	Introduction

Executive orders requiring agencies to impose certain conditions on federal contractors as terms of their contracts have raised questions about presidential authority to issue such orders. These orders typically cite the President's constitutional authority, as well as his authority pursuant to the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 (FPASA). FPASA authorizes the President to prescribe any policies or directives that he considers necessary to promote "economy" or "efficiency" in federal procurement. For example, there have been legal challenges to orders (1) encouraging agencies to require the use of project labor agreements on large-scale construction projects; (2) requiring that certain contracts include provisions obligating contractors to post notices informing employees of their rights not to be required "to join a union or to pay mandatory dues for costs unrelated to representational activities"; and (3) directing departments and agencies to require their contractors to use E-Verify to check the work authorization of their employees. These challenges have alleged, among other things, that the orders were beyond the President's authority, under FPASA or otherwise. A 2011 draft executive order that would have directed departments to require contractors to "disclose certain political contributions and expenditures" raised similar and additional questions as to whether it would have been within the President's authority, as it resembled legislation that was considered, but not enacted, by the 111 th Congress. It also surveys key cases challenging executive orders pertaining to federal contractors, which typically were issued under the authority granted to the President under the FPASA. In finding the challenged regulations invalid, the Court articulated what has become the prevailing test of the validity of presidential actions under the FPASA, requiring that there be a "nexus" between the challenged executive branch action and congressionally delegated authority to promote economy and efficiency in federal procurement. Rather, the court held that a "reasonably close nexus" exists so long as the "President's explanation for how an Executive Order promotes efficiency and economy [is] reasonable and rational." However, this authority is not unlimited, and particular applications of presidential authority under FPASA have been found to be beyond what Congress contemplated when it granted the President authority to prescribe policies and directives that promote economy and efficiency in federal procurement. In the event that Congress sought to enlarge or cabin presidential exercises of authority over federal contractors, Congress could amend FPASA to clarify congressional intent to grant the President broader authority over procurement, or limit his authority to more narrow "housekeeping" aspects of procurement. Congress also could pass legislation directed at particular requirements of contracting executive orders. For example, the 112 th Congress enacted legislation that seeks to forestall implementation of any executive orders requiring disclosure of contractors' political contributions and expenditures. Specifically, the National Defense Authorization Act for FY2012 ( P.L. 112-81 , §823) prohibited the heads of defense agencies from requiring contractors to submit "political information" related to the contractor, a subcontractor, or any partner, officer, director, or employee thereof, as part of the solicitation or during the course of contract performance. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2012 ( P.L. 112-74 , §743) similarly barred the use of appropriated funds to "recommend or require" persons submitting offers for federal contracts to disclose political contributions or expenditures.
Executive orders requiring agencies to impose certain conditions on federal contractors as terms of their contracts have raised questions about presidential authority to issue such orders. Such executive orders typically cite the President's constitutional authority, as well as his authority pursuant to the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 (FPASA). FPASA authorizes the President to prescribe any policies or directives that he considers necessary to promote "economy" or "efficiency" in federal procurement.
There have been legal challenges to orders (1) encouraging agencies to require the use of project labor agreements; (2) requiring that contracts include provisions obligating contractors to post notices informing employees of their rights not to be required to join a union or pay dues; and (3) directing departments to require contractors to use E-Verify to check the work authorization of their employees. These challenges have alleged, among other things, that the orders were beyond the President's authority, under FPASA or otherwise. A 2011 draft executive order that would have directed departments to require contractors to "disclose certain political contributions and expenditures" raised similar and additional questions, as it resembled legislation that was considered, but not enacted, by the 111th Congress.
The outcome of legal challenges to particular executive orders pertaining to federal contractors generally depends upon the authority under which the order was issued and whether the order is consistent with or conflicts with other statutes. Courts will generally uphold orders issued under the authority of FPASA so long as the requisite nexus exists between the challenged executive branch actions and FPASA's goals of economy and efficiency in procurement. Such a nexus may be present when there is an "attenuated link" between the requirements and economy and efficiency, or when the President offers a "reasonable and rational" explanation for how the executive order at issue relates to economy and efficiency in procurement. However, particular applications of presidential authority under the FPASA have been found to be beyond what Congress contemplated when it granted the President authority to prescribe policies and directives that promote economy and efficiency in federal procurement.
Some courts and commentators also have suggested that Presidents have inherent constitutional authority over procurement. A President's reliance on his constitutional authority, as opposed to the congressional grant of authority under the FPASA, is more likely to raise separation of powers questions.
In the event that Congress seeks to enlarge or cabin presidential exercises of authority over federal contractors, Congress could amend FPASA to clarify its intent to grant the President broader authority over procurement, or limit presidential authority to more narrow "housekeeping" aspects of procurement. Congress also could pass legislation directed at particular requirements of executive orders on federal contractors. For example, the 112th Congress enacted legislation that seeks to forestall implementation of any executive order requiring disclosure of contractors' political contributions and expenditures. Specifically, the National Defense Authorization Act for FY2012 (P.L. 112-81, §823) prohibited the heads of defense agencies from requiring contractors to submit "political information" related to the contractor, a subcontractor, or any partner, officer, director, or employee thereof, as part of the solicitation or during contract performance. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2012 (P.L. 112-74, §743) similarly barred the use of appropriated funds to "recommend or require" persons submitting offers for federal contracts to disclose political contributions or expenditures.