The coastline paradox was first discovered by which English mathematician and physicist?
Lewis Fry Richardson
Lewis Fry Richardson
Lewis Fry Richardson, FRS (11 October 1881 – 30 September 1953) was an English mathematician, physicist, meteorologist, psychologist and pacifist who pioneered modern mathematical techniques of weather forecasting, and the application of similar techniques to studying the causes of wars and how to prevent them.
 He is also noted for his pioneering work concerning fractals and a method for solving a system of linear equations known as modified Richardson iteration.
Coastline paradox
The coastline paradox is the counterintuitive observation that the coastline of a landmass does not have a well-defined length.
 This results from the fractal-like properties of coastlines.
 The first recorded observation of this phenomenon was by Lewis Fry Richardson and it was expanded by Benoit Mandelbrot.
List of Halley-type comets
The following is a list of Halley-type comets (HTCs), which are periodic comet with an orbital period between 20 and 200 years, often appearing only once or twice within one's lifetime.
 The majority come from between the orbits of Saturn and Neptune; Due to the nature of their orbits, their orbits can be perturbed by the giant planets and sent into orbits too far from the Sun to outgas, and vice versa.
 Minor planets in comet-like orbits similar to HTCs that never come close enough to the Sun to outgas are called Centaurs.
 HTCs are named after the first discovered member, and the first discovered periodic comet, Halley's Comet, which orbits the Sun in about 75 years, and passing as far as the orbit of Neptune. Coast
A coastline or a seashore is the area where land meets the sea or ocean, or a line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake.
 A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the Coastline paradox. Donnayite-(Y)
Donnayite-(Y) is a rare-earth carbonate mineral containing the rare-earth metal yttrium.
 It was first discovered in 1978 at Mont St-Hilaire, Quebec.
 Donnayite was subsequently identified and named after Joseph D. H. Donnay and his wife, Gabrielle Donnay.
 Both were prominent mineralogists and crystallographers, and J. D. H. Donnay was awarded the Roebling Award by the Mineralogical Society of America in 1971 for his emphasis on the importance of optical mineralogy and crystal morphology.
 Donnayite tends to occur in small quantities in the pegmatite dykes and miarolitic cavities of mountainous regions.
 It crystallizes in this environment with increasing alkalinity values until the alkalinity suddenly drops during the last stage of crystallization.
 This results in increasing amounts of Na carbonates and REE minerals.
 First discovered at Mont St-Hilaire, donnayite has since been found in the Southern Ural Mountains of Russia and the Narssarssuk pegmatite of South Greenland.
 Donnayite crystals tend to be small and the color is commonly pale yellow to yellow with a white streak and a vitreous luster.
 Donnayite crystals usually display trigonal or hexagonal symmetry and have a hardness of 3.
 Twinning is extremely common in this mineral.
 Minerals closely related to donnayite include synchysite, calcite, sphalerite, microcline, and analcime.
 Donnayite is isomorphous with weloganite and mckelveyite. Ross–Littlewood paradox
The Ross–Littlewood paradox (also known as the balls and vase problem or the ping pong ball problem) is a hypothetical problem in abstract mathematics and logic designed to illustrate the seemingly paradoxical, or at least non-intuitive, nature of infinity.
 More specifically, like the Thomson's lamp paradox, the Ross–Littlewood paradox tries to illustrate the conceptual difficulties with the notion of a supertask, in which an infinite number of tasks are completed sequentially.
 The problem was originally described by mathematician John E. Littlewood in his 1953 book "Littlewood's Miscellany", and was later expanded upon by Sheldon Ross in his 1988 book "A First Course in Probability". Closed timelike curve
In mathematical physics, a closed timelike curve (CTC) is a world line in a Lorentzian manifold, of a material particle in spacetime that is "closed", returning to its starting point.
 This possibility was first discovered by Willem Jacob van Stockum in 1937 and later confirmed by Kurt Gödel in 1949, who discovered a solution to the equations of general relativity (GR) allowing CTCs known as the Gödel metric; and since then other GR solutions containing CTCs have been found, such as the Tipler cylinder and traversable wormholes.
 If CTCs exist, their existence would seem to imply at least the theoretical possibility of time travel backwards in time, raising the spectre of the grandfather paradox, although the Novikov self-consistency principle seems to show that such paradoxes could be avoided.
 Some physicists speculate that the CTCs which appear in certain GR solutions might be ruled out by a future theory of quantum gravity which would replace GR, an idea which Stephen Hawking has labeled the chronology protection conjecture.
 Others note that if every closed timelike curve in a given space-time passes through an event horizon, a property which can be called chronological censorship, then that space-time with event horizons excised would still be causally well behaved and an observer might not be able to detect the causal violation. Richard's paradox
In logic, Richard's paradox is a semantical antinomy of set theory and natural language first described by the French mathematician Jules Richard in 1905.
 The paradox is ordinarily used to motivate the importance of distinguishing carefully between mathematics and metamathematics.
 Kurt Gödel specifically cites Richard's antinomy as a semantical analogue to his syntactical incompleteness result in the introductory section of "On Formally Undecidable Propositions in Principia Mathematica and Related Systems I".
 The paradox was also a motivation of the development of predicative mathematics. Thomas Digges
Thomas Digges ( ; c. 1546 – 24 August 1595) was an English mathematician and astronomer.
 He was the first to expound the Copernican system in English but discarded the notion of a fixed shell of immoveable stars to postulate infinitely many stars at varying distances.
 He was also first to postulate the "dark night sky paradox". Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton {'1': ", '2': ", '3': ", '4': "} ( ; 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27) was an English mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (described in his own day as a "natural philosopher") who is widely recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and a key figure in the scientific revolution.
 His book "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical mechanics.
 Newton also made pathbreaking contributions to optics, and he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the infinitesimal calculus.