	Overview

Federal education legislation continues to emphasize the role of assessment in elementary and secondary schools. Perhaps most prominently, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA; P.L. 114-95 ), requires the use of test-based educational accountability systems in states and specifies the requirements for the assessments that states must incorporate into state-designed educational accountability system. These requirements are applicable to states that receive funding under Title I-A of the ESEA, which authorizes aid to local educational agencies (LEAs) for the education of disadvantaged children. More specifically, to receive Title I-A funds, states must agree to assess all students annually in grades 3 through 8 and once in high school in the areas of reading and mathematics. Students are also required to be assessed in science at least once within each of three specified grade spans (grades 3-5, 6-9, and 10-12). The results of these assessments are used as part of a state-designed educational accountability system that determines which schools will be identified for support and improvement based on their performance. The results are also used to make information about the academic performance of students in schools and school systems available to parents and other community stakeholders. As student assessments continue to be used for accountability purposes under the ESEA as well as in many other capacities related to federal programs (e.g., for identifying students eligible to receive extra services supported through federal programs), this report provides Congress with a general overview of assessments and related issues. It discusses different types of educational assessments and uses of assessment in support of the aims of federal policies. The report explains basic concepts related to assessment in accessible language, and it identifies commonly discussed considerations related to the use of assessments. The report provides background information that can be helpful to readers as they consider the uses of educational assessment in conjunction with policies and programs. This report accompanies CRS Report R45049, Educational Assessment and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act , by [author name scrubbed], which provides a more detailed examination of the assessment requirements under the ESEA. The report also provides a description of technical considerations in assessments, including validity, reliability, and fairness, and discusses how to use these technical considerations to draw appropriate conclusions based on assessment results. This framework addresses the various purposes of assessment, the concept of balanced assessment systems, and the scoring of assessments. A glossary containing definitions of commonly used assessment and measurement terms is provided at the end of this report. The glossary provides additional technical information that may not be addressed within the text of the report. Instructional

Instructional assessments are used to modify and adapt instruction to meet students' needs. Title I-A of the ESEA requires diagnostic assessments for the purpose of determining whether a student has limited English proficiency. One type of balanced assessment system uses a combination of formative and summative assessments. That is, the purposes of assessment are embedded within "formative" and "summative" assessments. Formative assessments are often used in the classroom. Summative assessments are used for diagnostic or evaluative purposes. Norm-referenced Tests

An NRT is a standardized test in which results compare the performance of an individual student to the performance of a large group of students. Criterion-Referenced Tests

A CRT compares the performance of an individual to a predetermined standard or criterion. A scaled score is a standardized score that exists on a common scale that can be used to make annual and longitudinal comparisons across students and subgroups of students. A vertically scaled score can be compared across time and can be used to measure growth of students and student subgroups. Performance Standards. A performance standard is a generally agreed upon definition of a certain level of performance in a content area that is expressed in terms of a cut score. Consistency of Classification

Consistency of classification is a type of reliability that is rarely reported but can be important to investigate, especially when high-stakes decisions are made with the results of educational assessments. Context of the Assessment

Sample questions about the context include the following: Is it a high-stakes or a low-stakes assessment? On the other hand, for a high-stakes assessment like a state exit exam for graduation, it is important to examine the validity and reliability evidence of the assessment to ensure that the inference is defensible. Assessment is a critical component of accountability systems such as those required under Title I-A of the ESEA. At times, the results of these assessments are used to make high-stakes decisions that affect students, teachers, LEAs, and states. It is therefore important to understand the purpose of educational assessments and to give consideration to the appropriateness of inferences based on assessment results.
Federal education legislation continues to emphasize the role of assessment in elementary and secondary schools. Perhaps most prominently, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA; P.L. 114-95), requires the use of test-based educational accountability systems in states and specifies the requirements for the assessments that states must incorporate into state-designed educational accountability systems. These requirements are applicable to states that receive funding under Title I-A of the ESEA. More specifically, to receive Title I-A funds, states must agree to assess all students annually in grades 3 through 8 and once in high school in the areas of reading and mathematics. Students are also required to be assessed in science at least once within each of three specified grade spans (grades 3-5, 6-9, and 10-12). The results of these assessments are used as part of a state-designed educational accountability system that determines which schools will be identified for support and improvement based on their performance. The results are also used to make information about the academic performance of students in schools and school systems available to parents and other community stakeholders.
As student assessments continue to be used for accountability purposes under the ESEA as well as in many other capacities related to federal programs (e.g., for identifying students eligible to receive extra services supported through federal programs), this report provides Congress with a general overview of assessments and related issues. It discusses different types of educational assessments and uses of assessment in support of the aims of federal policies. The report aims to explain basic concepts related to assessment in accessible language, and it identifies commonly discussed considerations related to the use of assessments. The report provides background information that can be helpful to readers as they consider the uses of educational assessment in conjunction with policies and programs. This report accompanies CRS Report R45049, Educational Assessment and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, by [author name scrubbed], which provides a more detailed examination of the assessment requirements under the ESEA.
The following topics are addressed in this report:
Purposes of Assessment: Assessments are developed and administered for different purposes: instructional, diagnostic, predictive, and evaluative. Increasingly, states are attempting to use assessments for these purposes within a balanced assessment system. A balanced assessment system often incorporates various assessment types, such as formative and summative assessments. Formative assessments are used to monitor progress toward a goal and summative assessments are used to evaluate the extent to which a goal has been achieved.
Types of Tests: Educational assessments can be either norm-referenced tests (NRTs) or criterion-referenced tests (CRTs). An NRT is a standardized test that compares the performance of an individual student to the performance of a large group of students. A CRT compares the performance of an individual student to a predetermined standard or criterion. The majority of tests used in schools are CRTs. The results of CRTs, such as state assessments required by Title I-A of the ESEA, are usually reported as scaled scores or performance standards. A scaled score is a standardized score that exists along a common scale that can be used to make comparisons across students, across subgroups of students, and over time. A performance standard is a generally agreed upon definition of a certain level of performance in a content area that is expressed in terms of a cut score (e.g., basic, proficient, advanced).
Technical Considerations in Assessment: The technical qualities of assessments, such as validity, reliability, and fairness, are considered before drawing conclusions about assessment results. Validity is the degree to which an assessment measures what it is supposed to measure. Reliability is a measure of the consistency of assessment results. The concept of fairness is a consideration of whether there is equity in the assessment process. Fairness is examined so that all participants in an assessment are provided the opportunity to demonstrate what they know and can do.
Using Assessment Results Appropriately: Assessment is a critical component of accountability systems, such as those required under Title I-A of the ESEA, and can be the basis of many educational decisions. An assessment can be considered low-stakes or high-stakes, depending on the type of educational decisions made based on its result. For example, a low-stakes assessment may be a formative assessment that measures whether students are on-track to meet proficiency goals. On the other hand, a state high school exit exam is a high-stakes assessment if it determines whether a student will receive a diploma. When the results of assessments are used to make high-stakes decisions that affect students, teachers, districts, and states, it is especially important to have strong evidence of validity, reliability, and fairness. It is therefore important to understand the purpose of educational assessments, and the alignment between the purpose and their use, and to give consideration to the appropriateness of inferences based on assessment results.
A glossary containing definitions of commonly used assessment and measurement terms is provided at the end of this report. The glossary provides additional technical information that may not be addressed within the text of the report.