Cahuilla language
Introduction '''Cahuilla''' , or '''Ivilyuat''' (''Ɂívil̃uɂat'' or ''Ivil̃uɂat'' ), is an endangered Uto-Aztecan language, spoken by the various tribes of the Cahuilla Nation, living in the Coachella Valley, San Gorgonio Pass and San Jacinto Mountains region of southern California. The Cahuilla demonyms include ''Ɂívil̃uwenetem'' or ''Iviatam''–speakers of Ivilyuat (Iviɂa)–or ''táxliswet'' meaning "person." A 1990 census revealed 35 speakers in an ethnic population of 800.With such a decline, Ivilyuat is classified as "critically endangered" by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger as most speakers are middle-aged or older with limited transmission rates to children.Three dialects are known to exist: Desert, Mountain and Pass, as well as some other sub-dialects.
Classification Cahuilla is found in the Uto-Aztecan language family where it is denoted alongside Cupeño to be a Cupan language within the larger Californian language subgroup where it joins Serrano, Kitanemuk, Luiseño and Tongva (Gabrielino). This Californian subgroup consisting of Cupan and Serran languages was once titled the Takic group which has fallen out of use.===Exonyms and endonyms===One of the indigenous designations for the language is '''Ɂívil̃uɂat''', alongside '''ʼÍvilluʼat''', where Cahuilla could call themselves ''Ɂívil̃uqalet'' (s)/''Ɂívil̃uwenetem'' (pl. ), 'speaker(s) of ɂívil̃uɂat.' Other variations include ''Ivilyuat'' and ''Ivia''. However, both the language and the people are oftentimes called 'Cahuilla.'
Phonology Cahuilla has the following vowel and consonant phonemes (Bright 1965, Saubel and Munro 1980:1-6, Seiler and Hioki 1979: 8-9):===Consonants===+ IPA chart of Cahuilla consonants Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal plain labial. Nasal       Stop voiceless       voiced ()       Affricate       Fricative voiceless ()     voiced  () ()   Approximant    Lateral      Flap     Consonants in parentheses only occur in loans.===Vowels===FrontCentralBackshortlongshortlongshortlong Close   Near-close  1 1  Mid  ()2 () Open-mid 3  Near-open 3Open  4 Diphthongs                                    5#  and  are allophones of  and , respectively, when in an unstressed or secondary stress position. However, both  and  appear in the stressed position and are preceding any of the following consonants: , , , , . Lengthened version of both result in their opened variant occurring. Finally, word final instances of  and  are always open ( and  are considered word final even when followed by ).# Both long  and short  only appear in borrowings.# As an allophone of , -distribution is unclear, conforming to the same rules of  and  sometimes. The word final variant of  is always the open .# Similar to the high and mid vowels,  sees similar allophonic distribution where  occurs under stress and  falls in unstressed positions. is found in monosyllabic and polysyllabic words containing only one instance of the .# The semivowels,  and , are difficult to distinguish from their counterpart diphthongs:  and . When the semivowel is following an  or , it is realized as  or  ( or ). When ,  or  is followed by , the  usually becomes half-long.====Voiceless vowels====A salient feature found in Ivilyuat is the phenomenon of voiceless vowels which occur in word-final positions or around . Word-finally, voiceless vowels occur as -Vh (a vowel followed by ). *  =  'owl'*  =  'ceremonial chief'*  =  'the day before yesterday'*  =  'my breast'*  =  'his nose'*  =  'my shoulder'===Phonotactics===Words in Ivilyuat may never start with a vowel, and consonant clusters generally indicate the break between morphemic units. Whereas  is treated as a regular consonant in word-initial locations, it occurs in consonant clusters via infixation or insertion and is not representative of a morphemic break.===Stress===There are three primary types of stress in Ivilyuat: primary, secondary and unstressed. Primary is distinguished from an unstressed syllable by loudness and elevation of pitch. Secondary stress carries less volume and the pitch is not as elevated as with primary stress. Generally, stress falls on the first syllable of the root, however there are numerous cases of doubt and ambiguity. The general pattern is: ... CV̀CVCV́CVCV̀CVCV̀ ..., where regular alternation occurs after the primary stress and secondary stress is added to the first syllable if followed by an additional -CV- group without stress. Long vowels function also as a distinct -CV- unit and take stress with the following syllable unit also taking stress: ... CV́VCV̀ ... This process can be seen here:* CV́VCCV̀CVC : qáankìčem 'palo verde,' plur. * CV́CVCV̀CVC : tákalìčem 'one-eyed ones'
Grammar Ivilyuat is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, alternating between prefixes and suffixes, to change the meaning and grammatical function of words. As well, Ivilyuat leans heavily on descriptive properties in the construction of nouns, turning predicates into nouns.===Morphology===Ivilyuat consists of rich morphological phenomena, especially through its descriptive properties. For example, the word 'arrow,' or ''húyal'', is derived from 'it is straightened' (''húya'') which has been transformed into 'that which is straightened' or 'the straightened one' (''húya'' + ''-l''), where the verb stem 'to straighten' is immediately recognizable. This phenomenon permeates the language such that some words are examples of a double derivation, such as 'blue/green' (''túkvašnekiš''). The word for the colour, ''túkvašnekiš'', is derived from 'that which comes from heaven' which in turn comes from 'the thing where carrying of the sun? takes place,' where ''túkvaš'' means 'sky' and ''-nek'' is from ''nek-en'' ('to carry' with ''-en'' being the realized suffix).====Nouns and noun phrases====Some, but not all, nouns occur in two different states: absolutive and construct. Outside of these two states fall certain other nouns that both refuse to take a P1 (see below) nor a construct state form such as ''ɂáwal'' ('dog') and almost all additional animal terms which cannot be directly possessed; however, there is indication that some of these nouns show historical ties to both states, and issues present with either state usage tend to be semantic.Distinguishing a noun from a verb can sometimes be difficult in Ivilyuat, however, whereas both verbs and nouns can take P1 prefixes, only nouns can take P2 ones.=====Absolutive and construct states=====Absolutive, also known as non-possessed nouns (NPN), and construct states help in the classification of nouns. For nouns that take either state, the process can either exhibit itself where the noun takes one form, both forms or even more productive derivations. For example, the word for (its) flower/blossom can be: ''séɂiš'' ('the flower' or 'the blossom'), ''séɂi'' ('its blossom'), ''séɂiški'' ('its flower') where ''séɂ-'' means to blossom and ''iš'' is the relativizing and absolutive suffix. Thus, ''séɂiš'' means 'blossom/flower' or, more literally, 'having completed the act of blossoming. 'The absolutive state occurs when a relational expression is transformed into an absolute expression, or when a predicate becomes an argument that can then be assigned to a particular place in a predicate. This state is constructed using the absolutive suffix, being one of four consonants (''-t'', ''-š'', ''-l'', ''-l̃''). The suffix often is found in amalgamation with the preceding vowel, mostly ''-a'' or ''-i''; however the case may be that there are more complex underlying functions than just that of the absolutive suffix.The construct state is marked with P1 relational constructions and translates very roughly to possession. * ''né-puš'' : 'my eye'* ''né-ɂaš'' : 'my pet'*  ''né-téviŋiki'' : 'my little basket' * ''púč-il̃'' : 'the eye, seed(s)'* ''ɂáč-il̃'' : 'the pet'*  ''téviŋi-l̃'' : 'the little basket'* ''ne-téviŋi-l̃-ki'' : 'my little basket'=====Inflection===========Prefixes======Inflection in Ivilyuat is realized through both prefixation and suffixation, where prefixes mark the distinction of persons and suffixes mark plurality and case. Both O and P2 may co-occur, which sees O precede P2; P2 may precede P1.Never can all three prefixes occur simultaneously. O, for example, cannot combine with P1 within nouns (it can within verbs); P2 can only occur in nouns.+ VerbsNounsNouns O + P1 P2 + P1  O + P2+ O or Object PrefixesSingularPlural 1st ne- čeme- 2nd ɂe- ɂeme- 3rd pe- me-+ P2 PrefixesSingularPlural 1st hen- ɂeš- 2nd ɂet- ɂeme- 3rd -y- or Ø2 Ø+ P1 PrefixesSingularPlural 1st ne- čem- 2nd ɂe- ɂem- 3rd he- or Ø1 hem-# ''he-'' is only found alongside monosyllabic noun stems.# ''-y'' only occurs if an O prefix precedes it.======Suffixes======Number is marked with the suffixes ''-m'', ''-em'', ''-im'' and ''-am'' (''táxliswetem'' 'the Indigenous people'), making a simple singular/plural distinction. Some nouns are not pluralizable, such as ''kʷíñil̃'' 'acorn(s)' or ''méñikiš'' 'mesquite bean(s). 'The object is marked with the oblique case suffix () ''-i'', ''-y'' and ''-iy'' which sometimes includes glottalization either through insertion or infixation:* ''táxliswet'' : 'the Indigenous person' (sing. subject)* ''táxlisweɂt-i'' : 'id.' (sing. object)* ''táxliswet-em'' : 'the Indigenous people' (plur. subject)* ''táxliswet-m-i'' : 'id.' (plur. object)The other cases are the: locative ''-ŋa'' (), lative ''-(i)ka'' () and abl ''-ax'' (), marking roughly location/placement, direction/towards and point of departure, respectively. The lative case appears to combine only with construct state nouns only:* ''kú-t'' : 'fire' (''-ku-'' + )* ''kú-t-ŋa'' / ''kú-ŋa'' : 'in the fire'* ''kú-yka'' / *''kút-ika'' : 'into the fire'Case and plural endings can combine with one another, especially the locative and ablative:* ''táxliswet-m-i'' : 'the Indigenous people'* ''téma-l-ŋa-x'' / ''téma-ŋa-x'' : 'from the earth'=====Pronouns=====Pronouns in Ivilyuat can be broken down into three categories: personal, question/answer – indefinite and non-personal – non-question/answer – non-indefinite.+ Independent Personal PronounsSingularPlural Accented Clitic Accented Clitic1st subj. néɂ neɂ čémem  čém čem obj. néɂiy čémemi 2nd subj. ɂéɂ ɂe ɂémem  ɂém ɂem obj. ɂéɂiy ɂémemi=====Nominalizers=====Nominalization, or the creation of nouns from verbs and adverbs as is the case in Ivilyuat, occurs fairly frequently.======Verbial nominalizers======Seiler lists ten nominalizers attached to the verb playing a wide range of functions. '''-ka(t) 'inceptive'''' Using Seiler's terminology, this nominalizer indicates an oriented relationship in the noun/action, very similar to the nominal suffix '-ka(t)' (see below). As tense plays little role in the language, this should not be taken to mean 'future. 'SUFF:suffixPRON:pronounSTEM:stemP2:P2 prefixP1:P1 prefixO:object prefix'''-(a)k(t) 'excellence'''' This denotes goodness or excellence. '''-nax(t) 'supposed to fulfill function''''This denotes where one is supposed to fulfill a specialized function, notably in a socio-cultural context. '''-(i)š 'completed action or process''''Denotes a completed action or being completed as a process.''' -vaš 'performing in a special situation''''Denotes performing an act in a specially defined situation. Compare the following examples:'''-wet/-et 'habitual or competent performer''''Functioning similarly to '-vaš,' denotes a competent or habitual performer. When in combination with the durative (, '-qal'/'-wen') or stative (, '-wen'), it takes the form '-et.' Compare the following examples:'''-ɂa & -at/-(ɂ)il̃ 'abstract nominalizers''''These makes abstract verbs into nouns. Where '-at' and '-il̃'/'-ɂil̃' can attach to abstract verbs with few restrictions, '-ɂa' is restricted to abstract verbs which are then possessed once nominalized. '''-piš 'unrealized subordination''''Nominalizes verbs that both indicates subordination and something that has not yet happened. '''-vel/-ve 'event already occurring or occurred''''Nominalizes verbs in regard to occurrence of the action. '''-vaɂal 'located event''''A complex of suffixes where the verbal suffix '-vaɂ' indicates 'locale, place' such as:Combining with '-al,' the abstract nominalizer, there become forms such as:======Adverbial nominalizers======There is only one adverbial nominalizer according to Seiler's ''Grammar'', which is '-viš.' It can either affix to adverbs to denote being from a place or time or denote ordering. : '''Place/Time''': '''Place/Time''': '''Ordering'''=====Declension=====There are three major forms of declension in Ivilyuat: oriented relationship, diminutive (DIM) and special marking.The suffix '-ka(t)' indicated an oriented relationship which is used most notably in kinship terms, '-mal'/'-mal̃'/'-ma' marks the diminutive and '-(V)k(t)' indicates someone or something that is marked in a special or notable way. : '''Oriented Relationship''': '''Diminutive''': '''Special Marking'''====Verbs and verb phrases====Ivilyuat verbs show agreement with both their subject and object. Person agreement, of which there are three, is shown by prefixes and number agreement, of which there are two, is shown by suffixes. Additionally, verbs take both inflectional and derivational affixes, where derivational are formed in the root. As such, an inflectional affix can follow a derivational affix, but a derivational affix can never follow an inflectional one. To be classed as a verb, the word must include both a subject prefix and at least one non-personal inflectional affix; transitive verbs must include also an object prefix.Within verbs of the Desert dialect, tense plays almost no role, expressing past on nouns and noun phrases with the suffix ''-ɂa''. Kinship terms, though, are excluded and use a form roughly translated to be 'past existence of kinsperson.' However, while tense plays little role within the verb phrase, aspect and mode are present throughout. *Aspect**Status  (actuality of event)***+ Realized***– Realized****Possible (mode)****Expected (mode)****Desired (mode)**Perspective***+ Absolute***– Absolute=====Inflection=====Every verb must take both -2 (subject) and at least on inflectional affix from -1 or +1 alongside the necessary stem. -1 and +1 are incompatible as is -4 and -1, as -4 only occurs in combination with +1's ''-nem''.+ Inflection Positioning–4–3–2–1 STEM+1 ɂax- expect., absol. () ne- Obj. 1sing. ne- Subj. 1sing. pe2- localis  -ɂi realized, absol. () Ø expect., non-absol. ɂe- 2 sing. ɂe- 2 sing. -Ø non-realized, non-absol. pe- 3 sing. Ø- 3 sing. -nem expect. čeme- 1 plur. čem- 1 plur. -pulu possib. ()  ɂeme- 2 plur. ɂem- 2 plur. -e injunctive, absol., sing. ()  me- 3 plur. hem- 3 plur. -am injunctive, absol., plur. ()      -na injunctive, non-absol. () tax- reflex./indef. -ve subordin., realized     -pi subordin., non-realized     -nuk subordin., gerundial     -pa subord., when=====Derivation=====Derivation within the verb phrase takes on a variety of characteristics. Derivational affixes can be classified into one of two categories: endocentric and exocentric, where endocentrically deriving affixes occur about twice as often as exocentric ones. The difference is established upon the change in distribution class which can take the form of a derivation of a verbal stem from a nominal basis or a transitive stem from an intransitive one.+ Derivational Positioning–1ROOT+1+2position  shiftable+3+4+5Endo. yu-  -vi-  -lu- -ni-    -max- -wenExo. če-  pe3-  (ke-)  vuk- 'distrib. ':  redupl. variant 'distrib. ':  suff. variant   -puli-  -ŋi-  -iči-  -vaneken  -ikaw-  -viču- -law- -qal+ Definition DivergenceAffix -max- 'benefactive' -wen-  'state' -púli-  'goal-oriented movement' -ŋi-  'do sth. surpisingly''do sth. all ver the place' -iči-  'do sth. on one's way' -ikaw-  'do sth. in different places' -qal-  'durative' Root -máx-  'to give' -wén-  'to be placed' -púli-  'to fall' -ŋíi-  'to return' -híči-  'to go' -yékaw-  'to collect' -qál-  'to lie'===Syntax===Although Ivilyuat employs a relatively free word order, its underlying classification is that of a subject–object–verb (or SOV) language. Its verbs show heavy agreement, indicating the subject and object even when not overtly present, and the subject and object may appear after the verb, highlighting specific usage.===Classifiers===Ivilyuat contains about a dozen or so classifiers notably indicating the type of noun being modified or possessed. Classifiers cover nouns ranging from general, inanimate items ''-ɂa'' in ''ne-m-éxam-ɂa'' 'it (is) my thing' lit., 'it (is) somehow doing this way,' to trees, plants, fruits, meats, animals and moieties. '''General'''* -ɂa'''Trees, plants and their fruits'''* kíɂiwɂa* ɂáyɂa* číɂa* wésɂa* séxɂa'''Kinds of meats'''* waɂ / wáwa* čáxni* téneq'''Animals'''* ɂaš'''Moieties'''* kíl̃iwFor all non-animate nouns, the general classifier ''-ɂa'' is used, otherwise classifiers distinguish the nouns themselves. For trees, plants and their fruits, there are five classifiers. ''kíɂiwɂa'' is used for trees and certain plants/fruits found in a naturally occurring group, and this is used to help denote legal claims as members of certain lineages had grouping-specific sites of harvest. The word derives from the verb stem 'to wait' as visible: ''pe-n-kíɂiw-qal'' 'I am waiting for it' ... ''ne-kíɂiw-ɂa'' 'It (is) my waiting' i.e., 'It is the thing that I am waiting for' or 'It is my claim.' Generally, pinyons, mesquites and oaks factor into this usage. ''ɂáyɂa'' is used for fresh fruit and blossoms picked from trees and stems from the verb 'to pluck' or 'to pick' (''pe-n-ɂáy-ɂa'' 'I am plucking or picking it' ... ''ne-ɂáy-ɂa'' 'It (is) my plucking or picking'). Individual beans or acorns are not compatible with this classifier. ''číɂa'' is used to describe picking up edible items after they have fallen to the ground such as mesquite beans, acorns, black beans and possibly corn. ''wésɂa'' applies to plants and their fruits which have been planted (in a row) by individuals. Plants such as corn, watermelon, cacti, wheat and palm trees fall under this classifier. Finally, ''séxɂa'' indicates food items that are being or have been cooked such as black beans, corn or jerked meat.Other classifiers include kinds of meat, animals and moieties. Meat breaks down into ''waɂ''/''wáwa'', ''čáxni'' and ''téneq'' (roasted, melted and barbecued, respectively). The most important classifier for animals is the relation to animals as pets, expressed with ''ɂaš'', which includes horses (''pásukat''), cottontail rabbits (''távut''), turtles (''ɂáyil̃''), coyotes (''ɂísil̃''), bears (''húnwet''), snakes (''séwet''), fish (''kíyul'') and eagles (''ɂáswet'') amongst others; however, this does not include wild cat (''túkut''). Finally, ɂívil̃uwenetem were broken down into two moieties: ɂísil̃ (coyote) and túkut (wildcat) where individuals needed to marry outside of their moiety, i.e. a Wildcat man must marry a Coyote woman and vice versa. This was expressed using ''kíl̃iw'' (''ne-kíl̃iw'' 'my partner' or ''túkut''/''ɂísil̃ ne-kíl̃iw'' 'my partner, the wildcat/coyote').===Demonstratives===Ivilyuat uses a single demonstrative ''ɂi(ɂ)'' ("this/that") that takes the form ''ɂi'' before sonorants and ''ɂiɂ'' elsewhere.It can be modified with deictic markers meaning local or distant/remote.ProximalDistal simple complex simple complexsing. subj. ɂet ɂevat peɂ pevatsing. obj. ɂetiy ɂevatiy peɂiy pevatiyplur. subj. ɂetem ɂevatem peɂem pevatemplur. obj. ɂetemi ɂevatemi peɂemi pevatemiThe complex and simple forms have no difference in perceived meaning according to Seiler. The inflection agrees with the sentence itself where the deictic marker co-ordinates with the subject or verb such as in "ɂiɂ peɂ menil̃" meaning "this over there, the moon," as ''peɂ'' is inflected to mark the singular subject ''menil̃''. Additionally, there are clitic forms of this marker: ''pe'', ''pee'' and ''pey''.
Vocabulary ===Word origins===A vast majority of Ivilyuat words come from Uto-Aztecan roots and there is a large shared vocabulary between neighbouring languages such as Luiseño or Serrano. Due to language contact, however, many Spanish words have been adopted into the language, such as ''máys'' ('corn') or ''ɂavugáaduɂ'' ('lawyer') from Spanish ''maíz'' and ''abogado'', respectively. Conversely, Ivilyuat has taken little to no English loan words.===Kinship terms===Ivilyuat can either express kinship terms relationally or through an establishing expression. : '''Relational''': '''Establishing'''===Numerals===Ivilyuat uses a base-ten system with unique words for 'five' and 'ten. '===Basic sample vocabulary and language comparison=== English  Ivilyuat  Cupeño  Luiseño  Gabrieliño/Tongva  Juaneño  Serrano  one  súpl̃e  suplawut  supúl  pukuuɂ  supúl  howpk two  wíh  wi  wéh  weheeɂ  wéx  werh three  páh  pa  páahay  paheeɂ  páahay  paahiɂ four  wíčiw  wichu  wasá  watsaaɂ  wasá  wacha five  namekʷánaŋ  numaqananax  maháar  mahaar  maháar  maharc man  náxaniš  naxanis  yaɂáš  kworooyt  yeɂích  wecershc woman  ñíčil̃  muwikut  šungáal  tokoor  shongwáala  neerht sun  támit  tamyut  timét  taamit  temét  taamit moon  ménil̃  munil  móoyla  muwaar  móyla  muac water  pál  pal  páala  paaraɂ  páal  pàt
Place names Few place names within Cahuilla remained the same over the years with English or Spanish names taking over. Here are several examples:* ''Káviñiš'', ''Qàwal hémaɂ'' and ''Pàl síwiš'' – Indian Wells* ''Séx'' – Palm Springs* ''Kíš čáwal'' – White Water* ''Pàl téwet'' – Indio* ''Wìyal Ɂámuyka'' – Torres Peak* ''Yamesével'' – Mission Creek* ''Qáwiš húlawet'' (Mtn: ''Qáwiš yúlawet'') – near La Quinta
Writing systems Cahuilla has been and, to an extent, still is an unwritten language. Between IPA and NAPA, there are ways to write the language down, but there is no agreed-upon script used Nationwide. That being said, the most employed orthography is that of a modified NAPA found in Seiler and Hioki's "Cahuilla Dictionary". The alphabet has 35 letters with an accent (either  or ) over vowels denoting stress patterns. Words that begin in a vowel can be written without the glottal stop (), but the sound is still present. '''Cahuilla Alphabet'''aaabčdeeeghiiikkʷll̃mnñŋooopqrsštuuuvwxxʷyɂ===IPA notation=== + Consonants Letter Pronunciation b  č  d  g  h  k  kʷ  l  l̃  m  n  ñ  ŋ  p  q  r  s  š  t  v  w  x  xʷ  y  ɂ + Vowels Letter Pronunciation a     aa  e        ee  i     ii  o  oo  u     uu
Use and revitalization efforts Alvin Siva of the Los Coyotes Band of Cahuilla and Cupeño Indians, a fluent speaker, died on June 26, 2009.He preserved the tribe's traditional bird songs, sung in the Cahuilla language, by teaching them to younger generations of Cahuilla people. Katherine Siva Saubel (b. 1920 - d. 2011) was a native Cahuilla speaker dedicated to preserving the language.In April 2014, the University of California, Riverside offered free public workshops in the Cahuilla language, later making a full four-class course in the language available to undergraduates and members of the Cahuilla tribal community beginning in the fall of 2020.
See also *Cahuilla mythology*Cahuilla traditional narratives
References * Saubel, Katherine Siva, Pamela Munro, ''Chem'ivillu' (Let's Speak Cahuilla)'', Los Angeles, American Indian Studies Center, University of California, 1982. *Seiler, Hansjakob, ''Cahuilla Texts with an Introduction'', Bloomington, Language Science Monographs, Indiana University Press, 1970. *Seiler, Hansjakob, ''Cahuilla Grammar'', Banning, Malki Museum Press, 1977. * Seiler, Hansjakob, Kojiro Hioki, ''Cahuilla Dictionary'', Banning, Malki Museum press, 1979.
External links * The Limu Project active language revitalization* Resources in and about the Cahuilla language* Cahuilla pronunciation guide* Cahuilla grammar, available through the Long Now Foundation* Cahuilla language overview at the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages* OLAC resources in and about the Cahuilla language* Cahuilla basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database**