At Pérignat there are still found remains of a Roman road and a necropolis with a sarcophagus and ceramic dated to the second century, Roman roads were physical infrastructure vital to the maintenance and development of the Roman state, and were built from about which year, through the expansion and consolidation of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire?
300 BC
Roman roads
Roman roads (Latin: "viae"; singular: "via" meaning way) were physical infrastructure vital to the maintenance and development of the Roman state, and were built from about 300 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.
 They provided efficient means for the overland movement of armies, officials, and civilians, and the inland carriage of official communications and trade goods.
 Roman roads were of several kinds, ranging from small local roads to broad, long-distance highways built to connect cities, major towns and military bases.
 These major roads were often stone-paved and metaled, cambered for drainage, and were flanked by footpaths, bridleways and drainage ditches.
 They were laid along accurately surveyed courses, and some were cut through hills, or conducted over rivers and ravines on bridgework.
 Sections could be supported over marshy ground on rafted or piled foundations.
Pérignat-sur-Allier
The first name of Pérignat was "Patrinoacum."
 An early hamlet evolved around the villa of a certain Patrinius, an important landholder.
 Under the Romans a villa was the center of an estate dedicated to agricultural production, often extending hundreds of hectares.
 At Pérignat there are still found remains of a Roman road and a necropolis with a sarcophagus and ceramic dated to the second century.
Nicolas Bergier
Nicolas Bergier (] ), Avocat au Siège Présidial de Rheims, lived in 17th-century Rheims and became interested in Roman roads there.
 Mentioning by chance his interest in the funding of Roman roads to Conde du Lis, advisor to Louis XIII, he found himself suddenly commanded by the king to undertake a study of all Roman roads.
 Five years later he published his "Histoire des Grands Chemins de l'Empire Romain", a two-volume work of over 1000 pages.
 There were many subsequent editions.
 This first scholarly study of Roman roads included engravings of the Tabula Peutingeriana.
 Edward Gibbon consulted Bergier's work while researching his "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire". Technological history of the Roman military
The technology history of the Roman military covers the development of and application of technologies for use in the armies and navies of Rome from the Roman Republic to the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
 The rise of Hellenism and the Roman Republic are generally seen as signalling the end of the Iron Age in the Mediterranean.
 Roman iron-working was enhanced by a process known as carburization.
 The Romans used the better properties in their armaments, and the 1,300 years of Roman military technology saw radical changes.
 The Roman armies of the early empire were much better equipped than early republican armies.
 Metals used for arms and armor primarily included iron, bronze, and brass.
 For construction, the army used wood, earth, and stone.
 The later use of concrete in architecture was widely mirrored in Roman military technology, especially in the application of a military workforce to civilian construction projects. History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic
The history of the Constitution of the Roman Republic is a study of the ancient Roman Republic that traces the progression of Roman political development from the founding of the Roman Republic in 509 BC until the founding of the Roman Empire in 27 BC.
 The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases.
 The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Kingdom in 510 BC, and the final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic, and thus created the Roman Empire, in 27 BC.
 Throughout the history of the republic, the constitutional evolution was driven by the struggle between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens. Margary numbers
Margary numbers constitute the numbering scheme developed by the historian Ivan Margary to catalogue known and suspected Roman roads in Britain in his 1955 work "The Roman Roads of Britain".
 They remain the standard means used by archaeologists and historians to identify individual Roman roads within Britain.
 It is not known how the Romans identified the roads they built within Britain, and well-known names such as Watling Street and the Fosse Way largely date from the Anglo-Saxon period, are sometimes ambiguous or duplicated, and cover only a small proportion of the known network. Roman roads in Britain
Roman roads in Britain are long roads, mainly designed for military use, created by the Roman Army during the nearly four centuries (43 – 410 AD) that Britain was a province of the Roman Empire.
 It is estimated that the Romans constructed and maintained about 2000 mi of paved trunk roads (i.e. surfaced roads running between two towns or cities) throughout the province, although most of the known network was complete by AD 180.
 The primary function of the network was to allow rapid movement of troops and military supplies, but it also provided vital infrastructure for commerce, trade and the transportation of goods. History of the Byzantine Empire
This history of the Byzantine Empire covers the history of the Eastern Roman Empire from late antiquity until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD.
 Several events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the transitional period during which the Roman Empire's east and west divided.
 In 285, the emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) partitioned the Roman Empire's administration into eastern and western halves.
 Between 324 and 330, Constantine I (r. 306–337) transferred the main capital from Rome to Byzantium, later known as "Constantinople" ("City of Constantine") and "Nova Roma" ("New Rome").
 Under Theodosius I (r. 379–395), Christianity became the Empire's official state religion and others such as Roman polytheism were proscribed.
 And finally, under the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), the Empire's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use instead of Latin.
 Thus, although it continued the Roman state and maintained Roman state traditions, modern historians distinguish Byzantium from ancient Rome insofar as it was oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture, and characterised by Orthodox Christianity rather than Roman polytheism. Roman Bridge of Catribana
Roman bridge, located in the village of Catribana (São João das Lampas, Sintra), crossing over the Samarra river.
 The bridge is composed of a single arch and parapet, with several restorations and changes over the centuries.
 Probably it was part of a secondary Roman road that connected the several villa of the Olisipo region.
 Remains of a Roman road, necropolis and some mosaics and ceramic fragments were also found nearby. History of the Roman Empire
The history of the Roman Empire covers the history of Ancient Rome from the fall of the Roman Republic in 27 BC until the abdication of the last Western emperor in 476 AD.
 Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Republic in the 6th century BC, though it did not expand outside of the Italian Peninsula until the 3rd century BC.
 Civil war engulfed the Roman state in the mid 1st century BC, first between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and finally between Octavian and Mark Antony.
 Antony was defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC.
 In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian "imperator" ("commander") thus beginning the Principate, the first epoch of Roman imperial history usually dated from 27 BC to 284 AD; they later awarded him the name Augustus, "the venerated".
 The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs: the Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors—Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero—before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife-torn Year of Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as victor.
 Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty, to be followed by the Nerva–Antonine dynasty which produced the "Five Good Emperors": Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and the philosophically inclined Marcus Aurelius.
 In the view of the Greek historian Dio Cassius, a contemporary observer, the accession of the emperor Commodus in 180 AD marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron"—a famous comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire.