upon operational, investigatory, and tactical concerns, with less time and focus on issues relating to proportionality in the use of force, de-escalation, and constitutional norms and limits. (6) Models for proportionate exercise of the use of force exist. For example, the Police Executive Research Forum, a national organization of police officials, has developed guidelines advocating for a guardian model for policing. These principles stress respect for human life, more restrictive standards for the use of force, proportionality and de-escalation techniques, and transparent and independent post-action investigations. (7) The issues surrounding law enforcement use of force are especially difficult when it comes to police interactions with persons undergoing mental health crises, which occurs in as much as 20 percent of all police-civilian encounters. Law enforcement training too often fails to prepare officers to deal effectively and compassionately with people with mental health disorders or partner with mental health crisis interventionists or specialists. (8) Programs promoting alternative responses to mental health calls, including Crisis Intervention Training (CIT) programs, have had a substantial positive impact on police interactions with those undergoing a mental health crisis or persons with physical, developmental, or intellectual disabilities. In a CIT program, selected officers are trained to identify persons undergoing a crisis, employ de-escalation techniques, and serve as liaison between police and mental health agencies, or partner with mental health responders outside the law enforcement agency. Studies have shown that CIT training is associated with reductions in arrests, increased diversions to mental health services, and positive changes in police attitudes and responses toward persons undergoing a mental health crisis. (9) Since 2017, the Federal Bureau of Investigation has administered the National Use-of-Force Data Collection, which seeks to compile data on police-civilian encounters that