cost to and impact on the environment. (7) The Academies’ reports recommended investing in the research and development of methods of carbon dioxide removal and disposal at scales that would impact the climate. They also recommended the development and implementation of a dedicated albedo modification research program that furthers basic climate science, understanding of human interaction with the climate system, and improved detection of changes in radiative forcing. (8) The Academies further recommended the development of a clear framework for governance of albedo modification research that would adjust governance of specified types of research according to the magnitude and nature of a project’s expected impact on radiative forcing and climate. Such a structure should ensure transparency in the research process, extend governance requirements beyond those of general research, and engage civil society and other nontraditional stakeholders in decision-making. Large, high-risk projects should not be implemented without thorough consideration of the outcomes of smaller-scale, low-risk projects. 3. National Academies reports (a) Phase I report