17s of 9./KG76 
  against RAF Kenley on 18 August 1940, skimming across the Channel 
  and English fields at altitudes as low as 2 yards. Steeple-chasing over 
  woodland, several picked up leaves and branches as they ripped through 
  the treetops. 
  As terrifying as artillery fire could be, the fighter attacks somehow 
  invoked far greater fears. The fighter pilot, determined to down the 
  bomber and all its crew, introduced a personal element to the 
  encounter. With German aircrews bunched so closely together, a 
  concentrated burst of fire into the cockpit would be devastating. 
  Prolonged cannon fire hammered through the engines and wing-roots 
  would rupture the main tanks. Gushing fuel, combined with explosive 
  rounds and tracers, could easily take the wing clean off. 
  1./KG53 Unteroffizier prepares 
  to board He111 ' Julius-Heinrich'. 
  The flight suit is worn, as 
  intended, over the inflatable 
  Schwimmweste for protection; 
  even a small tear would render 
  the vest completely useless. 
  A short midriff zip was initially 
  incorporated into the flight suits 
  to provide access to the vest's 
  compressed air cylinder. This 
  was soon replaced by a 
  quick-opening 'Reissverschluss' 
  (rip fastener) to the left side of 
  the suit, permitting access to 
  both the canister and oral 
  inflation tube. (Bundesarchiv 
  #342/620/8) 
  
  As enemy territory draws near, every eye is 
  strained for a distant shadow or the slightest 
  movement below. Even at close range it is 
  extremely difficult to define a well-camouflaged 
  profile against the shifting landscape. 
  The contrails that once betrayed the bomber 
  could now become an ally; a sudden break in the 
  tracks 
  above 
  indicate 
  that 
  fighters 
  have 
  commenced their diving attack and would soon 
  be on the bombers. Many gunners were initially 
  dismayed that their own fighter escort denied 
  them the chance to exercise their skills. The first 
  interloper quickly changed their outlook. 
  A sudden shout of 'Jagdflieger!' and everyone is 
  braced for the onslaught. Reactions and aim 
  must be instant and perfect; a fraction of a 
  second would determine survival or disaster for 
  the entire crew. Every gunner has to hold his 
  emotions firmly in check, while he quickly and 
  clearly tells his comrades the direction and level 
  of incoming fighters. A shouted instruction over 
  the intercom becomes an indecipherable hiss -
  useless noise that might easily result in an 
  airman's death, instead of saving his life. 
  Furthermore, it could induce an air of panic 
  among the crew, instantly destroying all hope of 
  cohesive defence. The sheer number of attackers 
  often made precise direction and fire control 
  impossible. 
  Aerial 
  engagements 
  were 
  extremely 
  short-lived occurrences. Most of the fighter's 
  time was devoted to selecting and reaching a 
  suitable starting point for his attack, and 
  repeating the process after every pass. Even if a running battle 
  developed over several miles, to the bomber crew it was made up of 
  frantic, terrifying moments. Put simply, it was a brief and uneven 
  confrontation between one man with a single MG-15 (and severely 
  restricted vision), and a rapidly closing opponent with up to eight 
  medium or heavy machine guns. With a cyclic rate of about 850 rounds 
  per minute, sustained fire on the Rheinmetal-Borsig MG-15 ate through 
  a 75-round magazine in just five seconds. Reloading took a similar time. 
  During 1943, MG-81 machine guns, fed by 500-round belts, replaced 
  these woefully inadequate weapons. 
  For all his training and accuracy, an air gunner seldom got to place 
  well-aimed fire at the fighter as it flashed past him at around 375 mph. 
  He could merely throw a wild burst in its general direction, before the 
  blurred apparition vanished completely from view once more. The 
  crowded scene of insanely twisting silhouettes could melt into a 
  deceptively peaceful, clear blue sky in an instant. Bombers commonly 
  came under sustained attack, with cockpit and radio sets blasted to 
  pieces by sparking bullets, and yet the entire crew saw nothing of the 
  fighters tumbling all around them. 
  All manner of domestic and 
  wildlife species were adopted 
  as unit mascots and individual 
  pets. KG26 'Lowen-Geschwader' 
  naturally recruited lion cubs, 
  but pets included anything from 
  crows to eagles, chameleons, 
  goats, donkeys and even camels. 
  Dogs were the favourite and 
  many crews adopted their own 
  'Bordhund', some of whom 
  logged several (non-operational) 
  flying hours. (Gregory Pons) 
  
  'Bremsklotze wegV for another 
  night raid on England, August 
  1941. Initially appalled by orders 
  to attack civilian districts, 
  crews gradually accepted 
  this as retribution for Bomber 
  Command's area bombing policy. 
  The under-surfaces and external 
  bomb-load of this He111 
  are liberally coated with 
  non-reflective black paint against 
  searchlight detection, which was 
  effective even at close quarters. 
  (Hayley Morris) 
  Take-off and landing the 
  temperamental Ju88 was often 
  considered among the most 
  terrifying aspects of a flight. 
  The large rudder held the tail 
  perfectly straight until it lifted, 
  whereupon it could make violent 
  swings for no apparent reason. 
  Unless the pilot reacted quickly 
  and correctly, he might easily 
  lose control. Painfully clenched 
  abdominal and rectal muscles 
  drained many pilots even before 
  the mission began in earnest. 
  (Gregory Pons) 
  At greater range a gunner has a little more time to aim, but the 
  danger of firing into other bombers in formation could deny him even 
  this fleeting chance. A fired round does not stop when it misses the 
  intended target, of course, and with effective ranges of up to a mile it is 
  inevitable that a degree of damage was caused to friendly aircraft by stray 
  7.92 and 20mm cannon-fire. 
  Bomb-run and observation 
  As the formation reaches its target area almost exactly on schedule, the 
  fighters finally break off their assault as the first grey puffs of light flak 
  appear. The leader waggles his wingtips, signalling the formation to 
  loosen as they begin to climb. Moments later a green flare is fired and 
  aircraft break in all directions to prepare their individual attacks. Each 
  circles patiently, avoiding flak concentrations, while the Beobachter selects 
  a suitable start-point for his bomb-run. Keeping a close eye on the clock, 
  he observes and records the results of the preceding aircraft's strike. 
  
  Each aircraft has been allocated a precise time 
  over the target, a one-minute slot in which to 
  deliver its payload. (Allied bombers routinely 
  held formation to release cargoes simultaneously 
  on cue from the leader, plastering much of the 
  surrounding area.) 
  Oblivious to the chaos around him, 
  the 
  Beobachter remains transfixed over his Lotfernrohr-
  Bombenzielgerat (perpendicular telescopic bomb-
  sight), 
  concentrating 
  solely on 
  coaxing 
  the 
  approaching target directly into his cross hairs. 
  Ground wind direction, which might push the 
  bombs slightly off course, could readily 
  be 
  determined from chimney smoke, or even horses 
  and cattle, which habitually stand with their 
  hindquarters to the wind. The pilot's concen-
  tration, meanwhile, flicks between 
  instrument 
  panels, busy traffic and his commander's voice. 
  Fighting all natural instincts to heave the machine 
  away from pounding artillery, he must hold a steady 
  course, listening intently for every subtle correction 
  relayed to him. A Ju88 pilot could occasionally get 
  to 
  settle 
  the 
  score 
  with 
  his 
  observer: 
  in 
  dive-bombing attacks he became 
  bombardier, 
  aiming the aircraft directly through a Reflexionsvisier 
  (reflector-sight). The observer then had to sit 
  patiently beside him, checking their 60-70° angle against coloured lines 
  etched on the port window. 
  With no duties to distract them, the remaining crewmen are only too 
  aware of the countless dangers surrounding them, expecting a direct hit 
  at any moment but not knowing exactly where it would come from. 
  Every man wills the Beobachter to release his eier (eggs), cursing him 
  silently for his precision, but knowing that this was the moment he 
  trained for. His pride and reputation are at stake. Moreover, he has no 
  desire to sell his life, and those of his comrades, cheaply. If they are to 
  die (and their circumstances seem to dictate that they should), then he 
  must ensure their efforts are not in vain. Close would simply not do. 
  After an eternity, the Beobachter finally hisses a self-assured 
  Jetzt!' 
  (now) as he presses the release switch. The aircraft suddenly lurches 
  upward with the instantaneous loss of up to 1 ton of steel and high 
  explosive. If a serial is being unloaded, a rapid succession of faltering 
  lifts is felt, as the release-interval mechanism drops each projectile in 
  30ft (10m) increments. When the Bordmechanik, lying prone in his 
  ventral turret, confirms all bombs gone, the pilot immediately slams 
  open his throttles, side-slipping clear of the target for the following crew. 
  From 6,000ft, the bombs take about 20 seconds to hit the ground, but 
  they disappear from view long before. The Beobachter could perhaps 
  squeeze a glimpse at the results of his work, although the Flugzeugfuhrer 
  seldom got the chance. Standing orders forbade him from making 
  additional passes, but very few wanted to. The Bordmechanik 
  in a 
  medium-bomber, or the Bordfunker in a Ju87, had the best views of 
  a strike. 
  A Bordfunker checks oxygen 
  supplies. Any system failure 
  would result in anoxia, a serious 
  deficiency of oxygen in the 
  bloodstream. A punctured or 
  ice-blocked oxygen mask hose 
  could cause a man to pass out 
  without even realizing anything 
  was wrong. Immediate action 
  was to descend below 10,000ft, 
  perhaps returning to base for 
  medical attention. Luftwaffe 
  aircraft used an advanced 
  'demand' system, supplying 
  oxygen only upon inhalation. 
  Early British and US aircraft used 
  wasteful continuous-flow systems, 
  which required huge reserves. 
  
  Paper-wrapped sandwiches were 
  frequently carried for outward 
  journeys, while boxed energy-
  rich Bordverpflegung-Verteilte 
  (in-flight rations) were generally 
  distributed during return flights. 
  These contained dark or light 
  chocolate, dried fruits, nuts, 
  raisins, and fast-acting 
  Dextroenergen tablets for extra 
  long journeys. At high altitude, 
  air pressure could drop to half 
  or even two-thirds of that at 
  sea-level, while internal body 
  pressure remained constant, 
  occasionally producing 
  biliousness and some quite 
  spectacular flatulence. 
  Watching the silent grey splashes far below, it was possible to separate 
  oneself from the horrors unfolding at the point of impact. Even at lower 
  altitudes, men saw flashes, followed by giant hazy rings racing out toward 
  the horizon, crumpling model buildings, flying matchsticks and blazing 
  toy trucks. On occasion, a steel helmet hovering beside the cockpit, a 
  chunk of masonry slamming against the fuselage, or even a torn limb 
  striking the glazed nose, would jar the occupants sharply back into reality. 
  Heading home 
  With enemy defences now fully alert, the return journey was often more 
  hazardous than the approach. A sinister black void in the night sky was 
  a chilling discovery, revealing a lurking barrage balloon silhouetted 
  against the stars. One misty evening in 1940, a crippled Do17 with one 
  engine dead and the elevator jammed was limping home across England 
  when a maze of balloon cables suddenly emerged from the gloom. With 
  limited power and control, the pilot had no choice but to fly right 
  through the steel labyrinth. Barely managing to heave the Dornier past 
  the entanglements, and losing altitude all the while, they finally 
  emerged just six feet off the ground. Gunning that misfiring engine 
  again, he was barely able to reach France for an emergency landing. In 
  another more bizarre incident, Major Hajo Herrmann's Ju88 stalled and 
  lurched to a halt right on top of a barrage balloon, only to tumble off 
  one side into an inverted but recoverable dive. 
  The use of searchlights, unaccompanied by gunfire, was often the 
  first clue that the bomber was being set up for one of the most dreaded 
  weapons in the British arsenal - the night-fighter. Ironically, the 
  commencement of flak would be a great relief, but the crews' worst fears 
  are confirmed by the sudden appearance of 'Leichenfinger' (corpses' 
  fingers), bright pink tracer rounds sliding eerily past the windows in 
  
  first clue that the bomber was being set up 
  for one of the most dreaded weapons in the 
  British 
  arsenal 
  - 
  the 
  night-fighter. 
  Ironically, the commencement of flak 
  would be a great relief, but the crews' worst 
  fears 
  are 
  confirmed 
  by the 
  sudden 
  appearance 
  of 
  'Leichenfinger' (corpses' 
  fingers), bright pink tracer rounds sliding 
  eerily past the windows in silence, or 
  cracking noisily through the fuselage. 
  Bundles 
  of Duppel tin-foil 
  strips 
  are 
  hurriedly ejected (akin to British 'window' 
  or American 'chaff, named after the 
  Danish town from where pieces were first 
  recovered) in an effort to confuse the 
  enemy's onboard radar. The bomber's principal defences, however, are 
  its diving speed and a sharp-eyed crew, sighting the lurking silhouette 
  first. Spotting a day-fighter was hard enough, but crews almost never saw 
  a night-fighter. Many literally never knew what hit them. 
  Damage 
  Whatever the cause, the physical demise of an aircraft took many forms. 
  A bomber may glide silently past, to be suddenly blown to bits in an oily 
  black cloud. Alternatively it may simply break up, with large pieces 
  dropping away. Other aircraft flying directly through the trail of debris 
  could be damaged or destroyed by impact with falling engines, fins and 
  stabilizers. Sometimes a seemingly unharmed machine sails close by, 
  perhaps with dead or dying crewmen aboard, as a lethargic figure 
  emerges through the upper escape hatch. Leaden and struggling, he 
  drops away to plunge earthward, and moments later a parachute 
  blossoms. Crews could only stare in shock as the descending man drifts 
  into the path of oncoming aircraft, but the Flugzeugfuhrer can do nothing 
  to avoid him, for fear of colliding with others in the tight formation. 
  Others were simply unable to escape. An apparently slow and graceful 
  roll to earth actually generates a centrifuge of around 3G inside the 
  fuselage, tripling body weight and pressing the doomed crewmen into 
  the walls of their machine. 
  Nearby aircraft suffering engine fires have to be avoided because of 
  the danger of explosion. Crews watch helplessly as burning craft lag 
  further behind, but relief that it was not themselves perhaps tempers 
  their sorrow. With so many immediate dangers to distract them there is 
  little time to dwell on the fate of others. Despite their high state of 
  anxiety, those aboard a stricken craft have to act quickly to shut down 
  the crippled engine. The Beobachter instantly engages the electrical fuel 
  transfer system, drawing fuel from the dead engine to reserve tanks. An 
  emergency manual pump is provided in case of electrical failure, 
  usually operated by the Bordfunker. Although the fire is extinguished, the 
  Flugzeugfuhrer must still 'feather' the propeller, rotating the blades into 
  the wind to prevent them turning. Failure to do so would allow them to 
  spin at unregulated speed, which would generate excessive heat within 
  the engine and re-ignite fuel vapour. The machine begins to list, but the 
  pilot pushes the 'live' wing down to compensate. In this attitude, the 
  In flight, the Bordmechanik's 
  technical skills were largely 
  negated and his primary function 
  became that of gunner. If 
  mechanical failure forced an 
  emergency landing, he could 
  attempt to rectify the problem. 
  An He111 flight engineer gets 
  'comfortable' in his rearward-
  facing C-Stand position, known 
  as the Topf (pot) or 'Sterbebett' 
  (deathbed), here with single 
  MG-15 in the Bodenlafette 
  (on-board mounting) or 'Bola'. 
  (Manfred Klein) 
  
  Nocturnal operations further 
  aggravating an already complex 
  task, the Beobachter uses 
  a standard-issue torch to 
  illuminate his map and 
  Dreieckrechner DR3 (triangular 
  computer) while calculating new 
  bearings. An unguarded flash of 
  white light in the cockpit would 
  disrupt the crews' night vision 
  for several minutes, but a sliding 
  red filter on the torch averted 
  this hazard. Used with 
  yellow-backed maps, the red 
  light provided far sharper image 
  definition than with white-backed 
  versions. 
  With formations routinely broken up, the 
  return route was seldom the one intended, and 
  crews often had to determine their own way home. 
  In cases of severe damage, or with wounded 
  crewmen aboard, the pilot levels off at 3,000ft 
  (1,000m), while the Beobachter locates the nearest 
  emergency landing strip or any suitable open 
  ground. Such unscheduled approaches, especially 
  at night, often confused German air warning 
  personnel, and Flak emplacements frequently 
  opened fire on already battered Luftwaffe aircraft. 
  When pre-arranged flare signals failed to convince 
  the hapless Flak crews, they could incur the wrath 
  of air gunners, who gave spirited return fire in the 
  genuine hope of hitting some of them. One KG55 
  He111 was brought down, and its pilot killed, as 
  they neared the French coast on the way to 
  Liverpool. In the gunners' defence, they were faced 
  with Allied air forces bombing around the clock, so 
  had to assume that all unseen aircraft were hostile. 
  Landing 
  Airstrip lights are illuminated as the first returning 
  aircraft are identified. Priority is automatically 
  granted to crews discharging two red flares, 
  signalling the need to make an emergency 
  landing. Those with wounded aboard pull to one side of the airstrip 
  immediately after landing, and await the removal of casualties by 
  ambulance before taxiing back to revetments. A severely wounded or 
  dead pilot forces the remaining crewmen to make a 'Schwarze-Landung' 
  (black landing, i.e. without permission, or by an unqualified airman). 
  With luck, the involuntary pilot is flying a He111, which always gave a 
  positive landing. Its weight makes it difficult to bounce, although braking 
  requires substantial effort. Compared to the Heinkel's stately 95 mph 
  landing speed, the Ju88 had to race in at 155 mph to remain under 
  control and was not easy to land at the best of times. It was difficult to get 
  the tail down and had an unnerving tendency to swing violently if even 
  slightly too much brake was applied by an inexperienced or tired pilot. 
  A lost engine would slow the electrical lowering of the undercarriage, 
  while damaged hydraulics could prevent it altogether. Assuming the 
  assembly itself is still intact, the gear can be lowered manually by 
  hand-wheel or pump. If this back-up system is inoperable, the pilot must 
  execute a 'Bauchlandung (belly landing), a procedure that, for obvious 
  reasons, could not be practised, but has to be learned the hard way.6 
  Although theoretically identical to a normal landing, control was 
  drastically undermined from the moment of impact. Friction, sparks 
  and bursting fuel tanks often resulted in fire. Exhaustion, misjudgement 
  and poor visibility caused numerous mid-air and runway collisions, as 
  aircraft attempted to land simultaneously. An unexpected torrent of 
  cannon-fire from the blackness, ripping into an aircraft just as it began 
  6 If a belly landing was found to have been avoidable, the pilot could be charged with negligent damage or 
  destruction of Reich property and sentenced to one week in jail. 
  
  Ju88 A-Stand in action. 
  Developed in 1936 by 
  Rohm & Haas, Dermstadt, 
  Polymethylmethacrylate 
  (thankfully registered as 
  'Plexiglas'), used for nose 
  glazing was (and still is) less 
  than half the weight of glass, 
  but 17 times stronger. The yellow 
  cloth ditching cap, worn over the 
  flight helmet, was intended to 
  aid air-sea rescue searches. In 
  practice, for a Seenot crew to 
  spot such a diminutive patch 
  of colour, they would probably 
  have to be moored alongside 
  the unfortunate airman. Downed 
  aircrews were surprisingly 
  difficult to locate and even bright 
  yellow dinghies, with a full 
  complement of waving crewmen, 
  could be over-flown without 
  being seen. 
  its landing, at last reveals the insidious presence of night-fighters that 
  had trailed the formation all the way back home. Struck at their most 
  vulnerable time, the crews stood virtually no chance of survival. Having 
  made it through countless preceding dangers, the loss of crewmen in 
  these final moments of the mission was particularly cruel. 
  As soon as the last aircraft is down, all airfield lights are extinguished. 
  Traffic controllers guide each to its Splitterbuchse (splinter box) 
  protective pen with green hand lanterns, as ground crewmen set about 
  their tasks. Engines are shut down and silence eventually returns. 
  Airmen struggle to dismount, but the mission is not yet complete: with 
  stiffened joints, crews amble toward the debriefing hut. 
  Evasion and capture 
  During the early Blitzkrieg campaigns over Poland and mainland 
  Europe, shot-down crews made determined efforts to return to their 
  units wherever possible, but those who did fall into enemy hands spent 
  only a matter of days or weeks in captivity before liberation. For those 
  brought down over Britain the prospects for escape to Germany were 
  virtually non-existent, although a loose airman could still be a thorn in 
  the enemy's side, tying up disproportionate resources in the hunt. The 
  longest such evasion was made by Feldwebel Josef Markl, 8./KG55 
  'Greif, in July 1940, only ending when he gave himself up, famished and 
  exhausted after hiding in fields outside Newbury for eight days. While 
  evasion is the accepted duty of the downed airman, very few even 
  attempted to avoid capture, but instead made immediately for the 
  nearest village to hand themselves in. Some were cocky, or mildly 
  irritated by this temporary interruption to their flying careers, certain of 
  liberation by the conquering German Army, but the overwhelming 
  majority were subdued and cooperative, offering little or no resistance. 
  Invariably in shock, they surrendered easily to unarmed policemen or 
  
  Do17 Bordschutzen observe a 
  distant target. Defence largely 
  depended upon evasive 
  manoeuvres, principally 
  comprising sudden accelerating 
  dives and erratic banking to 
  confound enemy aim. The most 
  effective technique was to fly 
  as fast as possible at extreme 
  low level, where fighters suffered 
  lower performance and severely 
  limited attack options. This also 
  freed the flight engineer from 
  his C-Stand, to cover or reload 
  other guns. 
  even civilians (although in one case, near Portsmouth, a child's toy 
  pistol was brandished by the local pub landlord). Having miraculously 
  survived a high-speed air-crash, the prospect of incarceration was of little 
  concern. While some took a few punches and kicks, most Luftwaffe 
  airmen received reasonable treatment from their captors - and usually 
  a cup of tea. Their own treatment of British prisoners was sometimes 
  even more hospitable. In 1941 the crew of one shot-down RAF Blenheim 
  were first plied with coffee and beer in a KG26 mess, shown around the 
  base and eventually wound up in the cockpit of a Ju88. Encounters with 
  Americans were not always so genial, however. Flugzeugmechanik 
  Karl-Heinz Mewes was deeply hurt when one POW camp guard ripped 
  the Iron Cross from his tunic, feeling the GI had no right to it. 
  A forced landing on the Eastern Front could be an extremely 
  hazardous affair, and finding sanctuary with any Axis unit was the 
  overriding priority. Many Red Army soldiers, brutalized by years of 
  savage conflict and the bestial behaviour of certain Waffen-SS units, had 
  little sympathy for the unfortunate 'Fashistii'. Some of those captured by 
  Soviet personnel would not survive long enough to reach imprisonment, 
  and even those that did faced an uncertain future. Such was their fear 
  that several bomber pilots were compelled to land alongside crashed 
  aircraft, risking death or capture themselves in order to rescue their 
  comrades from advancing infantry. Others less fortunate were forced to 
  undertake epic journeys on foot, private odysseys lasting many days or 
  even months, back toward German lines. Reliant on their wits or assisted 
  by courageous anti-communist locals, downed crewmen first had to pass 
  through Russian frontline positions. Rescuing army units promptly 
  lavished medical treatment, food, alcohol and adulation upon any dazed 
  airmen before returning them to their squadron. 
  Tales of daring escape attempts often overshadow the mundane and 
  distressing reality of prolonged incarceration, but during their years as 
  POWs, the calm and rational characteristics that ensured selection as 
  
  Safely home, albeit with different 
  transport, three KG1 crewmen 
  relate their adventures to 
  comrades, September 1939. 
  Their He111 brought down by 
  Polish defences, they battled 
  their way back to German lines 
  with salvaged MG-15s and 
  ammunition. The injured 
  crewman wears a Schlupfjacke 
  sweater, with a flare pistol 
  stuffed into his belt. He and his 
  Feldwebel pilot and observer, 
  displaying an interesting array of 
  emotions, will presently undergo 
  a full debriefing. 
  KG30 crewmen celebrate their 
  100th Frontflug (operational 
  or combat sortie). American 
  aircrews famously had the 
  option to return to the USA after 
  25 missions, imparting their 
  experiences to trainee aircrews 
  (although this threshold was 
  gradually raised). Luftwaffe men 
  enjoyed no such choice. In the 
  words of General Adolf Galland, 
  'our pilots and crews fought until 
  they died'. (Gregory Pons) 
  bomber crewmen in the first place almost certainly influenced their 
  behaviour in captivity. Those airmen who were most keen to escape, and 
  persistently uncooperative, were nearly always the fighter pilots. 
  Casualties 
  People, like aircraft, can sustain remarkable levels of damage while 
  remaining operable. However, minor injury to a vital component can be 
  fatal. High-velocity cannon shells and white-hot shell fragments produce 
  savage wounds. A machine-gun bullet entry hole may appear clean, but its 
  accompanying shockwave ruptures internal organs and produces massive 
  internal haemorrhaging; the exit wound may be the size of a fist. At 
  reduced speeds the projectile may ricochet off a shoulder blade, sending 
  splinters and debris in all directions as it tears through the thorax, perhaps 
  exiting near the hip. Medical treatment in flight was somewhat restricted 
  by space (particularly in the Ju88), although the crew was well equipped 
  
  7./KG30 ground and aircrew 
  assess recent damage to 
  'Dora-Richard', early 1940. 
  Her name is derived from the 
  Stammkenzeichen (roll number) 
  4D+DR painted on her fuselage. 
  'Dora' was one of seven KG30 
  machines brought down en route 
  to airfields in Yorkshire on 
  15 August 1940. Pilot O/Lt 
  Werner Bachmann, observer Uffz 
  Werner Evers and flight engineer 
  Flg Robert Walther all entered 
  captivity, but wireless operator 
  Fw Georg Henneske was 
  tragically killed in the action, 
  struck in the head by 
  machine-gun fire. (Gregory Pons) 
  (see Plate C). In the main, all sides displayed great compassion in the 
  gentle care of enemy wounded. Red Army doctors often expended scarce 
  supplies on badly injured Luftwaffe men. Britons who rushed toward a 
  freshly downed aircraft, intent on "'avin' that bastard!" would, upon 
  ripping open the canopy, be suddenly overcome with shame and concern 
  for the torn and bloody young man lying before them. 
  Death could sometimes come from unexpected quarters. With aircraft 
  in the hands of the autopilot, the monotonous drone of the engines could 
  have a soporific effect upon the crew, and several Kampfflieger confessed to 
  having succumbed to tiredness. Sometimes the entire crew would be fast 
  asleep for several miles, bypassing their last available airstrip or heading 
  out across an ocean. It is impossible to know just how many (if any) crews 
  met their end in this way, flying into mountains and hillsides or simply 
  running out of fuel, but it is not inconceivable. KG30 Beobachter Uffz. 
  Hans Fecht and his crew narrowly avoided just such a disaster over the 
  North Sea in 1941. On occasion, the circumstances were shameful. On 15 
  September 1940, an already badly wounded O/Lt Robert Zehbe, KG76, 
  came down near the Oval cricket ground in London. An angry civilian 
  mob descended upon him, beating him mercilessly before the police 
  could rescue him. He later died of his injuries. 
  Throughout the war, German and British air forces upheld the 
  traditions of according full honours to each other's dead whenever 
  possible. Onlookers gathered in respectful silence, as honour guards 
  presented volley-fire over the flag-draped casket. Where an original 
  could not be found, copies of the Kriegsfahne or the 'Union Jack' were 
  specially produced. Russian citizens gave simpler, though 
  equally 
  respectful burials to those lost in the East. Many Luftwaffe 
  Kampfflieger 
  still lie in British and Commonwealth military cemeteries, 
  not 
  separately, but shoulder to shoulder with their former adversaries. 
  
  BIBLIOGRAPHY 
  Argyle, Christopher, Chronology of World War II, Marshall Cavendish (1980) 
  Baumbach, Werner, The Life and Death of the Luftwaffe, Noontide Press (1991) 
  Biernath, Ernst, Die Besoldung der Soldaten der Luftwaffe, Bernard and Graefe (1942) 
  Blandford, Edmund, Target England, Airlife (1997) 
  Dierich, Wolfgang, Kampfgeschwader 'Edelweiss', PBS (1973) 
  Herrmann, Hajo, Eagle's Wings, Guild (1991) 
  Stahl, Peter, The Diving Eagle, Motorbuch Verlag (1978) 
  Van Ishoven, Armand, The Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain, Ian Allan (1980) 
  Weal, John, Ju88 Kampfgeschwader on the Western Front, Osprey Publishing (2000) 
  COLOUR PLATE COMMENTARY 
  A: UNTEROFFIZIER 
  (BORDFUNKER) 
  ll./STURZKAMPFGESCHWADER 7 7 , 
  NEUDORF-OPPELN, SILESIA, SEPTEMBER 
  1 9 3 9 
  A 1 .Staffel wireless operator prepares for his first operational 
  flight. From May 1937 special outer thigh pockets were added 
  to the K/So 34 Kombination, for two Verbandpacke first aid 
  packets (6) and the gravity-activated Flieger-Kappmesser 
  aircrew knife (7), enabling entangled airmen to cut themselves 
  free of parachute lines. The chest pocket could hold maps and 
  target photographs (8), but was often used to stow the oxygen 
  mask. Inset detail shows Luftwaffe-Bekleidungs Amt (clothing 
  administration) acceptance stamp and typical makers' label 
  inside the suit (9). Most units added their own identification 
  marks, here denoting 3.Staffel, (I.Gruppe) StG1, but this 
  practice quickly fell from use. The Armbandkompass 39 (10) 
  proved difficult to see at night, prompting the introduction of 
  the more visible white-dial version. Of interest is the 
  commercially produced leather 'holster' for pencil and 
  notepad (11), the lower edges of which are secured by a few 
  stitches. Designed to ease fitting over bulky flight clothing, the 
  twin-zipped Fliegerpelzstiefel 
  (12) were expensive to 
  manufacture and subsequent boots used a perfectly adequate 
  single zip. A standard belt supports a P-08 Luger pistol but, 
  with no practical alternative, the flare-pistol and cartridges are 
  secured wherever convenient; an unsatisfactory situation that 
  was not rectified until early 1941. 
  Details of items 1-5 appear throughout the main text. 
  B: TRAINING ESTABLISHMENTS (FL.ERS.ABT., 
  FL.ANW.KOMP. AND FL.A.R.), 1940 
  1: Flieger-Ersatzabteilung XI, Neumunster 
  The centuries-old assault course is used to build stamina, 
  physical strength and team spirit. Recruits wear standard 
  Sportbekleidung sports kit, consisting of a cream Sporthemd 
  (sport shirt), with two sizes of insignia, and blue cotton 
  Sporthose (sport trunks) with elasticized waistband. The 
  black collar stripe denotes an NCO. Issue grey wool Socken 
  with white size indication bands are worn with brown or grey 
  Laufschuhe plimsolls. 
  2: Flug-Anwarterkompanie, 
  Berlin-Gatow 
  Silver braid shoulder strap loops mark this potential pilot as 
  an Unteroffizier-Anwarter (NCO candidate). After at least 
  three months' basic training, prospective NCOs attended a 
  two-month 
  infantry section commanders' course at 
  Unteroffizierschule, developing confidence and leadership 
  skills. The black-painted metal Navigations-Lehr- 
  und 
  Ubungsgerat (instruction and training set) contains flight 
  computer, set squares, slide rule, range protractor and 
  'wipe-off' calculating tablet with bone scriber. 
  3: Fliegeruntersuchungsstelle, 
  Mauberge, France 
  The aircrew examination centre puts would-be air-crewmen 
  through a rigorous Fliegertauglichkeitsprufung 
  (aircrew 
  fitness test). The integral parachute course is here made as 
  awkward as possible with a KW s/34 Kalbin (calfskin) winter 
  flying suit and FK-34 summer helmet. The instructor wears 
  the Heer-Fallschirmschutzenabzeichen (army parachutists' 
  badge), signifying qualification before 1 January 1939 when 
  the fledgling Fallschirmjager battalion transferred to the 
  Luftwaffe. In addition to physical, sight, hearing and health 
  checks, candidates had to demonstrate responsibility, quick 
  responses and aptitude in maths and geometry. If 
  successful, the Oberarzt (medical officer) 
  issues a 
  Wehrfliegertauglicheit (military flyers' fitness) certificate, to 
  be carried in the Soldbuch. 
  4: Flieger-Ausbildungsregiment 32, Uetersen 
  The Dreyse MG-13 was typically the first machine gun that 
  an airman used. FI.Ers.Abt. familiarized him with MG, rifle 
  and pistol, but the FI.A.R concentrated on honing 
  marksmanship skills against static and ground-towed 
  targets. The Drillichanzug work uniform was standard 
  training wear. This 
  instructor 
  wears an 
  early-style 
  Fliegerbluse, with arm-of-service Kragenlitze (collar piping) 
  and no breast eagle. Until October 1940, this tunic was 
  considered work wear and is thus fitted with Armelstreifen 
  sleeve bands, denoting Stabsfeldwebel. 
  5: Flieger-Ausbildungsregiment 71, Sorau 
  Ditching practice was carried out on convenient boating 
  lakes or specially chartered swimming baths. Organized as a 
  competition, 
  trainees 
  had 
  to 
  board 
  a 
  four-man 
  Schlauchtboot (dinghy) from the water and row back to 
  shore. A decrease in body core temperature of 4°F can 
  promote hypothermia, a condition worsened by shock 
  (commonly induced by wounds, distress and exhaustion). A 
  14°F drop brings coma and death. Crews ditching in the 
  North Atlantic had up to three minutes to avoid this fate. 
  Inset: Erkenungsmarke (identity disc) for a member of 
  
  2. Rekruit Kompanie, Flieger-Ausbildungsregiment 51, at 
  Weimar-Nohra. Upon the wearer's death, the steel or zinc-alloy 
  disc was snapped along its lateral perforations. The upper half 
  remained with the body and the lower part was returned to 
  headquarters for records and accounting. Many air crewmen 
  retained FI.A.R-marked discs throughout operational service. 
  Leather and impregnated cloth covers could be purchased, 
  providing safe carriage for leave passes, photographs, etc. 
  C: SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT 
  Some early accounts remark upon serious deficiencies in 
  survival packs. These very rare failures are best attributed to 
  shortages or haste, rather than any lack of concern. If the air 
  cylinder failed, dinghies had to be inflated manually; Blasebalg 
  bellows (2) were held against the chest and pumped by hand, 
  an unwelcome chore that took around three-quarters of an 
  hour to complete. Three-piece aluminium Bootsriemen (oars) 
  (3) were stowed inside the dinghy. Recognition aids included 
  Blendspiegel heliographic mirrors (4) and Farbbeutel ('colour 
  bags') of lime-green granules that spread quickly across water 
  (5). Telescopic Sichtfahne signal flags (6) were carried in a 
  special lower right leg pocket of the two-piece flight suits. 
  Pyrotechnics 
  included 
  hand-held, 
  orange 
  and 
  red 
  Rauchsichtziechen smoke dischargers (7), and assorted 
  27mm flare cartridges (marked with expiry dates) for the 
  lightweight Leuchtpistole (8). Much equipment was produced 
  in occupied countries, as evidenced by this Schwimmweste 
  label (9). Absprungverpflegung (bale-out) ration tins (10) 
  contained caffeine-laden Scho-Ka-Kola chocolate in standard 
  or 'Seenotpackung' (sea survival) packaging (11) and 125g 
  tubes 
  of 
  processed 
  cheese 
  with 
  tinned 
  Zweiback 
  'twice-baked' biscuits (12 and 13). Thermal flasks with a 
  phenol-plastic cup contained coffee or soup for in-flight 
  consumption (14). Two large drinking water canteens were 
  carried, plus a similar Benzin petrol flask (15). Model 9 
  'Esbit-Kocher', (folding field cooker produced by the Esbit 
  firm) with chemical fuel tablets (16 and 17) and issue 
  combination spoon-fork (18) were also useful. The original 
  Flieger-Kappmesser 
  (flyers' covered/hooded knife) was 
  susceptible to dirt, but a field-strippable version adopted in 
  c.1940 enabled proper cleaning (19). A Machete with 
  blackened steel scabbard and web frog was primarily 
  The Ju88's legendary resilience 
  is evidenced by this example's 
  battered gondola and propellers, 
  the result of skimming a little too 
  low across water. Struck at speed, 
  water is like concrete, but the 
  'Schwarz'-type laminated wooden 
  propellers splintered upon impact, 
  otherwise retaining their integrity. 
  In a comparable incident, metal 
  blades deform, causing violent, 
  eccentric revolutions. Unless 
  immediately shut down, the engine 
  would quickly tear itself apart. 
  reserved for flights over vast 
  Russian forest and marshland (20). 
  Each man's Verbandpacke, often in 
  waterproof packets, were for his 
  wounds only (21). Every aircraft 
  carried a portable Sanitatstasche fur Flugzeuge (aircraft medical 
  case) for more serious injuries. The oilcloth pouch contained 
  bandages, burn dressings and wire frame splints for broken 
  limbs (22). Large Sanitatspacke (medical packs) were available 
  for long-range flights. Impractical for in-flight use, they provided 
  downed aircrews with comprehensive supplies for prolonged 
  periods of isolation (23). 
  Details of item 1 appear on page 21. 
  D: STURZKAMPFFLIEGERSCHULE 1 , 
  WERTHEIM-REGENSBURG, 1 9 4 1 
  The Ju87 could absorb punishing stress levels and demanded 
  the same of its crew. The rearward-facing Bordfunker must 
  have absolute faith in his pilot during this most disconcerting 
  manoeuvre (much like taking a rollercoaster ride backwards). 
  Practice dives were made with Zement-bomben (cement 
  bombs) or 'Zebo', representing an SC250, as inset: 
  1: Typical approach commences from 15,000ft. As target is 
  acquired through the floor window, the range-timing clock is 
  set. Engine is reduced to idling speed, air-intakes are closed 
  and dive-brakes opened. Nose drops into instantaneous 80° 
  dive and the timing clock is started. 
  2: A Ju87 tended to oscillate in the dive, but the pilot centres 
  the target in the 'Revi-16B' reflector sight, holding it in the 
  crosshairs. A buzzer sounds at 7,000ft (c.30 seconds into 
  dive), and the pilot starts the release and recovery timer. 
  3: The aircraft continues to plummet at c.350 mph, largely 
  driven by gravity. At 3,000ft, the Einhangung cradle unlocks 
  to swing the bomb away from the fuselage and clear of the 
  propeller. The bomb slips free as the auto-recovery system 
  commences simultaneously. The crewmen push their heads 
  back against padded restraints to prevent their chins being 
  forced painfully into their chests. 
  4: Auto-recovery pulls the aircraft out of the dive so steeply 
  that crewmembers usually black out under forces of 3-4G. 
  The bomb continues its line of descent toward the target 
  (approximately 15 seconds to impact). Pilot resumes 
  consciousness and control of aircraft. 
  These trainee crews discuss anti-tank techniques with their 
  
  Hauptmann instructor, (who is sporting a privately purchased 
  jacket and suede-reinforced Reithose, riding breeches). After 
  'Stukaschule', crews will advance to a Sturzkampfgeschwader 
  Erganzungsstaffel for operational training. 
  E: ll./GROSSKAMPFFLIEGERSCHULE 2, 
  HORSCHING-BEI-LINZ, GERMANY, 1 942 
  Newly qualified airmen were divided into Kompanien, 
  assembled into four- to five-man crews and thereby 
  introduced to the men with whom they would theoretically 
  remain throughout their service lives. Three months of 
  intensive training ensued, during which crews gained around 
  40-60 hours of flight time together, involving formation work, 
  long-distance navigation exercises (to airfields hundreds of 
  miles away) and short-range bombing practice over 
  countryside ranges. Their instructors, often recuperating 
  combat veterans, tutored them in various attacks and current 
  enemy defences. Crews routinely supplemented official 
  cross-training in their limited spare time, with pilots giving 
  rudimentary flight instruction to any interested crewmen. 
  The addition of silver piping to his other ranks' cap and 
  tunic distinguish the Beobachter as an Oberfahnrich (senior 
  officer candidate). An Oberfeldwebel Zugfuhrer discusses a 
  damaged engine component with the Bordmechanik, while 
  the Bordfunker assists an Obergefreiter 'Waffenwart' to 
  equip their Do17 for live firing exercises. Junior grade 
  mechanics rarely bothered to fit rank insignia to work wear. 
  Upon completion, crews parade to receive their 
  assignments. 
  They 
  were 
  originally 
  forwarded 
  to 
  Waffenschule (fighting school) for continued practice on 
  newer aircraft types. These 'holding posts' lasted a few days 
  to several weeks, until frontline units required replacements. 
  Quickly inundated, the Waffenschulen were disbanded in 
  1940. Fuel shortages and aircraft requisition for transport 
  use 
  eventually 
  made 
  Grosskampffliegerschulen 
  un-
  sustainable. In July 1943 they became combat units, re-titled 
  Kampfgeschwadern 101-105. 
  F: HE111 KAMPFFLIEGER, 
  1943 
  After all the training, crews eventually had to face their first 
  battle, a transition 'eased' by the 
  W.Erganzungstaffel 
  (completion squadron) attached to most Geschwadern 
  during 1940, replacing the defunct Waffenschulen. The 
  Staffel comprised nine new crews under the guidance of 
  three veteran Lehrbesatzungen 
  (instructor crews, on 
  temporary relief from frontline duties). Missions were 
  generally flown against partisan encampments behind 
  Damage ratios were expressed as percentages: 1-9 per cent 
  (superficial), readily patched by ground crew; 10-24 per cent 
  (light), requiring repair or replacement of small components; 
  25-39 per cent (moderate), complete inspection of damaged 
  area; 40-44 per cent (major), replacement of engines or 
  control systems (electrical, hydraulic, mechanical); 45-59 
  per cent (severe), replacement of major sections (wings, 
  stabilizers, undercarriage, etc.); 60-80 per cent (beyond 
  repair), cannibalized for spare parts; 81-99 per cent 
  (effective total loss), unsuitable for major parts salvage; 
  100 per cent (total loss), destroyed or unrecoverable 
  (inaccessible or enemy territory). This II./KG30 Ju88 
  force-landed on a Scandinavian ice floe with relatively light, 
  though clearly critical, damage. The rescue party member 
  wears the rarely seen Wettermantel (raincoat). 
  (Kristof Dongleur) 
  
  German lines, but these were sometimes well defended and 
  losses were incurred. W.Staffel provided replacement crews 
  for the frontline Gruppen as required and was soon 
  supplemented by an 11. and 12.Staffel, forming a complete 
  IV.Erganzungsgruppe. Attrition rates later necessitated 13., 
  14. and sometimes even a W.Staffel to the IV.Gruppe. 
  1: Beobachter, IV. (Erganzungsgruppe)/KG27 
  'Boelcke', 
  Kursk 
  Although never intended for first-line use, many Eastern 
  Front 
  Geschwadern 
  were forced 
  to 
  mobilize 
  their 
  IV.(Erg.)Gruppe during major offensives. Striking enemy 
  reserve and partisan units, supply columns, road junctions or 
  railway marshalling yards, this 14.Staffel Feldwebel, based 
  at Karkov, receives his premature baptism of fire in Operation 
  Zitadelle. The 'Lotfe' bombsight gave outstanding accuracy, 
  placing bombs within 25m of the release point. A sliding 
  floor-hatch covers the sight, enabling him to serve the 
  A-Stand machine gun, and a small seat beside the pilot is 
  provided for take-off and landing. He wears the limited-
  production Fliegerjacke So/40, with wool-knit collar and 
  waistband and improvised rank insignia applied directly to 
  the sleeve. 
  2: Bordfunker, M./KG40, North Atlantic 
  Engaged in maritime operations, KG40 employed FW200s 
  for high-altitude reconnaissance, while their bombers mined 
  harbours and attacked Allied convoys. The 'Verfahren 
  Steckrube' (turnip method) involved extremely hairy low-level 
  diagonal passes, slicing the bomb through the target's 
  waterline. After one such raid against Royal Naval and 
  merchant vessels making for Narvik in September 1940, an 
  He111 returned with the tip of a ship's mast rammed into its 
  underbelly. 
  Twenty-four-hour 
  daylight 
  ensured 
  great 
  accuracy, but receding ice floes from December to April 
  enabled convoys to venture further north into Arctic waters, 
  out of most bomber ranges. Based at Bordeaux-Merignac, 
  this 9.Staffel Obergefreiter transmits position fixes and 
  weather updates as they shadow the convoy. 
  3: Flugzeugfuhrer, II./KG55 'Greif, Stalingrad 
  By 1943 most He111s, and often the Kampfgeschwadern 
  themselves, had been reassigned for transport duties. 
  Inspired by the successes of KG4 in relieving infantry units at 
  Kholm and Demjansk, the whole of KG55 was requisitioned 
  to supply the besieged 6th Army at Stalingrad, evacuating 
  24,760 casualties in return flights. Operating close to the 
  Heinkel's 22,000ft ceiling, this Leutnant hopes to avoid 
  artillery attention, en route for Pitomnik airstrip. The glaring 
  white landscape could seriously impair his judgement, 
  concealing points of reference and scale, to make landing a 
  particularly hazardous process. The last aircraft to escape 
  (2 February) was piloted by Uffz Johann Boos, 9./KG55. 
  4: Bordschutze, I./KG26 'Lowen', Sicily 
  Operating from Salon de Provence, France, KG26 opposed 
  the Allied Operation Husky landings (10 July 1943), attacking 
  shipping, bridgeheads and ground units. Covering both 
  Seitenstand-links u. recht (left and right beam guns), the 
  Feldwebel might easily become entangled with his 
  communications cable while hurriedly switching sides. To 
  reduce the danger of oxygen masks separating unnoticed 
  from the supply line, hose clamps are fixed to leather chest 
  straps on flight clothing, alleviating tension on the coupling. 
  Aluminium locking rings further reinforce these connections. 
  With only a narrow foot ledge, it requires gymnastic balance 
  to maintain his precarious perch and avoid stamping on the 
  prone Bordmechanik during sudden moves or flak bursts. 
  Window Handgriffe (hand grips) also assist maximum gun 
  depression. 
  5: Bordmechanik, Einsatzstaffel/KG100 
  'Wiking', 
  Mediterranean 
  Experienced crews were occasionally detached into 
  temporary Einsatzstaffeln 
  (special duties squadrons), 
  performing specialist tasks during various campaigns. 
  Between April and November, Einsatz./KG100 operated from 
  Athens-Kalamaki, Greece, as the 'pathfinder' and Beleuchter 
  (illumination) element for LG1, marking the target area with 
  seven-minute 
  parachute-flares, 
  high-explosives 
  and 
  incendiary. The deceptively 
  named 
  Lehrgeschwader 
  (demonstration group) was actually an elite combat unit. Its 
  operational testing and development functions ensured high 
  levels of expertise among crews, who were frequently 
  despatched for special duties themselves. This Unteroffizier 
  checks fuse setting and bomb release mechanisms in the 
  bomb bay as they near Gibraltar. 
  G: STAB-MI./KAMPFGESCHWADER 2 
  'HOLZHAMMER', GILZE-RIJEN, 
  H O L L A N D , 1 9 4 4 
  Although short in duration, even seasoned 
  veterans considered 'Steinbock' raids to be the 
  most terrifying by far. British anti-aircraft defences 
  were unrivalled and those fortunate enough to 
  return invariably did so drenched in cold, clammy 
  sweat, sore-eyed and mentally assaulted by what 
  they had seen. 
  This rare snapshot taken by a Russian guard, 
  c.1942, depicts an unfortunate aircrew Feldwebel 
  wearing a prison-issue beret. According to official 
  Soviet records, the Red Army captured some 
  2,388,000 German servicemen by 1945. Of these, 
  356,000 died of malnutrition, exhaustion or cold in 
  labour camps and mines. The last survivors were 
  repatriated during 1955. 
  
  Wounded airmen convalesce at 
  a Luftwaffe hospital, tended by 
  Luftwaffe-Sanitatspersonal and 
  DRK nurses. In addition to Flak 
  and bullet injuries, high-altitude 
  crews could suffer frostbite, with 
  the formation of ice crystals 
  beneath the skin, rupturing cell 
  tissues. As the crystals melt at 
  lower altitude the condition 
  becomes excruciatingly painful, 
  with irreparable damage 
  requiring amputation of fingers 
  or toes. 192,594 Luftwaffe 
  personnel (of all branches) had 
  suffered wounds by the close of 
  1944, but records for 1945 are 
  incomplete. 
  Returned Do217 crews of III.Gruppe-Stabsschwarm 
  gather for interrogation by debriefing officers. A seasoned 
  crewman 
  himself, 
  the 
  Major 
  cross 
  checks 
  the 
  Gefechtsbericht (battle reports), collected by motorcyclist 
  from each Beobachter directly after landing, building a 
  detailed analysis of the mission. Claims of a particularly 
  successful strike will require confirmation by photo-
  reconnaissance, usually undertaken by the responsible crew. 
  An injured pilot explains how his mechanic and observer 
  helped him from his seat to administer first aid, while the 
  wireless operator took control of the aircraft. The Sanitats 
  Stabsgefreiter (note dark-blue Waffenfarbe), redresses his 
  wounds prior to escorting him to the Flugplatz-Lazarette 
  (base hospital). Men glance around the room to check that 
  special friends have returned. They did not need to speak, 
  just to know they were still alive. When at last they are 
  released, the drained airmen trudge back to billets. They 
  could find their friends, and discover who had not 
  returned, tomorrow. 
  H: HAUPTMANN 
  (FLUGZEUGFUHRER 
  BEOBACHTER) 
  STAB./KAMPFGESCHWADER 
  7 6 , KARSTADT, GERMANY, MAY 1 9 4 5 
  By late 1944 the bomber arm was virtually dissolved 
  altogether. Pilots were retrained on single-seat jet aircraft 
  (killing over 200 in the process) and their crews transferred to 
  other 
  duties, 
  frequently 
  as 
  infantrymen 
  in 
  savage 
  street-fighting 
  against advancing 
  Soviet 
  armour. An 
  Arado-234 jet bomber pilot of the Geschwader-Stabsstaffel 
  prepares for his last flight, seeking the westernmost Allied 
  airbase - to surrender. From December 1944, fear of being 
  mistaken for an American 'Gangsterflieger' by his compatriots 
  prompted the wearing of recognition Armbinden (11). 
  Highly volatile and toxic 'J-Stoff 
  fuels spurred the 
  production of KW Fl.bR/41 suits in leather, a practical 
  expedient based on its natural fire-retardant properties. The 
  Fliegerstahlhelm, worn over a Netzkopfhaube, gives an 
  appropriately futuristic appearance (12). Nitsche u Gunther 
  Splitterschutzbrillen (splinter protective goggles) are protected 
  by their oval section metal case (13). He wears an 
  Armbandkompass, fitted to the top of his boot via its extension 
  strap, and a Hanhart Fliegerchronograph (14), one of many 
  excellent and highly prized timepieces. A most unusual item of 
  flight equipment is the clutch pencil (15), tethered by lanyard to 
  prevent loss in the cockpit (hazardous during evasive 
  manoeuvres). Durable plastic-coated Luft-Navigationskarten 
  (16) 
  are tucked into the Navigations-Ausrustung 
  fur 
  Flugzeugfuhrer der Kriegsverbande (navigation set for aircraft 
  commanders of bomber units). A mica-windowed pocket on 
  the front flap held the user's details. Inside are the contents list 
  and maker's nomenclature plate (17). 
  Details of items 1-10 appear throughout the main text. 
  'Ich hatt einen Kameraden'. In a scene all too familiar in 
  wartime, a cortege of Kampfflieger lay their comrade to 
  rest. The two leading Feldwebel pallbearers wear the 
  Frontflugspange fur Kampfflieger and Bordfunker-
  Bordschutzenabzeichen. The man on the right wears the 
  Armelschild-Krim, denoting at least three months' service in 
  the Crimean campaign, September 1941-July 1942. A total 
  of 165,014 Luftwaffe personnel were killed in action, and a 
  further 155,450 reported missing. 
  
  INDEX 
  
  Related Titles 
  
  Warrior • 99 
  Insights into the daily lives of history's fighting men and 
  women, past and present, detailing their motivation, training 
  tactics, weaponry and experiences 
  Full colour artwork 
  Unrivalled detail 
  Kampfflieger: 
  Bomber Crewman 
  of the Luftwaffe 
  1939-45 
  The Kampfflieger are relatively 
  unknown within aviation circles, 
  although many of them had 
  careers as distinguished as 
  those of their fighter-pilot 
  counterparts. The men of the 
  bomber crews did not enjoy the 
  luxury of combat tours - they 
  flew until they died or became 
  unfit for combat duty. This book 
  studies the attitudes, beliefs 
  and motivation of the average 
  crewman, following him through 
  recruitment and training to 
  experience on campaign in 
  Western Europe, Africa and 
  the Russian front, detailing the 
  exploits and trials of the famous 
  Ju 87 'Stuka' dive-bomber crews 
  and their own crucial part in 
  Germany's war effort. 
  OSPREY 
  PUBLISHING 
  www.ospreypublishing.com 
  1-84176-907-X 
  $17.95 U S / 25.95 CAN 
  
SOURCE: textdata/thevault/Osprey System/Warrior Series (WAR)/Osprey - WAR 099 - Kampfflieger - Bomber Crewman of the Luftwaffe 1939-45.pdf