to gang violence within communities in which their parents cannot guide them with cultural or political familiarity. (9) Key policies during the 1990s including the period’s War on Drugs , passage of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, expansion of the carceral system, and over-policing of low-income communities of color entangled a significant number of Southeast Asian Americans, especially Southeast Asian youth, within the criminal justice system. During this period, Southeast Asian youth were incarcerated at twice the rate of White youth for similar offenses. (10) Additional immigration policies during the 1990s reinforced this emerging prison to deportation pipeline. The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA) and the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (AEDPA) expanded the category of crimes that could lead to deportation and limited due process protections for noncitizens. IIRIRA also applied these changes retroactively without proper consideration of an individual’s lived circumstances. (11) Approximately 15,000 long-term residents of Southeast Asian descent, many of whom initially arrived as child refugees, live in the United States with a final order of removal. These individuals often do not speak the native language of that country, lack familial connections there, and are at risk of being targeted for human rights abuses as a result of historic support for United States anti-communist policies. (12) The United States accepted thousands of Vietnamese refugees through the Orderly Departure Program, Humanitarian Resettlement program, and McCain Amendment through 2009, including survivors of re-education centers, former employees of the United States Government and United States companies or organizations, and immediate family members. (13) In 2002, the United States and Cambodia signed a bilateral repatriation agreement, hereafter known as the 2002 U.S.-Cambodia Repatriation Agreement. Deportations of Cambodian Americans to Cambodia increased