Intersection type
Introduction In type theory, an '''intersection type''' can be allocated to values that can be assigned both the type  and the type . This value can be given the intersection type  in an intersection type system.Generally, if the ranges of values of two types overlap, then a value belonging to the ''intersection'' of the two ranges can be assigned the ''intersection type'' of these two types. Such a value can be safely passed as argument to functions expecting ''either'' of the two types.For example, in Java the class  implements both the  and the  interfaces. Therefore, an object of type  can be safely passed to functions expecting an argument of type  and to functions expecting an argument of type .Intersection types are composite data types. Similar to product types, they are used to assign several types to an object.However, product types are assigned to tuples, so that each tuple element is assigned a particular product type component. In comparison, underlying objects of intersection types are not necessarily composite. A restricted form of intersection types are refinement types.Intersection types are useful for describing overloaded functions. For example, if  is the type of function taking a number as an argument and returning a number, and  is the type of function taking a string as an argument and returning a string, then the intersection of these two types can be used to describe (overloaded) functions that do one or the other, based on what type of input they are given.Contemporary programming languages, including Ceylon, Flow, Java, Scala, TypeScript, and Whiley (see comparison of languages with intersection types), use intersection types to combine interface specifications and to express ad hoc polymorphism.Complementing parametric polymorphism, intersection types may be used to avoid class hierarchy pollution from cross-cutting concerns and reduce boilerplate code, as shown in the TypeScript example below.The type theoretic study of intersection types is referred to as the intersection type discipline.Remarkably, program termination can be precisely characterized using intersection types.
TypeScript example TypeScript supports intersection types, improving expressiveness of the type system and reducing potential class hierarchy size, demonstrated as follows.The following program code defines the classes , , and  that each have a method  returning an object of either type , , or .Additionally, the functions  and  require arguments of type  and , respectively.class Egg { private kind: "Egg" }class Milk { private kind: "Milk" }// produces eggsclass Chicken { produce() { return new Egg(); } }// produces milkclass Cow { produce() { return new Milk(); } }// produces a random numberclass RandomNumberGenerator { produce() { return Math.random(); } }// requires an eggfunction eatEgg(egg: Egg) {    return "I ate an egg. ";}// requires milkfunction drinkMilk(milk: Milk) {    return "I drank some milk. ";}The following program code defines the ad hoc polymorphic function  that invokes the member function  of the given object .The function  has ''two'' type annotations, namely  and , connected via the intersection type constructor .Specifically,  when applied to an argument of type  returns an object of type type , and when applied to an argument of type  returns an object of type type .Ideally,  should not be applicable to any object having (possibly by chance) a  method.// given a chicken, produces an egg; given a cow, produces milklet animalToFood: ((_: Chicken) => Egg) & ((_: Cow) => Milk) =    function (animal: any) {        return animal.produce();    };Finally, the following program code demonstrates type safe use of the above definitions. var chicken = new Chicken();var cow = new Cow();var randomNumberGenerator = new RandomNumberGenerator();console.log(chicken.produce()); // Egg { }console.log(cow.produce()); // Milk { }console.log(randomNumberGenerator.produce()); //0.2626353555444987console.log(animalToFood(chicken)); // Egg { }console.log(animalToFood(cow)); // Milk { }//console.log(animalToFood(randomNumberGenerator)); // ERROR: Argument of type 'RandomNumberGenerator' is not assignable to parameter of type 'Cow'console.log(eatEgg(animalToFood(chicken))); // I ate an egg.//console.log(eatEgg(animalToFood(cow))); // ERROR: Argument of type 'Milk' is not assignable to parameter of type 'Egg'console.log(drinkMilk(animalToFood(cow))); // I drank some milk.//console.log(drinkMilk(animalToFood(chicken))); // ERROR: Argument of type 'Egg' is not assignable to parameter of type 'Milk'The above program code has the following properties:* Lines 1–3 create objects , , and  of their respective type. * Lines 5–7 print for the previously created objects the respective results (provided as comments) when invoking . * Line 9 (resp. 10) demonstrates type safe use of the method  applied to  (resp. ). * Line 11, if uncommented, would result in a type error at compile time. Although the ''implementation'' of  could invoke the  method of , the ''type annotation'' of  disallows it. This is in accordance with the intended meaning of . * Line 13 (resp. 15) demonstrates that applying  to  (resp. ) results in an object of type  (resp. ). * Line 14 (resp. 16) demonstrates that applying  to  (resp. ) does not result in an object of type  (resp. ). Therefore, if uncommented, line 14 (resp. 16) would result in a type error at compile time.=== Comparison to inheritance ===The above minimalist example can be realized using inheritance, for instance by deriving the classes  and  from a base class .However, in a larger setting, this could be disadvantageous.Introducing new classes into a class hierarchy is not necessarily justified for cross-cutting concerns, or maybe outright impossible, for example when using an external library. Imaginably, the above example could be extended with the following classes:* a class  that does not have a  method;* a class  that has a  method returning ;* a class  that has a  method, which can be used only once, returning .This may require additional classes (or interfaces) specifying whether a produce method is available, whether the produce method returns food, and whether the produce method can be used repeatedly.Overall, this may pollute the class hierarchy.=== Comparison to duck typing ===The above minimalist example already shows that duck typing is less suited to realize the given scenario.While the class  contains a  method, the object  should not be a valid argument for .The above example can be realized using duck typing, for instance by introducing a new field  to the classes  and  signifying that objects of corresponding type are valid arguments for .However, this would not only increase the size of the respective classes (especially with the introduction of more methods similar to ), but is also a non-local approach with respect to .=== Comparison to function overloading ===The above example can be realized using function overloading, for instance by implementing two methods  and .In TypeScript, such a solution is almost identical to the provided example. Other programming languages, such as Java, require distinct implementations of the overloaded method.This may lead to either code duplication or boilerplate code.=== Comparison to the visitor pattern ===The above example can be realized using the visitor pattern.It would require each animal class to implement an  method accepting an object implementing the interface  (adding non-local boilerplate code).The function  would be realized as the  method of an implementation of .Unfortunately, the connection between the input type ( or ) and the result type ( or ) would be difficult to represent.=== Limitations ===On the one hand, intersection types ''can'' be used to locally annotate different types to a function without introducing new classes (or interfaces) to the class hierarchy.On the other hand, this approach ''requires'' all possible argument types and result types to be specified explicitly.If the behavior of a function can be specified precisely by either a unified interface, parametric polymorphism, or duck typing, then the verbose nature of intersection types is unfavorable.Therefore, intersection types should be considered complementary to existing specification methods.
Dependent intersection type A '''dependent intersection type''', denoted , is a dependent type in which the type  may depend on the term variable .In particular, if a term  has the dependent intersection type , then the term  has ''both'' the type  and the type , where  is the type which results from replacing all occurrences of the term variable  in  by the term .=== Scala example ===Scala supports type declarations  as object members. This allows a type of an object member to depend on the value of another member, which is called a ''path-dependent type''.For example, the following program text defines a Scala trait Witness, which can be used to implement the singleton pattern.trait Witness {  type T  val value: T {}}The above trait Witness declares the member T, which can be assigned a ''type'' as its value, and the member value, which can be assigned a value of type T.The following program text defines an object booleanWitness as instance of the above trait Witness .The object booleanWitness defines the type T as Boolean and the value value as true.For example, executing System.out.println(booleanWitness.value) prints true on the console.object booleanWitness extends Witness {  type T = Boolean  val value = true}Let  be the type (specifically, a record type) of objects having the member  of type .In the above example, the object booleanWitness can be assigned the dependent intersection type .The reasoning is as follows. The object booleanWitness has the member T that is assigned the type Boolean as its value.Since Boolean is a type, the object booleanWitness has the type .Additionally, the object booleanWitness has the member value that is assigned the value true of type Boolean.Since the value of booleanWitness.T is Boolean, the object booleanWitness has the type .Overall, the object booleanWitness has the intersection type .Therefore, presenting self-reference as dependency, the object booleanWitness has the dependent intersection type .Alternatively, the above minimalistic example can be described using ''dependent record types''.In comparison to dependent intersection types, dependent record types constitute a strictly more specialized type theoretic concept.
Intersection of a type family An '''intersection of a type family''', denoted , is a dependent type in which the type  may depend on the term variable . In particular, if a term  has the type , then for ''each'' term  of type , the term  has the type . This notion is also called ''implicit Pi type'', observing that the argument  is not kept at term level.
Comparison of languages with intersection types  Language  Actively developed  Paradigm(s)  Status  Features  C#   * Functional* Imperative* Object-oriented   Additionally, generic type parameters can have constraints that require their (monomorphized) type-arguments to implement multiple interfaces, whereupon the runtime type represented by the generic type parameter becomes an intersection-type of all listed interfaces. Ceylon    * Object-oriented   * Type refinement* Interface composition* Subtyping in width F#   * Functional* Imperative* Object-oriented    Flow    * Functional* Imperative* Object-oriented* Scripting  * Type refinement* Interface composition Forsythe    * Imperative  * Function type intersection* Distributive, co- and contravariant function type subtyping Java    * Imperative  * Object-oriented    * Type refinement* Interface composition* Subtyping in width PHP    * Functional * Imperative * Object-oriented* Scripting  * Type refinement* Interface composition Scala    * Functional  * Imperative  * Object-oriented    * Type refinement* Trait composition* Subtyping in width TypeScript   * Functional* Imperative* Object-oriented* Scripting  * Arbitrary type intersection* Interface composition* Subtyping in width and depth Whiley   * Functional* Imperative
References