Opposition parties have pushed for governance reforms and greater pluralism, notably during a period of often uneasy power sharing between ZANU-PF and the opposition under a Government of National Unity (GNU) between 2009 and 2013. The elections gave ZANU-PF a strong majority in parliament, extended Mugabe's presidential tenure, and ended power-sharing under the GNU. Such demonstrations have added to ongoing political turmoil and maneuvering by parties over governance and economic policy, prospects in the upcoming 2018 elections, and rivalry over the prospective succession of Mugabe, who turned 92 years old in early 2016. For over two decades, successive U.S. administrations have sought to counter abusive and undemocratic actions by the ZANU-PF government by imposing targeted economic and travel sanctions on individuals and firms identified as having committed or abetted abuses. Sanctions were originally called for by Congress in a "sense of Congress" provision of the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA, P.L. 107-99 ). The question of who may succeed President Mugabe arguably presents the most immediate and pressing challenge for Zimbabwe's political system, and for foreign governments engaged with the country. Politics and Governance

		Historical Background

Zimbabwe gained independence in 1980, after a lengthy armed struggle by black Zimbabweans for universal suffrage and against white minority rule. The armed struggle and the enduring effects of post-independence land allocations—which continued to favor whites until the commencement of large-scale land seizures in the 2000s (see " Natural Resource Nationalization ")—have profoundly shaped post-independence politics and ZANU-PF's often radical policies. In succeeding years, a decline in agricultural production linked to land seizures, a variety of state-centric economic policies, and persistent political turmoil led to a severe, multi-year economic contraction. The Mugabe-ZNLWVA split may lead to further internal ZANU-PF fissures, as many top ZANU-PF officials are likely to continue to view veterans as a vital constituency. In July 2015, a protected, rare black-maned lion dubbed Cecil, which was reportedly lured out of Zimbabwe's Hwange game reserve, was killed by a U.S. trophy hunter. In an effort to foster elephant conservation in Zimbabwe, the FWS issued a temporary ban—imposed under the authority of the Endangered Species Act (ESA), which lists the African elephant as threatened—on the import of sport-hunted elephant trophies from Zimbabwe for most of 2014. U.S. Policy and Aid

Executive branch-issued sanctions on individuals whom the United States has identified as having undermined democratic institutions and processes in Zimbabwe have reinforced U.S. condemnation of ZANU-PF-led human rights violations, breaches of the rule of law, and undemocratic practices since 2000. Recent annual foreign aid appropriations laws have also prohibited U.S. support for international financial institution loans or grants to the Zimbabwean government, with some exceptions, pending fulfillment of a range of conditions. U.S. Assistance

Despite legal restrictions and sanctions, the United States supports a relatively robust and diverse U.S. aid program implemented by nongovernment actors. The primary goal of U.S. aid programs in Zimbabwe, according to the FY2017 State Department Congressional Budget Justification, is to "provide support for the democratic, legal, and economic reforms needed for the country's transition to a democracy that is able to meet its citizens' needs." Bilateral aid totaled an estimated $172 million in FY2015 and $152 million in FY2016, and $160 million was requested for FY2017. Health programs, the largest area of assistance, focus on prevention, care, and treatment to counter HIV/AIDS under the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), as well as tuberculosis (TB). Changes in restrictions governing U.S. aid, for instance, might enable the provision of technical assistance to
foster Zimbabwean government efforts to implement selected aspects of its economic policy agenda, such as goals agreed with the IMF or other donors under World Bank-mediated Zimbabwe Reconstruction Fund programs, which U.S. policymakers may view as constructive, or support property rights reforms; strengthen implementation of human and civil rights guarantees and other elements of the 2013 constitution, possibly including through efforts to bolster the independence and technical capacity of central government oversight commissions with mandates relating to constitutional rights, freedoms, and other aspects of the rule of law, as well as selected parliamentary committees; and provide or expand leadership training for civil society groups, notably those involved in public policy advocacy and performance monitoring, protection of constitutional rights, and market-led growth. On the other hand, succession could generate significant political acrimony, instability, and violence, possibly with regional humanitarian and security implications.
Zimbabwe, a southern African country of about 14 million people, gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1980 after a lengthy armed struggle against white minority rule. The armed struggle, and the enduring effects of land allocations that favored whites, have profoundly shaped post-independence politics, as have the nationalist economic policies of the ruling Zimbabwe National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), led by long-time president Robert Mugabe. Land seizures, state-centric economic policies, and persistent political turmoil under Mugabe led to a severe economic contraction between 2000 and 2009, which contributed to ZANU-PF's first-ever loss of its parliamentary majority in elections in 2008. A subsequent political impasse over the contested election results led to dialogue and the creation in 2009 of a Government of National Unity (GNU) joining ZANU-PF and key opposition parties. A politically tense period of GNU governance led to an economic recovery, some political reforms, and the enactment of a new constitution. Elections in 2013, which featured reported irregularities, gave ZANU-PF a strong parliamentary majority, extended Mugabe's tenure, and ended the GNU. Economic growth has since markedly decreased and intra-ZANU-PF splits and opposition to ZANU-PF's economic policy and governance practices is growing, as indicated by a wave of protests in 2016.
Congress, citing governance and human rights concerns, has enacted legal prohibitions on aid to Zimbabwe's central government and on U.S. support for multilateral loans to Zimbabwe's government, under the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA, P.L. 107-99) and foreign aid appropriations measures. Successive U.S. Administrations have condemned human rights violations, breaches of the rule of law, and undemocratic actions by Mugabe and top ZANU-PF officials. U.S. officials have imposed targeted economic and travel sanctions on individuals and firms identified as committing or abetting such actions.
Despite such restrictions, the United States funds a relatively diverse set of assistance programs in Zimbabwe that are implemented by nongovernment actors. According to the FY2017 State Department foreign aid budget request, this aid seeks to support a "transition to a democracy" and "human rights, equitable economic growth, political and electoral reform," leading to "transparent, accountable, and effective" political and economic governance. Aid also addresses humanitarian needs. Bilateral aid allocations totaled $172 million in FY2015 and an estimated $152 million in FY2016; $160 million was requested for FY2017. Health programs are the largest area of aid, and focus on HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria. Regional aid also benefits Zimbabwe. Relevant bills in the 114th Congress include H.R. 5912 and S. 3117, the House and Senate appropriations bills for the Department of State, foreign operations, and related programs.
The question of who may succeed President Mugabe, who turned 92 years old in early 2016, presents an immediate and pressing challenge for Zimbabwe's political system and people, as well as for U.S. policymakers. Potential succession challenges could generate political and economic instability, with possible regional humanitarian and migration implications. Additional issues of long-standing concern to U.S. policymakers include what most see as a need for economic reforms to enable private sector growth, improved macroeconomic governance, and reform of land tenure and property rights. An ongoing Zimbabwean government effort to clear its debt arrears with international financial institutions in order to access new loans, for which U.S. support remains restricted under ZDERA and appropriations laws, has recently drawn U.S. attention. Also of interest to some U.S. officials are wildlife protection efforts in Zimbabwe, which came under intense international criticism after a U.S. trophy hunter killed a rare black-maned lion named Cecil near a game reserve in 2015. The United States has taken steps to promote wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe, including by placing temporary bans on the import of sport-hunted elephant trophies and imposing permit requirements on lion imports.