and pervasive official corruption. Firms based in the PRC hold a dominant position in DRC’s cobalt sector, according to the White House. On the foundation of an unstable state, more than one-half of lithium and cobalt global supplies are processed and refined in the PRC, where more than 75 percent of all lithium-ion batteries are produced. About 50 percent of all batteries are for consumption in the PRC. (4) Lithium deposits have been identified in the DRC, with exploration ongoing. It is estimated that the DRC can begin lithium production as early as 2023. (5) Approximately 15 to 30 percent of cobalt produced in the DRC comes from artisanal and small-scale mining. An estimated 255,000 miners work in artisanal and small-scale mining in the DRC, of whom at least 40,000 are children. (6) The child miners in the DRC, some as young as 6 years of age, working in artisanal and small-scale mines, are subjected to the worst forms of forced manual labor. They work in harsh and life-threatening conditions, and are vulnerable to physical injuries, coercion, and abuse in addition to exposure to harmful toxins. (7) Amnesty International reported in 2016 that child miners in the DRC’s cobalt sector worked for up to 12 hours a day in the mines without the most basic protective gear, such as gloves and face masks which would protect them from lung and skin disease. Many children reportedly worked for prolonged periods underground, including at sites with inadequate ventilation and a high risk of fatal mineshaft collapse. Child miners interviewed by Amnesty International reported working for up to 12 hours a day in the mines, carrying heavy loads and being paid less than two dollars per day. (8) According to a tally by Amnesty International, based on news reports, at least 80 underground miners working in artisanal and small-scale mining died in southeastern DRC between September 2014 and December 2015. Amnesty International assessed that the true figure is unknown as many accidents go unrecorded and bodies are left buried in