ما هي الاسباب التي جعل الاطار الزمني في اواخر عام 1757 يبدو سيئا بالنسبة بروسيا?
حشد النمساويين للهجوم على الاراضي التي تسيطر عليها بروسيا والجيش الفرنسي تحت soubise يقترب من الغرب
Things were looking grim for Prussia now, with the Austrians mobilising to attack Prussian-controlled soil and a French army under Soubise approaching from the west. However, in November and December of 1757, the whole situation in Germany was reversed. First, Frederick devastated Prince Soubise's French force at the Battle of Rossbach on 5 November 1757 and then routed a vastly superior Austrian force at the Battle of Leuthen on 5 December 1757 With these victories, Frederick once again established himself as Europe's premier general and his men as Europe's most accomplished soldiers. In spite of this, the Prussians were now facing the prospect of four major powers attacking on four fronts (France from the West, Austria from the South, Russia from the East and Sweden from the North). Meanwhile, a combined force from a number of smaller German states such as Bavaria had been established under Austrian leadership, thus threatening Prussian control of Saxony. كانت الامور تبدو قاسية بالنسبة بروسيا الان, مع حشد النمساويين للهجوم على الاراضي التي تسيطر عليها بروسيا والجيش الفرنسي تحت soubise يقترب من الغرب. ومع ذلك, وفي تشرين الثاني / نوفمبر و كانون الاول / ديسمبر 1757, تم عكس الوضع باكمله في المانيا. اولا, دمر فريدريك قوة الامير soubise الفرنسية في معركة rossbach في 5 تشرين الثاني / نوفمبر 1757 ثم توجيه قوة النمساوية متفوقة الى حد كبير في معركة leuthen في 5 كانون الاول / ديسمبر 1757 مع هذه الانتصارات, فريدريك مرة اخرى وقد اسس نفسه بوصفه الجنرال الاول في اوروبا ورجاله باعتبارهم اكثر الجنود انجازا في اوروبا. وعلى الرغم من هذا, فان البروس كانوا يواجهون الان امكانية مهاجمة اربع قوى رئيسية على اربع جبهات (فرنسا من الغرب, والنمسا من الجنوب, وروسيا من الشرق وال السويد من الشمال). وفي الوقت نفسه, تم انشاء قوة مشتركة من عدد من الدول الالمانية الصغيرة مثل بافاريا تحت القيادة النمساوية, وبالتالي تهدد السيطرة بروسيا على سكسونيا. Die Dinge waren jetzt grimmig nach Preußen, mit den Österreichern, die die preußischen Erde angreifen und eine französische Armee unter Soubise, die aus dem Westen naht. Im November und Dezember 1757 wurde jedoch die ganze Situation in Deutschland rückgängig gemacht. Zuerst verwüstete Friedrich die französische Kraft von Prinz Soubise in der Schlacht von Rossbach am 5 November 1757 und führte dann am 5 Dezember 1757 eine deutlich überlegene österreichische Kraft in der Schlacht von Leuthen ein. Mit diesen Siegen, Frederick wieder einmal Er etablierte sich als Europas Premier General und seine Männer als die am meisten erfüllt Soldaten Europas. Trotz dieser waren die Preußen nun vor der Aussicht auf vier Großmächte, die an vier Fronten angreifen (Frankreich aus dem Westen, Österreich aus dem Süden, Russland aus dem Osten und Schweden aus dem Norden). In der Zwischenzeit wurde eine kombinierte Kraft aus eine Reihe kleinerer deutscher Staaten wie Bayern unter österreichischer Führung gegründet, so droht die preußische Kontrolle von Sachsen. Las cosas se estaban viendo sombrías para prusia ahora, con los austriacos movilizando para atacar el suelo controlado por prusia y un ejército francés bajo soubise acercándose desde el oeste. Sin embargo, en noviembre y diciembre de 1757, toda la situación en Alemania fue invertida. en primer lugar, Frederick devastó la fuerza francesa del príncipe soubise en la batalla de rossbach el 5 de noviembre de 1757 y luego derrotó a una fuerza austriaca muy superior en la batalla de leuthen el 5 de diciembre de 1757 con estas victorias, frederick una vez más se estableció como el premier general de Europa y sus hombres como los soldados más consumados de Europa. A pesar de esto, los prusianos se enfrentan ahora a la perspectiva de cuatro grandes poderes que atacan en cuatro frentes (Francia de occidente, Austria del sur, Rusia del este y Suecia desde el norte). Mientras tanto, una fuerza combinada de un número de estados alemanes más pequeños como baviera se había establecido bajo el liderazgo austriaco, amenazando así el control prusiano de sajonia. अब बातें के लिए चीजें गंभीर लग रही थीं, से के साथ prg-नियंत्रित मिट्टी और पश्चिम से आने वाले soubise के नीचे एक फ्रेंच सेना पर हमला करने के लिए करना किया गया था । हालांकि, नवंबर और दिसंबर 1757 में, जर्मनी में पूरी स्थिति उलट दी गई थी । पहले, फ्रेडरिक ने 5 नवंबर 1757 को rossbach की लड़ाई में प्रिंस soubise के फ्रेंच बल को तबाह कर दिया और फिर 5 दिसंबर 1757 को leuthen की लड़ाई में एक बहुत बेहतर ऑस्ट्रियाई बल को पराजित किया । यूरोप के प्रमुख जनरल और उनके पुरुषों के रूप में यूरोप के सबसे पूर्ण सैनिकों के रूप में स्थापित किया । इसके बावजूद, जार अब चार मोर्चों पर हमला करने के लिए चार प्रमुख शक्तियों की संभावना का सामना कर रहे थे (पश्चिम से फ्रांस, दक्षिण से ऑस्ट्रिया, पूर्व से रूस और उत्तर से स्वीडन) । इस बीच, एक संख्या में छोटे जर्मन राज्यों जैसे बवेरिया को ऑस्ट्रियाई नेतृत्व के तहत स्थापित किया गया था, इस प्रकार सैक्सोनी के prg नियंत्रण को धमकी दे रहा है । Mọi thứ trông thật tàn nhẫn cho Phổ ngay bây giờ, với người Áo Áo để tấn công đất nước Phổ và một quân đội Pháp dưới sự tiếp cận từ phía Tây. Tuy nhiên, vào tháng 1757 và tháng mười hai năm 1757, toàn bộ tình huống ở Đức đã được thay đổi. Đầu tiên, Frederick phá hủy lực lượng Pháp của Hoàng tử Soubise tại trận Gió vào ngày 5 tháng 5 năm 1757 và sau đó chuyển tiếp một lực lượng Áo cao cấp hoàn toàn tại trận Leuthen vào ngày 5 tháng 5 năm 1757 Với những chiến thắng này, Frederick một lần nữa Thành lập bản thân như tướng ngoại hạng của Châu Âu và những người đàn ông của anh ta là những người lính hoàn hảo nhất Châu Âu. Bất chấp điều này, cái hiện đang đối mặt với tiềm năng của bốn quyền lực lớn tấn công trên bốn mặt (Pháp từ phía Tây, Áo từ phía Nam, Nga từ phía Đông và Thụy Điển từ phía Bắc). Trong khi đó, một lực lượng kết hợp từ một số tiểu bang Đức nhỏ hơn như Bayern đã được thành lập dưới sự lãnh đạo của Áo, do đó đe dọa kiểm soát Sachsen của Sachsen. 对普鲁士来说, 事情现在看起来很严峻, 奥地利动员起来攻击普鲁士控制的土壤和一个法国军队在苏比斯从西部接近然而, 在1757年十一月和十二月, 德国的整个局势都被扭转了. 首先, 弗雷德里克在1757年十一月5日在rossbach的战役中摧毁了苏比斯王子的法国部队, 然后在1757年十二月5日在leuthen战役中击溃了一支巨大的奥地利部队, 这些胜利将自己建立为欧洲的总理和他的男人, 作为欧洲最有成就的士兵. 尽管如此, 普鲁士人现在正面临四个大国攻击四个战线的前景(法国来自西方, 奥地利南部, 俄罗斯东部和瑞典北部). 同时, 来自一些 较 小 的 德 国 国家, 如 巴 伐 利 亚 的 联合 部队 已经 在 奥 地利 领导 下 成立, 因此威胁到普鲁士对萨克森
Russia experienced territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of Cossacks. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling pirates and pioneers of the New World. In 1648, the peasants of Ukraine joined the Zaporozhian Cossacks in rebellion against Poland-Lithuania during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. In 1654 the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, Aleksey I. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War (1654–1667). Finally, Ukraine was split along the river Dnieper, leaving the western part (or Right-bank Ukraine) under Polish rule and eastern part (Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev) under Russian. Later, in 1670–71 the Don Cossacks led by Stenka Razin initiated a major uprising in the Volga region, but the Tsar's troops were successful in defeating the rebels. In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian river routes, and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in the Eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the Pacific coast. In 1648 the Bering Strait between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by Fedot Popov and Semyon Dezhnyov. For over 200 years, Russia had been expanding southwards across the sparsely populated "Wild Fields" toward the warm water ports of the Black Sea that did not freeze over like the handful of other ports available in the north. The goal was to promote year-round trade and a year-round navy.:11 Pursuit of this goal brought the emerging Russian state into conflict with the Ukrainian Cossacks and then with the Tatars of the Crimean Khanate and Circassians. When Russia conquered these groups and gained possession of southern Ukraine, known as New Russia during Russian imperial times, the Ottoman Empire lost its buffer zone against Russian expansion, and Russia and the Ottoman Empire fell into direct conflict. The conflict with the Ottoman Empire also presented a religious issue of importance, as Russia saw itself as the protector of Orthodox Christians, many of whom lived under Ottoman control and were treated as second-class citizens.(ch 1) 历史学家在19世纪评价了清朝的脆弱和弱点, 主要以其海上海军弱点为基础, 同时它在土地上取得了军事成功, 历史学家爱 德 华 · l · 德 雷 尔说, 中国十九世纪的屈辱与她在海上的弱点和失败有着强烈的关系. 鸦片战争开始时, 中国没有统一的海军, 也没有意识到她是多么脆弱的从海上攻击; 英国部队在他们想去的地方航行和蒸...... 在箭战(1856-60年), 中国人没有办法阻止1860年英法远征, 从航行到致湾, 并尽可能靠近北京. 同时, 新的, 但不是完全现代的中国军队镇压了中世纪的叛乱, 使俄罗斯陷入了一个和平解决中亚有争议的边界, 并在中法战争(1884-85年)中击败了法国部队. 但失败了舰队, 以及由此造成的对台湾的轮船交通威胁, 迫使中国以不利的条件结束和平. 尼古拉斯认为, 由于俄罗斯在镇压1848年匈牙利革命方面的援助, 奥地利将与他并肩, 或至少保持中立. 然而, 奥地利感觉到了俄罗斯军队在巴尔的威胁. 1854年二月27日, 英国和法国要求俄罗斯部队从公国撤出; 奥地利支持他们, 虽然它没有向俄罗斯宣战, 但它拒绝保证其中立. 俄 罗 斯 拒绝 最后通牒导致英国和法国进入战争. Greece played a peripheral role in the war. When Russia attacked the Ottoman Empire in 1853, King Otto of Greece saw an opportunity to expand North and South into Ottoman areas that had large Greek Christian majorities. However, Greece did not coordinate its plans with Russia, did not declare war, and received no outside military or financial support. Greece, an Orthodox nation, had considerable support in Russia, but the Russian government decided it was too dangerous to help Greece expand its holdings.:32–40 When the Russians invaded the Principalities, the Ottoman forces were tied down so Greece invaded Thessaly and Epirus. To block further Greek moves, the British and French occupied the main Greek port at Piraeus from April 1854 to February 1857, and effectively neutralized the Greek army. Greeks, gambling on a Russian victory, incited the large-scale Epirus Revolt of 1854 as well as uprisings in Crete. The insurrections were failures that were easily crushed by the Ottoman army. Greece was not invited to the peace conference and made no gains out of the war.:139 The frustrated Greek leadership blamed the King for failing to take advantage of the situation; his popularity plunged and he was later forced to abdicate. Los rusos evacuados valaquia y moldavia a finales de julio de 1854. Con la evacuación de los principados del Danubio, la causa inmediata de la guerra fue retirado y la guerra podría haber terminado en este momento.: 192 sin embargo, la fiebre de la guerra entre el público en tanto el reino unido como francia habían sido batida por la prensa en ambos países en el grado en que los políticos encontraron que era insostenible proponer poner fin a la guerra en este momento. de hecho, el gobierno de la coalición de George Hamilton-Gordon, 4º Conde de aberdeen cayó el 30 de enero de 1855 en un voto sin confianza como Parlamento votó para nombrar un comité para investigar la mala gestión de la guerra 311 Nicholas cảm thấy rằng, bởi vì sự hỗ trợ của Nga trong việc ngăn chặn cuộc cách mạng Hungary năm 1848, Áo sẽ bên cạnh anh ta, hoặc ít nhất là giữ vững trung tính. Áo, tuy nhiên, cảm thấy bị đe dọa bởi quân đội Nga ở Balkan. Vào ngày 27 tháng 27 năm 1854, Vương quốc Anh và Pháp đòi hỏi sự rút lui của các lực lượng Nga từ các chủ quyền; Áo đã hỗ trợ họ và, mặc dù nó không tuyên bố chiến tranh trên Nga, nó từ chối đảm bảo sự trung lập của nó. Sự từ chối của Nga về tối hậu thư đã gây ra Vương quốc Anh và Pháp để tham gia chiến tranh. The immediate chain of events leading to France and the United Kingdom declaring war on Russia on 27 and 28 March 1854 came from the ambition of the French emperor Napoleon III to restore the grandeur of France. He wanted Catholic support that would come his way if he attacked Eastern Orthodoxy, as sponsored by Russia.:103 The Marquis Charles de La Valette was a zealous Catholic and a leading member of the "clerical party," which demanded French protection of the Roman Catholic rights to the holy places in Palestine. In May 1851, Napoleon appointed La Valette as his ambassador to the Porte (the Ottoman Empire).:7–9 The appointment was made with the intent of forcing the Ottomans to recognise France as the "sovereign authority" over the Christian population.:19 Russia disputed this attempted change in authority. Pointing to two more treaties, one in 1757 and the 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the Ottomans reversed their earlier decision, renouncing the French treaty and insisting that Russia was the protector of the Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. 1854年三月27日和28日, 导致法国和英国对俄罗斯宣战的一系列事件来自法国皇帝拿破仑三世的野心, 以恢复法国的壮观. 他想要天主教的支持, 如果他攻击东方正统, 由俄罗斯赞助.: 103侯爵查尔斯·德拉瓦瓦是一个热心的天主教徒和一个主要的文书党成员, 要求法国保护罗马天主教对巴勒斯坦圣地的权利. 1851年五月, 拿破仑任命la瓦为他的到 大使 (奥斯曼帝国).: 7-9这项任命是为了迫使奥斯曼人承认法国为基督教的主权权威人口.: 19俄罗斯对这次企图改变权威提出质疑. 提到两个条约, 一个在1757年和1774年的条约和约条约, 奥斯曼推翻了他们早些时候的决定, 放弃了法国条约, 并坚持认为俄罗斯是奥斯曼帝国东正教基督徒的保护者. जब रूस ने 1853 में तुर्की बाल्कन पर हमला किया, भूमध्य और मध्य पूर्व एलईडी ब्रिटेन और फ्रांस में रूसी प्रभुत्व के डर से रूसी नौसेना क्षमताओं को नष्ट करने के लिए क्रीमिया प्रायद्वीप पर आक्रमण करने के लिए । आगामी क्रीमिया युद्ध (1854-56), जिसमें आधुनिक युद्ध की नई तकनीक शामिल थी, और ब्रिटेन के बीच एक ही वैश्विक युद्ध था और pax britannica के दौरान एक और शाही शक्ति थी, रूस के लिए एक जबरदस्त हार थी । यह स्थिति मध्य एशिया में दो और दशकों के लिए अनसुलझे बनी रही, 1876 में ब्रिटेन को बलूचिस्तान और रूस को kirghizia, कजाकिस्तान और तुर्कमेनिस्तान के साथ । कुछ समय के लिए यह प्रकट हुआ कि एक और युद्ध अपरिहार्य होगा, लेकिन दोनों देश 1878 में क्षेत्र में अपने संबंधित क्षेत्रों पर एक समझौते पर पहुंच गए और 1907 में एंग्लो-रूसी राष्ट्रों के हस्ताक्षर के साथ 1907 में सभी उत्कृष्ट मामलों पर. 1904-05 के रूस-जापानी युद्ध के दौरान पोर्ट आर्थर की लड़ाई में जापानी नौसेना का विनाश भी अंग्रेजों के लिए खतरा सीमित था ।