Prior to the secession of South Sudan, Sudan was Africa's largest nation by area, and the site of its longest running civil war. In 2011, after decades of fighting broadly described as a conflict between the "Arab" Muslim north and "African" Christian and animist south, the country split in two. Mistrust between Sudan and South Sudan lingers, and unresolved disputes still threaten the stability of the region. The north-south split did not resolve other simmering Sudanese conflicts, notably in Darfur, Blue Nile, and Southern Kordofan (see Figure 1 ). Khartoum's internal military operations against restive regions continue to draw international condemnation and have prevented Sudan from improving relations with many Western countries, including the United States. U.S. sanctions limit Sudan's access to U.S. dollars and, alongside debt arrears, impede Sudan's access to international financial markets and institutions. Instead of forging a common national identity, these policies have exacerbated Sudan's racial, cultural, and religious differences. As in Darfur, where the Sudanese government has been accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity, Khartoum has been accused of grave violations of human rights and international humanitarian law in the Two Areas. According to the U.N. Panel of Experts, which the U.N. Security Council created to monitor an arms embargo in Darfur and a related sanctions regime, the government's strategy "appears to consist of (a) collective punishment of villages and communities from which the armed opposition groups are believed to come or operate; (b) induced or forced displacement of those communities; and (c) direct engagement, including aerial bombardment, of the groups when their location can be identified." The credibility of the African Union-U.N. Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile

In 2011, with the international community focused on ensuring the peaceful separation of Sudan and South Sudan and Khartoum still struggling to contain multiple armed insurgencies in Darfur, rebellions in Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile opened a new southern front among Sudan's array of internal conflicts. Relief agencies are also struggling to assist more than 140,000 South Sudanese refugees in Sudan who have fled conflict in their own country. Access by relief agencies to Sudan's conflict zones is at times constrained by government restrictions, fighting, and other forms of insecurity. The 2015 elections were controversial and were boycotted by the main opposition parties. More than a year prior, in January 2014, President Bashir had announced that, in preparation for the development of a new constitution, the government would commence a National Dialogue on conflict and political issues in the country. At the time, the move seemed to indicate official recognition of mounting public demands for reform, and the announcement was received with cautious optimism by some who have called for a more holistic approach to resolving the country's overlapping crises and political challenges. Many observers have expressed skepticism, however, that the NCP leadership will concede to significant political changes, and efforts to facilitate the participation of armed opposition groups in the process have been, to date, unsuccessful. U.S. Policy and Foreign Assistance

U.S.-Sudan relations have long been turbulent. Sudan was seen as a Cold War ally starting in the late 1970s, but after the 1989 coup that brought Bashir and the National Islamic Front to power, the United States downgraded diplomatic relations and cut off aid. Efforts to normalize relations appeared to have some momentum in 2011, when Sudan was the first country to officially recognize South Sudan. The Obama Administration contends that mistrust and miscommunication hinder efforts to improve the bilateral dialogue. Congressional Engagement on U.S. Policy Toward Sudan

Congressional action has often influenced U.S. policy toward Sudan. Facilitating peaceful relations between Sudan and South Sudan has also complicated U.S. engagement with regard to ongoing conflicts in the two countries.
Congress has played an active role in U.S. policy toward Sudan for more than three decades. Efforts to support an end to the country's myriad conflicts and human rights abuses have dominated the agenda, as have counterterrorism concerns. When unified (1956-2011), Sudan was Africa's largest nation by area, bordering nine countries and stretching from the northern borders of Kenya and Uganda to the southern borders of Egypt and Libya. Strategically located along the Nile River and the Red Sea, Sudan was historically described as a crossroads between the Arab world and Africa. Domestic and international efforts to unite the country's ethnically, racially, religiously, and culturally diverse population under a common national identity fell short, however, and in 2011, after decades of civil war and a six-year transitional period, Sudan split in two. Mistrust between the two Sudans—Sudan and South Sudan—lingers, and unresolved disputes and related security issues still threaten to pull the two countries back to war.
The north-south split did not resolve other simmering Sudanese conflicts, notably in Darfur, Blue Nile, and Southern Kordofan. Roughly 3.7 million people are displaced, internally or as refugees, by violence in these areas. Like the rest of the Sahel, Sudan is susceptible to drought and food insecurity, despite significant agricultural potential in some areas. Civilians in conflict zones are particularly vulnerable. Instability and government restrictions limit relief agencies' access to conflict-affected populations. Logistical challenges, particularly during seasonal rains, also constrain access to those who have fled to remote refugee camps in South Sudan. The internal conflict that unfolded in South Sudan in late 2013 further threatens access to those refugees, and has led more than 146,000 South Sudanese to flee into Sudan. Harassment of aid workers is a problem in both countries, further hindering aid responses.
The peaceful separation of Sudan and South Sudan was seen by some as an opportunity to repair relations between Sudan's Islamist government and the United States. Those ties have long been strained over Khartoum's human rights violations and history of relations with terrorist groups. Among the arguments in favor of normalizing relations has been the notion that the United States, given robust sanctions already in place, has few additional unilateral "sticks" to apply. Advocates have argued that certain "carrots," such as easing sanctions or elevating the level of diplomatic engagement, might advance U.S. policy goals. Efforts by the Obama Administration to improve relations, given Sudan's reported counterterrorism cooperation and acceptance of South Sudan's separation, have been impeded by reports of ongoing abuses, including allegations that Sudan continues to commit war crimes against civilians. Diplomatic relations are also complicated by the fact that several Sudanese officials, notably President Omar al Bashir, stand accused of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide at the International Criminal Court.
In 2014, under domestic and international pressure to address calls for reform and to resolve ongoing conflicts, President Bashir announced a National Dialogue, under which the government would engage opposition and civil society groups on the development of a new constitution. The African Union, the United Nations, the Obama Administration and other international actors expressed cautious support for the initiative, although the extent of the government's commitment to major political reforms remains unclear, and efforts to facilitate the participation of armed opposition groups in the process have been, to date, unsuccessful. Major opposition parties boycotted elections held in April 2015; President Bashir was reelected with 94% of the vote.
This report provides an overview of political, economic, and humanitarian conditions, examines conflict dynamics in the country, and outlines U.S. policy and congressional engagement.