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9814_15	Their treatment of their guest stars was terrible for effect. Eric and sometimes Ernie would often call an invited guest by the wrong name. So André Previn was "Andrew Preview", Ian Carmichael was Hoagy Carmichael, Elton John was Elephant John, Vanessa Redgrave was "Vanilla Redgrave" and when The Beatles appeared, Ringo Starr was "Bongo". Alternatively, one or both would seem not to recognise the famous guest artist at all. The pair would frequently make fun of their old friend, the singer and entertainer Des O'Connor in various disparaging ways. A rhyming example was: "If you want me to be a goner, get me an LP by Des O'Connor". Another typical example was "There's only one thing wrong with Des O'Connor records. The hole in the middle isn't big enough". O'Connor actually appeared in the 1975 Christmas special and eavesdropped on these insults before Eric and Ernie noticed him.
9814_16	Many of their catch phrases entered the language. Particularly when they were at their peak, people could be heard using them for humorous effect. The question: "What do you think of it so far?", said by Eric, who would use a prop—such as a statue or stuffed toy—to answer: "Rubbish!", was frequently heard. Morecambe said later that whenever Luton Town were playing away and he happened to be in the director's box, if Luton were behind at half-time the home fans would shout, "What do you think of it so far?". Other examples were: "There's no answer to that!", which was said by Eric after anything which could be construed as innuendo. He would also say "Pardon?" for a similar effect.
9814_17	Schoolboys could be seen holding an open hand underneath a friend's chin while saying, "Get out of that!". When Eric did this to Ernie, it was meant to be a karate move that incapacitated the victim. It was often followed by "You can't, can you?". Also common was, "They can't touch you for it" (i.e., it is not illegal); a comment following a slightly obscure word, turning it into a double entendre. In addition, Eric would say "Be honest" directly to the audience if they had carried out what he thought was a particularly successful routine. If Ernie received a little applause for something, Eric would say "I see your fan's in", and whenever the doorbell rang in their shared flat, Eric would say to Ernie, "How do you do that?"
9814_18	Another long-running - usually incomplete - gag was when Eric begins a story, ‘There were two old men sitting in deckchairs. One turns to the other and says, “It’s nice out today”’. Ernie usually closed down the gag at that point as it was obviously heading for a rude punchline. Occasionally, however, he would close it with "Well, put it away, there's a Policeman coming!" During the shows in which Ernie's execrable plays were shown, a catch phrase for Ernie was developed. This was, "The play what I wrote", which also was used commonly elsewhere. Guest stars were conned into taking part in these plays and made to utter such grammatical monstrosities as when Glenda Jackson (at the time a noted Shakespearean actress) had to say, "All men are fools and what makes them so is having beauty, like what I have got", to the obvious smug satisfaction of the words' supposed author. Several visual gags were often repeated:
9814_19	Very frequently used, and copied by the public, was Eric slapping the shoulders and then both sides of Ernie's face. A particular affectation of Eric was him putting his glasses askew or waggling them up and down on his nose. As with André Previn, if they appeared uncooperative, Eric would grab a guest by the lapels and pull them to his face in a threatening manner. He would also grimace like Humphrey Bogart (or so he thought) if Ernie or a guest was particularly challenging. Eric would often hold an empty paper bag in one hand, throw an imaginary coin, or other small object, into the air, watch it during its flight and then flick the bag with his finger giving the impression that the item had landed in the bag. Again, he would hold a paper cup in his mouth and over his nose to perform a brief impersonation of Jimmy Durante, singing, 'Sitting at my pianna the udder day...'
9814_20	Ernie would appear on a curtained stage expecting Eric to join him from behind the curtain, but Eric would be unable to find the opening and have to fight his way on. This gag could be reversed with Eric trying to fight his way off, often asking Ernie if he had a key to unlock the curtain. Another curtain gag would have Eric standing in front of the stage curtains or at the side of the stage and pretending that an arm (his own) comes out from behind the curtain and seizes him by the throat. If Eric had his back to a guest, he would jerk his body as if the guest had goosed him.
9814_21	Often, Eric would suddenly notice the camera and put on a fixed, cheesy grin. Ernie would frequently notice him doing this, stand behind Eric and grin a similar grin into the camera, over Eric's shoulder. Eric and Ernie would introduce the special guest facing stage-left with their arms out. However, the guest would enter from stage-right. Also, at the end of several shows, the duo would exit the stage by skipping while putting alternate hands behind their heads and backs.
9814_22	Television series
9814_23	Typical Morecambe and Wise programmes were effectively sketch shows crossed with a sitcom. The duo would usually open the show as themselves on a mock stage in front of curtains emblazoned with an M and W logo. Morecambe and Wise's comic style varied subtly throughout their career, depending on their writers. Their writers during most of the 1960s, Dick Hills and Sid Green, took a relatively straightforward approach, depicting Eric as an aggressive, knockabout comedian and Ernie as an essentially conventional and somewhat disapproving straight man. When Eddie Braben took over as writer, he made the relationship considerably deeper and more complex. The critic Kenneth Tynan noted that, with Braben as writer, Morecambe and Wise had a unique dynamic—Ernie was a comedian who wasn't funny, while Eric was a straight man who was funny. The Ernie persona became simultaneously more egotistical and more naïve. Morecambe pointed out that Braben wrote him as "tougher, less gormless, harder
9814_24	towards Ern." Wise's contribution to the humour is a subject of an ongoing debate. To the end of his life he would always reject interviewers' suggestions that he was the straight man, preferring to call himself the song-and-dance man. However, Wise's skill and dedication was essential to their joint success, and Tynan praised Wise's performance as "unselfish, ebullient and indispensable".
9814_25	A central concept was that the duo lived together as close, long-term friends (there were many references to a childhood friendship) who shared not merely a flat but also a bed—although their relationship was purely platonic and merely continued a tradition of comic partners sleeping in the same bed that had begun with Laurel and Hardy. Morecambe was initially uncomfortable with the bed-sharing sketches, but changed his mind upon being reminded of the Laurel and Hardy precedent; however, he still insisted on smoking his pipe in the bed scenes "for the masculinity". The front room of the flat and also the bedroom were used frequently throughout the show episodes, although Braben would also transplant the duo into various external situations, such as a health food shop or a bank. Many references were made to Ernie's supposed meanness with money and drink.
9814_26	Another concept of the shows during the Braben era was Ernie's utterly confident presentation of amateurishly inept plays "wot I wrote". This allowed for another kind of sketch: the staged historical drama, which usually parodied genuine historical television plays or films (such as Stalag 17, Antony and Cleopatra, or Napoleon and Josephine). Wise's character would write a play, complete with cheap props, shaky scenery and appallingly clumsy writing ("the play what I wrote" became a catchphrase), which would then be acted out by Morecambe, Wise and the show's guest star. Guests who participated included many big names of the 1970s and 1980s, such as Dame Flora Robson, Penelope Keith, Laurence Olivier, Sir John Mills, Vanessa Redgrave, Eric Porter, Peter Cushing (who in a running gag would keep turning up to complain that he had not been paid for an earlier appearance) and Frank Finlay—as well as Glenda Jackson (as Cleopatra: "All men are fools. And what makes them so is having beauty
9814_27	like what I have got..."). Jackson had not previously been known as a comedian and this appearance led to her Oscar-winning role in A Touch of Class. Morecambe and Wise would often pretend not to have heard of their guest, or would appear to confuse them with someone else (former UK Prime Minister Harold Wilson returned the favour, when appearing as a guest at the duo's flat, by referring to Morecambe as "Mor-e-cam-by"). Also noteworthy was the occasion when the respected BBC newsreader Angela Rippon was induced to show her legs in a dance number (she had trained as a ballet dancer before she became a journalist and TV presenter). Braben later said that a large amount of the duo's humour was based on irreverence. A running gag in a number of shows was a short sequence showing a well-known artist in close-up saying "I appeared in an Ernie Wise play, and look what happened to me!". The camera would then pull back and show the artist doing some low-status job such as newspaper seller
9814_28	(Ian Carmichael), Underground guard (Fenella Fielding), dustman (Eric Porter), bus conductor (André Previn), or some other ill-paid employment. However, celebrities felt they had received the highest accolade in showbusiness by being invited to appear in "an Ernest Wide play" as Ernie once mispronounced it during a show's introduction involving "Vanilla" (Vanessa) Redgrave.
9814_29	As a carry-over from their music hall days, Eric and Ernie sang and danced at the end of each show, although they were forced to abandon this practice when Morecambe's heart condition prevented him from dancing. The solution was that Eric would walk across the stage with coat and bag, ostensibly to wait for his bus, while Ernie danced by himself. Their peculiar skipping dance, devised by their BBC producer John Ammonds, was a modified form of a dance used by Groucho Marx. Their signature tune was Bring Me Sunshine. They either sang this at the end of each show or it was used as a theme tune during the credits (although in their BBC shows they used other songs as well, notably "Following You Around", "Positive Thinking" "Don't You Agree" and "Just Around the Corner"). A standard gag at the end of each show was for Janet Webb to appear behind the pair, walk to the front of the stage and push them out of her way. She would then recite:
9814_30	Webb was never announced, and seldom appeared in their shows in any other role. According to a BBC documentary, this was a parody of George Formby's wife who used to come on stage to take the bows with him at the end of a show. Another running gag involved an old colleague from their music hall days, harmonica player Arthur Tolcher. Arthur would keep appearing on the stage in evening wear and would play the opening bars of "España cañí" on his harmonica, only to be told "Not now, Arthur!" At the very end of the show, following the final credit, Arthur would sneak on stage and begin to play, only for the screen to cut to black.
9814_31	In June 2007, the BBC released a DVD of surviving material from their first series in 1968, and the complete second series from 1969. In November 2011, Network DVD released the complete, uncut 13 episodes of the second ATV series of Two of a Kind from 1962. It was advertised as the first series due to the fact the original first series is completely missing from television archives. In 2020, a black and white copy of an episode from October 1970, believed lost, was found in the attic of Morecambe's widow. It was restored for re-broadcast at Christmas 2021.
9814_32	Christmas specials With the exception of 1974, the show had end-of-year Christmas specials, which became some of the highest-rated TV programmes of the era. Braben has said that people judged the quality of their Christmas experience on the quality of the Morecambe and Wise Christmas Special. From 1969 until 1980, except 1974, the shows were always broadcast on Christmas Day. Due to Eric Morecambe's heart attack, Christmas Day 1974 featured a highlights package of clips from previous shows rather than a new programme, introduced by Michael Parkinson, including a newly recorded interview with Morecambe & Wise.
9814_33	The Morecambe and Wise Christmas Show on BBC in 1977 scored one of the highest ever audiences in British television history with more than 20 million viewers (the cited figure varies between 21 and 28 million, depending on the source). The duo remain among the most consistently high-rating performers of all time on British television, regularly topping the in-week charts during their heyday in the 1970s and early 1980s.
9814_34	Famous sketches Grieg's Piano Concerto Classic sketches from such shows often revolved around the guest stars. One example is the 1971 appearance of André Previn, who was introduced onstage by Ernie as Andrew Preview. Previn's schedule was extremely tight, and Morecambe and Wise were worried that he had very little time to rehearse: popular myth holds that Previn had to learn his lines in the taxi on the way from the airport, but in reality he had taken part in two days of rehearsals (out of a planned five) before having to fly to America to see his mother, who had been taken ill. The final result was described by their biographer as "probably their finest moment". The sketch was a rework of one which appeared in Two of a Kind (Series 3, Episode 7) and written by Green and Hills.
9814_35	Previn is initially enthusiastic as a guest, but he is perplexed by the news that he will not, after all, be conducting Yehudi Menuhin in Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto, but Edvard Grieg's A minor Piano Concerto with Eric as piano soloist: At this point in the sketch Morecambe punches the air with his fist and ad-libs the line "Pow! He's in! I like him! I like him!". The television executive Michael Grade has observed that it was Previn's expert delivery of his lines that caused Morecambe to visibly relax: "Eric's face lights up as if to say, 'Oh, yes! This is going to be great!" Since Previn hadn't time to rehearse, his comic timing was a surprise to Morecambe, who had explained to Previn simply that "None of the three of us should believe that this is funny."
9814_36	Eric goes on to treat Previn and the orchestra with his customary disdain ("In the Second Movement, not too heavy on the banjos") and produces his own score ("autographed copies available afterwards, boys") but consistently fails to enter on the conductor's cue. This is because, when the orchestra begins, Eric is standing right next to Previn. During the introductory bars, Eric has to descend from the conductor's rostrum, down to his place at the piano. This he cannot do in the time available—or rather, deliberately meanders so as to miss his cue. After failing twice to reach the piano, they decide he should be seated there at the start. Even then, he cannot see Previn when the conductor gestures for him to begin playing, because the piano lid obscures his view. Previn has to leap in the air at the appropriate time, so that Eric can see him. When he finally manages to enter on time, Eric's rendition of the piano part is so bizarre that Previn becomes exasperated and tells Eric that he
9814_37	is playing "all the wrong notes". Eric stands up, seizes Previn by the lapels and menacingly informs him "I'm playing all the right notes—but not necessarily in the right order." Previn demonstrates how the piece should be played but Eric, after a moment's reflection, delivers a verdict of "Rubbish!" and he and Ernie walk off in disgust. Previn starts playing Eric's version and the duo rush back, declare that Previn has finally "got it" and start dancing ecstatically. The sketch's impact can be assessed by the fact that twenty-five years later, London taxi drivers were still addressing André Previn as "Mr. Preview".
9814_38	Singin' in the Rain One of the famous Morecambe and Wise routines was their 1976 Christmas Show parody of the scene from the film Singin' in the Rain in which Gene Kelly dances in the rain and sings the song "Singin' in the Rain". This recreation featured Ernie exactly copying Gene Kelly's dance routine, on a set which exactly copied the set used in the movie, and Eric performed the role of the policeman. The difference from the original was that in the Morecambe and Wise version, there is no water, except for some downpours onto Eric's head (through a drain, or dumped out of a window, etc.). This lack of water was initially because of practical considerations (the floor of the studio had many electrical cables on it, and such quantities of water would be dangerous)—but Morecambe and Wise found a way to turn the lack of water into a comic asset. The sketch was devised and choreographed by Ernest Maxin.
9814_39	The Breakfast Sketch This 1976 sketch has become one of the duo's most familiar, and is a parody of a stripper routine where Eric and Ernie are seen listening to the radio at breakfast time. This sketch was not an original but was adapted from an earlier one Benny Hill performed on his own show during the mid-1960s. David Rose's tune "The Stripper" comes on and the duo perform a dance using various kitchen utensils and food items, including Ernie catching slices of toast as they popped out of the toaster, and finally opening the fridge door to be bathed in light, as if on stage, while they pull out strings of sausages which they whirl around to the music. The sketch was choreographed and produced by Ernest Maxin. In December 2007, viewers of satellite channel Gold voted the sketch the best moment of Morecambe and Wise's shows.
9814_40	Propellerheads parodied the sketch in the video for their 1998 single "Crash!" and it was parodied in two UK television commercials in 2008, for PG Tips and Aunt Bessie's Yorkshire Puddings. Tribute to Flanagan & Allen Eric and Ernie often cited the earlier comedy team Flanagan and Allen as influences on their own work; although Morecambe and Wise never imitated or copied Flanagan and Allen, they did sometimes work explicit references to the earlier team into their own cross-talk routines and sketches. In the mid-1970s they recorded a tribute album, Morecambe and Wise Sing Flanagan and Allen (Phillips 6382 095), in which they performed some of the earlier team's more popular songs in their own style, without attempting to imitate the originals. Films The Intelligence Men That Riviera Touch The Magnificent Two Night Train to Murder Notes References
9814_41	External links Morecambe & Wise Eric And Ern - Keeping the Magic Alive (books, film, TV reviews, interviews) Morecambe & Wise biography, plus complete list of radio/television/film/book/record appearances at Laughterlog.com Morecambe & Wise in advert for Texaco with racing driver James Hunt, at YouTube Morecambe & Wise in advert for the Atari 2600 computer games console, at YouTube Morecambe & Wise Eric and Ernie letter unearthed, at BBC News 12 October 2009 English comedy duos English male comedians 1941 establishments in England
9815_0	René Lemarchand (born 1932) is a French-American political scientist who is known for his research on ethnic conflict and genocide in Rwanda, Burundi and Darfur. Publishing in both English and French, he is particularly known for his work on the concept of clientelism. He is a Professor Emeritus at the University of Florida, and continues to write, teach internationally and consult. Since retiring he has worked for USAID (Agency for International Development, Department of State) out of Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire as a Regional Consultant for West Africa in Governance and Democracy, and as Democracy and Governance advisor to USAID / Ghana. Early life and education René Lemarchand was born in 1932 in France. After doing undergraduate work in France, he went to the United States for doctoral studies in political science. He completed his Ph.D. at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), specializing in studies of Central Africa.
9815_1	Career Lemarchand joined the political science faculty of the University of Florida in late 1962. He became the first Director of the Center for African Studies at UF and served in that position until 1965. He worked at UF for his entire academic career. He has specialized in political issues in African nations, especially ethnic conflicts leading to warfare, and has published works in both French and English. In July 1971, while on a two-month research trip to Chad, Lemarchand was arrested and charged with visiting a restricted zone and failing to respond to a summons by the country's president. He was released at the end of August 1971. Lemarchand received a Fulbright award for June–September 1983 to lecture in political science at the University of Zimbabwe, Salisbury, Zimbabwe. He also received a Fulbright for July 1987–January 1988 for research in political science at the University of Chad, N'djamena, Chad and the University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria.
9815_2	Lemarchand has become an expert in ethnic populations and conflicts, such as that in Burundi, the Rwandan genocide in 1994, and Darfur. He is internationally known as an expert on the cycle of violence in Central Africa. He has taught as a visiting professor at universities in Europe, Africa and North America. Now professor emeritus of political science at the University of Florida, Lemarchand has worked as a consultant in governance for the USAID in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire and as governance and democracy adviser to USAID/Ghana. Works
9815_3	Books Political Awakening in the Belgian Congo (University of California Press, 1964) '"Rwanda and Burundi"' (Praeger, 1970). Selective Genocide in Burundi (1974) African Kingships in Perspective (1977) African Policy in Southern Africa (1978) Political Clientelism in Patronage and Development (1981)The World Bank in Rwanda (1982)Green and the Black: Qadhafi's Policies in Africa (1988)Burundi: Ethnocide as Discourse and Practice (1994),Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide (Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Cambridge University Press, 1996)The Dynamics of Violence in Central Africa (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009)Remembering Genocides in Central Africa. (Routledge, 2021)
9815_4	Articles 2018. "Rwanda: The state of research" Mass Violence and Resistance online journal. 2007. "Rwanda: The state of research". Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence (4 November). pp. 1-25. 2006. "Consociationalism and power sharing in Africa: Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo". African Affairs 106, No. 422: pp. 1–20. 2006. "The politics of memory in post-genocide Rwanda". Occasional Papers, Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, University of Florida: pp. 25–54. 2005-2006. "The geopolitics of the Great Lakes crisis." L'Afrique des Grands Lacs. Annuaire 2005-2006. 2005. "Bearing witness to mass murder." African Studies Review, Vol. 48, No. 3 (December), pp. 93–101. 2004. Myth-Making and the Rationality of Mass Murder: Rwanda, Bosnia and Cambodia in Comparative Perspective, Leeds African Studies Bulletin, 66 (2004), 31-43.
9815_5	2003. "Comparing the killing fields: Rwanda, Cambodia and Bosnia." In Jensen, Steven ed., Genocide: Cases, Comparisons, and Contemporary Debates. København; Sweden; The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 2003. "Where Hamites and Aryans cross paths: the role of myth-making in mass murder", Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 145–48. 2002. "Disconnecting the Threads: Rwanda and the Holocaust Reconsidered", Idea Journal, Vol. 7, No. 1, 29 March 2002. 2002. "The fire in the Great Lakes." Peace Research Abstracts 39 (2): pp. 155–306. 2002. "Disconnecting the threads: Rwanda and the Holocaust reconsidered." Journal of Genocide Research 4 (4): pp. 499–518. 2002. "Le génocide de 1972 au Burundi: Les silences de l'histoire", Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines, no. 167, XLII-3, pp. 551–567. 2000. "The crisis in the Great Lakes". In Harbeson & Rothchild, Africa in World Politics, Boulder, CO: Westview Press: pp. 324–352.
9815_6	2000. "Hate crimes." Transition 9, 1/2: pp. 114–132. 1999. "Ethnicity as myth: The view from the Central Africa". Occasional Paper, Centre of African Studies, University of Copenhagen, May 1999. 1999. "Genocide in Comparative Perspective: Rwanda, Cambodia, and Bosnia", unpublished manuscript. 1998. "Genocide in the Great Lakes: Which genocide? Whose genocide?" New Haven, Ct.: Yale Center for International and Area Studies, Mellon Sawyer Seminar Series; pp. 1–13. 1997. "Eyewitness accounts; the Rwandan genocide." In Totten, Parson, and Charny, Century Of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts And Critical Views, New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., pp. 408–423. 1997. "Patterns of state collapse and reconstruction in Central Africa: Reflections on the crisis in the Great Lakes Region". Afrika Spectrum, Vol. 32, No. 2: pp. 173–193; also in African Studies Quarterly online at . 1995. "Rwanda: the rationality of genocide". Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 23, No. 2: pp. 8–11.
9815_7	1994. "Managing transition anarchies: Rwanda, Burundi, and South Africa in comparative perspective". The Journal of Modern African Studies 32 (4): pp. 581–604. 1994. "The apocalypse in Rwanda. Ethnic conflict: the new world order". Cultural Survival Quarterly 18, 2 (Summer): pp. 29–33. 1992. "Africa's troubled transitions". Journal of Democracy 3, No. 4 (October 1992): pp. 98–109. 1992. "Uncivil states and civil societies: How illusion became reality". Journal of Modern African Studies 30, No. 2: pp. 177–191. 1992. "African transitions to democracy: an interim (and mostly pessimistic) assessment". African Insight 22; pp. 178–85. 1992. "Burundi: The Politics of Ethnic Amnesia", in Helen Fein ed., Genocide Watch, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 70–86. 1991. The René Lemarchand Collection at the University of Florida: Box 1: Rwanda Documents, 1930 [bulk 1950 – 1991. 57 Folders.
9815_8	1990. "Lécole historique burundo-française: Une école pas comme les aures". Canadian Journal of African Studies, 24 2, pp. 235–48. 1983. "The state and society in Africa: Ethnic stratification and restratification in historical and comparative perspective". in Donald Rothchild and Victor A. Olorunsola, eds, State Versus Ethnic Claims: African Policy Dilemmas, Boulder, Colorado (1983): pp. 44–66. 1980-81 "Rwanda: Recent history". In Africa South of the Sahara, 1980-81. London: Europa Publications. 1976. "The C.I.A. in Africa: How Central? How Intelligent?" The Journal of Modern African Studies, Volume 14, Issue 03, Sept, pp. 401–426. 1975. "Ethnic genocide". Excerpts from Selective Genocide in Burundi, Report No. 20, Minority Rights Group, London, 1974. Issue 5, No. 21, Summer: pp. 9–16. 1975. "Rwanda: Recent history". In Africa South of the Sahara, 1974. London: Europa Publications.
9815_9	1974. "The military in former Belgian Africa". In Kelleher Ed., Political Military Systems: Comparative Perspectives. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. 1973. "African Power Through the Looking Glass". The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 11, No. 2 (June), pp. 305–314. 1972. "Political clientelism and ethnicity in tropical Africa: Competing solidarities in nation-building". The American Political Science Review 66, no. 1 (March): pp. 68–90. 1970. "The coup in Rwanda". in Protest and Power in Black Africa, ed. Rothberg, R. I., and Mazrui, Oxford, p. 891. 1968. "Revolutionary phenomena in stratified societies; Rwanda and Zanzibar". Civilisations 18, No. 1: pp. 16–51. 1968. "Les relations de clientèle comme agent de contestation: le cas du Rwanda". Civilisations 18, No. 4: pp. 553–578. 1967. "The passing of Mwamiship in Burundi". Africa Report (January): pp. 15–24.
9815_10	1966. "Power and stratification in Rwanda; A reconsideration". Cahiers d'Études africaines 6, No. 24: pp. 592–610. Also available at www.persee.fr. 1966. "Political instability in Africa, the case of Rwanda and Burundi." Civilisations 16 (3): pp. 307–37. 1962. "L'influence des systèmes traditionnels sur l'évolution du Rwanda et du Burundi." Revue de l'Institut de Sociologie de l'Université Libre de Bruxelles: pp. 2–24.
9815_11	Legacy and honors 1971, Melville J. Herskovits Award for Rwanda and Burundi, African Studies Association The René Lemarchand Collection of African Political Papers at the University of Florida, featuring materials on Rwanda, Burundi, Zaire, Chad, Gabon, and Libya, mostly in French, with emphasis on the period of the 1950s through independence, and increasing democratization in the 1980s and 1990s. References External links "Lemarchand Collection of African Political Papers", University of Florida 1932 births French political scientists Living people University of Florida faculty French male non-fiction writers French Africanists University of California, Los Angeles alumni Historians of Africa Prisoners and detainees of Chad French emigrants to the United States Historians of Rwanda Historians of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Historians of Burundi
9816_0	Gene silencing is the regulation of gene expression in a cell to prevent the expression of a certain gene. Gene silencing can occur during either transcription or translation and is often used in research. In particular, methods used to silence genes are being increasingly used to produce therapeutics to combat cancer and other diseases, such as infectious diseases and neurodegenerative disorders.
9816_1	Gene silencing is often considered the same as gene knockdown. When genes are silenced, their expression is reduced. In contrast, when genes are knocked out, they are completely erased from the organism's genome and, thus, have no expression. Gene silencing is considered a gene knockdown mechanism since the methods used to silence genes, such as RNAi, CRISPR, or siRNA, generally reduce the expression of a gene by at least 70% but do not eliminate it. Methods using gene silencing are often considered better than gene knockouts since they allow researchers to study essential genes that are required for the animal models to survive and cannot be removed. In addition, they provide a more complete view on the development of diseases since diseases are generally associated with genes that have a reduced expression. Types Transcriptional Genomic Imprinting Paramutation Transposon silencing (or Histone Modifications) Transgene silencing Position effect RNA-directed DNA methylation
9816_2	Post-transcriptional RNA interference RNA silencing Nonsense mediated decay Meiotic Transvection Meiotic silencing of unpaired DNA Research methods Antisense oligonucleotides Antisense oligonucleotides were discovered in 1978 by Paul Zamecnik and Mary Stephenson. Oligonucleotides, which are short nucleic acid fragments, bind to complementary target mRNA molecules when added to the cell. These molecules can be composed of single-stranded DNA or RNA and are generally 13–25 nucleotides long. The antisense oligonucleotides can affect gene expression in two ways: by using an RNase H-dependent mechanism or by using a steric blocking mechanism. RNase H-dependent oligonucleotides cause the target mRNA molecules to be degraded, while steric-blocker oligonucleotides prevent translation of the mRNA molecule. The majority of antisense drugs function through the RNase H-dependent mechanism, in which RNase H hydrolyzes the RNA strand of the DNA/RNA heteroduplex. expression. Ribozymes
9816_3	Ribozymes are catalytic RNA molecules used to inhibit gene expression. These molecules work by cleaving mRNA molecules, essentially silencing the genes that produced them. Sidney Altman and Thomas Cech first discovered catalytic RNA molecules, RNase P and group II intron ribozymes, in 1989 and won the Nobel Prize for their discovery. Several types of ribozyme motifs exist, including hammerhead, hairpin, hepatitis delta virus, group I, group II, and RNase P ribozymes. Hammerhead, hairpin, and hepatitis delta virus (HDV) ribozyme motifs are generally found in viruses or viroid RNAs. These motifs are able to self-cleave a specific phosphodiester bond on an mRNA molecule. Lower eukaryotes and a few bacteria contain group I and group II ribozymes. These motifs can self-splice by cleaving and joining phosphodiester bonds. The last ribozyme motif, the RNase P ribozyme, is found in Escherichia coli and is known for its ability to cleave the phosphodiester bonds of several tRNA precursors
9816_4	when joined to a protein cofactor.
9816_5	The general catalytic mechanism used by ribozymes is similar to the mechanism used by protein ribonucleases. These catalytic RNA molecules bind to a specific site and attack the neighboring phosphate in the RNA backbone with their 2' oxygen, which acts as a nucleophile, resulting in the formation of cleaved products with a 2'3'-cyclic phosphate and a 5' hydroxyl terminal end. This catalytic mechanism has been increasingly used by scientists to perform sequence-specific cleavage of target mRNA molecules. In addition, attempts are being made to use ribozymes to produce gene silencing therapeutics, which would silence genes that are responsible for causing diseases. RNA interference
9816_6	RNA interference (RNAi) is a natural process used by cells to regulate gene expression. It was discovered in 1998 by Andrew Fire and Craig Mello, who won the Nobel Prize for their discovery in 2006. The process to silence genes first begins with the entrance of a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecule into the cell, which triggers the RNAi pathway. The double-stranded molecule is then cut into small double-stranded fragments by an enzyme called Dicer. These small fragments, which include small interfering RNAs (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA), are approximately 21–23 nucleotides in length. The fragments integrate into a multi-subunit protein called the RNA-induced silencing complex, which contains Argonaute proteins that are essential components of the RNAi pathway. One strand of the molecule, called the "guide" strand, binds to RISC, while the other strand, known as the "passenger" strand is degraded. The guide or antisense strand of the fragment that remains bound to RISC directs the
9816_7	sequence-specific silencing of the target mRNA molecule. The genes can be silenced by siRNA molecules that cause the endonucleatic cleavage of the target mRNA molecules or by miRNA molecules that suppress translation of the mRNA molecule. With the cleavage or translational repression of the mRNA molecules, the genes that form them are rendered essentially inactive. RNAi is thought to have evolved as a cellular defense mechanism against invaders, such as RNA viruses, or to combat the proliferation of transposons within a cell's DNA. Both RNA viruses and transposons can exist as double-stranded RNA and lead to the activation of RNAi. Currently, siRNAs are being widely used to suppress specific gene expression and to assess the function of genes. Companies utilizing this approach include Alnylam, Sanofi, Arrowhead, Discerna, and Persomics, among others.
9816_8	Three prime untranslated regions and microRNAs The three prime untranslated regions (3'UTRs) of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) often contain regulatory sequences that post-transcriptionally cause gene silencing. Such 3'-UTRs often contain both binding sites for microRNAs (miRNAs) as well as for regulatory proteins. By binding to specific sites within the 3'-UTR, a large number of specific miRNAs decrease gene expression of their particular target mRNAs by either inhibiting translation or directly causing degradation of the transcript, using a mechanism similar to RNA interference (see MicroRNA). The 3'-UTR also may have silencer regions that bind repressor proteins that inhibit the expression of an mRNA.
9816_9	The 3'-UTR often contains microRNA response elements (MREs). MREs are sequences to which miRNAs bind and cause gene silencing. These are prevalent motifs within 3'-UTRs. Among all regulatory motifs within the 3'-UTRs (e.g. including silencer regions), MREs make up about half of the motifs. As of 2014, the miRBase web site, an archive of miRNA sequences and annotations, listed 28,645 entries in 233 biologic species. Of these, 1,881 miRNAs were in annotated human miRNA loci. miRNAs were predicted to each have an average of about four hundred target mRNAs (causing gene silencing of several hundred genes). Freidman et al. estimate that >45,000 miRNA target sites within human mRNA 3'UTRs are conserved above background levels, and >60% of human protein-coding genes have been under selective pressure to maintain pairing to miRNAs.
9816_10	Direct experiments show that a single miRNA can reduce the stability of hundreds of unique mRNAs. Other experiments show that a single miRNA may repress the production of hundreds of proteins, but that this repression often is relatively mild (less than 2-fold). The effects of miRNA dysregulation of gene expression seem to be important in cancer. For instance, in gastrointestinal cancers, nine miRNAs have been identified as epigenetically altered and effective in down regulating DNA repair enzymes. The effects of miRNA dysregulation of gene expression also seem to be important in neuropsychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and autism spectrum disorders. Applications
9816_11	Medical research Gene silencing techniques have been widely used by researchers to study genes associated with disorders. These disorders include cancer, infectious diseases, respiratory diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. Gene silencing is also currently being used in drug discovery efforts, such as synthetic lethality, high-throughput screening, and miniaturized RNAi screens.
9816_12	Cancer RNA interference has been used to silence genes associated with several cancers. In in vitro studies of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), siRNA was used to cleave the fusion protein, BCR-ABL, which prevents the drug Gleevec (imatinib) from binding to the cancer cells. Cleaving the fusion protein reduced the amount of transformed hematopoietic cells that spread throughout the body by increasing the sensitivity of the cells to the drug. RNA interference can also be used to target specific mutants. For instance, siRNAs were able to bind specifically to tumor suppressor p53 molecules containing a single point mutation and destroy it, while leaving the wild-type suppressor intact.
9816_13	Receptors involved in mitogenic pathways that lead to the increased production of cancer cells there have also been targeted by siRNA molecules. The chemokine receptor chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), associated with the proliferation of breast cancer, was cleaved by siRNA molecules that reduced the number of divisions commonly observed by the cancer cells. Researchers have also used siRNAs to selectively regulate the expression of cancer-related genes. Antiapoptotic proteins, such as clusterin and survivin, are often expressed in cancer cells. Clusterin and survivin-targeting siRNAs were used to reduce the number of antiapoptotic proteins and, thus, increase the sensitivity of the cancer cells to chemotherapy treatments. In vivo studies are also being increasingly utilized to study the potential use of siRNA molecules in cancer therapeutics. For instance, mice implanted with colon adenocarcinoma cells were found to survive longer when the cells were pretreated with siRNAs that targeted
9816_14	B-catenin in the cancer cells.
9816_15	Infectious disease Viruses Viral genes and host genes that are required for viruses to replicate or enter the cell, or that play an important role in the life cycle of the virus are often targeted by antiviral therapies. RNAi has been used to target genes in several viral diseases, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis. In particular, siRNA was used to silence the primary HIV receptor chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5). This prevented the virus from entering the human peripheral blood lymphocytes and the primary hematopoietic stem cells. A similar technique was used to decrease the amount of the detectable virus in hepatitis B and C infected cells. In hepatitis B, siRNA silencing was used to target the surface antigen on the hepatitis B virus and led to a decrease in the number of viral components. In addition, siRNA techniques used in hepatitis C were able to lower the amount of the virus in the cell by 98%.
9816_16	RNA interference has been in commercial use to control virus diseases of plants for over 20 years (see Plant disease resistance). In 1986–1990, multiple examples of "coat protein-mediated resistance" against plant viruses were published, before RNAi had been discovered. In 1993, work with tobacco etch virus first demonstrated that host organisms can target specific virus or mRNA sequences for degradation, and that this activity is the mechanism behind some examples of virus resistance in transgenic plants. The discovery of small interfering RNAs (the specificity determinant in RNA-mediated gene silencing) also utilized virus-induced post-transcriptional gene silencing in plants. By 1994, transgenic squash varieties had been generated expressing coat protein genes from three different viruses, providing squash hybrids with field-validated multiviral resistance that remain in commercial use at present. Potato lines expressing viral replicase sequences that confer resistance to potato
9816_17	leafroll virus were sold under the trade names NewLeaf Y and NewLeaf Plus, and were widely accepted in commercial production in 1999–2001, until McDonald's Corp. decided not to purchase GM potatoes and Monsanto decided to close their NatureMark potato business. Another frequently cited example of virus resistance mediated by gene silencing involves papaya, where the Hawaiian papaya industry was rescued by virus-resistant GM papayas produced and licensed by university researchers rather than a large corporation. These papayas also remain in use at present, although not without significant public protest, which is notably less evident in medical uses of gene silencing.
9816_18	Gene silencing techniques have also been used to target other viruses, such as the human papilloma virus, the West Nile virus, and the Tulane virus. The E6 gene in tumor samples retrieved from patients with the human papilloma virus was targeted and found to cause apoptosis in the infected cells. Plasmid siRNA expression vectors used to target the West Nile virus were also able to prevent the replication of viruses in cell lines. In addition, siRNA has been found to be successful in preventing the replication of the Tulane virus, part of the virus family Caliciviridae, by targeting both its structural and non-structural genes. By targeting the NTPase gene, one dose of siRNA 4 hours pre-infection was shown to control Tulane virus replication for 48 hours post-infection, reducing the viral titer by up to 2.6 logarithms. Although the Tulane virus is species-specific and does not affect humans, it has been shown to be closely related to the human norovirus, which is the most common cause
9816_19	of acute gastroenteritis and food-borne disease outbreaks in the United States. Human noroviruses are notorious for being difficult to study in the laboratory, but the Tulane virus offers a model through which to study this family of viruses for the clinical goal of developing therapies that can be used to treat illnesses caused by human norovirus.
9816_20	Bacteria
9816_21	Unlike viruses, bacteria are not as susceptible to silencing by siRNA. This is largely due to how bacteria replicate. Bacteria replicate outside of the host cell and do not contain the necessary machinery for RNAi to function. However, bacterial infections can still be suppressed by siRNA by targeting the host genes that are involved in the immune response caused by the infection or by targeting the host genes involved in mediating the entry of bacteria into cells. For instance, siRNA was used to reduce the amount of pro-inflammatory cytokines expressed in the cells of mice treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The reduced expression of the inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), in turn, caused a reduction in the septic shock felt by the LPS-treated mice. In addition, siRNA was used to prevent the bacteria, Psueomonas aeruginosa, from invading murine lung epithelial cells by knocking down the caveolin-2 (CAV2) gene. Thus, though bacteria cannot be directly targeted by
9816_22	siRNA mechanisms, they can still be affected by siRNA when the components involved in the bacterial infection are targeted.
9816_23	Respiratory diseases Ribozymes, antisense oligonucleotides, and more recently RNAi have been used to target mRNA molecules involved in asthma. These experiments have suggested that siRNA may be used to combat other respiratory diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cystic fibrosis. COPD is characterized by goblet cell hyperplasia and mucus hypersecretion. Mucus secretion was found to be reduced when the transforming growth factor (TGF)-α was targeted by siRNA in NCI-H292 human airway epithelial cells. In addition to mucus hypersecretion, chronic inflammation and damaged lung tissue are characteristic of COPD and asthma. The transforming growth factor TGF-β is thought to play a role in these manifestations. As a result, when interferon (IFN)-γ was used to knock down TGF-β, fibrosis of the lungs, caused by damage and scarring to lung tissue, was improved. Neurodegenerative disorders Huntington's disease
9816_24	Huntington's disease (HD) results from a mutation in the huntingtin gene that causes an excess of CAG repeats. The gene then forms a mutated huntingtin protein with polyglutamine repeats near the amino terminus. This disease is incurable and known to cause motor, cognitive, and behavioral deficits. Researchers have been looking to gene silencing as a potential therapeutic for HD.
9816_25	Gene silencing can be used to treat HD by targeting the mutant huntingtin protein. The mutant huntingtin protein has been targeted through gene silencing that is allele specific using allele specific oligonucleotides. In this method, the antisense oligonucleotides are used to target single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs), which are single nucleotide changes in the DNA sequence, since HD patients have been found to share common SNPs that are associated with the mutated huntingtin allele. It has been found that approximately 85% of patients with HD can be covered when three SNPs are targeted. In addition, when antisense oligonucleotides were used to target an HD-associated SNP in mice, there was a 50% decrease in the mutant huntingtin protein.
9816_26	Non-allele specific gene silencing using siRNA molecules has also been used to silence the mutant huntingtin proteins. Through this approach, instead of targeting SNPs on the mutated protein, all of the normal and mutated huntingtin proteins are targeted. When studied in mice, it was found that siRNA could reduce the normal and mutant huntingtin levels by 75%. At this level, they found that the mice developed improved motor control and a longer survival rate when compared to the controls. Thus, gene silencing methods may prove to be beneficial in treating HD. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
9816_27	Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also called Lou Gehrig's disease, is a motor neuron disease that affects the brain and spinal cord. The disease causes motor neurons to degenerate, which eventually leads to neuron death and muscular degeneration. Hundreds of mutations in the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene have been found to cause ALS. Gene silencing has been used to knock down the SOD1 mutant that is characteristic of ALS. In specific, siRNA molecules have been successfully used to target the SOD1 mutant gene and reduce its expression through allele-specific gene silencing. Therapeutics challenges
9816_28	There are several challenges associated with gene silencing therapies, including delivery and specificity for targeted cells. For instance, for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, molecules for a prospective gene silencing therapy must be delivered to the brain. The blood-brain barrier makes it difficult to deliver molecules into the brain through the bloodstream by preventing the passage of the majority of molecules that are injected or absorbed into the blood. Thus, researchers have found that they must directly inject the molecules or implant pumps that push them into the brain.
9816_29	Once inside the brain, however, the molecules must move inside of the targeted cells. In order to efficiently deliver siRNA molecules into the cells, viral vectors can be used. Nevertheless, this method of delivery can also be problematic as it can elicit an immune response against the molecules. In addition to delivery, specificity has also been found to be an issue in gene silencing. Both antisense oligonucleotides and siRNA molecules can potentially bind to the wrong mRNA molecule. Thus, researchers are searching for more efficient methods to deliver and develop specific gene silencing therapeutics that are still safe and effective. Food Arctic Apples are a suite of trademarked apples that contain a nonbrowning trait created by using gene silencing to reduce the expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO). It is the first approved food product to use this technique. See also CRISPR DNA-directed RNA interference Gene drive Gene knockdown PPRHs References
9816_30	External links RNAiAtlas - database of siRNA libraries and their target analysis results. Science project: Transgenic apple varieties Approaches to preventing outcrossing – possible effects on micro-organisms Research project: New Cost-effective method for gene silencing Gene expression Epigenetics DNA RNA Post-translational modification Australian inventions
9817_0	Bonsai cultivation and care involves the long-term cultivation of small trees in containers, called bonsai in the Japanese tradition of this art form. Similar practices exist in other Japanese art forms and in other cultures, including saikei (Japanese), penjing (Chinese), and hòn non bộ (Vietnamese). Trees are difficult to cultivate in containers, which restrict root growth, nutrition uptake, and resources for transpiration (primarily soil moisture). In addition to the root constraints of containers, bonsai trunks, branches, and foliage are extensively shaped and manipulated to meet aesthetic goals. Specialized tools and techniques are used to protect the health and vigor of the subject tree. Over time, the artistic manipulation of small trees in containers has led to a number of cultivation and care approaches that successfully meet the practical and the artistic requirements of bonsai and similar traditions.
9817_1	The term bonsai is generally used in English as an umbrella term for all miniature trees in containers or pots. In this article bonsai should be understood to include any container-grown tree that is regularly styled or shaped, not just one being maintained in the Japanese bonsai tradition. Bonsai can be created from nearly any perennial woody-stemmed tree or shrub species which produces true branches and remains small through pot confinement with crown and root pruning. Some species are popular as bonsai material because they have characteristics, such as small leaves or needles, that make them appropriate for the compact visual scope of bonsai. Bonsai cultivation techniques are different from other tree cultivation techniques in allowing mature (though miniature) trees to grow in small containers, to survive with extremely restricted root and canopy structures, and to support comprehensive, repeated styling manipulations. Sources of bonsai material
9817_2	All bonsai start with a specimen of source material, a plant that the grower wishes to train into bonsai form. Bonsai practice is an unusual form of plant cultivation in that growth from seeds is rarely used to obtain source material. To display the characteristic aged appearance of a bonsai within a reasonable time, the source plant is often partially grown or mature stock. A specimen may be selected specifically for bonsai aesthetic characteristics it already possesses, such as great natural age for a specimen collected in the wild, or a tapered, scar-free trunk from a nursery specimen. Alternatively, it may be selected for non-aesthetic reasons, such as known hardiness for the grower's local climate or low cost (as in the case of collected materials). Propagation While any form of plant propagation could generate bonsai material, a few techniques are favored because they can quickly produce a relatively mature trunk with well-placed branches.
9817_3	Cuttings. In taking a cutting, part of a growing plant is cut off and placed in a growing medium to develop roots. If the part that is cut off is fairly thick, like a mature branch, it can be grown into an aged-looking bonsai more quickly than can a seed. Unfortunately, thinner and younger cuttings tend to strike roots more easily than thicker or more mature ones. In bonsai propagation, cuttings usually provide source material to be grown for some time before training.
9817_4	Layering. Layering is a technique in which rooting is encouraged from part of a plant, usually a branch, while it is still attached to the parent plant. After rooting, the branch is removed from the parent and grown as an independent entity. For bonsai, both ground layering and air layering can create a potential bonsai, by transforming a mature branch into the trunk of a new tree. The point at which rooting is encouraged can be close to the location of side branches, so the resulting rooted tree can immediately have a thick trunk and low branches, characteristics that complement bonsai aesthetics.
9817_5	Commercial bonsai growers Commercial bonsai growers may use any of the other means of obtaining starter bonsai material, from seed propagation to collecting expeditions, but they generally sell mature specimens that display bonsai aesthetic qualities already. The grower trains the source specimens to a greater or lesser extent before sale, and the trees may be ready for display as soon as they are bought. Those who purchase commercially grown bonsai face some challenges, however, particularly of buying from another country. If the purchaser's local climate does not closely match the climate in which the bonsai was created, the plant will have difficulties surviving and thriving. As well, importing living plant material from a foreign source is often closely controlled by import regulations and may require a license or other special import arrangement on the buyer's part. If a local commercial bonsai grower does not exist, buying from a distant one may be unsatisfactory.
9817_6	Nursery stock
9817_7	A plant nursery is an agricultural operation where (non-bonsai) plants are propagated and grown to usable size. Nursery stock may be available directly from the nursery, or may be sold in a garden centre or similar resale establishment. Nursery stock is usually young but fully viable, and is often potted with sufficient soil to allow plants to survive a season or two before being transplanted into a more permanent location. Because the nursery tree is already pot-conditioned, it can be worked on as a bonsai immediately. The large number of plants that can be viewed in a single visit to a nursery or garden centre allows the buyer to identify plants with better-than-average bonsai characteristics. According to Peter Adams, a nursery visit "offers the opportunity to choose an instant trunk". One issue with nursery stock is that many specimens are shaped into popular forms, such as the standard or half-standard forms, with several feet of clear trunk rising from the roots. Without
9817_8	branches low on the trunk, it is difficult for a source specimen to be trained as bonsai.
9817_9	Collecting Collecting bonsai consists of finding suitable bonsai material in its natural environment, successfully moving it, and replanting it in a container for development as bonsai. Collecting may involve wild materials from naturally treed areas, or cultivated specimens found growing in private yards and gardens. For example, mature landscape plants being discarded from a building site can provide excellent material for bonsai. Hedgerow trees, grown for many years but continually trimmed to hedge height, provide heavy, gnarled trunks for bonsai collectors. In locations close to a tree line (the line beyond which trees do not grow, whether due to altitude, temperature, soil moisture, or other conditions), aged and naturally dwarfed survivors can be found.
9817_10	The main benefit of collecting bonsai specimens is that collected materials can be mature, and will display the natural marks and forms of age, which makes them more suitable for bonsai development than the young plants obtained through nurseries. Low cost is another potential benefit, with a tree harvest license often being more economical than the purchase of nursery trees. Some of the difficulties of collecting include finding suitable specimens, getting permission to remove them, and the challenges of keeping a mature tree alive while transplanting it to a bonsai pot. Styling techniques
9817_11	Bonsai are carefully styled to maintain miniaturization, to suggest age, and to meet the artist's aesthetic goals. Tree styling also occurs in a larger scale in other practices like topiary and niwaki. In bonsai, however, the artist has close control over every feature of the tree, because it is small and (in its container) easily moved and worked on. The greater scale of full-sized trees means that styling them may be restricted to pruning and shaping the exterior volume once per growing season, never pruning within the canopy nor bending and forming individual branches. In contrast, in a bonsai being prepared for display, each leaf or needle may be subject to decision regarding pruning or retention, and every branch and twig may be formed and wired into place each year. Given these differences in scope and purpose, bonsai styling uses a number of styling techniques either unique to bonsai or (if used in other forms of plant cultivation) applied in ways particularly suitable to meet
9817_12	the goals of bonsai development.
9817_13	Leaf trimming This technique involves selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of deciduous tree) or needles (for coniferous trees and some others) from a bonsai's branches. A common aesthetic technique in bonsai design is to expose the tree's branches below groups of leaves or needles (sometimes called "pads") by removing downward-growing material. In many species, particularly coniferous ones, this means that leaves or needles projecting below their branches must be trimmed off. For some coniferous varieties, such as spruce, branches carry needles from the trunk to the tip and many of these needles may be trimmed to expose the branch shape and bark. Needle and bud trimming can also be used in coniferous trees to force back-budding on old wood, which may not occur naturally in many conifers. Along with pruning, leaf trimming is the most common activity used for bonsai development and maintenance, and the one that occurs most frequently during the year.
9817_14	Pruning The small size of the tree and some dwarfing of foliage result from pruning the trunk, branches, and roots. Pruning is often the first step in transforming a collected plant specimen into a candidate for bonsai. The top part of the trunk may be removed to make the tree more compact. Major and minor branches that conflict with the designer's plan will be removed completely, and others may be shortened to fit within the planned design. Pruning later in the bonsai's life is generally less severe, and may be done for purposes like increasing branch ramification or encouraging growth of non-pruned branches. Although pruning is an important and common bonsai practice, it must be done with care, as improper pruning can weaken or kill trees. Careful pruning throughout the tree's life is necessary, however, to maintain a bonsai's basic design, which can otherwise disappear behind the uncontrolled natural growth of branches and leaves. Wiring
9817_15	Wrapping copper or aluminium wire around branches and trunks allows the bonsai designer to create the desired general form and make detailed branch and leaf placements. When wire is used on new branches or shoots, it holds the branches in place until they lignify (convert into wood). The time required is usually 6–9 months or one growing season for deciduous trees, but can be several years for conifers like pines and spruce, which maintain their branch flexibility through multiple growing seasons. Wires are also used to connect a branch to another object (e.g., another branch, the pot itself) so that tightening the wire applies force to the branch. Some species do not lignify strongly, and some specimens' branches are too stiff or brittle to be bent easily. These cases are not conducive to wiring, and shaping them is accomplished primarily through pruning.
9817_16	Clamping For larger specimens, or species with stiffer wood, bonsai artists also use mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. The most common are screw-based clamps, which can straighten or bend a part of the bonsai using much greater force than wiring can supply. To prevent damage to the tree, the clamps are tightened a little at a time and make their changes over a period of months or years.
9817_17	Grafting In this technique, new growing material (typically a bud, branch, or root) is introduced to a prepared area under the bark of the tree. There are two major purposes for grafting in bonsai. First, a number of favorite species do not thrive as bonsai on their natural root stock and their trunks are often grafted onto hardier root stock. Examples include Japanese red maple and Japanese black pine. Second, grafting allows the bonsai artist to add branches (and sometimes roots) where they are needed to improve or complete a bonsai design. There are many applicable grafting techniques, none unique to bonsai, including branch grafting, bud grafting, thread grafting, and others.
9817_18	Defoliation Short-term dwarfing of foliage can be accomplished in certain deciduous bonsai by partial or total defoliation of the plant partway through the growing season. Not all species can survive this technique. In defoliating a healthy tree of a suitable species, most or all of the leaves are removed by clipping partway along each leaf's petiole (the thin stem that connects a leaf to its branch). Petioles later dry up and drop off or are manually removed once dry. The tree responds by producing a fresh crop of leaves. The new leaves are generally much smaller than those from the first crop, sometimes as small as half the length and width. If the bonsai is shown at this time, the smaller leaves contribute greatly to the bonsai aesthetic of dwarfing. This change in leaf size is usually not permanent, and the leaves of the following spring will often be the normal size. Defoliation weakens the tree and should not be performed in two consecutive years. Deadwood
9817_19	Bonsai growers create or shape dead wood using techniques such as jin and shari to simulate age and maturity in a bonsai. Jin is the term used when the bark from an entire branch is removed to create the impression of a snag of deadwood. Shari denotes stripping bark from areas of the trunk to simulate natural scarring from a broken limb or lightning strike. In addition to stripping bark, deadwood techniques may also involve the use of tools to scar the deadwood or to raise its grain, and the application of chemicals (usually lime sulfur) to bleach and preserve the exposed deadwood.
9817_20	"Hedge Cutting Method" This method is a newer, somewhat controversial technique to achieve fine ramification on deciduous material. In it, a tree which is still in development is left to grow until its foliage is very dense and somewhat "messy." Then, its crown is aggressively cut back in the spring, and the cycle begins again. Austrian-German bonsai artist Walter Pall is credited with creating the method.
9817_21	Care Small trees grown in containers, like bonsai, require specialized care. Unlike most houseplants, flowering shrubs, and other subjects of container gardening, tree species in the wild generally grow individual roots up to several meters long and root structures encompassing hundreds or thousands of liters of soil. In contrast, a typical bonsai container allows a fraction of a meter for root extension, and holds 2 to 10 liters of soil and root mass. Branch and leaf (or needle) growth in trees is also large-scale in nature. Wild trees typically grow 5 meters or taller when mature, while the largest bonsai rarely exceed 1 meter and most specimens are significantly smaller. These size differences affect maturation, transpiration, nutrition, pest resistance, and many other aspects of tree biology. Maintaining the long-term health of a tree in a container requires a number of specialized care techniques. Growing environment
9817_22	Most bonsai species are trees and shrubs that must by nature grow outdoors. They require temperature, humidity, and sunlight conditions approximating their native climate year round. The skill of the grower can help bonsai from outside the local hardiness zone survive and even thrive, but doing so takes careful watering, shielding of selected bonsai from excessive sunlight or wind, and possibly protection from winter conditions (e.g., through the use of cold frames or winter greenhouses).
9817_23	Common bonsai species (particularly those from the Japanese tradition) are temperate climate trees from hardiness zones 7 to 9, and require moderate temperatures, moderate humidity, and full sun in summer with a dormancy period in winter that may need be near freezing. They do not thrive indoors, where the light is generally too dim, and humidity often too low, for them to grow properly. Only during their dormant period can they safely be brought indoors, and even then the plants require cold temperatures, reduced watering, and lighting that approximates the number of hours the sun is visible. Raising the temperature or providing more hours of light than available from natural daylight can cause the bonsai to break dormancy, which often weakens or kills it.
9817_24	Even for bonsai specimens that are native to the grower's location, outdoor cultivation requires specific cultivation practices to ensure successful long-term survival of the bonsai. The trees used in bonsai are constrained by the need to grow in a relatively small pot. This state greatly reduces the volume of roots and soil normally available to a freely grown tree, and brings the roots much closer to the surface of the soil than would occur in the wild. Trees in bonsai pots have much less access to water and to nutrients than they do natively, and physically confining roots changes their growth pattern and indirectly the growth pattern of the tree above the soil. The grower has some control over the following environmental variables, and by controlling them effectively for individual specimens can ensure the health of native species grown as bonsai, and can cultivate some non-native species successfully.
9817_25	Watering: Different species of tree have roots with different tolerances for soil moisture. Some species tolerate continual wetness, while others are prone to rotting if the soil remains wet for long periods. A standard bonsai practice is to grow trees in a soil mixture that drains rapidly, so that roots are not allowed to be wet for long. To compensate for the relatively low water retention of the bonsai soil, water is applied frequently. The tree absorbs sufficient moisture for its needs while the water is passing through the soil, then the soil dries enough to reduce the chance of rotting. It is the grower's responsibility to ensure that watering occurs frequently enough to satisfy the bonsai with high watering requirements, while not waterlogging trees that use little water or have roots prone to rotting.
9817_26	Soil volume: Giving a bonsai a relatively large soil volume encourages the growth of roots, then corresponding growth of the rest of the tree. With a large amount of soil, the tree trunk extends in length and increases in diameter, existing branches increase in size and new branches appear, and the foliage expands in volume. The grower can move an outdoor bonsai from a pot to a training box or to open ground to stimulate this sort of growth. Replacing the tree in a bonsai pot will slow or halt the tree's growth, and may lead to die-back if the volume of foliage is too great for the limited root system to support. Managing the tree's available soil volume allows the grower to manage the overall size of the bonsai, and to increase vigor and growth when new branches are required for a planned styling.
9817_27	Temperature: Bonsai roots in pots are exposed to much greater variation in temperature than tree roots deep in the soil. For bonsai from native species, local temperatures do not generally harm the tree. But for bonsai from warmer native climates, the grower can increase the likelihood of successful cultivation either by insulating the tree from local winter conditions, or by actively increasing the bonsai temperature during the cold season. For trees from climates slightly warmer than the local one, bonsai pots can be partially buried in the ground and can be covered with an insulating layer of mulch. For trees from significantly warmer climates, warmer temperatures can be maintained in a cold frame or greenhouse, so that a relatively tender tree is not exposed to temperatures lower than it can bear. This approach may also artificially extend the bonsai's growing season, affecting watering and fertilization schedules.
9817_28	Sunlight: Trees generally require a good deal of sun, and most bonsai need direct sunlight during the growing season to thrive. Some shade-tolerant species of bonsai cannot thrive with too much direct sunlight, however, and it is the grower's role to site the bonsai specimens to provide the correct lighting for each type. Most bonsai will be located in an area that gets several hours of direct daylight. Shade-tolerant bonsai can be placed behind barriers (walls, buildings), sited on shaded benches or stands, or shaded by netting to reduce the impact of direct sunlight.
9817_29	Repotting Bonsai are repotted and root-pruned at intervals dictated by the vigor and age of each tree. In the case of deciduous trees, this is done as the tree is leaving its dormant period, generally around springtime. Bonsai are often repotted while in development, and less often as they become more mature. This prevents them from becoming pot-bound and encourages the growth of new feeder roots, allowing the tree to absorb moisture more efficiently. Specimens meant to be developed into bonsai are often placed in "growing boxes", which have a much larger volume of soil per plant than a bonsai pot does. These large boxes allow the roots to grow freely, increasing the vigor of the tree and helping the trunk and branches grow thicker. After using a grow box, the tree may be replanted in a more compact "training box" that helps to create a smaller, denser root mass which can be more easily moved into a final presentation pot. Tools

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