(1)
Those and similar developments raise several policy issues, including the use of genetic information in the criminal justice system, the impacts of continuing technological improvements,and the effects of the technology on privacy and individual rights. It is a complex molecule, containing much information. Each person has billions of identical copies of DNA in the cells of the body. The structure of the molecule, and therefore the information it contains, varies from person to person. The structure is inherited, so the DNA of close relatives is more similar than that of distant relatives or unrelated people. DNA is easily preserved with the structure intact. How DNA Is Used in Identification

Using DNA in identification requires comparing DNA whose source has not been determined(such as from a crime scene or from a child in a paternity case) with DNA whose source is known(such as from a suspect or from a putative father). Characterization

The first step is to characterize or profile corresponding DNA sequences in the samples to be compared. (16)
If the profiles match -- that is, if they are identical at every locus -- then they could have come from the same source. For DNA, in contrast, the science of population genetics provides in many cases a way ofestimating quantitatively the chances that the DNA could have come from another source. (22)
The second kind contains profiles of persons whose identity is known. When a profile is obtained from a relevantsample whose source is not known, the database can be searched to determine if a match, called a cold hit, is found. For example, in an increasing number of cases, a suspect is identified when aDNA profile from a crime-scene sample is searched against a database containing profiles of personsconvicted of violent crimes or other felonies. Samples might come from crime scenes or unidentified remains. In 1999, a DNA profile of a malemurdered in Florida was found to match DNA evidence from nine rapes, three in Florida and six inWashington, D.C. (23)

	Federal Agency Programs and Activities

Federal agencies with significant involvement in DNA identification activities include theFederal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), and the Bureau ofJustice Assistance (BJA) in the Department of Justice; the National Institute of Standards andTechnology (NIST) in the Department of Commerce; and the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology(AFIP), the Army Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii (CILHI), and the Army CriminalInvestigation Laboratory (USACIL)in the Department of Defense. The laboratory also administers the Combined DNA Index System. CODIS has several indexes. However, section 811(b)(2) of the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 ( P.L.104-132 ) required that states, to be eligible for grants to improve their capacity to perform forensicDNA analyses and certain other activities, (25) collect DNA samples from persons convicted of sexualfelonies. DNA typing is technology intensive. In FY2000 and FY2001, funds were awardedunder a new series of grants authorized by the Crime Identification Technology Act of 1998 ( P.L.105-121 ), with half allocated by NIJ to the DNA Identification Program and half to the eliminationof sample backlogs (see below). 103-322 ), addressed quality control and privacy issues. It also authorized grants to state and local government for participation in CODIS. Several issues are associated with postconviction DNA analysis. Specifically, the DNA Identification Act of 1994 ( P.L.
DNA technology can provide useful identifying information in many situations, such as in solving crimes, determining paternity, and identifying human remains. Research is resulting inimprovements in sensitivity and power and reductions in cost. Such use and improvements areraising several policy issues.
The use of DNA in identification results from its unique characteristics: It is a complex molecule, containing much information. Each person has billions of identical copies. The structureof the molecule varies from person to person and is inherited, so the DNA of relatives is more similarthan that of unrelated people. Also, DNA is easily preserved with the structure intact.
Identification requires comparing DNA whose source has not been determined with DNA whose source is known. The first step is to characterize corresponding DNA sequences fromsamples. The resulting profiles are then compared. If they differ, the samples did not have the sameorigin. If they match, then they could have come from the known source, or from someone else whohas an identical profile. The science of population genetics provides ways of estimatingquantitatively the chances that the matched DNA could have come from another source.
Databases or indexes are often used in DNA identification. They might contain profiles of persons whose identity is known, such as convicted felons, or whose identity is not known, such asfrom crime scene samples or unidentified remains. The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS),administered by the FBI, contains both kinds. When a profile is obtained from a relevant sample,the database can be searched to determine if a match is found. Thus, a suspect may be identifiedwhen a profile from a crime-scene sample is searched against profiles of convicted felons.
Congress has enacted several laws relating to DNA evidence. The DNA Identification Act of 1994 ( P.L. 103-322 ) authorized CODIS and a grants program for state and local laboratories, andaddressed quality control and privacy issues. The Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of1996 ( P.L. 104-132 ) expanded CODIS and established a grants program that required states, to beeligible, to collect DNA samples from persons convicted of felony sex crimes. The CrimeIdentification Technology Act of 1998 ( P.L. 105-521 ) established a grants program that funds abroad range of activities, including several related to DNA typing. The National Institute of Justice(NIJ) and the Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) administer those and other relevant grantsprograms. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the Armed Forces Instituteof Pathology (AFIP), and the Army Criminal Investigation Laboratory (USACIL) also havesignificant DNA identification activities.
Policy issues raised by the use of DNA in identification include how best to eliminate the large backlog of samples awaiting processing for CODIS, whether to broaden the offenses that qualify,how to respond to the increasing number of requests for postconviction DNA analysis, how toaddress privacy issues, and what impacts the broadening applications of the technology may have.