article: 800 - Emperor Charlemagne, Frankish ruler of France and Germany, crowned Roman emperor by Pope Leo III. 843 - Break-up of Frankish empire; Germany emerges as separate realm. 962 - German King Otto I crowned Roman emperor after gaining control of northern Italy; beginning of what became known as Holy Roman Empire centred on Germany. 1250 - Death of Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen marks virtual end of central authority and acceleration of empire's collapse into independent princely territories. 1438 - Election of Albert I marks beginning of Habsburg dynasty based in Austria. 1517 - Martin Luther proclaims Ninety-Five Theses against traditional church practices; start of Protestant split from Catholic Church. 1618-1648 Thirty-Years' War: failure of Habsburg emperors' attempt to restore Catholic dominance and imperial authority against opposition of Protestant princes; 1648 Treaty of Westphalia confirms near total independence of territorial states. 1806 - Napoleon's armies impose French rule over much of Germany; Francis II declares abolition of Holy Roman Empire and adopts title of emperor of Austria. 1813 - Defeat of Napoleon at Battle of Leipzig. 1848 - Year of Revolutions; failure of liberals' attempt to unite Germany under democratic constitution; start of period of rapid industrialisation. 1871 - Otto von Bismarck achieves unification of Germany under leadership of Prussia; new German Empire's authoritarian constitution creates elected national parliament, but gives emperor extensive powers. 1888 - Start of William II's reign; start of trend towards colonial expansion and build-up of navy to compete with Britain's; rapid growth of economic power. 1890 - Growing workers' movement culminates in founding of Social Democratic Party of Germany. 1914-1918 - World War I 1918 - Germany defeated, signs armistice. Emperor William II abdicates and goes into exile. 1919 - Treaty of Versailles: Germany loses colonies and land to neighbours, pays large-scale reparations. Beginning of the Weimar Republic, based on a new constitution. Its early years are marked by high unemployment and rampant inflation. 1923 - Adolf Hitler, head of the National Socialist German Workers' (Nazi) Party, leads an abortive coup in a Munich beer hall. France, Belgium occupy the Ruhr over failed reparation payments. Hyperinflation leads to economic collapse. 1929 - Global depression, mass unemployment. 1933 - Hitler becomes chancellor. Weimar Republic gives way to a one-party state. Systematic persecution of Germany's Jews escalates. Hitler proclaims the Third Reich in 1934. 1935 - Germany begins to re-arm. Nuremberg Laws deprive German Jews of citizenship. 1938 - Annexation of Austria and Sudetenland. Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) sees orchestrated attacks on Jews and their property as well as synagogues. 1939-1945 - Invasion of Poland triggers World War II. Millions of people of all ages, mostly Jews but also large numbers of Gypsies, Slavs and other races, the disabled, homosexuals and religious dissenters, die as the Nazis implement an extermination policy in the death camps of eastern Europe. 1945 - Germany defeated, Hitler commits suicide. Allies divide Germany into occupation zones. 1945-1946 - Nuremberg war crimes trials see major Nazi figures executed or imprisoned. 1949 - Germany is divided. The US, French and British zones in the west
summary: A chronology of key events: