health outcomes. Remedying discriminatory practices at the individual and systemic levels will likely reduce health disparities caused by this unequal distribution of stress. (v) Poor health among Native Americans has largely been driven by post-colonial oppression and historical trauma. The expropriation of native lands and territories to the American state had severe consequences on Native American health. This resulted in the deprivation of traditional food sources—and nutrients—for Native Americans and also the destruction of traditional economies and community organization. Today, Native Americans have twice the rate of diabetes of non-Hispanic Whites. Recognition of the origins of the diabetes as having a social and community context, rather than just individual responsibility and genetic predisposition, will shape better policy to provide food security. (vi) In the context of prisons, overcrowding has led to the deterioration of the physical and mental health of individuals after they leave prison. In particular, the mass incarceration of African-American males as a result of unequal contact with and treatment in the criminal justice system has contributed to an overburdening of certain infectious diseases within the African-American community. As a social institution, incarceration amplifies existing adverse health conditions by concentrating diseases and harmful health behaviors such as tobacco use, drug use, and violence. (vii) Educational attainment is the strongest predictor of adult mortality. It is a basic component of socioeconomic status that shapes earning potential to access resources that promote health. People with more education are less likely to report that they are in poor health, and are also less likely to have diabetes and other chronic diseases. (viii) Individuals with lower levels of educational attainment are much more likely to report to be current smokers. In 2017, smoking prevalence was 36.8 percent among adults with a GED diploma, 23.1 percent with less than a high school