Monocular depth estimation is a challenging task in complex compositions depicting multiple objects of diverse scales. Albeit the recent great progress thanks to the deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs), the state-of-the-art monocular depth estimation methods still fall short to handle such real-world challenging scenarios. In this paper, we propose a deep end-to-end learning framework to tackle these challenges, which learns the direct mapping from a color image to the corresponding depth map. First, we represent monocular depth estimation as a multi-category dense labeling task by contrast to the regression based formulation. In this way, we could build upon the recent progress in dense labeling such as semantic segmentation. Second, we fuse different side-outputs from our front-end dilated convolutional neural network in a hierarchical way to exploit the multi-scale depth cues for depth estimation, which is critical to achieve scale-aware depth estimation. Third, we propose to utilize soft-weighted-sum inference instead of the hard-max inference, transforming the discretized depth score to continuous depth value. Thus, we reduce the influence of quantization error and improve the robustness of our method. Extensive experiments on the NYU Depth V2 and KITTI datasets show the superiority of our method compared with current state-of-the-art methods. Furthermore, experiments on the NYU V2 dataset reveal that our model is able to learn the probability distribution of depth.
@cite_14: In this paper we formulate structure from motion as a learning problem. We train a convolutional network end-to-end to compute depth and camera motion from successive, unconstrained image pairs. The architecture is composed of multiple stacked encoder-decoder networks, the core part being an iterative network that is able to improve its own predictions. The network estimates not only depth and motion, but additionally surface normals, optical flow between the images and confidence of the matching. A crucial component of the approach is a training loss based on spatial relative differences. Compared to traditional two-frame structure from motion methods, results are more accurate and more robust. In contrast to the popular depth-from-single-image networks, DeMoN learns the concept of matching and, thus, better generalizes to structures not seen during training.
@cite_26: 
@cite_1: Supervised deep learning often suffers from the lack of sufficient training data. Specifically in the context of monocular depth map prediction, it is barely possible to determine dense ground truth depth images in realistic dynamic outdoor environments. When using LiDAR sensors, for instance, noise is present in the distance measurements, the calibration between sensors cannot be perfect, and the measurements are typically much sparser than the camera images. In this paper, we propose a novel approach to depth map prediction from monocular images that learns in a semi-supervised way. While we use sparse ground-truth depth for supervised learning, we also enforce our deep network to produce photoconsistent dense depth maps in a stereo setup using a direct image alignment loss. In experiments we demonstrate superior performance in depth map prediction from single images compared to the state-of-the-art methods.
@cite_39: A significant weakness of most current deep Convolutional Neural Networks is the need to train them using vast amounts of manu- ally labelled data. In this work we propose a unsupervised framework to learn a deep convolutional neural network for single view depth predic- tion, without requiring a pre-training stage or annotated ground truth depths. We achieve this by training the network in a manner analogous to an autoencoder. At training time we consider a pair of images, source and target, with small, known camera motion between the two such as a stereo pair. We train the convolutional encoder for the task of predicting the depth map for the source image. To do so, we explicitly generate an inverse warp of the target image using the predicted depth and known inter-view displacement, to reconstruct the source image; the photomet- ric error in the reconstruction is the reconstruction loss for the encoder. The acquisition of this training data is considerably simpler than for equivalent systems, requiring no manual annotation, nor calibration of depth sensor to camera. We show that our network trained on less than half of the KITTI dataset (without any further augmentation) gives com- parable performance to that of the state of art supervised methods for single view depth estimation.
@cite_34: Learning based methods have shown very promising results for the task of depth estimation in single images. However, most existing approaches treat depth prediction as a supervised regression problem and as a result, require vast quantities of corresponding ground truth depth data for training. Just recording quality depth data in a range of environments is a challenging problem. In this paper, we innovate beyond existing approaches, replacing the use of explicit depth data during training with easier-to-obtain binocular stereo footage. We propose a novel training objective that enables our convolutional neural network to learn to perform single image depth estimation, despite the absence of ground truth depth data. Ex-ploiting epipolar geometry constraints, we generate disparity images by training our network with an image reconstruction loss. We show that solving for image reconstruction alone results in poor quality depth images. To overcome this problem, we propose a novel training loss that enforces consistency between the disparities produced relative to both the left and right images, leading to improved performance and robustness compared to existing approaches. Our method produces state of the art results for monocular depth estimation on the KITTI driving dataset, even outperforming supervised methods that have been trained with ground truth depth.
Besides the above methods using ground truth depth maps to supervise the network learning, there is another group of methods that using novel view synthesis to supervised the network learning by exploiting the availability of stereo images and image sequences @cite_39 @cite_34 @cite_26 @cite_1 cite Unsupervised-Depth-Motion . Garg al @cite_39 proposed to train a network for monocular depth estimation using an image reconstruction loss, where a Taylor approximation is performed to linearize the loss. Godard al @cite_34 replaced the use of explicit depth data during training with easier-to-obtain binocular stereo footage, which enforces consistency between the disparities produced relative to both the left and right images, leading to improved performance and robustness compared to existing approaches. Along this pipeline, Zhou al @cite_26 presented an unsupervised learning framework for the task of monocular depth and camera motion estimation from unstructured video sequences based on image warping to evaluate the image error. Kuznietsov al @cite_1 learned depth in a semi-supervised way, where sparse ground-truth depth and photoconsistency are jointly used. Ummenhofer al @cite_14 trained a convolutional network end-to-end to compute depth and camera motion from successive, unconstrained image pairs, where the architecture is composed of multiple stacked encoder-decoder networks.